Fundamentals of Petroleum Geoscience Lecture 2: Hydrocarbon Habitat Elements

Fundamentals of Petroleum Geoscience
Lecture 2: Hydrocarbon Habitat
Hydrocarbon Habitat
The five elements of a Petroleum System

Source
Maturation Migration
Reservoir Seal Trap Timing
Petroleum System Definition

Genetically-related hydrocarbons whose provenance is a source rock.
Elements Source Rock Migration Route Reservoir Rock Seal Rock Trap Processes Generation Migration Accumulation Preservation
3
Timing
Critical Risk Elements

Trap
Geometry Seal Presence Seal Effectiveness
Accumulation
Reservoir
Presence Effectiveness
Timing
Charge Generation
Source Presence Source Effectiveness
Maturity Migration
4
Seal
Structure/Trap Reservoir Trap Reservoir Quality Petroleum charge Migration Migration Timing Reservoir In-reservoir changes
Petroleum expelled with time
Source Rock 5
Petroleum System Elements
Anticlinal Trap
Top Seal Rock

(Impermeable ) Reservoir
Rock
(Porous/Permeable) Potential Migration Route
Source Rock
(Organic Rich)
24803
Generation and Migration

Kerogen converted into Hydrocarbons Process = Maturation > Measure by GCMS or reflectivity Hydrocarbons are expelled Driver = overpressure due to volume expansion and bouyancy Petroleum migrates laterally on reaching carrier bed Bouyancy vs capillary forces
Source Rocks
These are rocks that are capable of generating hydrocarbons. Oil and gas is released from organic matter within mudstones, coals or carbonates, when the rock is buried and subjected to increased heat and pressure. Good source rocks contain a high concentration of organic matter. The measure of a rocks organic richness is commonly called its Total Organic Carbon content or TOC. A good source rock has a TOC in excess of 1.0%
Source Rocks
The nature of the hydrocarbons generated will depend on both the type of organic matter a source rock contains, and the degree of heat / pressure the rock is subjected to on burial. Source rocks rich in land plant material are generally gas prone Source rocks rich in marine algae are generally oil prone With increased temperature and pressure, source rocks generate more gas
OrganicRich
Thin Laminae
Measured Values
Total Organic Carbon Hydrogen Index
3.39
378
Pyrolytically Generated Petroleum S2
In-Place Petroleum S1 2.24

1 Inch
LOMPOC Quarry Sample Monterey Formation, CA
12.80
10
Kerogen Types
TOC 2.12 WT.%
TOC .38 WT.%

11
Types of Petroleum
Oil and gas are formed by the thermal cracking of organic compounds buried in fine-grained rocks.
Algae = Hydrogen rich = Oil-prone Wood = Hydrogen poor = Gas-prone
12
Source rocks Depositional Settings

A = marine carbonate B = marine shale C = lacustrine D/E = terrigenous (delta top) F = Refractory + woody land plant
13
Age of most Global Significant Petroleum Source Systems

Oligo-Miocene Coniacian - Eocene Aptian - Santonian Neocomian
Oil
Late Jurassic Middle Jurassic Permo-Triassic Carboniferous Middle - Late Devonian Early Devonian Silurian Cambro - Ordovician Proterozoic
Gas
10
15
20
25
30
35
14
Percentage Global original conventional Petroleum reserves (BOE)
Reservoirs
The are any rocks that are capable of containing (reservoiring) hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons are stored in the pore space, either in between (intragranular) or within (intergranular) the grains that make up the rock. Hydrocarbons may also be present in fractures. Reservoir lithologies include: Sandstones (approximately 60% of all discovered oil and gas is reservoired in sandstones) Carbonates (approximately 40% of discovered all oil and gas is reservoired in carbonates
15
Reservoirs
Other reservoirs include fractured and weathered rocks. To be effective a reservoir needs to fulfil a number of criteria: laterally continuous porous (effective i.e. connected porosity) permeable
16
Porosity
Porosity is the fraction (or percent) of the rock bulk volume occupied by pore space. This is a measure of the proportion of pore space to grains, normally quoted as a percentage
% = volume of voids x 100 total rock volume
17
Porosity
The porosity may be divided into macro porosity and micro porosity in rocks that have a bimodal pore size distribution. Some examples include:
(1) sandstones with a significant amount of clays, (2) sandstones with microporous chert grains, i.e., interparticle and intraparticle porosity, (3) carbonate rocks with vuggy porosity (caverns are an extreme case) and matrix porosity, (4) carbonate rocks with moldic porosity and matrix porosity, (5) carbonate rocks with interparticle porosity and intercrystalline porosity, (6) fracture porosity and matrix porosity
18
Effective and Ineffective porosity

The total porosity can also be divided into effective porosity and ineffective porosity. Ineffective pores are pores with no openings or zero coordination number. Effective porosity can be divided into Cul-de-sac or dead-end pores with a coordination number of one and catenary pores with coordination number of two or more.
19
Porosity
20
Sorting
21
Porosity and Permeability versus Sorting and Grain Size
22
Primary porosity
Formed when the sediment was deposited. May be intergranular (interparticulate) or intragranular (intraparticulate) i.e. carbonate skeletal grains. This is general reduced with time and burial due to: Compaction Diagenesis, pore filling cements Primary porosity in sandstones may exceed 40 to 55%. This is dependent on the grain size and packing of the sediment. A loose sand commonly has a porosity of around 30%. A tight sand (well cemented and compacted) may be less than 1%. Commonly sandstone reservoirs have porosities in the range 10 to 25%
23
Porosity in a Sandstone
24
Cements
25
Secondary Porosity
This is developed after deposition, and caused by a number of processes: Dissolution (leaching of mineral grains, common in carbonate reservoirs. This can be further subdivided into mouldic (fabric selective porosity) and vuggy (non-fabric selective). Very large vugs are often called cavernous porosity. Early cementation, fenestral porosity. Intercrystalline porosity dolomitiization (secondary replacement of calcite by dolomite. Dolomitic limestone have a friable sugary (sucrosic) texture. Dolomitization is caused by the 13% shrinkage in the crystal lattice structure of dolomite compared to calcite, with resultant development of secondary porosity.
26
Fracture Porosity
Fracture porosity. Generally fractures have only a minor effect on bulk porosity of a reservoir, but they may substantially increase the permeability and therefore effective porosity of a reservoir. Fractures are rare in soft, poorly consolidated sandstones, which deform more by plastic flow. They are more common in brittle well lithified rocks, associated with folding and faulting. Fractures produce dual porosity systems. Care needs to be taken on interpreting fractures in the subsurface, as they may be induced by drilling in cores.
27
Measuring Porosity
Porosity can be measured in the subsurface from a variety of sources. Wireline log analysis Cores Seismic Two main methods can be used to measure porosity of a rock sample: Washburn-Bunting Method (gas expansion technique) Porosity (%) = volume of gas extracted Bulk volume of sample x100 Boyles Law Method (pressure x volume = constant) Bulk volume of the sample can be obtained by applying Archimedes principle of displacement. This normally involves placing the sample into a container with a know volume of a mercury (non wetting fluid) and recording the volume displaced.
28
Permeability
This is still a fundamental equation in reservoir geology. Permeability is measured in Darcys (a dimensionless unit). A Darcy is defined as the permeability that allows fluid of 1 centipoise viscosity to flow at a velocity of 1cm/sec for a pressure drop of 1 atm / cm. As reservoirs commonly have permeabilities of around 1/1000 of a Darcy, the commonly used unit in the oil industry is the millidarcy. Reservoirs have common permeabilities of between 5 to 500 mD, but may exceed 1 Darcy.
29
Permeability
Permeability is the ability of a fluid to pass through a porous medium. Early work on this was carried out by Darcy (1856) who developed Darcys Law. Q= K (P1-P2) A L Where Q = rate of flow K= permeability P1-P2 + pressure drop across the sample A = cross sectional area L = sample length = viscosity of fluid
30
Hydraulic Conductivity
K represents a measure of the ability for flow through porous media: K is highest for gravels - 0.1 to 1 cm/sec K is high for sands - 10-2 to 10-3 cm/sec K is moderate for silts - 10-4 to 10-5 cm/sec K is lowest for clays - 10-7 to 10-9 cm/sec
31
Measuring Permeability
Permeability can be measured by: 1. 2. 3. 4. Drill stem / Production tests Core analysis Minipermeameter Petrophysical analysis of well logs
Note: Darcys law is only really valid in single phase flow systems. Most reservoirs are dual phase or mulitple phase flow (oil/water, oil/gas, gas/water), the equation is still used but with some conditions / adjustments.
32
Measuring Permeability
33
Permeability
Many reservoirs are dual porosity systems, making permeability and porosity calculations more complex. Permeabilities measured may be incorrect due to reservoir damage. This can result from reservoir damage due to drilling -fluid invasion and also damage to cores brought to surface and contamination again by drilling fluid (and through the later cleaning process). All of this may effect measurements obtained,
34
Controls on Permeability
Pore throat size and tortuosity Grain size In the reservoir, permeability may, and commonly does, vary depending upon the direction of fluid flow. Permeabilities are often quoted as both Kh =horizontal permeability, and Kv = vertical permeability. In general, in layered / bedded sedimentary rocks, Kh is greater than Kv.
35
Relationship between Porosity / Permeability

Texture Variation with depth in common reservoirs Predictability Good and Bad Reservoirs
36
Traps
Having identified a sedimentary basin, in which a good petroleum system exists, with adequate (and mature) source, reservoirs, and potential sealing lithologies, then comes the main task of the exploration geologist, to identify potential TRAPS. A trapping mechanism is any geometric arrangement of porous and non-porous strata that interrupts the migration of oil to the surface. Hydrocarbons are less dense than water, and thus once generated at depth, will rise to the earths surface through buoyancy. They flow through lithologies which are porous and permeable (reservoirs / carrier beds), but cannot flow through rocks that are tight, (have no or very low porosity and permeability). Tight rocks are termed seals. Typical sealing rocks are mudstones (shales) and salt, but any lithology that has no porosity / permeability can act as a seal
37
Traps and Seals

A trap is a subsurface feature that prevents the migration of hydrocarbons to the surface. There are two main types; Structural Traps: i.e anticlines, fault related structures Stratigraphic Traps: i.e reefal-buildups, sandstone pinchouts Combination Traps: : In many cases a trap will be a combination of both structural and stratigraphic trapping mechanisms. Hydrodynamic Traps: resulting from ground water flow
38
Hydrocarbon Trap Types
Anticline
Fault Pinchout
Salt Dome
Unconformity
39 American Petroleum Institute, 1986
Structural Traps
Anticlines
folded rock units, 4-way dip closure, mapped closures with spill point
Fault related structures

horsts, half-hragben, tilted fault blocks, thrusted anticlines Listric faults with roll-over anticlies
Stacked closures
40
Anticlines / Domes
Gas Oil Water
41
Tilted Fault Block
42
Stratigraphic Traps
The drilling of a pure stratigraphic trap is still relatively rare, especially as a wildcat. Historically, the majority of stratigraphic traps were found by accident and were associated with the drilling of a structural feature. Commonly the stratigraphic component came to light as additional wells were drilled that proved hydrocarbons extending outside the know structural closure, or a well encountered hydrocarbons in a section whist drilling for another target. Types of stratigraphic traps:
Pinchouts, unconformity traps, lobes, channels and levess, reefs
43
Stratigraphic Traps
Stratigraphic Traps are harder to find, often subtle, and require a more integrated geoscience approach To-date some 90% of all discovered stratigraphic traps have been found in the USA (95% excluding giant fields), a reflection of drilling density and maturity of exploration in the USA. The obvious conclusion is that with ever increasing improvements in data quality (seismic, well logs), data density and geological techniques, the proportion of stratigraphic traps drilled in most basins of the world will increase. A substantial part of most mature basins remaining new reserves are to be found in stratigraphic traps.
44
Salt Domes
Drape / Folding
Truncated and folded units

45
Stratigraphic Pinchout / Truncation
46
Reefal Buildup
3D Seismic over reefal buildup

47
3D Seismic Image - Submarine Fan

New Tools Better Data Improved Understanding
Confined Flow 1
Hummocky Channel Levee
2 Less Confined Flow 3 3
Lobate Mound
Sheet-Form Fan
48
Armentrout et al., 1996
Prospect Mapping using 3D Seismic

TWT Horizon RMS-amp interval
TWTHorizon
Sequence Boundary
Sequence Boundary
Overlay of Reservoir on Structure
Stratigraphic Interval for Reservoir
Confined Flow
Prospects
0 5 km
Less Confined Flow
5 km
49
3D Seismic Image of Channel Sand

4900 4800 4700 4600 3500 4000 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 3500 4000 4500 6000 5000 6500 1200 1300 1400 1500 5500 6000 6500 5100 1600 4900 1700 1800 1900 4600 4700 4800 5000 1400
Depth (ft)
4500 5000 5500
VoxelGeo Display
50
Monson, Mobil, 1998
Stratigraphic Traps - Channels
3D seismic, timeslice amplitude map, reds are 51 oil filled sands
Timing
The final element is the geological history of the basin and the timing of hydrocarbon generation versus reservoir / seal deposition and most importantly trap formation. Post trap formation effects (tectonic movements / tilting etc) may also breach an earlier effective trap. This part of the exploration programme is the pulling together of all the available information to develop understand the Petroleum System and identify effective Play Types in a basin.
52
Petroleum System, Play Definition, and Risk

Play Maps
Seal Extent Source Extent
Trap
Timing Sheets
Generation and Migration Time Present
Components HC Charge
Reservoir Extent
TIMING
Preservation
Critical Reconstruction
Present
Past
53
Jeff Brown, Mobil, 1999
Petroleum System Definition

Genetically-related hydrocarbons whose provenance is a source rock.
Elements Source Rock Migration Route Reservoir Rock Seal Rock Trap Processes Generation Migration Accumulation Preservation
54
Deer-Boar Petroleum System at Critical Moment

250 Ma
Raven
A
Teapot
Owens
Marginal
Pod of Active Source Rock
Big Oil Just
Re se r vo ir R
oc k
Hardy
Lucky
David
Immature Source Rock
Zero Edge of Reservoir Rock

Magoon and Dow, 1994
55
Petroleum System at Critical Moment

Critical Moment = Time of Expulsion/Migration
GEOGRAPHIC EXTENT OF PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Trap
250 Ma
Trap
Trap
STRATIGRAPHIC EXTENT OF PETROLEUM SYSTEM
t en m se Ba
Seal Reservoir Source Older rocks
Essential elements of POD OF ACTIVE petroleum system SOURCE ROCK Petroleum accumulation Top of oil window Bottom of oil window Location for burial history chart
Sedimentary basin- fill

56
Overburden
Modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994
Present-Day Petroleum System

GEOGRAPHIC EXTENT OF PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Trap
Present-Day
Trap
Trap
STRATIGRAPHIC EXTENT OF PETROLEUM SYSTEM
t en em as B
Petroleum accumulation Top of oil window Bottom of oil window
Overburden Seal Reservoir Source Older Rock

57
Modelling Generation and Migration
58
Burial History Chart

Depth (Km) Source Paleozoic D M P P T R Mesozoic J K Cen. P N Rock Unit Reservoir Seal Lithology 400 300 200 100 Overburden
Generation
Thick Fm
2 Placer Fm George Sh Top oil window Top gas window Boar Ss Deer Sh Elk Fm 3
Critical Moment
59
Time of Expulsion and Migration. (Trap must already exist)
Petroleum System Events Chart Timing of Elements and Processes

400 300 Paleozoic 200 Mesozoic 100 Cenozoic Geologic Time Scale Petroleum System Events
T R
Source Rock Reservoir Rock Seal Rock Overburden Rock Trap Formation Gen/Migration/Accum Preservation
Elements Processes
60
Rock Units
Critical Moment
Critical Moment
Time of Expulsion and Migration. (Trap must already exist)
Petroleum System - A Dynamic Entity

1) Early Generation
Spill Point Spill Point
Migration from Kitchen
Seal Rock Reservoir Rock (Mudstone) (Sandstone) Gas beginning to displace oil
2) Late Generation
Displaced oil accumulates Gas displaces all oil

61

Fundamentals of Petroleum Geoscience Lecture 2: Hydrocarbon Habitat Elements

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Lecture 2: Hydrocarbon Habitat