CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

TRAFFIC STUDIES
Traffic studies are conducted to analyse the traffic characteristics. These studies are useful in design and maintenance of traffic features. Traffic studies or surveys for collecting traffic data are also called traffic census. The various traffic studies generally conducted are: a. Traffic volume study b. Traffic flow characteristics c. Traffic capacity studies d. Parking studies e. Speed studies i. ii. f. Spot speed study Speed and delay study

Accident study

The kind of traffic study being reported here is speed study. Emphasis would be laid on this aspect of traffic study.

SPEED
Speed is literally the total distance travelled divided by the time of travel. It is expressed in metric units of kilometres per hour. The reciprocal of speed, travel time, is usually expressed in units of minutes per km. There are three basic measures of speeds of travel. 1. Spot speed This is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle as it passes a specified point along a roadway. The average of a series of measures of speed can be expressed in two ways: the space-mean speed and the time-mean speed. I. Space-mean speed ( ) This is the harmonic mean of speeds passing a point during at an instance.

= Where = observed speed of the ith vehicle 1

n = total number of vehicles observed It can also be defined as the average speeds of vehicles over a relatively long section of roadway. If where =

= distance of roadway section = observed time for the ith vehicle to travel distance

1 1

= =
.

Hence,

=1

The average travel time of all the vehicles is obtained from the reciprocal of the spacemean speed. II. Time-mean speed ( ) This is the arithmetic mean of the speeds of the vehicles passing a point. = Space-mean speed and time-mean speed are not equal. In fact, it has been established that = + = variance of the speed distribution of speeds.

Where 2. Running speed

This is the total distance covered divided by the time the vehicle is in motion. The time when the vehicle is in motion is known as the running time. This excludes delays and stoppages. 3. Overall travel (journey) speed This is the total distance travelled divided by the total time taken including delays and stoppages enroute.

Factors affecting spot speeds

1. Time: time has a significant effect on spot speed. Generally, higher speeds are obtained in the morning when people are trying to get to their various places of work. 2. Traffic condition: speeds of vehicles decrease with increase in number of vehicles on a roadway. Accidents along a roadway would also slow down the speeds of vehicles along that roadway. 3. Geometric features: a driver would tend to slow down the speed of his vehicle when approaching a curve or intersection. 4. Location: speeds on rural highways are higher than those on urban highways. This is so because there are fewer cars on rural roads. Also, drivers tend to reduce the speeds of their vehicles when close to an educational institution e.g. school. 5. Environmental conditions: rain, wind.

Methods of measuring spot speeds

Pressure Contact Tubes Detectors (usually pneumatic tubes) are used to indicate the entering and leaving the base length. When a vehicle passes over the tube laid at the first reference point, an air impulse is sent, which activates an electromagnetically controlled stop-watch in the lands of the observer. When the vehicle passes over the second tube, the stop-watch automatically stops. The reading is noted by an observer. Alternatively, the readings can be recorded by automatic data recorder. Radar speed meters These meters work on the Doppler principle that the speed of a moving body is proportional to the change in the frequency between the radio wave transmitted to the moving body and the radio wave received back. The instrument directly measures the speed, and an accuracy of at least 1.5 to 3 kmph is possible. Photographic Method and Video Camera Method In this method, photographs are taken at fixed intervals of time (say one second per frame) on a special camera. By projecting the film on the screen, the passage of any vehicle can be traced with reference to time. Images by video camera can also be used.

Direct- Timing method for spot speed determination Two reference points are marked on the pavement at a suitable distance apart and an observer starts and stops an accurate stop-watch as a vehicle crosses the two marks. From the known distance and the measured time intervals, speeds are calculated. Enoscope This device, also known as the Mirror-box, is an L-shaped box, open at both ends, with a mirror set at a 45-degree angle to the arms of the instrument. The instrument bends the line of sight of the observer so that it is perpendicular to the path of the vehicle. The stop-watch is started as soon as the vehicle passes the first reference point and is stopped as soon as it passes the observer. The method can be used with one enoscope or with two enoscopes.

CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY

This is an account of how the speed study was carried out. Location: between Tipper Garage and Tanke Junction, Ilorin. Number of individuals involved : Two(2) Period of study: between 7 a.m. and 9 a.m. on a weekday (Thursday). Instruments used: stop-watch, measuring tape, marker chalk), data sheet/book.

PROCEDURE Two reference points were taken and measuring tape was used to measure the distance between the points. Chalk was used to mark the two points. The two observers were stationed at these points. An observer stood at the reference point where the vehicle passed first (from Tipper Garage), signalled every time a vehicle to be timed passed that point. Then the second observer would afterwards start the stop-watch. The second observer would then stop the stop-watch whenever he observed the same vehicle pass the reference point. The distance apart and the time taken for each vehicle to cover the distance were used to calculate the speed of each vehicle.

CHAPTER THREE: COMPUTATION AND ANALYSIS

The data sheet used for the study is as shown below. DISTANCE, d = 27m Vehicle no time in (t1) 7 a.m. 8 a.m. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 0.00 5.02 8.67 14.87 20.17 23.50 30.52 35.48 38.53 42.12 46.57 51.13 56.85 0.00 7.18 11.62 18.07 21.08 5.02 8.67 14.87 20.17 23.50 30.52 35.48 38.53 42.12 46.57 51.13 56.85 63.60 7.18 11.62 18.07 21.08 24.70 6 time out (t2)

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41

24.70 32.17 0.00 6.15 0.00 8.75 26.45 32.03 47.62 0.00 6.10 10.60 13.95 17.38 19.65 24.23 30.03 34.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.78 7.08

32.17 38.77 6.15 21.15 8.75 26.45 32.03 47.62 53.59 6.10 10.60 13.95 17.38 19.65 24.23 30.03 34.13 38.02 3.50 3.50 3.78 7.08 11.42

42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58

11.42 14.10 18.27 22.38 25.50 28.33 0.00 6.17 9.13 13.75 0.00 0.00 4.62 0.00 9.43 12.95 17.62 8 a.m. 9 a.m.

14.10 18.27 22.38 25.50 28.33 31.52 6.17 9.13 13.75 19.00 2.58 4.62 8.64 9.43 12.95 17.62 21.03

59 60 61 62 63

0.00 3.33 6.62 10.02 14.58

3.33 6.62 10.02 14.58 19.58

64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

0.00 3.20 6.72 11.28 0.00 5.60 12.10 0.00 11.50 0.00 7.23 12.73 22.45 27.38 0.00 0.00 7.38 25.22 0.00 9.08 17.92 0.00 4.55

03.20 6.72 11.28 17.08 5.60 12.10 20.27 11.50 23.07 7.23 12.73 22.45 27.38 35.27 6.23 7.38 25.22 32.33 9.08 17.92 22.15 4.55 9.28

87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

9.28 0.00 5.42 9.62 0.00 5.78 17.18 0.00 4.63 7.53 13.18 0.00 5.08 9.33 13.75 17.83

16.58 5.42 9.62 14.20 5.78 17.18 26.35 4.63 7.53 13.18 19.17 5.08 9.33 13.75 17.83 22.65

10

The table below shows time and calculated speed. DISTANCE, d = 27m Vehicle no time, t (s) 7 a.m. 8 a.m. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 5.02 3.65 6.20 5.30 3.33 7.02 4.96 3.05 3.59 4.45 4.56 5.72 6.75 7.18 4.44 6.45 3.01 3.62 7.47 5.38 7.40 4.35 5.09 8.11 3.85 5.44 8.85 7.52 6.07 5.92 4.72 4.00 3.76 6.08 4.19 8.97 7.46 3.61 19.40 26.60 15.70 18.30 29.20 13.90 19.60 31.90 27.00 21.90 21.30 17.00 14.40 13.50 21.90 15.10 39.30 26.90 13.00 speed V, (m/s) V (km/hr)

11

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

6.60 6.15 15.00 8.74 17.70 5.58 15.59 5.97 6.10 4.50 3.35 3.43 2.27 4.58 5.80 4.10 3.89 5.32 3.50 3.78 3.30 4.34 2.68

4.09 4.39 1.80 3.09 1.53 4.84 1.73 4.52 4.43 6.00 8.06 7.87 11.89 5.90 4.66 6.59 6.94 5.08 7.71 7.14 8.18 6.22 10.07

14.70 15.80 6.50 11.10 5.50 17.40 6.20 16.30 16.00 21.60 29.00 28.00 42.80 21.20 16.80 23.70 25.00 18.30 27.80 25.80 29.40 22.40 36.30

12

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58

4.17 4.11 3.12 2.83 3.19 6.17 2.96 4.62 5.25 2.58 4.62 4.02 9.43 3.52 4.67 3.41 8 a.m. 9 a.m.

6.47 6.57 8.65 9.54 8.46 4.38 9.12 5.84 5.14 10.47 5.84 6.72 2.86 7.67 5.78 7.92

23.30 23.70 31.10 34.30 30.60 15.80 32.80 21.00 18.50 37.70 21.00 24.20 10.30 27.60 20.80 28.50

59 60 61 62 63 64

3.33 3.29 3.40 4.56 5.00 3.20

8.11 8.21 7.94 5.92 5.40 8.44

29.20 29.60 28.60 21.30 19.40 30.40

13

65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87

3.52 4.56 5.80 5.60 6.50 8.17 11.50 11.57 7.23 5.50 9.72 4.93 7.89 6.23 7.38 17.84 7.11 9.08 8.84 4.23 4.55 4.73 7.30

7.67 5.92 4.66 4.82 4.15 3.30 2.35 2.33 3.73 4.91 2.78 5.48 3.42 4.33 3.66 1.51 3.80 2.97 3.05 6.38 5.93 5.71 3.70

27.60 21.30 16.80 17.40 14.90 11.90 8.50 8.40 13.40 17.80 10.00 19.70 12.30 15.60 13.20 5.40 13.70 10.70 11.00 23.00 21.30 20.60 13.30

14

88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

5.42 4.20 4.58 5.78 11.40 9.17 4.63 2.90 5.65 5.99 5.08 4.25 4.42 4.08 4.82

4.98 6.43 5.90 4.67 2.37 2.04 5.83 9.31 4.78 4.51 5.31 6.35 6.11 6.62 5.60

17.90 23.10 21.20 16.80 8.50 10.60 21.00 33.50 17.20 16.20 19.10 22.90 22.00 23.80 20.20

Time, t = Speed, V =
,( ) , ( )

V (km/hr) = V (m/s) 3.6

15

Frequency Distribution of Spot Speed Data Class speed limit (kmph) 0.00-4.90 5.00-9.90 10.00-14.90 15.00-19.90 20.00-24.90 25.00-29.90 30.00-34.90 35.00-39.90 40.00-44.90 Mid-point speed, V(kmph) 2.45 7.45 12.45 17.45 22.45 27.45 32.45 37.45 42.45 No of vehicles(f) Frequency (%) 0.00 6.86 17.65 24.51 24.51 15.69 6.86 2.94 0.98 Cumulative frequency (%) 0.00 6.86 24.51 49.02 73.53 89.21 96.08 99.02 100.00

0 7 18 25 25 16 7 3 1

Average speed,

= 20.538 21kmph/veh

100 Cum. percent of vehicles obsereved 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Speed, V (kmph)

Cumulative frequency curve

98th percentile speed

= 35kmph

85th percentile speed = 25.8kmph 26kmph

16

50th percentile speed = 17.5kmph 18kmph 15th percentile speed = 10.3kmph 10kmph

30 Percent frequency of vehicles observed 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Speed, V (kmph)

Frequency distribution curve of the spot speeds

Modal average = 20kmph

INFERENCE
1. The 98th percentile speed (here 35kmph) is used as the design speed in geometric design. 2. The 85th percentile speed (here 26kmph) is used for determining the speed limits for traffic regulation. 3. The 50th percentile speed(here 18kmph) is the median speed and this is the speed at which there are as many vehicles going faster as there are going slow. 4. The 15th percentile (here 10kmph) is used to determine the lower speed limits on major highway facilities such as Expressways.

17

CHAPTER FOUR
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
Some of the problems encountered during the study are 1. Speed readings were influenced by the driver reaction due to conspicuousness of the observers. 2. Intermittent parking of vehicles caused distraction and hindered vision considerably. 3. Distraction from passers-by in a bid to inquire about what is going on.

APPLICATION OF SPEED STUDIES

1. Speed data is used for the analysis of road improvement schemes. 2. Spot speed studies are needed for the regulation and control of traffic operations. These include location and size of traffic signals and establishment of safe speed limits. 3. Based on speed studies, the design speed can be selected, and other geometric elements of design such as horizontal curvature, sight distances and super-elevation can be determined. 4. Problems relating to congestion on roads can be analysed and resolved with speed data. 5. Spot speed data are used in analysing the causes of accidents and relation between speed and accidents.

18

RECOMMENDATION
1. More methods of spot speed determination should be introduced to students of learning e.g. the use of radar speed meter, enoscope and pressure contact tubes. 2. Students should be allowed to participate in traffic studies organized by the institution s roadway section. This would afford them the opportunity to get more familiar with traffic studies and make them recognize its value.

CONCLUSION
Spot speed study is an important aspect of traffic census which helps in design and control of traffic characteristics. This traffic study imposed on students is a good one which will make them gain practical experience of what they have been taught in class.

REFERENCES
1. Dr. S.K. Khanna and Dr. C.E.G. Justo. Highway Engineering. 2. Dr. L.R. Khadiyali. Traffic Engineering and Transport Planning. 3. www.wikipedia.com 4. www.tfhrc.gov/index.html

19