GEOBOTANICAL

TOOLS
for

Mineral

EXPLORATION

Introduction
Plants have close relationships with the underlying regolith substrate. Plant roots: extend tens and even hundreds of metres. Develop both physical and chemical associations with subsurface regolith materials Thus, ground organs of a plant may be connected with underlying regolith materials.

 Expressed at the land surface by changes in plant communities, species distribution and abundance, biogeochemical characteristics and morphology of plants and plant organs (eg stunted tree growth associated with shallow regolith thickness). Geo-botanical Anomalies Remote sensing has been utilized to map geobotanical anomalies associated with mineral deposits. Bio-geochemical prospecting techniques are useful for mapping geologic substrate and mineral anomalies.

 Bio geochemical techniques have also been utilized to prove mineral uptake, including gold,in several species of plants. Soil geochemical, bio-geochemical, and vegetal-spectral anomalies have been detected in U.S. Certain elements are toxic to vegetation and their presence in underlying zones of mineralization can cause stress, if accessed by the root system. The stress manifests morphological and mutational changes in the plant (geobotanical anomalies)

Geo-botanical guides and features revealing anomalies

The observed structural and physiological expressions may include dwarfism, gigantism, or chlorosis. Dwarfism and gigantism are relatively easy to spot in the field. On the other hand, chlorosis and other changes at the cellular level, may cause subtle changes not readily apparent to the unaided human eye. .

 Shift in the spectral position of chlorophyll bands have been found in the forests affected by metal induced stress. The metal affect causes the infrared chlorophyll edge to shift towards the short wavelength end of the spectrum, (the blue shift). Salts of copper, zinc, and nickel in concentrations of 100 ppm metal in the soil appear to retard the development of chlorophyll in the laboratory plants.

Geo-botanical sampling and mapping

A particular plant species in the area of mineralization works as a guide to locate ore. The growth and distribution of a particular plant is influenced by sub-surface geology. Geo-botanical survey involves study of the nature of the vegetative cover, plant distribution, the presence of indicator plants, mutational or morphological changes in species due to mineral enrichment.

For mapping purpose: generally plots of 5 sq km are chosen. the plant species found in them, their growth, density of growth, new species, rare species etc are marked. A species which shows special affinity to the area is chosen by a process of progressive elimination. The association of these species with any known mineral occurrence in the area is established if such a correlation exists. This correlation can be used for searching adjacent larger areas.

Indicator Plants
Two types of indicator plants are recognized 1. Universal indicators 2. Local indicators Universal indicators grow only in a mineralized terrain and are seen world over in similar setups. They are rare in their occurrence and distribution. The local indicators are more common but are important only locally. eg In North Kanara district of Karnataka, local prospectors believe that manganese deposits show association with plants like- nama, kundal, jamka, and karipatha. However this association is yet to be scientifically established.

Element
1. Cobalt 2. Copper

Universal indicators
Crotalaria cobalticola, Silene cobalticola 1. Acrocephalus robertii, 2. Astragalus declinatus, 3. Becimum homblei, 4. Gypsophila patrini, 5. Merceya latifolia, 6. Merceya lingulata, 7. Mielichhoferia macrocarpa,

Local indicators
-1. Armeria meritima, 2. Elsholtzia haichowensis, 3. Eschscholtzia mexicana, 4. Polycarpaea glabra, 5. Polycarpaea spriostylis, 6. Polygonum posumbu

Element Copper .

3. Iron

Universal Local indicators indicators 1. Mielichhoferia -Mielichhoferia, 2. Tephrosia sp., 3. Viscaria alpina -1. Betula sp., 2. Clusia rosea, 3. Dacrydium -caledonicum, 4. Damnara ovata, 5. Eutessa intermedia

Universal Local indicators indicators 4. Lead -1. Baptisia - bracteata, 2. Erianthus giganteus 3. Tephrosia polyzyga 5. Manganese -1. Digitalis purpurea 2. Fucus vesiculolus 3. Trapa natans 4. Zostera nana 6. Molybdenum -1. Astragalus - declinatus

Element

Element 7. Nickel

1. Alyssum bertolonii, 2. Asplenium adulterium, 3. Pulsatilla - patens 8. -1. Convolvulus Phosphorus althaeoides 9. Selenium 1. Aster venusta, 1. Neptunia 2. Asteragalus spp., amplexicanlis
3. Oonopsis spp. 4. Stanleya spp.

Universal indicators --

Local indicators

Element 10. Selenium & Uranium 11. Silver

Universal indicators 1. Astragalus (certain spp.) --

Local indicators -1. Eriogonum ovalifolium, 2. Lonicera confusa

12. Vanadium

1. Astragalusbisulcatus

Element

Universal indicators

Local indicators 1. Gomphrena canescens, 2. Matricaria americana, 3. Philadelphus sp.

13. Zinc 1. Thlaspi calaminare, 2. Thlaspi cepaeacfolium, 3. Viola -calaminaria, 4. Viola lutea

 The presence of these plant species is indicative of the corresponding elements. Some mutational effects caused by certain elements on certain plants are also very useful in recognizing them. In multi-spectral aerial photography, the mutational effects can be recognized. Thus they provide an indirect evidence of the possible presence of certain elements in regional scale explorations.

Mutational effect and their causative elements

Element or mineral 1. Chromium 2. Cobalt Mutational effect Chlorosis of leaves Increase of chlorophyll in some species and chlorosis in others 3. Copper Chlorosis of leaves & dwarfism 4. Iron Darkening of leaves 5. Manganese Chlorosis of leaves with white blotches 6. Molybdenum Formation of abnormally coloured shoot

Mutational effect and their causative elements

Element or mineral 7. Nickel Mutational effect Chlorosis and nacrosis in leaves

8. Serpentine Dwarfism, colour changes of flowers 9. Uranium & Variation in flower colour, presence radioactivity of abnormal fruits, increase in chromosomes of nucleus, stimulation 10. Zinc Chlorosis of leaves, symptoms of manganese deficiency

Geo-botanical prospecting in India

Certain species of plants are seen in mineralized belt and metal content of plants growing in these areas is richly anomalous than those growing in barren tract. Some studies have been carried out using certain indicator plants for the search of mineralization in the extension areas of the known mineralized belt.

Different indicator plants identified in various mineralized areas in India Luxuriant growth of Leucas aspera (family: Labiatae) on mine dumps, slag heaps and waste dumps of the sampling shed in RajpuraDariba area. Samples of ashes prepared from the different parts of the plant shows conspicuous concentration of zinc and this plant can be used as a local indicator of zinc in the RajpuraDariba. A possible zinc indicator plant viz. Impatiens balsania is identified in the Zawar Pb-Zn belt. A large population of such plant species is found to grow selectively on zinc dumps and in areas of the mineralized belt.

 Growth of a species of plants with golden yellow flowers (similar to sun flower) as observed in most parts of the auriferous tracts of Karnataka, has been noticed in abundance, all along the auriferous tracts of Ramagiri- Penakacherla schist belt, Veligallu schist belt. This plant is identified as Pulicaria Angustifolia of Compositae family. The samples collected from this plant species analysed up to 200 ppb Au. Polycarpae cormybos Lamk is seen in the cupriferous area of Agnigundala. The same species is recognized in Singhbhum copper district. The absence of this species in neighbouring Pb-Zn mineralized zone assumes significance and the growth shows preference for copper.

Gold colloids precipitated along a fungal hyphae isolated from soil samples from Gold Mine, Australia

Fossilized colony of bacterial cells, Pedomicrobium sp. australiensis, on a gold flake panned from soil close to a gold mine, Australia