Pagei THEPRINCIPLEOFHOPE

Pageii StudiesinContemporaryGermanSocialThought(partiallist) ThomasMcCarthy,GeneralEditor TheodorW.Adorno,Hegel:ThreeStudies TheodorW.Adorno,Prisms SeylaBenhabib,WolfgangBonandJohnMcCole,editors,OnMax Horkheimer:NewPerspectives ErnstBloch,NaturalLawandHumanDignity ErnstBloch,ThePrincipleofHope ErnstBloch,TheUtopianFunctionofArtandLiterature:SelectedEssays HansBlumenberg,TheGenesisoftheCopernicanWorld HansBlumenberg,TheLegitimacyoftheModernAge HansBlumenberg,WorkonMyth SusanBuckMorss,TheDialecticsofSeeing:WalterBenjaminandthe ArcadesProject JrgenHabermas,OntheLogicoftheSocialSciences JrgenHabermas,TheNewConservatism:CulturalCriticismandthe Historians'Debate JrgenHabermas,ThePhilosophicalDiscourseofModernity: TwelveLectures JrgenHabermas,PhilosophicalPoliticalProfiles JrgenHabermas,PostmetaphysicalThinking:PhilosophicalEssays JrgenHabermas,TheStructuralTransformationofthePublicSphere:AnInquiry intoaCategoryofBourgeoisSociety AxelHonneth,TheCritiqueofPower:ReflectiveStagesinaCritical SocialTheory MaxHorkheimer,BetweenPhilosophyandSocialScience: SelectedEarlyWritings PierreMissac,WalterBenjamin'sPassages GuyOakes,WeberandRickert:ConceptFormationintheCulturalSciences WilliamE.Scheuerman,BetweentheNormandtheException: TheFrankfurtSchoolandtheRuleofLaw DennisSchmidt,TheUbiquityoftheFinite:Hegel,Heidegger,andthe EntitlementsofPhilosophy GeorgiaWarnke,JusticeandInterpretation MarkWarren,NietzscheandPoliticalThought AlbrechtWellmer,ThePersistenceofModernity:EssaysonAesthetics, EthicsandPostmodernism JoelWhitebook,PerversionandUtopia:AStudyinPsychoanalysisand CriticalTheory RolfWiggershaus,TheFrankfurtSchool:ItsHistory,Theories,and PoliticalSignificance LambertZuidervaart,Adorno'sAestheticTheory:TheRedemption ofIllusion

Pageiii

THEPRINCIPLEOFHOPE
VolumeTwo ErnstBloch TranslatedbyNevillePlaice,StephenPlaiceandPaulKnight TheMITPress Cambridge,Massachusetts

Pageiv FirstMITPresspaperbackedition,1995

WrittenintheUSA19381947 revised1953and1959 firstAmericaneditionpublishedbyTheMITPress,1986 Englishtranslation1986byBasilBlackwell,Ltd. OriginallypublishedasDasPrinzipHoffnung,1959by SuhrkampVerlag,FrankfurtamMain,FederalRepublicofGermany.

Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyformorbyanyelectronicormechanicalmeans(includingphotocopying,recording,orinformation storageandretrieval)withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.

LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData Bloch,Ernst,18851977 Theprincipleofhope.

(StudiesincontemporaryGermansocialthought) TranslationofDasPrinzipHoffnung. Includesindex. 1.Hope.2.Imagination.3.Utopias.4.Creation (Literary,artistic,etc.)I.Title.II.Series. B3209.B753P751319861938523081

ISBN0262521997(volume1) 0262522004(volume2) 0262522012(volume3) 0262522047(3volumeset)

PrintedandboundintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

Pagev

CONTENTS
PARTFOUR (Construction) OUTLINESOFABETTERWORLD (MEDICINE,SOCIALSYSTEMS,TECHNOLOGY,ARCHITECTURE,GEOGRAPHY,PERSPECTIVEINARTANDWISDOM)

33.ADREAMERALWAYSWANTSEVENMORE 34.PHYSICALEXERCISE,TOUTVABIEN

451 451

35.STRUGGLEFORHEALTH,MEDICALUTOPIAS 454 Awarmbed454Lunaticsandfairytales455Medicinesandplanning456Hesitationandgoalinactualbodilyrebuilding462 Malthus,birthrate,nourishment467Thedoctor'care469 36.FREEDOMANDORDER,SURVEYOFSOCIALUTOPIAS 471 I.Introduction/Afrugalmeal472Theroastpigeons472Lunacyandcolportageevenhere473NewMoralWorldsonthe horizon475Utopiashavetheirtimetable479 II.SocialWishfulImagesofthePast/Solonandthecontentedmedium481Diogenesandtheexemplarybeggars482Aristippus andtheexemplaryscroungers483Plato'sdreamoftheDoricstate484Hellenisticfairytalesofanidealstate,Iamboulos'islandof thesun488TheStoicsandtheinternationalworldstate491TheBibleandthekingdomofneighbourlylove496Augustine's CityofGodfromrebirth502JoachimofFiore,thethirdgospelanditskingdom509ThomasMoreortheutopiaofsocial freedom515CounterparttoMore:Campanella'sCityoftheSunortheutopiaofsocialorder523Socraticinquiryintofreedom andorder,withregardtoUtopiaandCivitassolis528Continuation:socialutopiasandclassicNaturalRight534Enlightened NaturalRightinplaceof

Pagevi socialutopias541Fichte'sclosedcommercialstateor productionandexchangeinaccordancewithrationallaw548 Federativeutopiasinthenineteenthcentury:Owen,Fourier555 Centralistutopiasinthenineteenthcentury:Cabet,SaintSimon 561Individualutopiansandanarchy:Stirner,Proudhon, Bakunin568ProletariancastleintheairfromtheVormrz: Weitling575Aconclusion:weaknessandstatusoftherational utopias578 III.ProjectsandProgressTowardsScience/Topicalremnants:bourgeoisgrouputopias583 Beginning,programmeoftheyouthmovement585Struggleforthenewwoman,programme ofthewomen'smovement589OldNewLand,programmeofZionism598Novelssetin thefutureandfullscaleutopiasafterMarx:Bellamy,WilliamMorris,Carlyle,HenryGeorge 611Marxismandconcreteanticipation619 37.WILLANDNATURE,THETECHNOLOGICALUTOPIAS 625 I.MagicPast/Plungedintomisery626Fireandnewarmament626LunacyandAladdin's fairytale627ProfessorMystosandinvention629Andreae'sChemicalWeddingof ChristianRosenkreutzanno1459634Alchemyagain:mutatiospecierum(transmutationof inorganicspecies)anditsincubator639UnregulatedinventionsandPropositionesinthe Baroqueperiod646Bacon'sArsinveniendisurvivaloftheLullianart649NewAtlantis, theutopianlaboratory654 II.NonEuclideanPresentandFuture,theProblemofTechnologicalContact/Plansmustalso bespurredon658Latebourgeoiscurbingoftechnology,apartfromthemilitarykind658 Deorganizationofthemachineatomicenergy,nonEuclideantechnology661Subject,raw materials,lawsandcontactindeorganization666Electronofthehumansubject,of technologyofthewill674Coproductivityofapossiblenaturalsubjectorconcrete technologyofalliance686Technologywithoutviolationeconomiccrisisandtechnological accident691Chainedgiant,veiledsphinx,technologicalfreedom696 38.BUILDINGSWHICHDEPICTABETTERWORLD,ARCHITECTURALUTOPIAS 699 I.FiguresofAncientArchitecture/Glancethroughthewindow699DreamsonthePompeian wall700FestivedecorationsandBaroquestagesets701Wishfularchitectureinthe fairytale706Wishfularchitectureinpainting709Thechurchmasons'guildsorarchitectural utopiainactualconstruction714Egyptorthecrystalofdeathutopia,Gothicorthetreeof lifeutopia721

Pagevii Furtherandindividualexamplesofguidingspaceinancientarchitecture726II.BuildingonHollowSpace/Newhousesandrealclarity733Townplans,idealtowns andrealclarityagain:permeationofcrystalwithprofusion738 39.ELDORADOANDEDEN,THEGEOGRAPHICALUTOPIAS746Thefirstlights746Inventinganddiscoveringcharacteristicofgeographicalhope747 Fairytalesagain,theGoldenFleeceandtheGrail752IslandofthePhaeacians,thebadAtlantic,locationoftheearthlyparadise756VoyageofStBrendan,the kingdomofPresterJohnAmerican,Asiaticparadise762ColumbusattheOrinocodeltadomeoftheearth772SouthlandandtheutopiaofThule777Better abodesonotherstarshicRhodus782TheCopernicanconnection,Baader'scentralearth785Geographicallineofextensioninsobrietythefundoftheearth, mediatedwithwork790 40.WISHFULLANDSCAPEPORTRAYEDINPAINTING,OPERA,LITERATURE794Themovedhand794Flowerandcarpet795Stilllifecomposedof humanbeings796EmbarkationforCythera797PerspectiveandlargehorizoninvanEyck,Leonardo,Rembrandt799Stilllife,Cytheraandbroadperspective inliterature:Heinse,RomandelaRose,JeanPaul802Thewishfullandscapeofperspectiveinaestheticsstatusofthematterofartaccordingtoitsdimensionof depthandhope807PaintersoftheresidualSunday,Seurat,Czanne,GauguinGiotto'slandoflegend813Landoflegendinliterature:ascelestialroseinDante's Paradiso,astranscendentalhighmountainsintheFaustianheaven820Splendour,Elysiuminoperaandoratorio827Contactoftheinteriorandtheboundlessin thespiritofmusic:Kleist'sideallandscapeSistineMadonna834 41.WISHFULLANDSCAPEANDWISDOMSUBSPECIEAETERNITATISANDOFPROCESS838Thesearchforproportion838Theauthenticin primarymatterandlaw840KantandtheintelligiblekingdomPlato,Erosandthepyramidofvalue842BrunoandtheinfiniteworkofartSpinozaandtheworld ascrystal847AugustineandgoalhistoryLeibnizandtheworldasprocessofillumination853Thewatchfulconceptortheauthenticasatask862Two wishfulpropositions:teachablevirtue,thecategoricalimperative866ThepropositionofAnaximanderorworldwhichturnsintolikeness874Lightnessinthe depths,joyfulnessofthephenomenonoflight879

Pageviii 42.EIGHTHOURDAY,WORLDINPEACE,FREETIMEANDLEISURE885Thewhipofhunger886Fromthecasematesofthebourgeoisie886Allkinds ofalleviationthroughbenefaction890Bourgeoispacifismandpeace893Technologicalmaturity,statecapitalismandstatesocialismOctoberRevolution897 Delusionsoffreetime:tougheningupforbusiness904Residualolderformsoffreetime,spoiled,butnothopeless:hobby,publicfestival,amphitheatre907The surroundingsoffreetime:utopianBuenRetiroandpastoral914Leisureasimperative,onlyhalfexploredgoal920 GlossaryofForeignTermsG 1 NameandTitleIndexI 1

Page449

PARTFOUR
(Construction) OUTLINESOFABETTERWORLD (MEDICINE,SOCIALSYSTEMS,TECHNOLOGY,ARCHITECTURE,GEOGRAPHY,PERSPECTIVEINARTANDWISDOM)

Page450 Theactcontentofhopeis,asaconsciouslyilluminated,knowinglyelucidatedcontent,thepositiveutopianfunctionthehistoricalcontentofhope,first representedinideas,encyclopaedicallyexploredinrealjudgements,ishumanculturereferredtoitsconcreteutopianhorizon. ThePrincipleofHope,Vol.I,p.146

Page451

33ADREAMERALWAYSWANTSEVENMORE
Toomanyarequeuingupoutside.Fromhimwhohasnothingandiscontentwiththisshallbetakenawayeventhatwhichhehas.*Butthepulltowardswhatislacking neverends.Thelackofwhatwedreamabouthurtsnotless,butmore.Itthuspreventsusfromgettingusedtodeprivation.Whathurts,oppressesandweakensusall thetimehastogo. Justashortbreathingspace,thisneversufficedforlong.Aboveall,dreamingalwaysoutlivedthebriefandprivateday.Sothisisthebeginningofsomethingotherthan thedesiretodressup,toseeourselvesasourmasterswishtoseeus.Alargerimageissketchedintheairhere,awishfullydeliberateone.Evenwiththisdeliberate elementmistakeshaveoftenbeenmade,butitcannotsooftenbeusedtodeceive.Norwillitbecheaplyfobbedoff,itswillaimsatsomethingmore,andeverythingthat itattainstastesofthissomethingmore.Sothatitseekstolivenotmerelybeyonditsownmeans,butbeyondthepoorlyavailablemeansofconditionsasawhole. Longingholdsstrongandtrue,especiallywhenitisdeceived,evenwhenitisracingaimlesslynowinonedirection,nowinanother.Allthemoreso,whenthepath leadsunerringlyandcaringlyforwards.

34PHYSICALEXERCISE,TOUTVABIEN
Fresh,frank,frolicking,free.Motto Onlywhatislittlemovesdownwards.Thechildhasnosay,thewomancooksandwashes.Thepoormanstandshunchedup,notmanypeopleeattheirfillevenoncea day.Howdowestayhealthy,thatisthequestion,howdowefeedourselveswellandcheaply.Whereistheleafybough,otherscanbeseenonit,theyaresitting pretty.Afortnightoff,thatisalreadyagreatdealformostpeople,thenbacktoalifethatnobodywants.Fresherairherestandsformuchthatcouldsparkle. Itisfreelyavailabletothebody,andeveryonehasabodyafterall.Sport *Cf.Matthew25,29:butfromhimthathathnotshallbetakenawayeventhatwhichhehath. Frisch,fromm,frhlich,frei.MottoofanineteenthcenturygymnasticmovementinGermany.

Page452 hasneverbeenmoredesired,practised,plannedthantoday,andneverhavemorehopesbeenpinnedonit.Itisregardedashealthy,theathlete'shearthasoustedthe enlargedheartofthebeerdrinker.Asuntanautomaticallycreatesahealthyglow,bringsbackinthefleshtheSouthorthemountains.Thepricepaidforthisisthatin backwardbourgeoisconditionssportoftenstultifiesthemind,andforthisveryreasonispromotedfromabove.Itisnotjustfreecompetition,forwhichthereisnowno room,thatisreplacedinthesearchforrecords,butalsotherealstruggleforimprovement.Apowerfulneeddrivesthemassesoutintotheopenair,butwateronly cleansestheirbodies,andthehometowhichtheoutdoortypereturnsintheeveninghasnotgotanyfresher.ThoughintheVormrz,*whengymnasticsappearedon thescene,thejoltitgavetoleadenlimbsstillseemedtobeboundupwithanotherkindofjolt.Letsteelspringfromrust,fromwineskinsthemust,throughthemist blowsawindfromtheeast,downwiththefrost,sowentasonginthedayswhengymnasticsreplaceddrill.StormandStressofthebodycametotheforeamong bourgeoisyouthJahn,thesocalledfatherofgymnastics,wrotein1815:Thesoulofgymnasticsisthelifeofthepeople,andthisonlyflourishesinpublic,outintheair andlight.Thusdangerousideaswerespawnedbythestraightenedbackorassociatedwithit,andtheyounggymnastthoughtoffreedom.Thoughwhathemeantby freedomwaswalkingupright,thestrengthnottocowerbeforetheenemybuttoholdhisown,manlypridebeforeroyalthrones,andthecouragetostandupforhis beliefs,noneofwhichfollowed,asweknow.Thisfreedomalsoremainedpoorlateron,especiallyamongsttheGermans,becausetherewasadoublelayeroflords andmastershere,thebourgeoisandthefeudal.Thusthetradesmanhimselfemergedasahero,thebourgeoishimselfdoingthegoosestep,andtheNazis,evenciting Jahnastheirauthority,completedallthis.Exerciseofthebodywithoutthemindultimatelymeantbeingcannonfodder,andthugsbeforehand.Thereisnounpolitical sportifitisfree,thenitisontheleft,ifitisblinded,thenithiresitselfouttotheright.Andonlyinanationthatisnotcowed,wheretheablebodyisneitherabusednor standsasasubstituteformanlypride,doesJahn'swishbecomemeaningful.Itisonlywhentheswimmeralsopartsthegiveninotherwaysthathehasswumfreeand lovesthedeepwater. Evenathleticexerciseremainswishful,hopeful.Itdoesnotmerelyseek *TheperiodofpoliticalfermentinGermanyleadinguptotherevolutionofMarch1848. AreferencetotheSturmundDrang,therevolutionarymovementinliteratureanddramainGermanyinthelatterhalfoftheeighteenthcentury.

Page453 togaincontroloverthebodysothatthereisnofatonitandeverymovementispleasantlyuninhibited.Italsoseekstobeabletodomore,tobemorewiththebody thanthisbodyseemedtopromiseatbirth.Genuineathleticposturesareverydifferentfromcosmeticposturesinfrontofthemirror,frommakeupthatiswipedoffa woman'sfaceagainatnight,orfromotherrebuildingwhichisdismantledwhenwetakeoffourclothesagain.Thebodyshouldnotbeconcealedatallbutrathershed thedistortionsanddisfigurementswhichanalienatingsocietybasedonthedivisionoflabourhasinflictedonittoo.Thewishistogiveitareturntohealthwithso manyexercisesformerlyconfinedtochivalryandsomanynewlydiscoveredonestoointhenewsociety.Namelyareturntohealthwhichdoesnotpresupposeany illnessatall,butisrathertheverb,theactionofhealthitself,ahealingpreciselywithoutanillness.Wherebysportisalsorelievedofitsemergencyfunctioninbourgeois societytocreateasocalledbalancewiththepredominantlysedentarywayoflife,inboththenarrowandbroadsense,typicaloftheindoorworker.Therewillalways beasedentarywayoflife,butnotalwaystheunpleasantconsequenceswhicharisefromthelackofopenairofanykind.Thesportsmanwishestohavesuchcontrolof hisbodythat,evenontheskijumpwhenheisflyingthroughtheair,everysituationisfamiliar,eventhenew,exaggeratedone.Thusthemindcertainlydoesnotbuild thebody,butitkeepsitinshape,oftenbeyonditsinnatecapacity. Nothingventured,nothinggaineditiseasyenoughtosaythisofcourse.Itispresentedasifitwasalsoeasytodo,indeedasifthissayingillustratedthebestthingtodo here.Forapparentlythereisanotherwaytomakethebodypowerful,namelythatwhichcheerfullyandblindlydisregardsit.Cou*adoptedthisapproach,withhis motto:Toutvabien(nottomentionutterlysillyfaithhealers).Fortunefavoursthebraveinthiskindofworld,eventhoughnooneneedstobeparticularlybrave.Colds andmoreseriousillnessesaresupposedtobedrivenawaybymeansofToutvabien,inalightheadedwaysotospeak.ThefamousrideronLakeConstanceisthe primeexamplehere:sinceherodeoverthedangersostaunchlyandunsuspectingly,itsimplydidnotarise,andtheicedidnotbreakbeneathhim.Thisisthedangerous exampleofdisregardingthetroubleitisasif,bybeingignored,itdoesnotexist.Thoughthewholethingdoesalsoacquireadashoftruththemomentthecourageis notblindorcheapbutagaininatrulysportingwaygoesunderthename *EmileCou,18571926,Frenchpsychologist,whosepopularbooksadvocatingpsychotherapythroughautosuggestionenjoyedavogueinthe1920s.

Page454 ofChinup.Thebrighterthemoodhere,andthemorehopesarepinnedonChinup,themorethisinsistencecombatslistlessness.Andthislistlessnesscanevenbe thebeginningofanillness,notjustitseffect.Toutvabiencertainlydoesnotmeanthateverythingisasrightasrain,butevenherethedreamofabetterlifeentailsthata willisfollowingitspath.Also,notevenourbodyissoconstitutedthatitcangetbyunchanged,unextendedasitwere.Thismancandefinitelybehelped,*andsocan thewoman,alongtheroadthatcanbeplanned.

35STRUGGLEFORHEALTH,MEDICALUTOPIAS
Oncecured,thepatientmustfeelanewman,heoughttobehealthierthanbefore. Inscription Awarmbed Thephysicallyweakmustexerciseinsteadofrelaxing.Theycannotwishtorestwithoutcompletelyrusting.Butthesickmaninsistsonrestingandrelaxing,hisbedboth hidesandsheltershim.Andwhenasleepthesickmanalsofeelshealthy,thatis,hedoesnotfeelatall.Heisthenlikethesoundbodyitself,whichdoesnotevenhavea sensationofitselfwhenitisawake.Itisseeminglyverysimpletoprolongthis,toshakeoffdiscomfortasadogshakesoffwater.Illnessdoesnotbelongtous,thereis evensomethingshamefulaboutit,itresemblesakindofnightmare,ithasgottodisappearovernight.Atfirstwewishfornothingmorethanitsmeredisappearance,just assleepgetsridoftiredness.Theachingtoothhastogo,evenadiseasedlimbhastogo,thisdesiretoshakethemoffcanitselfbediseased.Asinthecaseofarandy womanwhowouldtakeherskinofftooifshecould.Orevenasinthecaseoffatpeoplewhowouldliketoseethemselvesasskeletonsiftheycould.Sothesickman hasthefeelingnotthathelackssomethingbutthathehastoomuchofsomething.Hisdiscomfort,assomethingwhichishangingaroundhimandsuperfluous,hastogo painisproudflesh.Hedreamsofthebodywhichknowshowtokeepcomfortablyquietagain. *AnallusiontothefinallineofSchiller'splayDieRuber.

Page455 Lunaticsandfairytales Thuseverysickmanwishestogetwellagaininaflash.Anhonestdoctorcannotgivehimthis,butthissuddenrecoveryhasalwaysbeenpictured.Swimmingaroundin bloodinthemorning,healthyandupandaboutatmidday.Evendoctorsindulgedindreamsofthiskind,mostlydeceitfully,oftenthemselvesdeceived.Thetwomost generalfavouritewishesofmankindaretostayyoungandlivelong.Andathirdispreciselytoachieveboth,notinapainfulroundaboutwaybutwithafairytalequality ofsurprise.Asthesickmandoesnotskipandleaparound,hiswishesdosoallthemore.Thequacklivesoffthiswillforabruptrecovery,andnowcomesthereally lunaticstuff.Adoctorrushedoutintothestreetinhisnightshirtandshoutedthatthefieryowlhadarrived,deathanddiseasewereabolished.Healingpotions,healing lotions,whatashortcut,howliterallycondensedtheyseem,howintensivelythefairytalehasbeenpreoccupiedwiththem.Thereistheointmentthathealsinjuriesata stroke,thereisthefountainfromwhicholdpeopleemergerejuvenated,whichisparticularlygoodforpreservingthefleetingqualityoffemalebeauty.ACockaigneof healthinessisspreadbeforeus,withoutpain,withboundinglimbsandastomachthatisalwaysmerry.Itisnoaccidentthatquacksarecloselylinkedwiththemedical fairytale,withmagicointments,wands,andlotionstheyarealllivingdispensersofoldwives'tales.CountStGermain,whointheprimeoflifeclaimedtobemany hundredyearsold,usedtosellateaforlonglifeitwasamundanemixtureofsandalwood,sennaleavesandfennel.Onahigherplane,Mesmerbelongedtotheguild ofthehalfdeceitful,halfutopianshortcuthebelievedhecouldcurediseasesbystrokingandsofttones,hypnoticallyinotherwords.Aperfectexampleofthe businessofphysicalrenewalinMesmer'sdaywasDrGraham'sCelestialBed,whichwassupposedtohavethecapacitytorejuvenatethepersonlyinginitbya pleasantshockelectriccurrents,perfumeandglassdomeswerebuiltintotheframe.Thebeliefinmagicherbsseemsolderandsounderasitwereitissharedbythe fairytaleandfolklorealike:thissameimpatienceforasuddencurealsocharacterizesthehopeinmedicinalherbs,thebreakthroughwhichchangeseverything:theleaves oftheboxthorn,forexample,areeffectiveasplastersagainstulcers,onequickwashwithitsdecoctionissaidtobegoodagainstinfectedearsandrottengums,bad eyesandshrivelledlipsevensuchacommonplantasthisseemsasifithadbeenbroughtoverfromdistantislands.ItisasifherbsfromFrauHolle'smeadowwere standingaroundall

Page456 overtheplace,anditwasjustamatterofknowingwhichonestopick.Extraordinarythingswerehopedforanddemanded,notjustinlunaticmedicinebutalsointhis kindthatresembledcolportage,asitwere.Butwemustnotforgetthatextraordinarythings,onahighlychangedpath,havealsoaccompaniedallmajormedicalplans. Thereisalwaysanelementofadventureandstrangenessinthem,inthepoisonthatdoesnotkillbutfreesfrompain,intheknifethatdoesnotmurderbutheals,in borderlinecreationsliketheartificialstomach.Thefactthatwhatispatcheduporreplacedinthiswaydoesnotlastparticularlywellandisdefinitelynotbetterthanthe healthyorgandoesnotlessentheadventure,certainlydoesnotmakeitafailure.Diseaseisnotabolished,butitsend,death,isamazinglypushedback.Iftheexploited livestowhichsomanyarereturnedwereworthsomething,andifawardidnotmakeupindaysforyearsoflostdeath,thendoctorscouldbehalfcontentwiththe courseofthelasthundredyears.Thisistheplacetodiethisinscriptionatanyratenolongerbelongsoverhospitalsbutoverthestatesinwhichtheystand.Healingis awakingdreamwhichisonlybroughttoanendbyrestoringtheoldstateofhealthandisthereanoldstateofhealth?Therealmedicaldreamssurfacehere,theysurge aroundarockwhichisitselfnotaspermanentasitseems.Thecouchfromwhichthesickmanariseswouldonlybeperfectifhewasrefreshedinsteadofmerely patchedup. Medicinesandplanning Thismeansnothinglessthanrebuildingthebody.Conductinglifeintochannelswhereithasnotflowedbeforeornotsoeasily.Newfromthestart,andaddedtothe body,arepainkillingdrugs.Theyhavebeensoughtfromthebeginninginaddition,thereisthesickman'sdreamofnotbeingpresentduringtheoperationonhisbody. Thebodytoocansometimesdeadenitspain,asintheshockafteranaccident.Butnodoctorwilloperatewhilethisshocklasts,thenumberoffatalitiesistoogreat.It isdifferentinthecaseofanaesthetics,thisunnaturalreliefaddedfromoutside.Andmostmedicines,vegetableandmetallic,comefromoutside,includingmany readdressedpoisons.Thepoisonofthefoxglove,forexample,protectsitfrombeingeatenbyanimals,indrugformithelpstofightheartdisease:whataroundabout method,whatfarfetchedaid.Thisisevenmoretrueofcuttingintolife,removingdiseasedtissue,stitchinguptheopenedbodyafterchangingitscontents,antiseptic treatment,thefightagainstgerms.Allthisisartificialanddoesnotproceedalongthelinesoftheselfprotective

Page457 mechanismswhichexistanyway,oftheregenerationwhichispossibleanyway.Ittookboldplanning,afarcryfromacceptingthingsastheyare.Wishfulimagesof combattingdiseasemustbetheoldestalongwiththoseofcombattinghunger,andfromthestarthealingwasregardedaswinningabattle.Ontheotherhand,thefrail bodyalsopursuesthebrightestdreamsofabetterlifethusevenfairytalesofanidealstate,inwhichtherearenolongeranyotherdeprivations,cannotavoid consideringdiseaseandtheroleofthedoctor.Plato'sRepublic(Book3)evendemandsthattheidealdoctormustalsoexperiencealldiseaseshimselfinhisown bodyandnothaveatotallyhealthyconstitutionhimself.Foronlyinthiswaycanheassessdiseasesfromwithin,fromhisownexperience,withasoulwhichhas remainedspotlessandwhichcertainlymustnotbeinabadstate,otherwiseitcannotpossiblyproduceagoodcure.Howeverextravagantthisdemandthatthedoctor mustknowatfirsthandinhisownbodythediseasesthathecures,indeedalldiseases,Platoneverthelessalsoincludesaspartofthediseasethetreatmentwhichis imposedalltooindifferentlybythealltoohealthydoctor.Andthetreatmentcaninfactbenotonlymorepainfulbutalsomoredangerousandlongerlastingthanthe diseaseitself.Themorerecentfairytalesofanidealstate,More'sUtopiaandespeciallyBacon'sNewAtlantis,alsomakemedicineeasier,lesspainful,moreofa shortcut,anartofnewlyconstructedlifeor,iflifecannotbepreserved,ofeffortlessdeath.Insteadofgloomymedievalinfirmaries,Moreportraysfriendly,roomy hospitalsforallonahappyisland.Baconaddsfoodanddrinkwhichdonotencumberthebodyatallanymore,togetherwithwholesomemountainair,artificially produced,serumandvaguelydescribedbathswhichareneverthelesssupposedtomakeeverybodyintoaHercules.Thisisallthemorenecessaryastheexistingbody itselfintheseutopiasdoesnotliveuptotheleveloftherestofexistence,whichisimaginedasrunningsosmoothly.Thatiswhyinthebackgroundevenhere,precisely here,thereisthewishtodevelopabodylesssusceptibletoillness.Thisfinallyemerges,quiteopenly,inaverylatesocialutopia,Swesen'sLimanora,TheIslandof Progress,1903.Thepeopleonthisislandlaughattheideathatmedicineismerelytherapeutic.Theyarewelloverthecrudestageofmerecureofdisease,they interveneinthemerelaissezfaire,laissezallerofthebody,restraining,promoting,stimulating,arrangingandrearranging.Thusthedoctorisneverconceivedhereasa cobblerwhopatchesuptheoldagainafterafashion.Buttheywishhimtobeaninnovator,liberatingthefleshnotonlyfromitsacquired,butevenfromitsinnate weakness. Foreventhehealthybodycouldbehelpedmuchfurther.Alongthese

Page458 linesareallplanswhicharenotpreoccupiedwitheachsinglecaseofhealingbutwithstrivingtoabolishgenericills.Theseare:influencinggender,artificialselective breeding,andtheabolitionoftheageingprocess.Theseplans,utopianastheyare,stillpartlycastareactionaryshadowofcourse.Itisnoaccidentthatthephrase tougheninguptemporarilysmacksmoreofcannonfodderthanofthesuperman.Thegreatestsilencenowsurroundstheplanforinfluencinggender,thoughitwasthe loudestplanofallforalongtime.Thisdreamismostlyabourgeoisconformistone,itseeksmalesonsandheirsforSmithandJones,asiftherewereacoatofarms andswordtobepassedon.Itispointlessinanycaseforevenifmoreboysthangirlswereborninaccordancewiththewishesoftheirparents,thegirlswouldbecome particularlycoveted,andthereforeparticularlyprecious,andinthecourseoftimethefruitsoflovewouldneverescapethisconstantalternationofgenitals.Secondly, theplanforefficientbreedingexistedevenpriortotheNazis,itisreminiscentofanagriculturalresearchstation.Afterall,noneofournutrientandornamentalplantsis thesameasitwasinitsnaturalstate,allofthemareartificiallycultivatedandchanged.Asaremostdomesticanimals,theytooweregraftedontooneanothersoto speakandinterbred,untilthefattestpigorthefastestracehorseorevensimplythemostpatientmuleemerged.InaccordancewithMendel'srulesofheredity,thisis nowtobeappliedtohumanbeings,itisaquestionofconsciouslyplannedinterbreeding,aquestionofabettersortedblendofgeneticinheritance.Butthissorting occursbymeansofintrusionsonhumanlove,whichdoesnotconsistassuchinaparticularselectionofmutualgermcells.Anditwouldthenbeonlylogicaltoabolish loveand,asinthebreedingofthoroughbredhorses,tousethePravazsyringe,filledwiththespermofthebestbreedingstallions,bypassingtheremainingmenwho arenotsopureblooded.InhisauthoritariannovelofanidealstateCivitassolis,1623,Campanellahadthetimeofsexualintercoursedeterminedbyastrologers theseastrologershavenowbecomethestrictbreedingmastersandgamekeepers.Andtheydonotmerelychoosethehourofmating,butthecouplesthemselves, accordingtotheauspicesofthegeneticinheritance.Thiswithregardabovealltoaproductwhichisusefultotherulingclass,intheageofthelittlemanontheconveyor belt.Suchselectivebreedingistooccurbeforebirth,thoughafteritMendel'srules,whicharecomplicatedanyway,nolongerhold,butthesimpleonesofmurder instead.Thisispractisedonallthosewhostandoutsidethenorm,andthenormfortheNaziswassimplytheassatthebottom,thebeastatthetop.TheBabbittisthe measureofthisinthestillinhibitedbourgeoisiealltherest,after

Page459 assessmentbythesametype,aretobeexterminatedwhenitbecomesuninhibited.ThussocalledeugenicshasdegeneratedtothislevelBeethoven,thesonofan incurabledrinker,wouldneverhavebeenbornaccordingtothisschemeofthings,andevenifthishadoccurred,warthebreederwouldhaveobliteratedhim.Onlya societywhichwasnolongeracapitalistonewouldbeabletoputeverythingtorightsintheproblemareaofeugenics,withothermeansandstandardsofselection. Whilethebesteugenicspresumablyconsistsingoodboardandlodging,inanunspoiltchildhood.Thispromotessuccessfuldevelopment,andalsomakessuperfluous thatselectionaccordingtothestrangetincturethathasbeencalledpurebloodandthatpresumablyonlystemsfrominbreeding,withitsrareadvantages,andvast dangers.Thenobilityhaspropagateditselfeugenicallyalongthesefinesforaverylongtime,andithasnot,inpurelyphysiologicaltermsasitwere,provedtobegold, whichhasretaineditsvaluethroughoutthelongseriesofindividualrecastingsorevenbecomemoreandmorepurified.Whatdistinguishedandsingledoutthenobility assuch,namelynotasindividualsbutasagroup,wassolelytheclasscodewhichgaveitobligationsandstanding,wasprimarilygoodupbringing,andthereforenot heredity.AndthatqualityinKingLear'sfacetowhichonewouldliketosaySiredoesnotstemfromhisfamilytreeonthecontrary,hisfamilytreeproduced despicablematerialenoughintheshapeofhistwodaughters.Thuseventhechancesofnobilitydonotstemfrombreedingitisratherthatsocialhygiene,asocietyin whichanuprightpostureisnotsuppressedanymore,inwhichnomeantrickpaysoffanymore,revealsnoblebehaviouranyway,indeeditistrulyrevealedbythat societyalone.Onlyheredoesthebreedingofgeniusesreallysucceed,ofthesetrueandsolelydesirablebloodminorities.Atleastsolongasthepeculiarkindof hormone,orwhateverweliketocallthatwhichgivesrisetocreativetalent,isphysiologicallyunknownwithregardtobothitsnatureandtheconditionsinwhichit arises.Certainly,fromfathercomesourstature,fromlittlemotherourcheerfulnature,*oralso,inmanyothercases:littlemothershowedsignsofhysteria,andthisnow seemslikeaprerequisiteforthebrilliantbirth.Yetontheotherhand,howmanymeticulousfathersandfantasizingmothershavemerelyproducedinconspicuous creatures,orpossiblyevenmeagreandfrailones?Themixtureofbloodwhichproducesgreattalentthereforestillliestoomuchinthedarkforthistalenttobe promotedandencouragedphysiologicallywith *AllusiontolinesfromGoethe'sZahmeXenienVI.

Page460 anyprospectofsuccess.Whereasafterthebrilliantbirthhasoccurred,historyiscrammedwiththoseunfavourablecircumstanceswhichpreventedthegreattalentfrom evenbeingawareofitself,andthenfromdeveloping.Mostofthegoldfishhavealwaysswumatthebottom,therehavebeenthousandsofSolonswhowerecowherds, ofNewtonswhoweredaylabourers,andnobodyknowstheirnames.Efficientbreedingwouldhaveasocialfieldheretokeepitbusyforalongtime,beforeentering orbeingabletoenterthestilllargelyopaquefieldofcontrolledinsemination.Thecontroloftheindividualbiologicaldispositionandtheabolitionoftheelementoffate aboutitarecertainlyagoal,butfirstthisplanningwillpulldowntherealslumsbeforeitapproachestheslumofthepunybody.Thereiseverythingtobesaidfor reducingtheaggressivedrivesandpromotingthesocialonesevenbymeansoforganicbreedingjustasthenutritionalvalueofcerealsandthesweetnessofcherries hasbeenimproved.Butthebreedingsocietymustfirstbebreditself,inorderthatthenewhumannutritionalvalueisnotdeterminedbythedemandsofthecannibals. Thethirdkindofplanningfinallylookspurer,i.e.withoutcannibals:thefightagainstoldage.Itprobablystrikesoutmostboldlyofall,itbeginsearlyinwomen.Itdoes notwanttoleavethepeculiarwoundunattendedwhichthebodyinflictsonitself.Asfarastherenewaloflostordamagedorgansisconcerned,humannatureisthe mostobdurateofall.Onlyinhisbrainismanthemosthighlydevelopedlivingorganism,notinotherorganiccapabilitieshowever.Afterall,progressfrequentlyalso representsacertainretrogressioninorganicdevelopmentasawhole,byconcentratingononesidedtraining.Byallowingorganstobecomeoverspecialized,sothat developmentinadirectionotherthantheonethathasbecomeestablishedstops,andevencapabilitiesofanearlierlevelarelost.Thecapabilityofregenerationin particularconstantlydecreasesathigherorganiclevels:inthecaseoftheearthwormafewringsaresufficienttoproducetherest,inthecaseofnewtslegsandeyes growagain,thesameistruewhenlizardslosetheirtails.Inthecaseofmammalshowever,inthecaseofhumanbeings,mothernatureisbynomeansgenerousinthis respect.Whentheylosealimb,humanbeingsaredependentonartificialones,andthestrongestwearandtearofall:ageing,whichbeginssomuchlaterinmany animalsanyway,isforthemthemostsevere.Thewishfuldreamofthefountainofyouthwasplacedinthisfield,andtheroutetowardsitwasconstantlycultivated,by quacksorothers.CountStGermain'steaforlonglifehasbeenmentionedabove,ashasDrGraham'sCelestialBedfromthesoenlightenedeighteenthcentury. FromPersiacametheadvicetouse

Page461 breathingtechniques,fromTibetthecontrolofone'sbreathing,fromthefaithhealersthebeliefthatonewillsoonbeimmortalintheflesh.Comparedwithadvicelike this,thatofHufelandinhisMacrobioticsof1796soundsmodestlycorrect:Sleepandhopearethetwobestelixirs.Butthemorerationalwishfulpathwasnot lackingevenamongstmorematerialelixirs:theChineseusedtotakethesexglandsofstagsandmonkeys,theIndiansthoseoftigersandin1879BrownSequard actuallydiddiscoverthesupposedmaterialofrejuvenationinthesexgland,thehormone.Thefurtherassumptionthateveryorganproducesthesubstanceswhichwill healitwhendiseased(dentineinthetooth,cerebrininthebrain)quicklyfellbythewaysidealthoughitwasdefendedbyBier,inasomewhatmodifiedform,evenas lateastheTwenties.Butthehopewhichthesexglandhadkindledwasnotcompletelyillusoryinthecaseofsubstanceswhichareextractedfromtheglandularorgans themselves,theypermitdiseasestobetreatedsuccessfullyfromthehypofunctionoftheseglandsatleast.Sincethenatotallynewmedicaldreamlandhasopenedup here:in1922ahormoneagainstdiabeteswasobtainedfromthepancreas,in1929anovaryhormonefromtheurineofpregnantmares,whichissixtimesasstrongas thenaturalone.Alldiseaseswhicharebasedonthehypofunctionoftheendocrineglands(pituitarygland,parathyroidgland,thyroidgland,suprarenalglands,ovaries andothers)caninfactbetreatedbypreparationsfromtheseglands.Itispreciselywiththedreamofmostgeneralinterest,withtheactivesubstanceagainstoldage, thatexpectationshavenotyetbeenrealized,despitemobilizationonallfronts.Steinachtiedthespermaticcord,andtherebyachievedagrowthofthepubertygland, thehormonesproducedtoexcesspassedintotheblood,whileVoronovtransplantedsexglandsfrommonkeys.Botheffortswereinvain,rejuvenationdidadmittedly occur,butsuchamomentaryonethatitseemedasifthecauseofageingdidnotlieinthesexglandsatallandasifthewearandtearonthemwasitselfsimplyaneffect ofunknowncauses.Thoughdreamsarestillleftsurroundingthethymusgland,thegrowthglandtillpuberty,atsixteenitisusedupandthenonlyhassomefunctions duringpregnancywhichhavenotbeenadequatelyclarified.Itishere,andnotinthesexglands,thatrejuvenationissaidtoliewaiting,andmeansarebeingsoughtto keepthisorganfunctionaluptoaripeoldage,sothatifthisripeoldageisnotafertileone,itisstillanupright,sprightly,openmindedone.Theutopianappleof rejuvenationneverthelessstillhangsquitealongwayoff,andasfarastheexaminationofheartandkidneys*isconcerned *Blochisplayingonthemetaphoricalmeaningofthisexpressionhere,i.e.athoroughexamination.

Page462 oldageremainsalmostthesameasitwasingrandfather'sday.Whathaschangedisthewayofhandlingit,whichisnolongerhypochondriac,nolonger exaggerated.Butthisisapsychologicalintervention,notonefromthestandpointofthesubstructure,oftheglandsandinternalsecretion,fromwhichvitalityisprobably fed.ThemostconsciousandalsothemostfelicitousfightagainstthedegradingeffectsofoldageistobefoundintheSovietUnionandthisforreasonswhichcapitalist societycannotallowitselfatall.Inthelatter,asacompetitivesociety,oldpeoplehavetomakeroom,standdown,simplysothatsocalledyoungerbloodcantake theirplace.Fromasocialistpointofview,however,thefightforahealthyvigorousoldagebecomesthesameasthefightforthepreservationofvaluablecadresinall areasofthegreatprogrammeofconstruction.Oldage,asMetshnikovsaid,whichunderallpreviouscircumstanceshasbeenasuperfluousburdenforthe community,nowbecomesaparticularlyusefulperiodofworkfromasocialpointofview.Itcandevoteitsindispensableexperiencetothemostdifficulttasksofthelife ofsociety.Afutureisindicatedhereinwhichasignificantlypossibleageinghasreplacedthepathologicalkind,andevenphysiologicaldeclineisnolonger acknowledgedtobeinevitable.ThesuccessfulSovietattemptsatresuscitationshortlyafterdeathhasoccurredevenchallengethemostdefinitivefacttobefoundinthe livesofhumanbeings,andshowittobepremature.Todrivelifebeyonditspreviouslimits,beyondthosewhicharemuchtoonarrowforourcapabilities,unachieved works,andranksofpurpose,thisisthewishthatincludesthatofhealingandclearlysurpassesit. Hesitationandgoalinactualbodilyrebuilding Thewishesofthesickmanhimselfdonotextendsofar.Hismainconcernisthathiscomplaintisclearedup,thatisenough.Hewantstoberestoredtohealth,is contentifheisridofhisaffliction,ifhecangetupandbehisoldselfagain,anddoesnotimmediatelydemandanymorethanthis.Equallytheplansofthedoctor,atthe patient'sbedside,arefarmoresubduedthanthegeneralonesforrebuildingmentionedabove.Ineachparticularcase,witheachactualillness(ageingisnotanillness)it isenoughforhimtorestoretheformerstateofhealth.Thesurgeonbynomeansregardshisworkasaprocessofrebuildingandimproving,butasastopgapmeasure. Theartificialstomachinnowaysurpassestheonewearebornwith,goodenoughifapersoncanholdoutforafewyearswithsuchartificialaids

Page463 andlimbswithoutcomplaint.Andgoodenoughforthegeneralpractitionerifapatientreturnsfromtheinterestingskittlealleyofsurgicalpossibilitiestohislast.Perhaps evenGtzvonBerlichingenoftheIronHand,althoughknockingofftableendswithitandactingasapulverizer,didnotfeelthisartificiallimbtobesolelyasourceof strength.Sohereisacountermovementagainsttheutopianrebuildingofthebody,againstthatrebuildingthathasventuredsofarforwardinthecaseofgenericills (artificialselectivebreeding,thefightagainsttheageingprocess).Thegeneralpractitioneressentiallycontentshimselfwithforcingbacktheendofthedisease,i.e.death, hefightsagainsttheacquiredweaknessoftheflesh,notagainsttheinnateone.Hismedicinedoesnotyetundertaketoassumethehighofficeofbeinganimproverof thebodyonthesamescaleastherebuildingandimprovingofsocietyandthevastboldchangesofinorganictechnology.Thisisapowerfuldistinctionbetweenmedical wishes,insofarastheyareindividualandpractical,andthoseofthemorefarreachingattempttochangetheworld.Thus,howeverboldtheoperationsandchanges maybe,intheconsciousnessofmostdoctorsthegoalitselfisastationaryone:namelytherestorationofthestatusquoante.Thisisalsowhydoctorsoftensuccumbed muchmoreeasilytothefascistsloganofBloodandSoilthanotherlessrestoratoryprofessions.Anditiswhythedoctorisgivenasignificant,thoroughlyincisiverolein mostsocialutopias,butfewornopurelymedicalutopiashaveappearedunlessHufeland'sorFeuchtersleben'stranquilworksareseenassuch.Onewillnotfind explosivedreamsinthem,bothHufeland'sMacrobioticsandFeuchtersleben'sDieteticsoftheSoulcontainlittlemorethanthewishesandimageswhichaclever manhadrecoursetoanywayduringtheageofspasinthecolonnadesoftheBiedermeierperiod.Onereasonforthisutopianhesitationmaypossiblylieinthecaution andresponsibilityofthemedicalprofession.Anotherreasonpossiblyliesintheempiricalsensewhichiscloselyrelatedtocautionandwhichactslikealeadweighton theinspiredflightsofthemind.Butthefinalreasonforthisastonishingutopianreservewhichisoftenevensalutaryitself,alongsideallcreativemedicine,mustbe philosophical,whetheritisconsciousornot:theoriginofEuropeanmedicineamongtheStoics.Thisschooltrustedinthenaturalcourseofthings,didnotwantto explodeitatanypointbuttoactinaccordancewithitineveryparticular.Hippocrates,theoldermedicalteacher,wasactivebeforetheStoicsofcourse,buthetoo camedowntousthroughGalen,theheadoftheStoicschoolofhealing.Initsview,healthistherightmixtureofthefourmainhumoursofthebody(blood,yellowbile,

Page464 blackbileandphlegm),whereasdiseaseisthedisturbanceofthisbalance.Thisalreadycontainsthebeliefinbalanceasaconditionwhichcanmerelybedisturbedbut notventuredbeyond.Galen,however,alsoaddedthewholeStoictrustinnature,thestrivenforharmonywithnature,withouttheslightestdeviationoroverhauling. Theworldhaseverythingitneedswithinit,PlutarchsaysintotallyStoicfashion,andourlittleworld,thebody,isalsojustasundemanding.Thisconvictiondidnotof coursepreventtheStoicsfromthinkingupaverymuchbettermodelasfarasthestateisconcerned,akindofuniversalfraternity,butthebodieswithinit,iftheylived sensibly,i.e.naturally,wereregardedasallrightthewaytheyare.EvendiseaseswerefortheStoicdoctornotjustillsbutapieceofhealingthemselves,namelyofthe disorderthathasinvadedthebodyforalongtimeevenchemicalcureswererejectedbytheGalenistsasartificial.Twokindsofantidotestoutopianandalltooutopian boldnessultimatelycontinuedtobeinfluencedbytheStoics:bonsensandtrustinthenaturalpowersofhealing.Agooddoctorfollowsnature,supportsit,never contradictsit:thisistheStoiclegacy.Peudemdecin,peudemdecine:*withthismaximfromtheeighteenthcentury,theheydayofenemas,thedoctorfinallymade himselfsuperfluous,eventheempiricallyspiritedone,notjusttheutopisticallyhighspiritedone.Andsocallednaturehealingbeganwithbonsensenoughtodojustice totheinstinctivedesireforair,lightandwater,butalsowithmaddilettantismenoughtoenduptreatingpatientswithcurdcheese.Thusonceagainautopianstreak emergeshereafterall,theworstkindthough,oneofignorantwishfulthinking,withhopeswhichsoonbecomesuperstitious.Thissortofthingisasdifferentascanbe fromtheneverthelessinnatemedicalutopia:theultimaterebuildingofthebody,infactitistheopposite.Buttheblowagainstthisutopiastillcomesfromanattitudeof devotiontonature,inpracticalempiricaltermsandalsosuggestedaboveallbytheStoiclegacy.Andthegoodthingaboutthisattitudeisundoubtedlythatithasalmost alwayshamperedabstractnotionsofimprovementinthemedicalprofession.Iftherearefewpurelymedicalutopias,therearealsonoabstractones,likethefairytales ofanidealstate.Sothelowerutopianawarenessofthegeneralpractitionerisitselfpartlysalutaryforeverythingwhichisseparatedtoofar,tooartificiallyfromthe usuallifeofthebodybecomesgangrenouslikealimbwithatourniquetonit.ResponsibilityandtheStoiclegacymaintainedthecontactwiththeobjectivelypossible unlikewhatoftenhappenedineugenicsandthefightagainstoldage.Onlythisattitudemustnotbeallowedtointerrupttheutopian *Fewdoctors,fewmedicines.

Page465 couragewhichisthoroughinadifferentwayandwithoutwhichnothinggreathappens,evenintheartofmedicine.Thiscouragerefersinaspecificallynonutopistic waytothecausalliberationfromphysicalills.Sincethefinalcauseheredoesnotlieinbacilliorinthestrangeimperialistgrowthofindividualcellsandgroupsofcells, aswithcancer,butpreciselyinthecorruptiblesusceptibilityandfrailtyofthefleshitself,thewishfuldreamofrebuildingitstillremainsinevitableandthereforeeven whenwelookawayfromitinthebackground.Indeedasuspicionarisesthatthemedicalcautionwhichisaimedtosuchagreatextentmerelyatthestatusquoante isitselfratherfishy.Wemayfinallyriskthepropositionthatpreciselybecausethedoctor,evenattheindividualsickbed,hasanalmostcrazyutopianplanlatentlyin view,heostensiblyavoidsit.Thisdefinitiveplan,thefinalmedicalwishfuldream,isnothinglessthantheabolitionofdeath. Thesickmanwhohasrecuperatedwantstofeelasifhewerenewborn.Thismeansmorethanrestoredtohealthagain,althoughthesickmanispleasedifthisisthe caseallthesame.Wellpleased,astheysay,hecannowgoabouthisbusinessagain.Restoredtohealthagaincertainly,buttowhichAgaininthecourseofhislife?Is theresuchathingasanoldstateofhealthatall,whichonlyhastoberestored?Isitapermanentrock,firmatalltimes,asfirmlyfixedasitisfirmlyagreedupon?Itis not,healthisawaveringnotion,ifnotdirectlyinmedicalterms,theninsocialterms.Healthisbynomeanssolelyamedicalnotion,butpredominantlyasocietalone. Restoringtohealthagainmeansinrealitybringingthesickmantothatkindofhealthwhichisrespectivelyacknowledgedineachrespectivesociety,andwhichwasin factfirstformedinthatsocietyitself.Thusevenforthemerepurposeofrestoringtohealthagain,thegoalsofthisAgainarevariable,butmorethanthat:theyare themselvesfirstpositedasthenormbyeachrespectivesociety.Incapitalistsocietyhealthisthecapabilitytoearn,amongtheGreeksitwasthecapabilitytoenjoy, andintheMiddleAgesthecapabilitytobelieve.Illnesswasthenregardedasasin(henceabovealltheterribletreatmentoflunatics,inchainsanddungeons),thusthe personwithleastsinswasthebestdeveloped.ThusKatharineofSiena,whoisahystericforeverybourgeoisenlighteneddoctoroftoday,wasregardedasabsolutely normal.Itwouldneverhaveoccurredtoanymedievaldoctortowanttocurethissortofthing,norwouldithavebeentherestorationofasocalledoriginalcondition, butthetransformationintoamuchlateronenormalforthemodernage,whichhardlyexistedatthattime.Evenfaithhealing,howevermuchJesusassumestheroleofa doctorhereandhischurchthatofa

Page466 chemist's,wouldhavebeentotallyincomprehensibleinreligioustimes,asfarasitsnotionsofhealthareconcerned.FortheMiddleAgesmayalsohavecountedamong itsprayersthosewhichweresudorific,laxativeandsedative,butnonewiththegoalofmakingabusinessmanefficientagain.Eventhesocalledearthinessofthattime was,fromamodernpointofview,bynomeansaprototypeofhealthforitproducedtheChildren'sCrusade,theflagellantsandmorebesides.Thissortofhealth contradictsthebracingairoftheforestandyetinitsdayitwasconsideredaspreciselythatoftherealChristchild,oftherealforesthermit.Andwhatofthesocalled primitivesthemselves?theyrebuildtheirbodysomagicallythatitishardlyrecognizableanymore,theychiselandcolourtheirteethsothattheydonot,astheysay oftheEuropeans,looklikedogs,theyaspiretoandrevereakindofhealthwhichmorecloselyresemblesthatofasomnambulistthanthatofanathlete.Ahealththat ispresupposedandremainsconstantisthusnonexistentunlessintheuniversallymaterialistic,andonlyinthisrespecteternallyyouthful,formula:Amerryheadsitson afullbelly.Buteverytextthatexpandsonmenssanaincorporesanoisnotactualexperiencebutanideal,andfurthermoreadifferentoneineachrespectivesociety. Thusthedoctorineachrespectivesociety,insteadofrestoringaprimarygeneralhealth,rathergivesthesickmananadditionalone.Hesimplybuildsupthatstateof normalityagainwhichissociallyinvogueatthetime,andheisabletobuilditupagainsimplybecausethehumanbodyisalsocapableoffunctionallychanging,and possiblyimprovingitself.Uptonowthebodyhasbeenorientatedsolelytowardslimited,evendubiouskindsofhealth,andsocietyhasalsomadepossiblealotof diseases(venereal,tubercular,neurotic)ofwhichtheanimalworldknowslittleornothingatall.Butthentheorganicwishfuldreamatleastimaginedabodyonwhich onlypleasure,notpainisservedandwhoseoldagedoesnothavefrailtyasitsfate.Soitisthisfightagainstfatewhichlinksmedicalandsocialutopiasinspiteof everything.Thepowerofreplacinglostpartsisnotsogreatinthehumanbodyasitisintheloweranimals,butinreturnitisonlyinmanthattheutopianpowerdirected towardswhathehasneverpreviouslypossessedtakeseffect.Itisunlikelythatthisstrengthsofundamentaltoman,thestrengthtoventurebeyondandformanew, stopsathisbody.Theexplorationofthistendencyisofcourseimpossiblewithoutknowledgeofwhatisalreadypredisposedtowardsitinthebodyitselfeverything elsewouldbefolly.Asthebodyofallmulticellularbeingsispredisposedtodeath,eventhemostsecretmedicalplan,theabolitionofdeath,issofarupintheairit becomesdizzy.

Page467 Forthisveryreasonsuchaplanappearscrazyand,althoughithoversatleastbeforethefightagainsttheageingprocess,itisneverseriouslyadmitted.Whichis understandable,evenanterem,becausecontinuationinthefleshevenasawishfuldreamdoesnotoccurwithoutmixedfeelings,norwithouthorrorthelegendsofthe WanderingJewandtheFlyingDutchmandemonstratethis.Wedonotevenfirstneedtoimaginethesocialnonsenseofanearthwhichisincessantlybecoming overcrowded:noentrancewithoutanyexit,nopossiblesocietywithoutaspaciousgraveyard.Allinall,evenwithoutgrotesquevisions,everyorganicdesirefor improvementremainsupintheairifthesocialoneisnotacknowledgedandtakenintoaccount.Healthisasocialconcept,exactlyliketheorganicexistenceingeneral ofhumanbeings,ashumanbeings.Thusitcanonlybemeaningfullyincreasedatallifthelifeinwhichitstandsisnotitselfovercrowdedwithanxiety,deprivationand death. Malthus,birthrate,nourishment Sohardlyanyoftheillsofthebodyareremovedwhenitisseeninisolation.Thatiswhyallimproversofoursituationwhomerelyconcentrateonhealtharesopetit bourgeoisandodd,therawfruitandvegetablebrigade,thepassionateherbivores,oreventhosewhopractisespecialbreathingtechniques.Allthisisamockery comparedwithsolidmisery,comparedwithdiseaseswhichareproducednotbyweakfleshbutbypowerfulhunger,notbyfaultybreathingbutbydust,smoke,and lead.Ofcoursetherearepeoplewhobreathecorrectly,whocombineapleasantselfassurancewithwellventilatedlungsandanuprighttorsowhichisflexibletoaripe oldage.Butitremainsaprerequisitethatthesepeoplehavemoneywhichismorebeneficialforastoopedposturethantheartofbreathing.ThesplendidFranziska Reventlovwroteabookalongtheselinesaboutthemoneycomplex,therootcauseofwhichnobodycanasktheirdoctortoremoveitisthetrueglutton,themain problem,ninetypercentcancer.Allthemoreinterested,ofcourse,wasandremainedthecapitalistdesiretocutintothesocialturnourbypurelymedicalmeans. Breeding,orratherthatwhichwasperpetratedwithit,onlyconstitutesthemostimmediatelyrepulsive,notthesoleexample.Butnolessrepulsiveisthegreat grandmotherofimperialistdecimation,Malthus'stheoryofpopulation.Whilenoelaborated,purelymedicalutopiaexists,asocialutopiahereappearedasitwerewith amedicalbasebyaneconomist,incidentally,

Page468 whowasnolongeroneatall,butalreadythefirsthiredchampionofthecapitalisteconomy.MalthusdecidedinhisEssayonthePrincipleofPopulation,1798,that thereasonformiseryliesinthenaturalcontradictionbetweenman'sboundlessstrivingforpropagationandthelimitedincreaseinmeansofnourishment.Malthus promises:massmiserywillonlyexistuntilanationsensiblyrecognizesthisconnectionandrestrictsreproductiontoadegreewhichcorrespondstothedegreeofloaves ofbreadavailable.Thusitisproletarianlechery,notcapital,whichproducessocialmiseryandthesocalledlawofdiminishingcropyieldplainlypassessentenceon theproletarianscapegoat.Thecrisisalsosimplyappearsasashortagecrisis,ontheassumptionofveryslowlyincreasingforcesofproduction,notasoneofsurplus. Thistheorywasneverthelessmodifiedmanytimes,indeedasocalledacademicsocialist,AdolfWagner,waspreachingaslateastheNinetiesthatMalthuswasrightin allessentials.Butthemostessentialpartofhistheoryonlycameintoitsownwhenthecapitalistagewasfulfilled,andonlybasenesscandragitoutfurtherbymeansof liesandmurder.FromtheoutsetMalthus'stheorywasinherentlymisanthropicandbigoted,Marxhadalreadycertifieditsdistinguishingfeaturetobeaprofoundlylow levelofthought,inboththemoralandthescientificsense.Consequentlyitsbrutalitybrokeoutcompletelyintheimperialiststageofcapitalismitisnotonlyfted amongAmericanmurderershowever,butitisalsoatleastexcusedbyrightwingsocialists,likeEduardHeimann,andevenennobledinGeorgian*fashionby particularlyslimyfascists,likeEdgarSalin.ThisrenewedMalthusianismjustifieswar,thescrappingofthesuperfluousunemployed,thefascistexterminationofentire nations,andatthesametimeitisdesignedtodistractfromthetruecausesofcapitalistmiserythoseproletarianswhoseexistenceistoleratedaftertheyhavebeen subjectedtothenumerusclaususofprofitinterest.AllthisrecommendsMalthustothefinalspurtofcapitalismthelatterisnolongercapableofproducingoriginal ideasanyway,notevenaboutitsbasenessandintheserviceofit.Assoonasthewishisnolongeraprogressiveone,itdoesnotevenbecomethefatherofanidea,but ofaplot,oratleastofacoverup.TheMalthusianapproach,asadiagnosisdivertedtowardsinsufficient,sociallyisolatedcauses,isthusnotjustconfinedtoatheory ofoverpopulation.Forevenincircleswhichknownothingaboutandwanttohavenothingtodowiththehiring *referencetotheGermanpoetStefanGeorge. RestrictedentrytoGermanuniversities.

Page469 ofchampions,thepurelymedicalrecoursereplacesorsuppressestherecoursetothesocialcausesofmisery.Thelevertoimprovementisherealwaysplacedasfar down,asfarbeneaththerealmanandhismilieuaspossible.Hence,evenwithoutaliteralMalthus,theinterestedoratleastignorantnarrowviewwhich,fromadropof bloodasitwere,sentintothelaboratory,thinksitcandiscerntheentiresicknessofmankind.Thewholelivingsuffererisoverlooked,butalsoparticularlythe circumstancesinwhichhefindshimself.Hencetheoverestimationofbacilliasthesolecausesofepidemicsthemicrobeaboveallconcealedotherattendantsymptoms ofthedisease,badmilieuandthelikeitthusrelievedpeopleofthedutytolookforthecausesthereaswell.Consumption,forexample,rageschieflyamongstthe poor,butifthatweretakenintoaccount,thenpovertywouldhavetobecombatted,asaparticularlydamppatchforwhichbourgeoismedicineshowslessinclination. Aonesidedlymedicalabortionoftheseillsisthusoftenonlyanintentionallyorunintentionallychosenmeansofnothavingtoremedytherealills(utaliquidfieri videatur,asitsaysonfalseprescriptions).ThustheentireMalthusiansystem,evenapartfromthemanhimselfandhistheory,epitomizesawholeareaofrepression.A meremechanisticfirstaidchest,withoutprimacyofthesocialmilieuandwithoutplanstochangeit,withoutPavlovandknowledgeofthewholehumanbeingasa creaturewhoiscerebrallyandsociallycontrolled,thispreventsthecooperationofdoctorandredflag,withthelatterleadingtheway.Thesocialquestionissolved leastofallbythepoorexercisingsexualselfcontrol,wemustinterveneinproductioninadifferentway,andinadifferentproduction.AnelementofMalthusalsohad aneffectonDarwin,whoprojectedoverpopulationbackintotheanimalkingdomSovietDarwinistshaverecentlyridDarwinismofitsMalthusianmistakes.What remainsismerelytheplanforabirthcontrolwhichformanypeoplewouldcertainlybebeneficialandhenceprogressive.Namelyaslongasthereisacapitalistsociety, andlifewithinitissoprecariousthatsuchasocietyneedsthiskindoflimitationorabortion.Aslongasitremainsinthestateitisintoday:namelythatofnolonger beingabletofeeditsslaves.Theearthhasroomforeveryone,oritwouldhave,ifitwererunbythepowerofsatisfyingpeople'sneedsinsteadofbysatisfyingthe needsofpower. Thedoctor'scare Onlythenwouldthedoctor'sworkreallymakeacleanstart.Thedoctor

Page470 washeshishandsbeforehebegins,alltheinstrumentsareshiny,butthatisnogoodonitsown.Societyitselfisdirtyanddiseased,itisthefirstthingthatneedsclinical attentionandplanning.Fromthispointofviewdiseaseisreallytoblame,notthatoftheindividualbutofthegroupitself.Thatoughttobeobvioustothedoctortoo, wheneverheenterstheslums.Andevenduringtreatmenteverythingmakesamockeryofhismedicalconscience:thepoordevilwithdiseasedkidneysridesonthe rattlinglorrysoasnottolosehiswages,clenchinghisteethinpain,whiletherichmanrestsbeneathhisquilt.Andaftertreatment:whatisthelifeofmostpeople,for whichthedoctormakesthemfitforworkagain?Whatisahealthwhichmerelymakespeopleripetobedamaged,abused,andshotatagain?AGerman paediatricianwroteevenin1931,withacommonsensewhichwastoleadtocertainnonbourgeoisconclusions:Tocure,curare,totakecareofsomebody,meansto seethattheirhealthisnotdisturbedinanyway.Ifthishashappenedthough,thecuraofthedoctorshouldbedirectedtowardsbringingthepatientintocircumstances whichareasfavourableaspossibleforhim.Asplendidgoal,aneconomicaloneinhumanterms,butonewhichisonlyattainableinsocialistsociety.Themessageis clearasthingsstandnow(Americaleadstheworldinthenumberofitscitizenswhoarementallyill):capitalismisunhealthyevenforthecapitalists.Andthedreams ofsurgicalinterventionandorganicrebuildingareonlyreallydetoxicatedinadifferenteconomytothatbasedonprofit.Thisholdstruefromthecradletothegrave, indeedevenbeforethecradle,allthisassupportforthepoliticalanimal,buttherightone.TheMarxistapproachisconsciouslytomakehistoryandnolongertosuffer itpassively.AndtheMarxistapproachisalsoconsciouslytointerveneeveninthepreconditioningfromwhichhumanbeingsemergeandinwhichtheyphysicallylive beforetheysurfacehistoricallyatall.Thisistheirexistenceinthewomb,furthermorethephysicalstategiventothematthattime.Theideaofnolongerputtingupwith it,intheformithasassumed,suggestsitselftothemanwhoneveracceptstheideaoffate.Theboldplansuggestsitselftohimofseekingtosetthecourseofthebody beforebirthinitsverypredispositions,justaswedowithtimewhenwesetaclock.Tocontinuetomoulditconsciouslyafterbirth,inapossiblychangingandvital way,bymeansofcontrolledinternalsecretionorthroughasyetunknownshapingenergies.Allthisnotinordertomakepeoplethesame,ofwhichthereisnoprospect andforwhichthereisnocause,butrathersothattheirorganicstartisnotmuchmoreunhamperedthantheirsocialone.Sothattheydonotremainslavestotheirown bodies

Page471 aftertheyarenolongertheslavesofsociety.Theywouldallliketoturnoutwell,inthemeasureoffreedomwhichissociallyinstoreforthemandbecomingclearto them.Butforallthat,themostvisiblehoperemainsthecentrallysteeringinfluenceoflifeinasocietywhichhasbecomehealthyontheverydiseasesassociatedwith beingbornandbeinggrownup,especiallyontheirprevention,andonourlifespan.Thereisalongwaytogoandonewhich,asfarassensitivefleshisconcerned,it maynotbepossibletocoververysatisfactorilyforalongtimetocome.Itiscertainlynotcoveredwithinthemerefitnessforworkincapitalistenterpriseforhealthis somethingwhichshouldbeenjoyed,notabused.Alongpainlesslifetoaripeoldage,culminatinginadeathrepletewithlife,isstilloutstanding,hasconstantlybeen planned.Asifnewborn:thisiswhattheoutlinesofabetterworldsuggestasfarasthebodyisconcerned.Butpeoplecannotwalkuprightifsociallifeitselfstilllies crooked.

36FREEDOMANDORDER,SURVEYOFSOCIALUTOPIAS
Theearthbelongstonobody,itsfruitsbelongtoall. JohnBall Isimplycannotimaginethepresentsituationofmankindasbeingtheoneinwhichitwillnowremain,simplycannotimagineitasbeingitswholeandfinaldestiny. Everythingwouldthenbeadreamandanillusionanditwouldnotbeworththetroubleofhavinglivedandhavingjoinedinthisconstantlyrecurring,fruitlessand meaninglessgame.OnlyinsofarasIcanregardthisstateasthemeanstoabetterone,asthecrossingpointtoahigherandmoreperfectone,doesitacquireany valueformeIamabletobearitnotforitsownsake,butforthesakeofthebetterlifeforwhichitpreparestheway. Fichte,TheDestinyofMan Inplaceoftheoldbourgeoissocietywithitsclassesandclassdifferencestherearisesanassociationinwhichthefreedevelopmentofeveryindividualisthecondition forthefreedevelopmentofall. CommunistManifesto

Page472 I.Introduction Afrugalmeal Manythingswouldbeeasierifwecouldeatgrass.Inthisrespectthepoorman,keptasabruteanimalinotherways,doesnothaveitasgoodasthatanimal.Onlythe airisreadilyavailable,butthesoilfirsthastobetilled,overandoveragain.Inastooping,painfulposture,notasonegrowschoicefruituprightagainstthewall.The daysofcollectingberriesandfruit,andoffreehuntinghavelongbeenathingofthepast,afewrichpeopleliveoffalotofpoorpeople.Constanthungerrunsthrough life,italonecompelsustodrudgery,onlythendoesthewhipcompelus.Ifourdailybitetoeatwasascertainastheair,thentherewouldbenomisery.Asitis,bread growslikeleavesonthetreesonlyindreams.Nothingofthissortexists,lifeishard,andyettherehasalwaysbeenasenseofescape,andthatitispossible.Sincethis escaperoutewasnotfoundforsolong,dreamycourageswarmedoutonallsides. Theroastpigeons Abodywhichisfullshouldhavenothingtocomplainabout.Provideditdoesnotlackclothingandshelter,almosteverythinginotherwords.Providedthereisnolack offriendsandprovidedlifeproceedseasilyandpeacefullyinsteadofbeingthestormyrideaccordedtomostpeople.Butonlythefairytale,whichisalwaysinstructive, andthefairytaleofanidealstatecantellusabouttheMagicTable,andtheLandofCockaigne.Justasthefountainofyouthreachesintomedicalwishfulimages,sothe LandofCockaignereachesintosocialones,isacheerfulpreludetothem.Allhumanbeingsareequalthere,i.e.welloff,thereisneithereffortnorwork.Roastpigeons flyintopeople'smouths,everypigeoninthebushisalreadylikeoneinthehand,allthingsandalldreamsarereadytohandascommodities.ThusthoseinCockaigne leadapleasantlife,theyarenolongerpreparedtolettherichtellthemhowunenviablerichesare.Howunhealthyalotofsleepis,howdeadlyleisureis,howmuchwe needdeprivationsothatalllifedoesnotcometoastandstill.Thepeoplehavemerrilyembroideredontheirmostnourishingfairytale,theirmostobviousutopianmodel, and

Page473 evencaricaturedit:thevinesaretiedtogetherwithsausages,themountainshaveturnedintocheese,thestreamsareflowingwiththebestmuscatel.TheMagicTable andIndianmagicmeadowshereexistasapublicinstitution,asastateofhappinessperse. Lunacyandcolportageevenhere Thefieryowlundeniablyfliesintotheseimagestoo.Itfliesfurtherthanitdidinthemedicaldreams,andanendtodeprivationdoesnotsoundmad.Butseveralworld improverswereparanoidorindangerofbeingso,inawaythatisnotwhollyincomprehensible.Lunacy,asalooseningupforaninvasionoftheunconscious,for possessionbytheunconscious,alsooccursinwhatisNotYetConscious.Theparanoiacisoftenaprojectmaker,andthereisoccasionallyalsoamutualconnection betweenthetwo.Sothatautopiantalentslipsofftherailsinaparanoidway,indeedalmostvoluntarilysuccumbstoadelusion(cf.Vol.I,p.92ff.).Anexampleis furnishedbyoneofthegreatestutopians,Fourierinhisworkthstrangestimagesofthefuturegrowalongsideasharptendencyanalysis.Concerningnotsocietybut nature,insofarasitisincludedinourownharmoniouslypoliteorderandsingsalongwithitasitwere.Thus,asabonustosocialliberation,FourierplansaNorthPole Crown,thatistosayasecondsunwhichwillprovidetheNorthwithAndalusianwarmth.TheCrownemitsafragrance,warmsandglows,anauraemanatesfromit whichdesalinatestheocean,infactimprovesitintolemonade.Herrings,codandoysterswillimmeasurablyincrease,byashiftingofthefaultypositionoftheearth's axis,whereastheseamonsterswillperish.Thesemonstersarereplacedbyanantishark,anantiwhale,friendlyparadisialcreatureswhopulltheshipswhentheyare becalmed.ButonthelandFourierprophesiesanelasticconveyance,theantilion,withwhichariderwhosetsoutfromCalaisinthemorninghashisbreakfastin Paris,spendshisafternooninLyonandhiseveninginMarseilles.Thoughinthecaseofgreatutopiansweseethatthereisalsomethodintheirmadness,not merelyitsownmethodbutalsothetechnologicaloneofalaterage:theantiwhaleisthesteamship,theantilionistheexpresstrain,indeedthemotorcar.Justas foolish,justasanticipatoryisFourier'stheorythatmanwilldevelopaneworgan,eventhoughitwillbeontheendofatailwhichhewillgrow(Daumiersupplieda drawingofthisfantasy).Bymeansofthisorgan,peopleabsorbtheetherealauras,areableto

Page474 contacttheinhabitantsofotherstars,whiletheplanetscopulate.Theetherealaurashavesincebeenreceivedthroughtheradio,althoughtherapportwiththestarsis stillashambles,thetechnologicalbodyandthecopulationoftheplanetsevenmoreso.ThesefairytalesarenotsoverydifferentinappearancefromthoseofJules Verne,oratleastfromthestarrilyutopiancolportagesinLasswitz,andespeciallyScheerbart.ButallplayfulnessislackinginFourierthepaintpotofthisseriousness standsintherealmofparanoia,notjustinthatofcolportage,thoughofcoursethiscolportageisalsocolouredbyparanoia.Istherenotasenseofthefineelementof madnessthateventingedtheliberalutopianizingFreemasonsoftheeighteenthcentury,thebourgeoiswiththeirsetsquaresandpyramids?Istherenotakindofjester's capperchedonthewholeceremonial,onthepreparationsandsymbolswhicharesupposedtoleadtheyoungMasontowardstherealmofAstraea?EvenSaint Simon,thegreatutopian,inhislastworksconcerningthepopeofindustry,quietlytouchedonthedelusionwhichoccasionallythreatensworldimprovershisdisciple AugusteComtewascompletelylostinit,inhisfinalphase.ComteextendedSaintSimon'sChurchofIntelligencesofarthatnotonlyhumanitybutalsospaceandthe earthweresupposedtobeworshipped.HumanityastheGreatBeing,spaceastheGreatMedium,theearthastheGreatFetishClotilde,Comte'sdeadmistress, becamethenewVirginMary.Thesearethebizarreideaswhichadornsomeofthemostenergeticcastlesintheair.Yet,asnotedabove,theyarealsonotwholly unrelatedtocolportage,thatcolportagetouchedonandoccasionallyincorporatedinafruitfulwaybythenovelofanidealstate.Almostallolderutopiasusespace machines,almostallneweronesthetimemachinesofanexoticimagination,whentheytravelintothesocialdreamland.Manyseek,intheirtitlesatleast,togivethe happyislandthesparkleofluridcolportage.ThusthereisaKingdomofMacaria,*anIsleofFelsenburgwhichwassofamous,aCrystalAge:nameslikethose ofboothsatafairgroundinwhichmermaidsfromdistantshoresaredisplayedeventhesecrettonesofaninvisiblelodge,alongwayout,werenotlacking.The fairytalesofwonderlands,ofwishfultimesandwishfulspacesgiveasparkleheresinceAlexanderthemostbeautifulutopiasaresetinSouth *SamuelHartlib,ADescriptionoftheFamousKingdomeofMacaria,1641. JohannGottfriedSchnabel,InselFelsenburg,173143. W.H.Hudson,ACrystalAge,1887. AreferencetothetitleofJeanPaul'searlynovelTheInvisibleLodge,1793.

Page475 Seaislands,inaCeylonoftheGoldenAge,inthewonderlandofIndia.Sailor'syarnslendthetrappingseventoimportantsocialutopias,asinthatofThomasMore happinessappearsinthissettinglongbeforethetimeswereripeforitformorethantwothousandyearstheexploitationofmanbymanhasbeenabolishedinutopias. Socialutopiascontrastedtheworldoflightwithnight,broadlypicturedtheirlandoflight,withthesparkleofjusticeinwhichthemanwhoisoppressedfeelsuplifted, andthemanwhogoeswithoutfeelscontent.Thefactthatthisfantasticallypicturedstateofaffairswassooftenconceivableonlyincolportage,asthesoleremaining formofadventureandofevidentlygoodvictory,isnotsurprising.ItisthestateofaffairswhicheventodaythesoldierinBrecht'sThreepennyNoveldreamshas finallycomeabout:Basenesslostitshighfame,theusefulbecamefamous,stupiditylostitsprivileges,peoplehadnodealingswithbrutalityanymore.Oncetheislands ofthesunarereached,throughlunacy,sailor'syarnsorevensimply,inthelatestsocialutopias,intheworkofBellamyorWells,throughmagneticsleep,thenthingsare bynomeanssolivelyonthemanymore,apartfromthesplendoursofnature,thingsaremorenormal.Foronewouldthinkitissurelynormal,oroughttobeso,for millionsofpeoplenottoallowthemselvestoberuled,exploitedanddisinheritedforthousandsofyearsbyahandfulofupperclass.Itisnormalforsuchavastmajority nottoputupwithbeingthedamnedofthisearth.Instead,theveryawakeningofthismajorityistheutterlyunusualoccurrence,therareeventinhistory.Forathousand warstherearenoteventenrevolutionssodifficultiswalkingupright.Andevenwheretheysucceeded,asaruletheoppressorsturnedouttobeexchangedratherthan abolished.Anendtodeprivation:thisdidnotsoundatallnormalforanincrediblylongtime,butwasafairytaleonlyasawakingdreamdiditenterthefieldofvision. NewMoralWorldsonthehorizon Onlyfarawayfromheredoeseverythingseembetter,thingsareheldincommon.ThisishowthecitizensliveintheworkofThomasMore:moderatework,notabove sixhoursaday,theproceedsaredistributedequally.Thereisnocrimeanymoreandnocompulsion,lifeisagarden,cosyandnoblehappinesshangaroundopenly. Thingsarestrict,however,inthegreatcounterparttoMore'sUtopia,inCampanella'sCityoftheSun.Thehappinessofallisheresetstraightnotbymeansoffreedom

Page476 butbymeansofanorderwhichisplanneddowntotheslightestdetail.DespiteevenshorterworkinghoursthaninMore,onlyfourhoursaday,andacommunist distributionoftheproceedsonceagain,thebeneficialburdenofrulesliesoneveryhour,andalsooneverypleasure.Therulesareascertainedandupheldbysavants, particularlyastrologicalsavantstheCityoftheSunispreciselyfittedintotheuniverse.Itisalongwayfromhere,via1789,viatheformalfreedomandequalityofall whichfollowedandturnedintothecruellestmisery,alongwaytotheutopiansoftheindustrialage,toOwen,Fourier,SaintSimon.NaturalRightliesonthispath,and alsoFichte'sdreamofaclosedcommercialstateinwhicheveryonepossessesdejure,andthusinutopiantermsinfacto,theprovisionsandgoodstowhichhehasa fundamentalright.Butinthemeantimecashpaymenthadbecomethesolelinkofsociety,adifferentlinkwassought,theforgottenoneoffraternityforexample.Owen atfirstturneddirectlytotheworkersandremainedactiveintheirmidst,notjustasafactoryowner.Privateproperty,theChurchandtheprevailingformofmarriage destroyhumanhappinessinNewHarmonytheydonotexistanymore.Thecapitalistsofdistributionandproduction:merchantandfactoryowner,areregardedas dispensablephenomenabazaarsaretoariseintheirplace,inwhichtheworkerreceivesinexchangethecommoditywhichotherworkershaveproducedandwhichhe needs,inaccordancewiththenumberofhoursofworkhehasputin.Fourier,theother,harsherutopian,preMarxistinthesharpnessofhisanalysis,Fourier constructedtheNouveauMondeindustrieletsocitairenotsomuchonphilanthropyasoncriticism.Oncriticismofbourgeoiscivilization,asthelastorderthathas appeared.ItisthecurseagainstwhichFouriersetsthevisionofgentleness,ofthedisappearanceofthefearoflife.Fourierwasthefirsttoseehowinpresentsociety povertyspringsfromaffluenceitselftheremedyisadeparturetocommunistislands,tothesocialislandswhichFouriercallsphalanxesandtheyareallattunedtoone anotherasifunderworldleadership.Akindofharmonictheoryofpassionscompletedthesmoothlydesignedeconomythenewworldwastobeasclearlytunedasa harp.OwenandFourierdesignedtheirstate(moreahappygroupthanahappystate)alongfederalistlinesinSaintSimon,however,itappearsincentralizedform, againclosertoorderthantoindividualfreedom.AlmostmorefervidthaninOwenandFourieristhehatredhereofunearnedincomeandthemiseryitpresupposes,of thefeudalandbourgeoismenofprivatemeans,aspaintedbyGoyaandDaumier.Allloveisreservedforwork,andthemagicwordforSaintSimonisl'industrie.For himworkersareofcoursealsothefactory

Page477 owners,merchants,bankersthustheIndustrialSystemfellbackbehindOwen,whomanagedwithoutthesetypes.ButSaintSimon'sindustrialistdoesnotremain private,hebecomesapublicofficial,andsocietyasawholeaChurchofIntelligence.Exploitationiseradicated,becauseindividualeconomyiseradicated,initsplace blossomsthereddawnofplanland,theblessedgiftofindustrywithasocialhighpriestatitshead. Allthisconsequentlyleavestheoldland,moreorlesspeacefullyandrapidly.Comfortseemedtobemostrapidlyattainedwhennewinventionsalsocametoitsaid. Thenewerfairytalesofanidealstateareofteninterspersedwiththem,Morepaintsflatroofsandlargewindowsoflightintohisdreamland,Campanellaevenmotor cars.Therearealsofairytalesofanidealstatewhichdonotsomuchpicturesocialdreamsastechnologicalonesinstead.AsdoesBacon'sNewAtlantis,theland beyondthePillarsofHercules,beyondtheknownworld.Ahappypeoplelivesthere,happyaboveallbecauseitdoesnotcontentitselfwiththatwhichnaturecastsoff asflotsamandjetsamasitwere.ButtheAtlantiansdelveintothenaturalforcesthemselves,withsensessharpenedtotheextremebyinstruments,andaftertheyhave takenadeeplooktheyutilizewhattheyhaveseen.Newplantsandworkinganimalssurroundman,lifeischemicallyprolonged,eventheolddreamofbeingabirdis realizedthere,bycarriageswhichriseintotheair.Asocialsectionofthisnovel,withitsmanyopendoorstotomorrow,remainedunwrittensoitisnotknownbywhich meanstheMagicTablethathasgrownenormousonlyyieldedgoodthings,andnotalso,forhostilewishes,poisonaswell.Purelytechnologicalimagesofprogress havethusalwaysmadeprogressappeartoocheap,toolinearjustastoday,presentedinisolationandwithsocialchangeleftout,theyaredelusionsormeansof deception.Inthehonest,yetabstractutopiasthetechnologicallysupportedbeliefinprogresshasveryoftenfacilitatedtheillusionofundisturbedsuccessandadvance. Amongalltheutopiansonlyone,Fourier,hasmaintainedthateveninthebetterfutureeveryphasehasitsascendingline,butalsothedangerofadescendingone.An abstractutopia,eventhesocalledsocialiststateofthefuture,namelythatwhichisonlyforourgrandchildren,veryrarelyknowsanyrealdangerevenitsvictory,not justitspath,thenseemsundialectical.Thiseventhoughamoresorrowfulthantrustingmoodundoubtedlyhangsoverthefirstandmostfamous,thoughcoolestutopia: thatofPlato.Ofcourse,unfriendlinessisheretransferredfromtheexistingstatetotheidealoneanyway:theaversionoftheupperclassestothemasses.Thewishful imagedoesnotservethelatter,thefarmerclass,theyaretobekeptintheir

Page478 placeinstead.Amilitarystateisdreamedupwhichisalsoaninwardone,withBrahmansofthisworldatitshead.ItistheidealizedDoricstate,eventhoughcrowned withphilosophy,fromwhichSpartawasfarremoved.AndtheLeteverythingbeincommon,whichisnotlackinginPlato,andindeedthroughhimbecamethemost distinguishedutopiancatchphrase,thisdangerousphenomenonwasconfinedtothetwoupperclassesitwasamonasticprivilege,notademocraticdemand.Thusthe restraintinthisutopia,thoughadmittedlyatthecostofitsbeingthemostreactionary,isnotoneinthefairytalesenseatall,inthesenseoftheGoldenAge.Andthereis restrainteveninthesecondmostfamousutopiaoftheancientworld,inAugustine'sCityofGod.ItwasofcourseoriginallydesignedinitssalvationforAdamandEve, buttheirFallpreventedit,andsincethentheCityofGodhasbeenmakingapilgrimageonearth.Itcannotappearasanearthlystate,foritembracesonlythechosen few,itisaNoah'sArk.Itspeaceisthreatenedandlonely,sunkintotheoceanofsorrowandinjusticeofwhichtheworldconsists.ButneitherPlato'srestraint,which wascertainlydearlypaidforwithitsreactionaryfoundation,northepessimisticrestraintofAugustinehavedeeplyaffectedthecarefreenatureofthesocialutopian imageofhappiness.Thenovelsofanidealstateveryoftensawallcontradictionsresolvedbytheirprescriptions,healthhasbecomeparalysedinthemasitwere.No freshquestions,nodifferentcountriesappearinthemarginanymore,theisland,althoughafutureoneitself,islargelyinsulatedagainstthefuture.Thisisconnectedin manywayswithtechnologicaloptimism,asnotedabove,butitisultimatelyconnectedaboveallwiththecontractionwhichtheutopianhasundergoneinthisitsmost obviousexpression:utopiawasconfinedtothebestconstitution,toanabstractionofconstitution,insteadofbeingperceivedandcultivatedintheconcretetotalityof being.Thusapartfromlevityorfanaticalabstractiontheutopianhasalsoreceivedfromthenovelofanidealstateadepartmentalcharactertotallyinappropriatetoits rawmaterialwhichpermeatesallspheres.Insteadutopianorganization,thatis,theintendedcompletesatisfactionofneeds,withouttheemptywisheswhicharetobe forgotten,withtheprofoundwisheswhicharestilltobewishedandthegratificationofwhichleadstothesounbluntablehappinessofaneverincreasingintensification ofhumanprofusion,mustbecomprehendedasaTotumonwhichthesocialutopiasthemselvesdepend.Andintowhichtheyalsofinallywantedandhadtoovershoot withintheirdepartment,withsociallyradical,necessarilygoodconditionsinmind.ThisTotumensuresthattheoldfairytalesofanidealstatearestillnew

Page479 andmeaningful,thateventheirmistakesareinstructiveandtheirclaimsarebinding.TheymaketheclaimtowhichOscarWilde'spropositionrefers:nomapofthe worldwhichdoesnotcontainthecountryofUtopiaisworthlookingat.Theoldsocialdreamspaintedtheisleofabstractionandlovebecauseofthesetwoqualities nothingwastobedifficultoniteither. Utopiashavetheirtimetable Thedreamsoflivingtogetherinabetterwaywereforalongtimeonlythoughtoutinternally.Yettheyarenotarbitrary,notsocompletelyfreerisingasitmay occasionallyappeartotheoriginatorsthemselves.Andtheyarenotdisconnectedwithoneanother,asiftheyonlyhadtobeempiricallyenumeratedlikeoddevents.On thecontrary:intheirapparentpicturebookorrevuecharactertheyshowthemselvestoberatherpreciselysociallyconditionedandcoherent.Theyobeyasocial mandate,asuppressedoronlyjustevolvingtendencyoftheimminentsociallevel.Theygiveexpressiontothistendency,evenifmixedwithprivateopinion,thenwith thedreamofthebestconstitutionperse.Ofcourse,thesocialutopiasdonotreflecttheexistingtendencywithnearlythesametenacityorevensharpnesstypicalofa differentformofanticipation:bourgeoisNaturalRight.Yettheyarebynomeansindependentofthesurgetowardsthenextlevel,despiteallskimming,allromanceof anunconditionalsocialhappiness.Theyspeakwithconsternation,evenifseldominconcretelymediatedterms,ofwhatisimminent,theycouchtheircommunistfinal happinessinformsofthenexttendencyineachcase.ThisissoinAugustine,andclearlysoinThomasMoreandCampanella,inSaintSimon.Augustine'sworkis influencedbytheincipientfeudaleconomy,thatofMorebyfreetradingcapital,thatofCampanellabytheabsolutistperiodofmanufacture,andthatofSaintSimonby thenewindustry.Althoughinatransparentwayeachtime,withheavenonearthandnothinglessinmind.Thusevenutopiashavetheirtimetable,eventheboldestare tiedtoitintheirdirectanticipations.Differencesinrespectivelocationalsoplayapart,itinfluencestheEnglishmanMoreandtheItalianCampanellamostdecidedly. More'sutopiaoffreedomthuscorrespondsinitsnoncommunistsectionstothecomingparliamentaryformofEnglishdomesticpolitics,asdoesCampanella'sutopiaof ordertotheabsolutistoneontheContinent.Suchthingsshowthathoweverprivatelythedreamrisesitcontainsthetendencyofitsageandthenextageexpressedin images,thoughin

Page480 overshootingonesevenhere,imagesalmostalwaysovershootingintotheoriginalandfinalstate.Somuchforthesocialmandateandcoherenceintheseriesofsocial utopiasitisalwaysstrongerthantheindividualcharacteristicsoftheutopians.Andutopiasaretakenevenlessfromthedrawersofaprioripossibilitiesforinstance, independentlyofhistory,thantheyarefromthedepthsofsheerprivatefeeling.AllpossibilitiesonlyattainpossibilitywithinhistoryeventheNewishistorical.Eventhe Novumofanabolitionofprivateproperty(whichisanticipatedbymostsocialutopias,inthatnolongertopicalsectionwhichtranscendstothefinallevel),eventhis Novumisnotaprioriunalterable.ItlooksverydifferentintheworkofthenotveryliberalPlatothaninthatofThomasMore,andverydifferentagaininhisworkthan inthatofRobertOwen.NoteventheNewitself,initsrespectivedimension,noteventheutopianelement,aspertainingtothesuperstructure,isinvariant.Thefuture ageswhichJacobshowstohissonsonhisdeathbedarenotthesame,eitherintheircontentorintheirconceptofthefuture,asthosewhichthechiliastJoachimof Calabresehadinmindinthethirteenthcentury,letalonethosemeantbySaintSimon.Whatisinvariantissolelytheintentiontowardstheutopian,foritiscontinuously discerniblethroughouthistory:yeteventhisinvarianceimmediatelybecomesvariablewhenitgetsbeyondexpressingthefirstword,whenitspeaksthecontentswhich arealwayshistoricallyvaried.ThesecontentsarenotatrestlikeLeibniz'spossibilitsternelles,fromwhichtheanticipatorselectsnowthisoneandnowthat,they movesolelyinthehistorywhichproducesthem.Whichistrueofallutopiancontents,notmerelyofthesocialutopianonesofthebestofallsocieties.Thesocial wakingdreamsthemselves,ofcourse,arenotyetthemostsignificantorprofoundamongstthestructuredones,yetinreturnautopianelementdevelopsinthematits socialbase.Thustheydonotmerelyexhibitthelargestscope,buttogetherwithtechnologicalutopiastheyarealsothemostpracticalmanifestationofhumanwishful landscape.Aproudonetooforsocialutopias,evenintheirtentativebeginnings,werealwayscapableofsayingnotothedespicable,evenifitwasthepowerful,even ifitwasthehabitual.Thelatterisinfactsubjectivelyevenmoreofahindranceforthemostpartthanthepowerful,sinceitpresentsitselfmorecontinuallyandtherefore lessdramaticallysinceitnumbstheawarenessofcontradiction,andreducesthecauseforcourage.Butsocialutopiashavealmostalwaysarisenincontrasttothis numbness,incontrasttothatkindofhabitwhichamongdespicableacts,especiallyamongintolerableones,constituteshalfofmoralunimaginativenessandthewholeof political

Page481 stupidity.Socialutopiasfunctionedasapartofthepowertobeamazedandtofindthegivensolittleselfevidentthatonlychangingitcanclarifyit.Changingitintoa stateofsocietywhich,asMarxsays,doesnotmerelyendtheisolationfromthepoliticalcommunity,buttheisolationfromessentialhumanity.Thesocialdreamshave developedwithawealthoffantasy,butatthesametime,asEngelsadds,withawealthofbrilliantgermsofideasandideasburstingoutoftheirfantasticcloak.Until thedesigningofthefutureisconcretelycorrectedintheworkofMarxandbroughtintothetrulycomprehendedtimetableofaduetendency,sothatitdoesnotstopbut onlynowvigorouslybegins.Withoutthegrowingwealthofanticipations,ofstillabstractplansandprogrammes,whicharenowtoberecalled,thefinalsocialdream wouldnothavecomeeither.Itisnowtobefoundattheheightofconsciousnessandthusbecomes,reallyfullofplanningatlast,socialawakening. II.SocialWishfulImagesofthePast Solonandthecontentedmedium Aslongaswearechildren,wewillnotputupwithalot.Apoormanwhohasbeenmadetogetusedtopressuretakesthingsdifferently.Onlylateinlifecomesa feelingofhowbadlypeoplebehaveandaglimpseofhowthingscouldbedifferent.Atfirstthisglimpseisfugitive,evasive,theindividualfallsbackonhimselfasquickly aspossible,withoutneeds.ThusBiassaidthathecarriedallhispossessionswithhimhedidnotneedmuchanddidnotaskmuchofothers.Lifewithoutluggage appearedtobethebestfrombothaneconomicandasocialpointofview,thissortofthingwasneverwhollyforgotten.Frictionbecomesslight,envyandcheating cometoanend,thereisnocauseforeitheramongthosewhoareidle.EpigramsfromthetimeoftheSevenSageswereallofthesameopinioninthisrespect,ina figurativesensetheyallwishthatmanshouldbecontented.Hecanbehappywithalittleandonlywithalittletoomuchproperty,saysSolon,shouldbeshared.Itis notrichesthataredesirableforus,butvirtue,andthatalonemakescommunallivingeasy.Nobodyistobeconsideredhappybeforehisdeath,thismaximalsomeans thatthereisnorelyingonriches,thattheyareadvisableneitherforan

Page482 individualnorastheconditionoflotsofpeople.Asgeneralandcondescendingasallthisis,itstillseeksaquietmedium.Thismediumwastofeaturethathappiness whichgrantsthesamethingtoeverybodyandthuspersists. Diogenesandtheexemplarybeggars Iflifethatwastoofatwasmadelean,thenwherewastheplacetostop?Certainlynotatanythingtowhichmanhadpreviouslybeenaccustomed,noratsweet contentment.Diogeneslivedouteverybody'swishofgoingtothedogs*formanandthegroupheformsarethefalse,deviousanimalthathasbecomeartificial. Antisthenes,asheadoftheCynics,taughtfromthestartthattherealcommunitywaslikethatamongdogswhoknowhowtobegandarenotshyofdoingsoafree herd,satisfyingitssimpleneeds.Allpeopleshouldlivetogetherasthislooseherd,andnonationshouldbeseparatedbybordersfromanother.Goldisabolished, marriageandhouseholdstoo,andextremeabsenceofneeds(somethingwhichdogsdonotpossessofcourse)freespeoplefromoneanotherandfromtheir surroundings.Sincethemandreamedasadogisnolongerinvolvedinunnecessarypleasure,hisotherinvolvementscometoanend.Hebecomesindependentofthe circumstanceswhichstandaroundlife,heandhiskindareathomeineverysituation,aslongasitisanundisturbedone,onewhichhasaslittletodowiththestateas possible.Freedomthereforebeginsherebynomeansboldlyandlavishly,itbeginsfugitivelyandoffensively.ThusamongotherthingsDiogenespubliclymasturbated fromhisbarrel,andalsoregrettedthathecouldnotdriveawayhishungerjustassimply.KratesandHipparchia,agirlfromawealthyfamilywhoadoptedthelifeofa beggarwiththeCynic,publiclyconsummatedtheirsexualrelationsinapillaredhall.Apartfromdogsthesimplemannersoftheirforefathersservedasamodel,satisfied withlifeandunafraidofit.Theoldendayswithryebread,milkandturnipsweretheonlyhealthy,naturalones,andpeoplewhodeclaretheirfaithinthemgetalongwith oneanotheraseasilyasallthosewhohaveeatentheirfill.Alsoalmostallworkbecomessuperfluousamongstthosewithoutneeds,onlyalittlesplashingonthewateris neededtokeepthenakedswimmerafloat.Andacityofbarrelsforthefreemantoliveinmakesiteasyenoughtokeepenvyatbay.Aboveall,themanwhoisfrugal inthiswaysleepssoundlyatnight,and *Inthissection,BlochplaysontheoriginalmeaningofthewordCynic:doglike.

Page483 walksuprightduringthedayforhedoesnotsettleinthevicinityofconditionsoverwhichhehasnopower. Aristippusandtheexemplaryscroungers Butparalleltothisranthelureofthemerrylifewhichgoesshortofnothing.Theoriginalgoldenagewasthenconceivednotasthatoffrugalequalitybutasthatoflavish equality.Insteadofaruggedbohemia,oneofpleasureandscroungingherefillsaproperexistence.Ittaughtthatpleasureisthehumanshare,enjoymentforitsown sake,independentlyofstillingourneeds,thatiswhatdistinguishesmanfromtheanimals.Thepowerofenjoyment,itwasaffirmedhere,elevatesmanabovedogs, aboveanimals,abovethesatisfiedascetic(Marxwouldbynomeanshavedeniedthis).Humanwishesunlikeanimalonesultimatelyaimatorgy,andtheyare completelynaturalinthisrespect.ThusAristippus,theheadoftheHedonists,taughtthatnotabsenceofneedsbuttheunlimited,shrewdcapacityforenjoymentwasthe naturalhumanconditionandthatitshouldbecultivated.AHedonistbreedthusarose,incontrasttotheCynicone,anditsstateisdreamedasoneofmutualor patronizingegoists.Thebestofallcommunitiesisthatwhichisleastofahindrancetothehighestpossiblepleasureofitscitizens.TheHedonistgroupdemandsno individualsacrifice,recognizesneitherfamilynorfatherland,leastofallprohibitionswhichhamperanindividual'sdesireforhappinessorevensimplydetermineitfrom thestart.ThislinksCynicsandHedonists,thefreethinkersofabsenceofneedsandofpleasuretheyarebothanarchic.Theirownlivesaretobethestatethatis organized,sociallifeistobeunobtrusivelikestrollinginthemarketplace.Aristippusdelightedinhissocialindependencewhichallowedhimtowearthebeggar'scloak andfineclotheswithequalpropriety.Hedelighted,asXenophonrelates,inthepoliticalindependenceofhisrovinglife,inhisubibene,ibipatria,andhesetitupasan example.Dependencewasallowedatmostwithinfriendship,alaterHedonistbythenameofAnnikeriseventaughtthatacityoffriendsshouldbeestablished,not becauseofitsusefulnessbutbecauseoftheselfgeneratinggoodwillandthepleasurethatresultsfromit.Thedemocratizationofthisessentiallyaristocraticimageof enjoymentwasfurtheredbythefactthateventhepoorercitizenbenefitedfromslaveryonthisbasisacommuneofenjoymentcouldbegenerallyconceived.Butabove all,theHedonisticimagecorrespondedmuchmoreexactlythantheCyniconetothe

Page484 conceptionsoftheGoldenAge,tothosethatstillremainedvivid.InhismaliciouscomedyTheBirds,Aristophanesindicatedthescaleandthepowerwhichthe popularityofthisimageofpleasurehadassumed.Theimageofpleasurebecamearebelliousoneintheplayinsofarasitwasneveraccommodated,neverremained undisturbed.Afterall,theheroesofthecomedy,Euelpides(Hopegood)andPeisthetairos(TrustyFriend),whowerelittlesatisfiedwiththeearthlyFortunateIslands, decidedtoremaininthecloudswiththebirdsandtoproposethattheyfoundanewstateintheair.Yetthedifferent,considerablymoreearthlyandactuallyexisting utopiaofthattimeisalsoalreadycitedinthecomedy.ItisreallyagainstthisthatAristophanesdirectshisarmouryofwit: Amanwillneverdieofwantanymore, Becauseeverythingisthepropertyofeverybody, Bread,cake,garments,saltedmeat, Wine,peas,lentilsandgarlands. Thisverseonelikeithasalreadyappearedinconnectionwithderidedwishfulimages(Vol.I,p.436)undoubtedlyreferstorecollectionsoftheGoldenAge whichwerebeginningtogrowdangerousandseriousatthattime.Theversesatirizestheplebeiannaturalstatewithitsreferencetolentils,andwiththeprofusionof othergoodsitsatirizestheHedonistideal,orrather:thedemocraticselloutofthisideal.TheviolentbelchingwhichfillssuchtravestiesisEpicurusamongthepeopleas itwerefreedomismeanttoappearasgluttony.ItappearedamongtheHedoniststhemselvesaswineforall,insofarastheyarehumanbeingsandnotslaves.The freedomofpleasurewasdemocratic,despiteboundlessegoismforhappinesswasconceivedingeneroustermsonceagain,intermsofliveandletlive,withpolite goodmanners. Plato'sdreamoftheDoricstate Itisonethingtomocksuchwishes,anothertorenderthemharmless.Platoundertooktodothelatter,insuchawaythathebothtookuptheutopiandriveand reverseditstrendtowardsfreedom.Platowrotethefirstdetailedworkonthebeststate,theRepublic,andthisworkisaswellthoughtoutasitisreactionary.Here therearenovaguedreamsanymore,novaguenotionsdreamedthroughtotheend,butneitherissome

Page485 originalgoldenagelongedforandextolled.Lostfreedom(ofarusticorlavishkind)isreplacedbyunattainedorder:thedreamingisconsolidatedbyitscontentand becomesimperious.Anditisevenbasedonanempiricalmodelhere,amodelwhichisfoundverycloseathand(witharealismwhichissurprisinginthisgreatidealist), namelyinSparta.TheloveforSpartaanditsaristocratsbegantoanswertheinterestsoftheAthenianupperclassesafterthePeloponnesianWar,theirinterestin dismantlingdemocracy.TherulingclassalwaystendstowardsthedismantlingofdemocracyassoonasconditionsariselikethosedescribedbyPlato:Thepresent stateisfallingintotwostates,thatofthepoorandthatoftherich,whopursueoneanotherwithimplacablehatred.Atsuchtimesthereisatendencytowardstotalstate authority,towardsapolicestate,onebasedonorder.ThusPlato'sutopia(theparadoxofautopiaoftherulingclass)becameanidealizationofSpartathegrowing tensionbetweenclassesrecommendedSpartaasthestrictestGreekstate,astheremedybasedonauthority.Farmers,guardianauxiliaries,guardianrulers,thesethree castesofPlato'sidealstatehavetheirprototypesonthePeloponnesetheyaretheHelots,theSpartiatesandtheCouncilofElders(Gerusia).ThusPlatotakesupthe populardreamsofanidealstateandreversesthemthushebuildsasplendidsocialutopianshipandgivesitaheadwindthushetransposesthelandforwhichtheship isdestinedandreplacestheGoldenAgewiththatofblacksoup.OnlyinpassingdoesPlatoalsorecalltheGoldenAgeasthatofplenty,indeedheaddsthatonly throughtheworseningoftheworldhadauthoritiesandlawsbecomenecessary.Andthefamousverdictonthenaturalstateasbeingoneofpigsrefersnottoits obscenebuttoitsundemandingcharacter.SocratesgivesanaccountoftheseundemandingcreaturesinthesecondBookoftheRepublic,andhowtheirhealthystate istobedescribed:Wewillgivethempeasandbeans,andtheyaretoroastmyrtleberriesandacornsatthefireandwashthemdownwithasipofwine.And Glauconthencallsthisastateofpigs,forthesearejustthethingswewouldthrowdownforthemtoeataswellwherebytheCynicstateisthereforealsorejected fromtheangleofitsundemandingnature,notmerelyfromthatofitslackofdisciplineanditsbohemia.Butimmediatelyafterwards,inthesameBookoftheRepublic, SocratesalsotacklestheHedoniststate,thestateofgluttons.Hetreatsitseffeminatehappinessironically:Wemustintroducepaintingandgoldandivoryand everythinglikethatThisalsoincludesallheroichunters,theimitativeartists,thepoetsandtheirservants,therhapsodists,actors,dancers,showmen,artistsinall sortsoffields,among

Page486 othersthosewhomakejewelleryforwomen.AndahigherhappinesswasonlygrantedtotheGoldenAgeinsofaraspeopleinthosedaysexploitedtheadvantages oftheirsituationinordertogainhigherknowledge.SothereisnoroomforanySaturnaliainPlato'stemplestate,nocarnivalofnature,noneofartandsuperfluous beauty:athoroughlyruledworldarises,therationalstructureofapermanentrealm.ItspeoplehaveaDorictoughness,itsorderremainspreciselythatofSpartan aristocratism.Eventheholdingincommonofwomenandotherthings(amongtheuppercastes),eventhissoapparentlydangeroussimilarityofPlato'sidealstatetothe anarchyofCynicsandHedonistsstemsfromtheSpartancamp.InSpartatooanelderlymancouldsupplyhiswifewithanotherman,andanunmarriedmancould borrowthewifeofhisfriendinSpartatoothepossessionofgoldandsilverwasforbiddenthewarriorcaste,theprovisionsandtoolsofotherscouldbeshared.The Gerusiathough,Lycurgus'CouncilofElders,onlyprovidedtheframeworkfortheuppercasteinPlato'sstate,thephilosophicalcasteforeventheeldestmembersof theGerusiawerenotPlato'sacademicians,quitetheopposite.SowhenPlatocalledforthePhilosopherRuler,whenhetaughtthatthestatewouldnotbecomeagood oneuntiltheregentsbecamephilosophersorthephilosophersbecameregents,theantiintellectualmodelofSpartaiscertainlyabandonedinthisonepoint,asfarasthe contentoftheframeworkprovidedbymembersoftheGerusiaisconcerned.ButitisnoteworthythateventhecasteofphilosophersinPlato'sutopiadoesnotlast:the deeplydisappointedworkofhisoldage,theLaws,whollydoeswithoutanaristocracyofeducation.Instead,inthisworktheidealsocietyispositedentirelyasa policestate,nowincidentallyretainingprivatepropertyandmarriage.TheLawsareinstructiveasarestrained,andasitwereburntfingeredsocialutopiathey contentthemselveswiththedesignofasecondoreventhirdbeststate.Ofcourseinthisdiminishedideal,preciselybecauseitisdiminished,thegrowthofreactionis particularlystrong,extendingasfarasacriminallawagainstpoliticalandparticularlyculturalinnovatorssothatitalmostseemsasifevenPlatowhohadbecome highlyconservativeasaresultofhispessimismnolongerregardedsuchanidealoforderasanideal.However,definitionofthestateandcriticismofthestatein theRepublic,andevenmoresointheLaws,areexclusivelyorientatedaroundtheideaoftieredarchitecture,tieredhumanarchitecture. Andwhatismore,thisstructureisalreadysupposedtobeexactlypredeterminedinthehumanpredisposition.Manaccordinglyhasthree

Page487 forcesorpartsinhissoul,desire,courage,andreason.Thesethreeactivevoicesarearrangedinorderofvaluefrombottomtotop,thusthereisavariousorderof rankevenhere.Desire,courage,andreasonareallocatedtotheloins,chest,andheadaseachpredominatestheyformthefierycharacterofsouthernpeoples,the boldoneofnorthernpeoples,andthelevelheadedcharacteroftheGreeks.TheyconstitutethethreekindsordirectionsoflevelheadednessamongtheGreeks:the levelheadednessofdesireisobedience,thatofcouragebravery,thatofreasonwisdom.Greekvirtuederivesfromlevelheadedness:thevirtueofobediencethus furtherconstitutesthefarmers,thevirtueofcouragethemilitaryclass,andthevirtueofwisdomtheclassofphilosophicallegislators.Sointhiswayastatewilledby naturesotospeakissupposedtoarise,astatewhoselawssolittlecontradictnaturethattheycompleteandcrownnatureinthesocialstratum.Verymuchunlikethe CynicsandHedonists,PlatoconsequentlydeducesnolibertineNaturalRightfromnature,butadirectlyhierarchicalone:theprincipleofsuumcuiqueiscontainedin physisitself.ThethirdBookoftheRepublicevenmaintains,inaliteralsociologicalapplicationofchemistry,thatthosewhoaresuitedtoberegentshavehadgold addedtotheirsouls,thewarriorssilver,andthetraderscopperandiron.SothesuumcuiquecertainlyseemseasyPlatoalsoaddsthatasarulechildrenwillresemble theirparents,sothatbynatureasonfromalowerclasswouldonlyrarelyfitintoahigheroneorevenasoldier'schildintothetradingclass.Statecraftingeneralisthe fusingofbasiccharacterologicalsocialcircumstancesintoaharmoniouswhole,intotheharmonyofjustice.WewilloftenencounterthestructureofPlato'sidealstate lateronforitisthatofalongedforstatemorality.Thefactthat(alongwiththeslaves)therewasthebroadexploitedmassofpeasantsandtradersinthisidealstate, thispervasiveimmoralitywascloakedbytheideologyofatieredjusticeandtheexploitationhere,asisobvious,wasideologizedbythedoctrineofaninnateservant soul(ofbasemetal).Theupperclassesarecompletelysupportedeconomicallybytheworkofthethirdclass,andtheircommunismisnotoneofworkbutoneofnon work:ofthepoliceandthelearnedGerusia.ItisnotasifPlatodidnotwanttotaxthelowerclasswiththemilitaryandmonasticcommunismoftheupperclasses,for instanceasifitweretootough.Heseesitinsteadastoonoble,thephilistinesarenotworthyofit,theymustdefinitelycontinuetohavecares,unlikethearistocratic communewhichhasnocaresanymore,buttakescare,ofitsstate.EventhetaskwhichPlatoassignstotheupperclassesofwatchingthatpovertyandwealthdonot creepintothestateunnoticed,

Page488 eventhisvarietyoffinancialasceticism,appliedtothethirdclass,simplymeanslettingnorichandhencedangerousplebeiansappearonthescene.Despitethesenot exactlyrevolutionarycontents,Plato'sRepublicsubsequentlycontinuedtoactlikeasocialist,indeedcommunistwork.Itwasregarded,particularlyinthe Renaissance,asakindofsetofinstructionsforsocialism,supportedbythepowerfulauthorityofthegreatphilosopher.ThomasMnzer,thetheologianoftheGerman peasants'revolution,alsocitesPlato'sutopia,moreoverinthespiritofOmniasintcommunia,notinthespiritofsuumcuique.Thisisaproductivemisunderstanding:the imageoftheGoldenAge,whichPlatohadgivenaSpartanturn,wasnowagainrecalledintermsofprimitivecommunism,andasifPlato,bydistinguishingthe communeaswhatwasbestforhisnobility,hadalsobeentheguidetothisbestformofsocietyforall.ThustheIdeaasitwereofsocialutopia,onewithoutclasses andstations,wasrestoredinthisversionofthegreatidealist.Thereandthen,Plato'sbeststatelookeddifferentofcoursehehadthewishfuldream,intheframework ofSparta,ofamedieval,indeedmilitaryclericalecclesiasticalrealmratherthanasocialistconstruction.Andlongbeforefreedomfounditsnovelofanidealstate, Plato'sRepublicutopianizedorder.AperfectSpartanorder,withpeopleaspedestals,walls,andwindows,whereallofthemareonlyfreetobesupporting, protective,andilluminatingintherankedlimbstructure. Hellenisticfairytalesofanidealstate,Iamboulos'islandofthesun Themorelivelyandmorepopularwishespersisted,asifnothinghadhappened.Iftheywerenotaccommodatedathome,thentheysoughttheiridealsinthedistance andnotjustintheGoldenAgeoflongagoandtomorrow.Butthistemporaldistancecloakeditselfinaspatialone,itbecamethatofaremotewonderland.The decisivefactorherewasthebroadeningofthegeographicalhorizonbythecampaignsofAlexander.TheaccountsofArabiaandIndia,whichNearch,Alexander's admiral,sentbackhome,gaveasolidfooting,asitwere,tothehopesoftheGoldenAge.TheHellenisticutopiawasreinforcedandillustratedbythediscoveryofIndia inmuchthesamewayasthemodernonewasbythediscoveryofAmerica:thespaceoftheidealstatefoundageometricallocus.Alsothereisonlyonesingleutopian account,thatofTheopomposconcerningthefabulousMeropis,inwhichthelandofhappinessisassignedtothe

Page489 dimanddistantpast(asinPlato'sCritiasconcerningAtlantis).ButthestrangenovelbyEuemerosHolyInscription(around300B.C.),whichhassurvivedin fragmentaryform,isthefirsttohavethefictionofapresentdayutopia.Analmostparadoxicalgainresultsfromtheconnectionwithsailors'yarns:utopiangraphicness. FromArabia,Euemerossailstoapreviouslyhiddenland,theislandofPanchaeatherethingsareproducedincommon,theproceedsevenlydistributed,thesoil(this motifalsoappearsforthefirsttime)yieldsfruitwithoutcultivationandsowing.Apeoplelivesherewhosehappinessandprosperitystemfromtheirconnectionwiththe dayswhenZeuswasstillontheearth.Kingshipandauthority,apartfromthemildoneofpriests,areunknownandsuperfluous:forZeushadtaughttheprinciplesof blisssoperfectlythatnofurtherinterventionsfromabovewereneeded.ButEuemeroswasnotmerelygivinganaccountofthesocialutopiaofafaroffland,thissocial utopiaitselfwasagaintheveiledexpressionofaneducationalfairytaleaboutZeusandthegods.ForitisinatemplethatEuemerosclaimstohavediscoveredtheHoly Inscriptionfromwhichhisutopiagetsitsname:thehistoryofthegodsfromprimevaltimes,fromwhichthesecludedhappinessofPanchaeahassurvived.Uranus, Cronos,Zeus,andRheawereprincesandprincesses,onlylaterweretheyelevatedtothestatusofgodsexactlylikeAlexanderandtheDiadochi*inthedaysof Euemeros.Thisissheeratheism,thegodsbecamebeneficenthumanlocaldignitaries,havenothingtodowithrunningtheworld,heavenandthelike,areproductsof Fame.OnthispointEuemeroswasclosetotheHedonisticschool,particularlytotheprecursorofEpicurus,thefirstGreekatheistTheodoros.Accordinglythehappy landofPanchaeawasalsomentionedinthegreatEpicureandidacticpoembyLucretius(Dererumnatura,2,417)anincenselandofthisworld.Happyutopiaand religiousenlightenmentbecomeoneandthesameinthisland:theearthlytyrantsandthegods,aboveallthestern,aloofones,fallatthesamestroke.Itwas,afterall, preciselythetempleofZeusinPanchaeathatcontainedthedocumentwhichcausedZeusandallthegodstobeworshippedasformerhumanbeings,aspeoplefroma milder,almostmatrilinearage,fromanagewhenevenZeusstillpresidedoveragriculture.NowEuemerosfundamentallycontinuedtohaveaninfluenceonlywiththis derivationofthegodsfromgoodkings,notwithhisdreamofanidealstatebutHellenismalsoproducedanotherdreamofanidealstate, *Diadochi:theMacedoniangeneralsamongstwhomtheempireofAlexanderwasdividedafterhisdeath.

Page490 inwhichtherewasonlypleasureandplenty.Unencumberedwithholyinscriptions,butprovidedinanintensifiedwaywithgoodnature,withthatoutsideman,which Euemeroshadalsotrusted.ItisIamboulos'IslandoftheSun,acommunistandcollectivefeasthencethoroughlypopularandyetnewinitspoliticalfestivecharacter. Wishesthatweremorethanpopular,namelyrebelliousones,mayalsohaveplayedaparthere.Iamboulosdisplaysnofrivolity,thesurvivingfragmentofhisworkisat oncevigorous,ceremonialandcheerful.Itsweepsawayslavesandmasters,positsmutualworkandjoy,isconsistentinboth.Thatiswhythisnovelofanidealstate alsocontinuedtoberecalledforcenturies,itwasalmostplacedbesidethatofPlato.ThefragmentswerewellknowntotheRenaissance,andalsocirculatedinItalian andFrenchtranslations.SomeinfluenceonThomasMoreandhisUtopiaisprobableCampanella'sCivitassolishaspointsofcontactwithIamboulosnotjustinits titlebutalsoinitscollectiveethos.ThecollectivisminIamboulosismoredetailedandbetterthoughtoutineconomictermsthanthatinEuemeros.Thoughafabulous naturemyth,intheshapeofathousandfoldfertility,isnotlackinghereeither.ThistropicalelementisconditionedintermsofthenovelbythesituationoftheIslandof theSun,inpracticaltermsitisastopgapforstillundevelopedforcesofproduction.TheDionysiancultandthecultofHelios,fromanotheragethanthepatriarchalage orageofmasters,mayofcoursealsohaveinfluencedtheHellenisticutopia.SuchcultswerestillalivearoundtheeasternMediterranean,ascultsofDionysianliberation infact,asthecancellationofallclassdifferencesinintoxicationandfeasting.Iamboulostransfershisnovelofanidealstatetosevenequatorialislands:thehappinessof allisestablishedtherebythetotallackofproperty.Byalternatingworkinregularrotation,bydoingawaywiththedivisionoflabour,andbydeliberateeducation towardsagreementandharmony.Slaveryislikewiseabolished,asiseverykindofcasteandPlatonicutopiabasedoncasteeveryoneissubjecttothesame requirementtowork,atotallyunprecedenteddemand,isolatedinabackwardandforwarddirection,bothinantiquityandinthefeudalsocietywhichfollowedit.The factthatinthisconnectionnoseparateeconomicsystemsremainevenforhouse,home,andfamilyroundsoffthecollectiveimageofthisutopia,thelastandmost radicaltohavebeendevisedbyantiquity.Theunitingelementstillcontainedinthefeastwasalsomeanttoenlivenandcheertherequirementtoworktropicalnature helpedthingsalong,addedplentyandeasetotherotationofwork.Thesevenequatorialislandsthusthoroughlygivetheimpressionoflyingin

Page491 thelandoftheshortestshadow,inthelandofwinewithoutmineandthine,whereaDionysiansunstillshines,onewhichmeltstogether.Heliosherebeamsequallyon thejustandunjust,doesawaywiththejusticeofsuumcuique,asifhereallywasabenefactorfromtheGoldenAge,infacttheGoldenAgeitself. TheStoicsandtheinternationalworldstate Inaway,thedreamsconsideredsofarwerestillmodestinonerespect.Theysettledonanislandorinacity,didnotgobeyondthis.Theislandwasadmittedlythe modeloneperse,itprovocativelydemonstratedhowacommunityoughttobe,indeedalmosthowitcouldbe.Yetthemodelkeptitshumbleproportions,itnever outgrewtheGreekcitystate.ThatallchangedwiththeStoicdesignsforanidealstate,theyhavelargerspacesintheirfavour,ultimatelyevenRomanones.Thoughthis wasattheexpenseofdetailed,certainlyofradicalcontent,andalsoofthefirewhichusuallyradiatesfromaperson,notfromaschool.Stoicliteratureislongandmulti layered,itwasinfactmoreeffectivethanPlatoandAristotleputtogether,butunliketheirschoolsithasnofirstratestarinthemiddle(likethemultilayeredneo PlatonisminPlotinus).Inadditionthereisthethreefold,thoughcoherentphenomenonoftheschool:theGreekonewithZenoandChrysippos,theHellenisticonewith PanaitiosandPoseidonios,andtheRomanonewithEpictetusandSeneca.ButdespitethismultilayeredaspecttheStoicsexhibitasahistoricalphenomenon somethingoftheconcentratedandimperturbablequalitieswhichtheyassignedtothewisemanintheirteachings.ThustheyoutlastpedanticAlexandrianism,that strangewintergardenofGreece,andbynomeansbecomeintricateandweakintheantiquarianhothouse.Intheenormousprocessingofmaterial,inwhichtheStoics competedwithAlexandriaandalsoagreedwithitinmanyways,theybynomeansbecomelifeless,scholarlyanddisengagedthemselves.Theyretaintheirmasculinity, aconnectionwithpractice,foralltheirabstraction,attainarelevancebothtothepresentandthefuture,areripeforRome,andevenfortheChristianbreakwithRome. TheStoics,particularlyintheirsocialdreams,drawthelogicalconclusionsfromhistoricalchanges,theyideologizeandutopianizethetendencyoftheseatoneandthe sametime.ThisispreciselythecaseintheimagesketchedbyZenoaround300B.C.,intheimageoftheidealworldstate,ofthehumanitarianstate(thisconceptwas firstdevelopedby

Page492 PanaitiosinthesocietyoftheyoungerScipio).Theidealstatewastobesogreatandsogoodthatnothingelseatallcouldrankalongsideititwasthefirstutopiato raisethebannerofauniversalrepublic,andlaterofauniversalmonarchy.Plato'sutopianpolissoughttohaveatimelessexistenceliketheIdeaofthegoodtheempire ofAlexanderandtheRomanempireaddedutopianbreadth.ThedeparturefromhumbledimensionsalreadybeganinZeno'ssocialutopiaasthedeclineandtransition oftheGreekpolis,eventheutopianizedone,intothesupranationalempireofAlexander.Plutarch'sspeechDefortunaAlexandristillbringstogetherthehistoryof AlexanderwithrecollectionsfromZeno'sPoliteiainalateretrospectiveglance,withtheusualcausalinversionofrealityandreflection.Alexanderappearshereasthe accomplisheroftheStoicidealstate,heisportrayedasbringingtogetherthelife,ethos,marriage,andwayoflifeofnationsinonefestivekrater.*Asteachingthem alwaystoregardthosewhoaregoodasrelations,thosewhoarebadasstrangers,andtheoecumeneastheirfatherland.TheempireofAlexanderveryquickly disintegratedintoindividualstatesagain,butafterthePunicWarsRomerosetopower,anditsimperialismbroughtwithitamuchmorecolossalkrater.ForRometoo: justastheGreeknationwassubmergedintheempireofAlexander,sowastheLatinnationinCaesar'sMediterraneanmonarchy.Destinyitself,theTychesoimportant totheStoicsandwhichstillappearedtothemtoconstituteorder,seemedtocontaintheRomanexpansion.ThehistorianPolybius,whohadcloseconnectionswith theStoics,thusdatesaverydifferentworldsituationfromtheSecondPunicWaronwards:previouslyeventsweredissipated,nowtheycoherephysicallyasitwere,in agrandsuccessfulsweep.InPolybiustheTychecausesthewaysoftheworldtoconverge,andcreatesaspatialtemporaloveralldestinyforall:Rome.Paxromana andtheStoicuniversalstatecomplementedoneanothertosuchanextentintheendthatitishardlypossibletodistinguishwherethesubmissiveorconverselypatriotic compromiseoftheStoicliteratibeginswhentheircosmopolitanutopiaultimatelylooksliketheRomanEmpireitself(disregardingitshumanweaknesses,asCicero says).Itiscertainlynotthecrushingmilitarymight,butrathertheuniversalelement,theoecumene,whichmadeRomesoseductiveintheeyesoftheStoics.Andan admittedlyrigorous,buthairsplittingandbynomeansrebelliousschoolfounditperfectlytolerablewhenthis *AlargebowlinancientGreeceinwhichthewinewasmixedwithwater. Polybius:?205?123B.C.,GreekhistorianunderthepatronageofScipiotheYounger.HewroteinfortybooksahistoryofRomefrom246to146B.C.

Page493 seductionwasofservicetoitwhentheutopiaoffraternity,incountlessrhetoricalpresentations,laterturnedintoeulogiesoftheRomanEmpire.Zenohadalready prophesiedtheworldstatethisinmarkedcontrasttotherestrictednatureofPlato'spolis,andalsotoitsrestrictedcastes.AndifZenohadevenlinkedindividualswith theuniversebyskippingovernations,thenhehadalreadydonesoallthemorebyskippingoverborders. Hestartedoutfromindividual,inward,morallyliberatedhumanbeings.Theyweretobeformedintoanenormousassociationinwhichthosewhowerelesswisewere educatedbyexample.ZenotoleratesnocoinageinhisPoliteia,nopoweroverotherpeople,nolawcourts,notevenschoolsofwrestling.Chrysippossaidthatall existinglawsandconstitutionswerewrong,chieflybecauseofthepowerwhichtheycontain,andwithwhichtheyaremaintained.Anexistenceisimaginedwithoutfixed law,withoutwar,theGoldenAgealloveragain,andfriendship,bothinsmallcirclesandinlargeassociations,guaranteesanundisturbedcoherence.Thesurviving fragmentsprovideonlyadimpictureoftheparticularsofthisutopia,andofthefantasticpartsaswell.Butbecauseoftheinwardnessfromwhichitstartsout,because oftheindifferenceoftheStoicstowardsexternalcircumstancesandbecauseoftheirfeignedandgenuinecontemptforthem,itisprobablethatthisutopiaremained unrealizedatleastineconomicterms.Andasfarasthepoliticalaspectisconcerned,thebestconstitution,theStoicssoonbecameeclectic,despiteChrysippos.They preachedmixturesofdemocracyandaristocracy,followinganonutopianlikeAristotleinthisrespect.Theywereevenwelldisposedtowardsmonarchs,infactthey finallypraisedtheuniformheadoftheidealcentralizedstate.SothatakingamongtheDiadochidevotedtotheStoics,AntigonosGonatas,wasthefirsttodescribe kingshipasagloriousactofservitude(tothepeople)theemperorMarcusAureliusevenmoreemphaticallyderivedamoralityoftherulerfromtheStoicidealofthe state.Thusfardoesasocialutopiahereplungeintogivenfacttheoecumeneallegedtobemoraldoesnotyetbreakasthereligiousonedoeslater,underAugustine withCaesar.ButthesignificanceoftheStoicutopiadoesnotlieinitsinstitutionsanyway,norintheconsistentcommunismwhichitdeclaims.Itssignificanceliesin theprogrammeofworldcitizenship,whichheremeanstheunityofthehumanrace.Atthebottomtheindividualremainsitsrepresentativethesuperiorstatebeginsas theselectionofindividualsformoraleducationandnonviolentcommunallife.ButitbynomeansendsthereitisonesidedandexaggeratedwhenWilamowitz remarksononeoccasionthatPlato'sidealconstructisacommunity,butZeno'sisanindividual.Even

Page494 intheidealofthewisemanthenonpersonal,typicalcharacteristicsofageneralrationalruleoflifepredominate.AndevenintheStoicstatethereismuchmorepathos ofcommunallife,appropriatetothegenerallawofreasonwhichhastopermeateit,thancultivationofinwardnessfromwhichtheStoicsstartedout.Thiscommunallife isnotevenconfinedtothehumansphere,insteadthehumansphereisbackedupbythecosmicsphere,ofwhichitformsapart.Themostimportantpartforaccording totheimageoftheStoicKleanthes,theearthisthecommonhearthoftheworld,andabovethishearth,linkingmenandgods,reignssystematicreason.Itgivesits uniformlawoflifetoallhumanbeings,demandstheInternationalofallrationalbeings,fitsthingsintothecosmosasthesupremecommunity,asthecityofZeus, fromwhichtheindividualstatesaretoformtheirindividualhouses.Thiscosmicreasonatthecommonhearthoftheworldevenexhibitsmatrilinearcharacteristicsin theStoicstheyhadalreadybecomeapparentintheagriculturalZeusofEuemeros,theStoicutopiaintensifiedthemingeneral.BonaDeaandZeus,thecosmosascity ofZeusandasmotherhouse,worldreasonandthemosttrustworthyMotherNaturewhosettleseverything,hereoftenbecomeinterchangeable.Andthisstrengthens thefootingoftheGoldenAgeintheuniverseitself,inthesyncretisticnotionofZeus,kindasaDemeterofheaven.Theexistencewithoutmoney,lawcourts,war, power,whichZenohadimagined,obtainsinthisworldlymegalopolisthefooting,believedtobecosmic,whichithadnotbeengivenineconomicandpoliticalterms. Thecosmosinthestatenowlevelsallsocialdistinctions,eventhatofthesexes:manandwoman,Greekandbarbarian,freemanandslave,alldistinctionsdueto limitationvanishintheintellectuallyandquantitativelyunlimitedrealm.Evenbloodandfamily,thetiesfromtheageofagricultureandthepolis.donotholdthenew humanbeingstogether,insteadequalityofmoralinclinationsdeterminesthebondsinmegalopolis.ThedifficultiesaresolvedbytheLawofLargeNumbers*asitwere, orrather:bytheexpansionwhichhasacosmomorphiceffect,byworldharmony.Thisisthegrandsystema,unitingthegodsandthedivineinman,inthewordsof Poseidoniosapantheononearth,atthecommonhearthoftheworld.Thisisthenewnaturalstate,thatinwhichphysisstandsagainstthestatute(thesis),butcoincides withtherightlaw(nomos).Afarreachingequationithadlessofaninfluenceonthelatersocialutopias,butadecisiveoneonNaturalRight.Thoughinindividual practicetheStoicshardlychampionedthisMasonicstateanymorethancouldbeexpected,givenitsformal *Cf.Vol.I,p.311n.

Page495 inwardnesstogetherwiththecolossalcosmos.Thusthesenseofbrotherhoodremainedunrealizedineconomicterms,thepreachedsuperioritytoexternal circumstancesallowedthesetopersistunchallengedalongsideutopia.EvenStoicsoutsidetheupperclasses,suchastheslaveEpictetus,wereasfarawayfromsocial revolutionaryactivitiesastheirinwardnessoreventheirworldreasonwasfromthesufferingearth.SofromthispointofviewaswellacompromisewithRomemust havebeeneasy,apartfromthegratitudewithwhichprophetsarestirredwhentheirprophecy(herethatoftheworldstate)seemspartlyfulfilled.Inadditionthereisthe markedlyantiquariansensewhichtheGoldenAgeandtheidentificationofthewishfulstatewithithadgraduallyassumed.FortheGoldenAgewasregardedbythe Stoicsasirretrievablylost,onlyanewcourseoftheworldcouldsetitinmotionagain,andthisnewcoursepresupposesnothinglessthanZeustakingtheentireworld backintohimselfagainthroughworldconflagration.Andeventhen,afterthissomewhattooviolentupheavalwhichisalsoindependentofhumanbeings,theGolden Agerestoredagaininthenewworldwillnotlast:norisitknownwhythisshouldbeso,inthedoctrineofuniversaloptimismlikethatheldbytheStoics.Againit ispreciselythisemphaticpeacewithstaticallycelebratedworldperfection,thispantheisticacclimatizationtoapprovedfate,whichisaversetochange,unlessitisa mitigationorreformation(influencesonslaveeconomy,marriedlife,andeventherunningofthestatearediscerniblehere).Ifdiseaseslooklikeakindofpurgativein Stoicmedicine,withwhichrationalnaturehealsitselfasitwere,lawandjusticeareofcourseshownnosuchmercy,butneitheraretheyattackedanythinglikeasmuch asinotherutopias.Thewholeishelduptothemasanexample,aprevailingmodel,sothatthepartskeepandarekepttoit.NoristheutopiaoftheStoicsdirected towardswhatisexplosivebutrathertowardswhatiscomplete,towardsanincreasinglyimprovedharmonywiththeexistingGodnaturethatistheworld.Pretended worldperfectionthuspreventstheintendedworldchange,justasitseekstogovernitthismakestheStoics,eventheirutopia,strangelyreformistandconformistatthe sametime.Thereareafewexceptions:thetutoroftheSpartankingKleomenes,whoorderedakindofsocialisteconomy,wastheStoicSphairos,apupilofZeno andheissaidtohaveinfluencedthekingwithZeno'sPoliteia.ThetutorofthetribuneTiberiusGracchuswastheStoicBlossius,andtheresult:thecallforasharing outoftheland,thefightagainstthepatricianupperclasses,wasdifferentatanyratefromtheresultinthecaseofMarcusAurelius,whodidnotshakeuptheRoman Empireaseverybodyknows.TheStoicutopianconcept

Page496 ofoccumeneaboveallhadaninspiringeffect,itoutshonethemereideologizationoftheRomanEmpireundertakenbylaterStoics,anditalsohadaneffectoutsidethe Stoicschool.AsinJudaism,touchingonoldpropheticuniversalismsagain,whichtheJewishnationalchurchstatehadburied,afterthereturnfromBabylon.Itismore thanprobablethattheworldcitizenshipsupportedbyStPaulincontrasttoStPeterwasproduced,oratleaststrengthened,byStoicinfluences.Hisquotationfrom KleanthesorAratus,inthespeechtotheAthenians(ActsoftheApostles17,28),provesthatStPaulhadreadStoicwritingsandthequotationreferstotheunityof thehumanraceintheworldreasonofZeus.ButinearlyChristianity,partlyeveninStPaul,theexplosiveelementwasconsiderablyclearerthantheelementof reformatorycompletenesswhichispartofStoicism,evenwhereitconvertstoChristianity.Thisistheendoftheresemblance,towhichStPaulhadalluded,ofthe Stoics,theFreemasonsofantiquity,toearlyChristianitytheStoicutopiaseekstransfigurationthroughcorrespondencetonature,theChristianutopiadoessothrough thecritiqueandcrisisofnature. TheBibleandthekingdomofneighbourlylove WhatdotheScripturestellus,immediatelyaftertheybecomehistorical?Theytellofthesufferingsofanenslavednationtheyhavetohaulbricks,labourinthefields, theEgyptiansmadetheirlivesbitter.Mosesappears,killsanoverseeritisthefirstactofthefuturefounderhehastoleavethecountry.TheGodheimagineswhen heisabroadisinhisveryoriginnomasters'God,butoneoffreeBedouins,intheSinairegionoftheKeniticnomadictribeintowhichMoseshadmarried.Yahweh beginsasathreattothePharaohthevolcanicGodofSinaibecomesMoses'godofliberation,offlightfromslavery.AnexodusofthiskindgivestheBible,fromhere on,abasicresonancewhichithasneverlost.Andthereisnobookinwhichthememoryofnomadic,andthusstillhalfprimitivecommunistinstitutionsremainsso stronglypreservedasitdoesintheBible.AcommunitywithoutdivisionoflabourandprivatepropertystillappearstobeGod'swillforalongtimetocome,evenwhen privatepropertyhademergedinCanaanandtheprophetsacceptedit,onamodestscale.JeremiahcalledtheperiodinthedesertthebridalperiodofIsrael(following inthefootstepsoftheelderHosea),andthiswasnotonlybecauseofYahweh'sgreaterproximity,butalsobecauseofeconomicinnocence.In

Page497 thePromisedLandofcourse,aftertheyhadsettleddown,thecommunallifequicklycametoanend.FromtheconqueredCanaanites,whohadlongreachedthe agriculturalandurbanstage,farmingandwinegrowingwereadoptedcraftsandtrades,richandpoordeveloped,inglaringclassdistinctions,anddebtorsweresold abroadasslavesbytheircreditors.ThetwoBooksofKingsareasfulloffamineasoftheglitterofwealthwhichproducedit.Ontheonehand:Andtherewasasore famineinSamaria(1Kings18,2),ontheotherhand,KingSolomonmadesilvertobeinJerusalemasstones(1Kings10,27).Inthemidstofthisexploitation,and thunderingagainstit,theprophetsappeared,drewupthenotionofjudgment,andinthesamebreaththeoldestoutlinesofsocialutopia.Andtheydidthisgiving proofofcontinuitywiththesemicommunistBedouinperiodinconnectionwithseminomadicopponentsstillclosetotheBedouins,withcumbersomeandisolated figures,thesocalledNazarites.TherewasalsoaconnectionwiththeRechabites,atribeinthesouth,whichhadheldalooffromtheopulenceandmoneyeconomyof Canaan,andremainedfaithfultotheolddesertgod.TheNazaritesthemselveswerealsoexternallyrecognizablebytheirdesertclothing,theirhaircloaksandunshorn hair,andtheyabstainedfromwinetheirYahweh,stillastrangertoprivateproperty,becameforthemthegodofthepoor.Samson,Samuel,andElijahwereNazarites (1Samuel1,112Kings1,8),butsowasJohntheBaptist(Luke1,15):allofthemenemiesoftheGoldenCalf,andalsooftheopulentmasters'Churchwhich stemmedfromtheCanaaniteBaal.Thusasingleline,fulloftwistsandturns,butrecognizablythesame,runsfromthehalfprimitivecommunismrememberedbythe Nazaritestothepreachingoftheprophetsagainstwealthandtyranny,andtotheearlyChristiancommunismfoundedonlove.Itrunsalmostunbrokeninthe background,andthefamouspropheticdepictionsofafuturekingdomofsocialpeacetaketheircolourfromaGoldenAgewhichwasnotjustalegend.Similarlytheir criticismoftheapostasyfromYahwehtakesitsbearingsfromNazaritism:forthisapostasyisaturningfromtheprecapitalistYahwehsotospeaktowardsBaal,and alsotowardsthatmasters'YahwehwhoconqueredBaalatthepriceofbecomingagodofluxuryhimself.Accordingly,prophetsaroseintimesofgreatinternaland externaltension,admonishingpeopletochangetheirways.Amos,whosaysofhimselfthatheisapoorcowherdwhopicksmulberries,istheoldestoftheprophets (around750B.C.),andperhapsthegreatest:andhisYahwehsetsthingsalight.ButIwillsendafireuponJudah,anditshalldevourthepalacesofJerusalem becausetheysoldtherighteousforsilver,and

Page498 theconceptofthefuture,andthereforeoftime,oftheancientIsraeliteprophets(andinabroadercontextoftheancientOrient)coincideswiththatwhichhas developedsinceAugustine.Theexperienceoftimehascertainlyundergonemanychanges,theFuturumaboveallhasonlyrecentlybeenaugmentedbytheNovumand becomechargedwithit.Butthecontentofthebiblicallyintendedfuturehasremainedintelligibletoallsocialutopias:Israelbecamepovertyassuch,Zionbecame utopia.Necessityisthemotherofmessiahs:Othouafflicted,tossedwithtempest,andnotcomforted,behold,Iwilllaythystoneswithfaircolours,andlaythy foundationswithsapphiresInrighteousnessshaltthoubeestablished:thoushaltbefarfromoppressionforthoushaltnotfearandfromterrorforitshallnotcome nearthee(Isaiah54,11and14).Anauraofthislightinthenightliesabovesocialutopiasagainandagain,rightdowntoWeitling. TheRomanscameintothePromisedLand,whichhadbecomelessandlessofone.Therichdidnotgetonbadlywiththeforeignoccupiers,whoprotectedthemfrom desperatepeasantsandpatrioticresistancefighters.Theyprotectedthemfromprophets,whocouldquiteunreservedlybecalledagitatorsnow.TheNazariteJohnthe Baptistpreachedatthistimeamongthecommonpeopleandpromisedanendtotheirmisery.Andnowalsotheaxeislaiduntotherootofthetrees:thereforeevery treewhichbringethnotforthgoodfruitishewndown,andcastintothefire.(Matthew3,10).Inthosedaystherewasmorethanenoughroomforgladtidings,ofa socialrevolutionary,nationalrevolutionarykindchangeseemedimminent.Hethatcomethafterme,saidJohn,Whosefanisinhishand,andhewillthroughlypurge hisfloor,andgatherhiswheatintothegarnerbuthewillburnupthechaffwithunquenchablefire.(Matthew3,12).AndthecomingofJesushimselfwasbynomeans asinwardandotherworldlyasareinterpretationsinceStPaul,whichalwayssuitedtherulingclass,wouldhaveusbelieve.Hismessagetothosethatlabourandare heavyladenwasnotthecrosstheyhadthatinanycase,andintheterriblecry:MyGod,whyhastThouforsakenme?*Jesusexperiencedthecrucifixionasa catastropheandnotinaPaulineway.ThegreatlogioninMatthew11,2530isofthisworld,nottheotherworld,itistheedictoftheroyalMessiahwhoputsanend tosufferingineveryformanddoessoonearth,asamantowhomachangeinallthingsisentrusted:Myyokeiseasy,andmyburdenislight.Jesusneversaid:The kingdomofGodiswithinyouinstead,themomentousphrase(Luke17,21)literallyreads:ThekingdomofGodisamong *Matthew27,46.

Page500 youanditwassaidtothePharisees,nottothedisciples.Itmeans:thekingdomisalreadyaliveamongyouPharisees,asthechosencommunity,inthesedisciplesthe senseisthereforeasocialone,notaninwardlyinvisibleone.Jesusneversaid:MykingdomisnotofthisworldthispassageisinterpolatedbyStJohn(John18,36), anditwasdesignedtobeofusetoChristiansinaRomancourt.JesushimselfdidnotattempttogivehimselfanalibiinfrontofPilatewithsuchcowardlypathosofthe otherworld.ThiswouldhavecontradictedthemanifestcourageandthedignityofthefounderofChristianity,andaboveallitcontradictsthesensewhichthewords thisworldandtheotherworldpossessedinJesus'day.ThissenseisatemporaloneandstemsfromtheastralreligiousspeculationsoftheancientOrient,thatis,the theoryofworldcycles.Thisworldissynonymouswiththatwhichnowexists,withthepresentaeon,whereastheotherworldissynonymouswiththefuture aeon(thusMatthew12,3224,3).Whatisthereforeintendedbythesecontrastingtermsisnotageographicaldivisionbetweenthisworldandtheotherworld,buta chronologicallysuccessiveoneinthesamearena,situateddownhere.Theotherworldistheutopianearth,withautopianheavenaboveitinaccordancewithIsaiah 65,17:For,behold,Icreatenewheavensandanewearth:andtheformershallnotberemembered,norcomeintomind.Theaspirationisnotanotherworldafter death,wheretheangelsaresinging,buttheequallyterrestrialandsupraterrestrialkingdomoflove,ofwhichtheearlyChristiancommunitywasalreadysupposedto representanenclave.ThekingdomoftheotherworldwasinterpretedasotherworldlyonlyafterthecatastropheoftheCross,andaboveallafterthePilatesand especiallytheNeroshadbecomeChristiansthemselvessincefortherulingclasseverythingdependedondefusingthecommunismofloveandrenderingitasspiritual aspossible.ThekingdomofthisworldwasforJesusthekingdomoftheDevil(John8,44),whichispreciselywhyhenowherestatedthatitshouldbeallowedto persistheneverconcludedanoninterventionpactwithit.Armedforceisrejected,thoughnotalways:Icamenottosendpeace,butasword(Matthew10,34) buttherejectionofarmedforce,intheSermonontheMount,significantlyplacestheKingdomofHeavenatitsimmediateendineveryBeatitude(Matthew5,3 10).SoarmedforceisrejectedbecauseitissuperfluousforJesustheapocalypticthinker,becauseitisalreadyobsolete.Heexpectsanupheavalwhichwillleaveno stonestandingonanotheranyway,andheexpectsitatanymoment,fromnature,fromthesuperweaponofacosmiccatastrophe.Theeschatologicalsermonhas precedenceforJesusoverthemoraloneanddeterminesit.Themoneychangerswill

Page501 notonlybedrivenoutofthetemplewithawhip,asJesusdidtothem,butthewholestateandtemplewillfall,totally,throughacatastrophe,beforelong.Thegreat eschatologicalchapter(Mark13)isoneofthebestattestedintheNewTestamentwithoutthisutopia,theSermonontheMountcannotbeunderstoodatall.Iftheold fortressistobesosoonandsototallyrazedtotheground,theneconomicquestionsalsoseempointlesstoJesus,whoregardedthepresentaeonasfinishedinany caseandbelievedintheimmediatelyimminentcosmiccatastrophethusthephraseabouttheliliesofthefieldismuchlessnaive,oratleastsurprisinganddisparateon quiteadifferentlevel,thanitappears.Andtheinstruction:RenderthereforeuntoCaesarthethingswhichareCaesar'sanduntoGodthethingsthatareGod'swas utteredbyJesusoutofcontemptforthestateandwithaviewtoitsspeedydestruction,notasacompromise,asStPaulwouldhaveit.Anaturalcatastropheisof courseasubstituteforrevolution,butanextremelyextensiveone,andinthisappealtotheLastJudgmentitdoesofcoursedefuseeveryrealrevolt,asitdoesevenin theaccountoftheoldservantinCabalandLove(Act2,Scene2),*butitstilldidnotmakeanytrucewiththeexistingworld,therewasnoforgettingthefuture aeon.ThecatastropheofthekingdomofthisworldisevencruellyfulfilledaccordingtoJesus,thereislittlemoretalkoflovingone'senemieswhenitcomestotheLast Judgment.ThenewteamoweditsallegiancesolelytoJesusthenewsocialcommunity,redeemedfromthepreviousaeon,existsthroughhim,inhim,forhim.Iamthe vine,yearethebranches(John15,5),thefounderhadordainedthusJesusmergedintothecommunityjustasmuchasheencompassedit.Inasmuchasyehave doneituntooneoftheleastofthesemybrethren,yehavedoneituntome(Matthew25,40):thissayinggroundsthesocialutopiaintendedbytheearlyChristiansin itscommunismofloveandintheInternationalofwhateverbearsahumanface,howeverpoor.Thesayingalsoadds,inamomentousway,anelementthatwas completelylackingintheStoics:asocialmissionfrombelowandamythicallypowerfulpersontowatchoverit.Evenwherethesocialmissionhadalmostdisappeared, asinthecaseofAugustine,theoppositiontothepowerofthisexistingworldandtoitsmisanthropiccontentremainedpredominantthroughoutallchurchbuildingand allcompromises.AsitcertainlydidintheChristianrevolutions,bearinginmindthekillingoftheEgyptianoverseer,theexodus,thethunderingprophets,theexpulsion ofthemoneychangers *AplaybySchiller.

Page502 andthepromisetothosethatlabourandareheavyladen.TheBibledidnotelaborateanysocialutopia,anditiscertainlynotexhaustedbythelatter,nordoesit constituteitsdecisivevaluetobelievethatwouldbebothafalseoverestimationoftheBibleandashallowapproach.Christianityisnotjustanoutcryagainst deprivation,itisanoutcryagainstdeathandthevoid,andinsertstheSonofManintoboth.ButeveniftheBiblecontainsnoelaboratedsocialutopia,itdoespoint mostvehemently,inbothnegativeandpositiveterms,tothisexodusandthiskingdom.Andwhenthescoutstoldofthelandflowingwithmilkandhoney,therewasno shortageeitherofwarriorswhowantedtoconquerit,norafterwards,whenthelandprovedtobenoCanaan,oftoughandardentdreamerswhosoughtforitfurther andfurtherafield,lavishedmoreandmorestirringsuperlativesonit,andwantedtobringiteverclosertomankind.NomercywasshowntothegreatBabel:Babylon thegreatisfallen,isfallenAndthekingsoftheearthshallbewailher,andlamentforherAndthemerchantsoftheearthshallweepandmournoverherfor nomanbuyeththeirmerchandiseanymore(Revelation18,2ff.).ButthekingdomisnowhereregardedintheBibleasabaptizedBabel,notevenasAugustinelater regardedthemillenniumasaChurch. Augustine'sCityofGodfromrebirth NearlyalltheforwarddreamsoftheGreekswerewellandtrulydirectedtowardsthisworld.Lifeitself,withoutanyoutsidecontribution,wastobeimprovedinthem, inasensiblethoughcolourfulway.Eventhedistantislandsinthepaganwishfulimagelayinastillcoherentworld,togetherwiththeirhappiness.Thishappiness,withits institutions,wasimmanentlyinsertedintoexistinglife,andheldupasanexampletoit.ButtotheRomewhichwasgoingtopiecesnothingcouldbesetupasan exampleofanimmanentkindanymore.Acompletelydifferentexample,somethingcompletelynew,waslongedforintheend,inthecompetitionbetweenvarious salvations,PaulineChristianitymakingpoliticaluseofthisnewelementwastriumphant.Jesushadbynomeansdemandedtheleap,aswehaveseen,outofthis worldintoinwardnessandtheotherworld,butthefreshleapontoanewearth.TheChristianutopianwishforcommunityformedaroundthecoreofJesus,thoughin suchawaythatitshiftedmoreandmoreintotheotherworld,intoaninwardlytranscendentalgathering,andemptypromises.Insteadofaradicalrenewalofthis

Page503 world,aninstituteoftheotherworldappeared:theChurchanditappliedtheChristiansocialutopiatoitself.ThiswasjoinedbyreferencestotheStoicutopia,inthe formofthesuperiorstate,asalreadytaughtbyChrysipposhisoecumeneapartfromtheRomanEmpireprovidedtheframework.Butitwaspreciselyinthe Stoicutopiathattheleapintothenewwaslacking:theordinaryworldwaspresentedascompleteinitself.Unable,andinthewholedispositionofantiquityalso unwilling,todevelopnewdispositions,tasks,letalonebreakthroughsfromwithinitself.Forthisanimpulsetowardsexoduswasnecessarywhichwasnottobefound onpagansoil.OnlytheimpulseofJesuscancelledwhatwascomplete,positedtheexplosive:thecityofreason,intheworld,withZeus,becamethecityofGod, againsttheworld,withChrist.Augustine'sutopiaDecivitateDei(around425)gavethemostpowerfulutopianexpression,thoughofcoursealsoaChurchbuilding one,tothenewearthasanotherworldonearth. Earthlywishescanonlybeconsideredincidentallyhere,canneverbefulfilled.Theyarebad,assuchtheyhavehadtheirflinguptillnow,drivenoffcoursefromtheright life.Theirlocationisthesecularstate,andthewillthatmakesthelatteriswicked.Thusitcannotbeimproved,itmustbeconverted,boththepreviouswillandthe previousstate.ThetargetofthisconversionisJesus,thoughtobeginwithAugustinestilladmitsthenecessitywhichcompelsthegoodtolivetogetherwiththewicked. Theirtwostatesarestillintertwined,andtheholydesiredonemustaccepttheeviloftheunholyoneforthetimebeing.Thoughatthispoint(Augustineisstilladisciple ofthePaulinesocialcompromisethroughout,here)thisFatheroftheChurchevengoessofarastocondoneslavery,whichalmostalltheStoicshadrejected.Ourduty istobecontented,itisstillbettertoserveaforeignmasterthanourownlusts.Augustinefurtherascribestherightofpunishmenttotheexistingauthorities,asagood paterfamiliasnooneknowswhyandthiseveninconnectionwithsocalledsalvationhistory.Forthesecularstateisthebadone,butnottheworstbelowthe civitasterrenathereisstillthecompletelydiabolicalprimordialcondition,theanarchicone.Accordinglythereis,ifnotsalvationhistory,thencertainlyhealinghistory* evenintheexistingstatesonearthhomeandfamilyofferthefirstrefugetribalassociationandcitystate(civitasasurbs)thesecond,andtheinternationalstateof peoples(civitasasorbis) *BlochisherepunningonthewordsHeilsgeschichte(aninterpretationofhistorystressingGod'splanofsalvationwithinit)andHeilungsgeschichte(theprocessof historyhealingitself).

Page504 thethird.TheRomanEmpireisinstantlyrecognizableinthisinternationalstate,theverysameEmpirewhichAugustinecontemptuouslyopposesfromthestandpointof theutopiaofthecivitasDei.UnlikeotherFathersoftheChurch,particularlyTertullian,AugustinehasnolongingforaninitialGoldenAge,whichforhimliesbefore everykindofcivitaswhatsoever,andishenceneverotherwisedescribedthanasadiabolicalanimalkingdom.Butinstead,thepracticalprinceoftheChurchagainst thatantithesisofcivitasterrenaandcivitasDeitobediscussedinamomenttooktheRomanEmpireasthebasisoftheecclesiasticaloecumene.Almostasthelater StoicsconnectedRomewiththeirsuperiorstatewiththedifferencethoughthatthissuperiorstatewaspoliticallypowerlessinRome.WhereasAugustineplacedthe ChurchabovetheEmpire,andcouldalmostactuallydoso,placedthesuperiorhomeofsalvationsupposedlysetupbyChristabovethedubioushomeofhealing.This markstheendoftherelativerecognitionoftheearthlystateinAugustinecircumstanceswerenotyetconducivetoamoreextensivelevelling.Therelationsbetween churchandstatewereasyetsolittleconsolidatedthatAugustineasaccomplisheroftheChristianutopiaisindirectoppositiontothepracticalprinceoftheChurch. TheshrewdthoughdisgustedadmirationforRomegiveswayinthefurtherprogressofthecivitasDeitototallydualistichatred,adoptingthetensionbetweennightand light,OrmuzdandAhrimanfromAugustine'sManichaeanyouth.IfJesusandJesusaloneisthetargetofthisconversion,ifthereisonlysalvationhistoryandnohealing history:thenthehistoricalstates,includingRome,areexclusivelyenemiesofChristtheythemselves,notjusttheanarchyfromwhichtheyarise,arethekingdomofthe Devil.ThisisthedecisiveideainAugustine'swork,beyonditscompromise,anditispresentedasaprocess:politicalutopiaappearsforthefirsttimeashistory,indeed generatesit,historyemergesassalvationhistorytowardsthekingdom,asanunbrokenuniformprocess,harnessedbetweenAdamandJesus,onthebasisoftheStoic unityofthehumanraceandtheChristiansalvationitistoattain.Sotwostateshavealwaysbeenstrugglingirreconcilablywithoneanotherinhumanity,thecivitas terrenaandthecivitasDei,thecommunityofsinnershostiletoGodandthatofthechosenones(chosenbydivinegrace).Augustine'sphilosophyofhistoryclaimstobe arecordofthisstruggle:theselfdecayoftheearthlystates,thebuddingvictoryofthekingdomofChristareantitheticallyelucidatedbymeansofforcefulexamples. ThefirstpartoftheworkDecivitateDei(Augustinehimselfcallsitamagnumopusetstrenuum),inBooks110,containsacritiqueofpolytheisticpaganismas such:thepagangods

Page505 andthesoulnothingelse?nothingelseatall).Soacuteisthetensionatworkwithinhim,stemmingfromtheManichaeanconvictionsofhisyouth,betweenthegodof lightandthegodofnight,betweenOrmuzdandAhriman,apoliticaltension.TheCityofGodisanark,oftenalsoamerecatacombhiddenoverandoveragainits revelationoccursonlyattheendofpresenthistory.WhichiswhyeventheChurchdoesnotcompletelycoincidewiththecivitasDei,atleastsincetheChurchextended therightofforgivenessofsinstomortalsinaswell,andalsotoapostates(sincetheDecianpersecutionoftheChristians),andconsequentlycomprisesaverymixed society.OnlyasthenumberoftheChosen,asthecorpusverum,istheChurchwhollytheCityofGod,whereastheexistingChurch,asthecorpuspermixtumofsinners andChosen,doesnotcoincidewiththeCityofGod,butonlybordersonitinapreparatoryway.TheexistingChurchdoesofcoursecoincideinAugustinewiththe millennium,asthefirstawakening,thefirstresurrectionbeforetheseconddefinitiveone(Revelation30,5f.)thisfirstawakeningisinitiatedandmaintainedbythe Church'smeansofgrace.Chiliasmistherebydefused,yetcivitasDeiisnothandedovertotheexistingChurchinstead,civitasDeibuildsitselfupforheavenfromAbel onwards,infragments,andonlyrevealsitselfascompletewiththeappearanceoftheKingdom.CivitasDeiisafoundationlikePlato'sidealpolis,butmoreconsistently thanthelatterinitscompleteorderlinessitisnotconceivedasbeingfoundedbymenbutasbeingfoundedinaGodoforder.Everyutopiaoforderofapurekind,so thatitdoesnotfallintotheoppositeofitsorder,namelyintothemerelyarrangedandnotorderedcharacterofchanceorfate,TycheorMoira,presupposesan economyofsalvationwhichfoundstheorderandinwhichtheutopiaitselfisfounded.Thisfundamentoftranscendentallycommunicatedorinspiredorder,withoutany admixtureofchanceandMoira,wasnottobefoundinPlato'sideaofthepolisandgodofthepolis,norinthatoftheStoicsitwasonlytobefoundintheChristian conceptofGod.Itisnotinandnotbehindtheexistingworld,butafteritthatthecivitasDei,asthetimelesselapsedpolisinitshighestform,becomescompletely manifest.Andthebasicutopiangoalofsociety,towardswhichonlytheChurchcanleadus,remainstheacquisitionofthedivineimageforman(Deciv.DeiXXII). Thisistheradicallysupratemporaldirectingandorderingprincipleoftheoneandonlybeststateasagainsttheothers,thesystemsofsin.CivitasDeiwasquiteliterally conceivedasapieceofheavenonearth,fromtheangleofhappinessandaboveallfromthatofcleanliness,whichdoesnotmakepeopleintoangelsofcourse,butinto saints,and

Page507 thusintosomethinggreateraccordingtoCatholicdoctrine.Augustine'sdarkpessimismwithregardtotheworldlylifeofthestateiscounteredbyakindofpriestishly ardentyetspacemaking,andeveninthefollowingperiodrichlysecularizableoptimismofthecivitasDei,foundedontheexistenceofsaintsandtheirgrowthinthe Church.CastingofftheworksoftheoldAdam,puttingonChrist,inshortthehopesforaspiritualrebirthofmoreandmorepeople,thusbecameautopianpolitical issueinAugustine'sCityofGod. Andyetitisstrangehowthesedreamsarenotautomaticallydirectedtowardsthefuture.Theyrushaheadasanywhereelse,butthefutureapparentlycloaksitselfin presentexistence.Thequestionthusbecomespossible:iscivitasDeistrictlyspeakingautopia?Orisitthemanifestationofanalreadyexistingtranscendencecirculating inthisworld?IsthewakingdreamofasociallyNotYetBecomereallydevelopedhere,orisafinishedtranscendentalwhole(ecclesiaperennis)sunkintotheworld? OftenofcoursetheCityofGodseemstobeonlygerminatinginAugustine'shistory,andthereforefutureutopian.Butitoftenalsoseemstobeanexistinggreatpower, greatantipower,whichhascomeintoexistenceinthesamewayastheotherdramatispersona,theCityoftheDevil.CivitasDeiiscelebratedintheworkofAugustine asalmostpresent,intheJewishLevitestateandintheChurchofChrist.Preciselysuchapowerfuldreamofthefutureasthatofthemillenniumissacrificedtothe Church,inwhichitissupposedtobealreadyfulfilled.AndamajorpointhereisthattheexistenceofthecivitasDeiultimatelyposesasafixedpatternofgrace, embracingthepredestinedchosenfew.Whethertheywishtobecitizensornot,whethertheyaspireto,dreamof,orworkforthekingdomofGodornot.Onecanno moreworkforthekingdomofGodthanforanyothergoodinAugustine'stheology,itcomesfromgraceandexistsbyvirtueofgrace,notofgoodworks.Thanksto divinepredestinationtheoutcomeofhistoricaldiscrepancy(betweencivitasterrenaandcivitasDei)isalsofixedfromthestartjustlikegrace,itscontentoflightand heavenisirresistiblyvictorious.AllthisactuallydistancesAugustine'sidealstatefromthetrulyutopianwillandconceptualplan:andyetthecivitasDeiisautopia.Itisof coursenotonewhichwillschange,accordingtoAugustinethereisjustonefreedom,thatofpsychologicalwillingtowill,butsinceAdam'sfallthereisnofreedomof moralabilitytowill(nonpossumusnonpeccare).Butasgracestirsmannotmerelytodogoodbuttobepreparedtodogood,sothecityofGodmarchesaheadof manandisanactiveutopianforcewithinhimasanexpectationpredestined

Page508 inthechosenfew.Anditsbasicsubstanceisthatthecommunityofperfectindividualsandsaintsonearthappears,aswerecall,onlyattheendofpresenthistory. CivitasDeionlywhollyemergeswhenthesecularstategoestothedevil,towhomitbelongs.ThuscivitasDeidoesnotmerelycirculateinhistoryasadistinctdramatis persona,itisalsoproduced,ormorecautiously:turnedout,byhistoryastheacquisitionofthedivineimage.Andithoversabovethehistoricalprocessasawhole,it istheeternalcorporation,wherenobodyisbornbecausenobodydies,wheretrueandstronghappinessprevails,wherethesundoesnotriseonthegoodandthe wickedalike,butthesunofjusticeshinesonthegoodalone(Deciv.DeiV).Thisiscertainlytranscendence,butnotonewhichhasafixedexistenceandthus contradictsutopia.Socialisvitasanctorumishistoricalutopiantranscendence,sinceitis,incontrasttoStPaul's,locatedontheearthagain.StPaulalsousesthe expressioncityofGod,butasischaracteristicoftheroadfromJesustoStPaulinthepurelytranscendentalsenseasastateintheheavens,cutoffupabove Augustineontheotherhandpositssomethinglikeanewearthagain.Thisispreciselywhyhistranscendencecanbeutopian,foritisentwinedwiththeproductivehope ofhumanhistory,experiencescontact,dangerandtriumphwithinit,andnot,likepuretranscendence,alreadyadetermination,i.eFixum.Consequently,civitasDeiin Augustineisonlypresentasaboneofcontentionandahighlythreatenedpreappearance:itwillonlybeautopiaattheendofpresenthistory.IndeedAugustinesetsa furthergoalevenfortheperfectcityofGodittooisonlyapreliminarystagetowardsthisgoal.ForcivitasDeiisnotthekingdomwhichisaskedforintheLord's PrayerthiskingdomiscalledregnumChristiintheworkofAugustine.CivitasDeiisadmittedlyalsocalledthisoccasionally,withapologeticembellishment,butthe regnumisnevercalledcivitasinAugustineforitnolongerstandswithintime.SojustasthearthlySabbathforAugustineisautopianfestivalinexpectationofthe heavenlyone,civitasDei,whichonlyseeminglyexistsascomplete,itselfstillcontainsitsutopiawithinit:namelyregnumChristiasthefinal,heavenlySabbath.The seventhdayofCreationstillremainsopen,aboveitAugustineplacedpreciselythemostcentralutopianstatement:Weourselveswillbetheseventhday,Diesseptimus nosipsierimus(Deciv.DeiXXII).Thisisakindoftranscendencewhich,whenithasbrokenthroughinman,simultaneouslyarouseshisdesire,contraryto Augustine'sunderstanding,tohavemadethebreakthroughhimself.TheallegedfactthatWecannotnotsin(nonpossumusnonpeccare)waslittlehindrancehere, especiallyastheradical

Page509 moralunfreedomofthewilldidnotevengainacceptanceintheChurch.ThedefusingofthemillenniumintotheChurchwaslittlehindrance,especiallyascivitasDei, beingsuchahighvision,constantlygavethelietothecorruptingChurch'sclaimtobethemillennium.Chiliasmbrokeoutinallperiodsofunrestagain,thekingdomof GodonearthbecametherevolutionarymagicformulathroughouttheMiddleAgesandtheearlymodernera,rightuptothepiousradicalismintheEnglishrevolution. CivitasDeiintheworkofAugustinehimselfismorelastinginitsdefinitionofthepowerstatesthaninitsapologiafortheChurch,morelastinginitsutopiaof brotherlinessthaninitstheologyoftheFather.HumanbeingswerehenceforthutopianizedasbrothersevenwhereaFatherwasnotbelievedinanymorecivitasDei remainedapoliticalwishfulimageevenwithoutGod. JoachimofFiore,thethirdgospelanditskingdom Italldependedonwhetherpeoplewereseriousaboutwhattheywereexpecting.Therevolutionarymovementswereinthisposition,andtheycreatedanewimageof thekingdom.Theyalsotaughtanotherkindofhistory,onewhichanimatedtheimageandheldoutthepromiseofitsincarnation.Themostmomentoussocialutopiaof theMiddleAgeswasdrawnupbytheCalabrianabbotJoachimofFiore(around1200).HewasnottryingtopurgetheChurch,oreventhestate,oftheiratrocities theywereabolishedinstead.Andtheextinguishedgospelwasrekindled,orrathertheluxnovawithinit:whatwascalledbytheJoachitestheThirdKingdom.Joachim teachesthattherearethreestagesofhistory,andeachoneisclosertotheviablebreakthroughofthekingdom.ThefirststageisthatoftheFather,theOldTestament, offearandofknownLaw.ThesecondstageisthatoftheSonortheNewTestament,ofloveandtheChurch,whichisdividedintoclericsandthelaity.Thethird stage,whichisyettocome,isthatoftheHolySpiritortheilluminationofall,inmysticaldemocracy,withoutmastersandChurch.ThefirstTestamentgavethegrass, thesecondtheears,andthethirdwillbringthewheat.Joachimelaboratesonthissequenceinmanyways,mostlywithdirectreferencetohisage,believedtobeafinal apocalypticage,andwiththepoliticalprognosisthatthemastersandthepriestswillnolongerbeable,andthelaitywillnotwant,togoonlivingasbefore.Joachim's sermonsthusdealt,inanearlybourgeoisvisionaryway,withthecurseandradicalendofthecorruptfeudalandecclesiasticalkingdomwithanangerbornofhope,a satisest,whichhadhardlybeenheardsincethedaysofJohn

Page510 theBaptist.Thisalsoaccountsforthestrengthofthewatchwordsinhisthreecategories:theageofruleandfear=theOldTestament,theageofgrace=theNew Testament,theageofspiritualperfectionandlove=therisingfinalkingdom(Tresdeniquemundistatus:primuminquofuimussublege,secunduminquosumussub gratia,tertiumquodevidnoexpectamussubampliorigratiaPrimusergostatusinscientiafuit,secundusinproprietatesapientiae,tertiusinplenitudineintellectus).* TwopersonsoftheTrinityhavealreadyappeared,thethird:theHolySpirit,canbeexpectedatanabsolutePentecost.TheideaofthethirdTestament,whichJoachim thuselaboratesinhisworkDeconcordiautriusquetestamend,goesbackinitsfoundationsbutnotinitssocialutopianpowertothethirdcentury,toOrigen, theFatheroftheChurchbynomeanscanonizedbyhisChurch.ForthelatterhadtaughtthattherewerethreepossiblewaysofinterpretingtheChristianrecords:a physicalone,amentalone,andaspiritualone.Thephysicalinterpretationistheliteralone,thementalinterpretationthemoralallegoricalone,butthespiritual interpretation(pneumatointusdocente)revealswhatismeantintheScripturesbytheeternalgospel.Atthesametimethough,thisthirdgospelwasforOrigenonlya modeofinterpretation,eventhoughthehighest,itwasnotitselfintheprocessofdeveloping,withintime.NordidthethirdgospelinOrigenemergefromtheNew Testament,asonewhichwasgivenascompletetotheendoftime.Joachim'sgreatnessconsistsinhavingtransformedthetraditionaltrinityofmereviewpointsintoa threefoldgradationwithinhistoryitself.Connectedwiththis,andwithevenmoremomentousconsequences,wasthecompletetransferofthekingdomoflightfromthe otherworldandtheemptypromisesoftheotherworldintohistory,eventhoughintoafinalstateofhistory.TheidealcommunitylayforIamboulos(aslaterforMore, Campanellaandoftenlaterforothers)onadistantisland,andforAugustineintranscendence:bututopiaforJoachim,asfortheprophets,appearsexclusivelyinthe modeandasthestatusofhistoricalfuture.Joachim'schosenfewarethepoor,andtheyaretogotoparadiseinthelivingbody,notjustasspirits.Inthesocietyofthe thirdTestamenttherearenoclassesanymoretherewillbeanageofmonks,thatisuniversalizedmonasticandconsumercommunism,anageofthefreespirit,that isspiritual
* Therearethreestatesoftheworld:thefirstinwhichwewereunderthelaw,thesecondinwhichweareingrace,thethirdwenextexpectinwhichwewillbein

expandedgraceThusthefirststatewasinknowledge,thesecondinpossessionofwisdom,thethirdinthefullnessofintellect. withthespiritteachingusfromwithin.

Page511 illumination,withoutsundering,sinandtheworldthatgoeswithit.Thebodytootherebybecomesguiltlesslyhappy,asintheoriginalstateofparadise,andthefrozen earthisfilledwiththeappearanceofasacredMay.ThereisahymnbytheJoachiteTelesphorus(endofthefourteenthcentury)whichbegins:Ovitavitalis,dulciset amabilis,sempermemorabilisOlivelylife,sweetandlovable,alwaysmemorablethelibertasamicorumisnotpuritanical.Itsthemeispreciselytheexodus fromfearandservitudeortheLawanditsstate,theexodusfromtheruleofclericsandtheimmaturityofthelaityorlovinggraceanditsChurchsoJoachim'sdoctrine, withitsbandofbrothers,isnotaflightfromrealityintoheavenandtheotherworld.Onthecontrary:thekingdomofChristisforJoachimmoredecidedlyofthisworld thananythingsincethedaysofearlyChristianity.JesusisonceagaintheMessiahofanewearth,andChristianityoperatesinreality,notjustinritualandempty promisesitoperateswithoutmastersandproperty,inmysticaldemocracy.Thisiswhatthethirdgospelanditskingdomaimtoachieve,evenJesusceasestobea leader,hedissolveshimselfinthesocietasamicorum. Itishardlypossibletodetermineallthepathstakenbythisextremelyhistoricallyorienteddream.Itspreadthroughlongperiodsandintofaroffcountries,genuineand forgedworksbyJoachimwerecirculatedforcenturies.TheyspreadtoBohemiaandGermany,andalsotoRussia,theearlyChristianorientedsectsshowclear influencesofCalabrianpreachingthere.ThekingdomofGodinBohemiaasitdidahundredyearslaterfortheAnabaptistsinGermanysignifiedJoachim'scivitas Christi.Behinditlaythemiserywhichhadlongprevailed,withinitlaythemillenniumwhosearrivalwasintheair:thuspeoplestruckouttogreetit.Veryparticular attentionwaspaidtotheabolitionofrichandpoor,thepreachingoftheapparentfanaticstookthenotionoffraternitybythepocketandatitsword.Augustinehad written:TheCityofGodattractscitizensduringitstravelsonearthandgathersfriendlypilgrimsinallnationswithoutregardtothedifferencesincustoms,lawsand institutionswhichpromoteacquisitionandsafeguardingofearthlypeace(Deciv.DeiXIX).TheCityofGodoftheJoachites,ontheotherhand,turnedaverysharp regardoninstitutionswhichpromotedacquisitionandexploitation,anditpractisedthattolerancewhichwasnecessarilyalientoanInternationaloftheChurch,namely towardsJewsandheathens.ThecitizenshipoftheforthcomingCityofGodwasnotdeterminedbybaptismbutbyperceivingthefraternalspiritintheinnerword. AccordingtoThomasMnzer'sgreatsupraChristiandefinition,thefuturekingdomwillbeformedofallthechosenonesamongallscatteringsorracesofeverykind offaith.Joachim'sThird

Page512 Kingdomclearlycontinuestoexertaninfluencehere:Youshouldknow,saysMiinzerinhisworkOnfictionalfaith,praisingthetestimonyofthegenuineChristian againstthelackeysofprincesandagainstscribblingpriests,YoushouldknowthattheyascribethisdoctrinetotheAbbotJoachimandcallitaneternalgospelwith greatscorn.TheGermanPeasantWarverymuchdispelledthisscorneventheradicalsoftheEnglishrevolution,theagrariancommunistDiggers,themillenariansand FifthmonarchymenallbearthelegacyofbothJoachimandtheBaptists.OnlywhentheJoachiteTaboritespiritwaseliminatedfromtheBaptistmovement,byMenno Simons,didthewesternsects,andnotjusttheMennonites,becomequiet,particularlyquiet,evangelicalcommunities.Buteventheotherirredenta,thatwhichwas detachedfromtheBaptistmovement,theincipientlyrational,nolongerirrationalutopiaofthemodernage,abandonedthemillenniumPlatoandtheStoicstriumphed overJoachimofFiore,evenoverAugustine.Inthiswayagreaterprecisionofinstitutionaldetailsdevelopedinutopias,aconnectionwithbourgeoisemancipation arose,whichwasalreadyfullyutopianizedintosocialisttendencies,buttheelementsofafinalpurposeandfinalgoal,ascontainedinJoachim'sutopia,weretoned down.TheywereturnedintheworkofrationalutopianslikeThomasMore,andalsoCampanellaintosocialharmonyaliberalorevenanauthoritativefuture statethusbecameheirtothemillennium.ThemythologizingChristianwayofthinkinginthemedievalChristianutopiascertainlydidnotspecifytheelementofafinal purpose,butnordiditeverlosesightofit.Itpersistedinthefermenting,dreamladenreddawnwhichfilledtheJoachiteandtheBaptistutopiatothebrimandturned thewholeskyintoaneasternglow.ThiswayofthinkinghadlesselaboratedsocialutopiathanPlatoortheStoics,letalonetherationalconstructionsofthemodern age,butithadmoreutopianconscienceinitsutopiathantheydid.ConscienceandtheproblemofthefinalWhatForthusremainindebtedtothechiliasticutopiasquite independentlyoftheintolerablymythologicaldesignationsoftheircontent.AndJoachimwascogentlythespiritofChristianrevolutionarysocialutopia:itwasinthis spiritthathetaughtandcontinuedtohaveaninfluence.HefirstsetadeadlinefortheKingdomofGod,namelyforthecommunistone,andcalledonpeopletoobserve it.HedeposedthetheologyoftheFather,relegatedittotheageoffearandservitude,butdissolvedChristintoacommune.Hereasnowhereelsethesocialexpectation wasinearnestwhichJesushadplacedinthenewaeonandwhichhadbeenturnedintohypocrisyandclichbytheChurch.OrasMarxsaysquiterightlyon

Page513 obsequiousnesswhichtheoldaeonneedsinitsvictims,butwithoutthedayofjudgmentandthetriumphoverBabel,withoutintendingtowardsanewheavenanda newearth.Resignationtofear,servitudeandemptypromisesoftheotherworldarethesocialprinciplesofaChristianitywhicharedespisedbyMarxandcastinto OrcusbyJoachimbuttheyarenottheprinciplesofalongabandonedearlyChristianityandasocialrevolutionaryhistoryofheresiesthatsprangfromit.Inhis expectationofthekingdom,JoachimofFioremerelyexpressesthecontinuinginfluencethroughthecenturiesoftheeschatologicalpreachingsofChrist,whathesaid aboutafutureSpiritoftruth(John16,13),andwhatdidnotseemtobeconcludedwiththefirstpouringoutoftheHolySpiritatPentecost(Acts2,14).The westernChurchdeclaredsuchthingstobeconcluded,theonlythingthatwasunconcludedwasitscompromisewiththeclasssocietytheeasternChurchatleastleft openacontinuationofthispouringout.AftertheLateranCouncilof1215,thewesternChurchputallmonasteriesunderthespiritualcontroloftheirdiocesanbishop evenafterithadadoptedthewesternorderofthesacraments,theeasternChurchhadtoallowacharismaticandoftenhereticalindependencetomonasticism,andthe sects.ThewesternChurchconfinedenthusiasmtoapostlesandtheancientmartyrs,inordertodepriveAdventistbeliefsofanykindofsanctiontheeasternChurch,on theotherhand,whichissomuchlessthoroughlyorganized,teachesacontinuingpresenceoftheSpiritoutsidethepriestlyChurch,amongbothmonksandlaymen.It thuslacksthemonopolyofadministeringthehost,thewholelegallyestablishedorscrewedinbusinessofredemptionRussianOrthodoxyundertheTsarswastoo ignorantforthisanyway,ithadnoscholasticism,letalonethelegalsharpnessanddogmaticformulationsofscholasticism.Instead,outofreachoftheHolySynod,a constantunwrittenessenceofJoachimofFiorelivedoninRussianChristianity:itlivedonintheeasilykindledfeelingofbrotherhood,intheAdventistbeliefsofthe sects(thesectoftheChlystshasadoctrineofRussianChrists,ofwhichitlistsseven),inthebasicmotifunderlyingeverything:intheunconcludedrevelation.Several greatpeculiaritieswerethusabletospringupinChristoromanticfashiononBolshevistsoiltheindisputableBolshevikandequallyindisputablechiliastAlexanderBlok gaveanindicationofthis,thoroughlyintheJoachitespirit.WheninBlok'shymn,theMarchoftheTwelve,thatis,ofthetwelveRedArmysoldiers,apaleChrist precedestherevolutionandleadsit,thiskindofpresenceoftheSpiritisjustasremotefromthewesternChurchcombinesasitfindstheeasternChurchatleast theologically

Page515 opentoit.Onlythehereticalsects,withJoachimamongthem,allowedrevelationtospringupaneweveninthewest,andtheHolySpiritaccordinglyrecommended astonishingPentecoststothem.ItrecommendedsocialprinciplesofChristianitywhich,astheexampleofThomasMnzerindicates,werenotcringinganddidnottreat theproletariatasarabble.ThiswashereticalChristianityandultimatelyrevolutionaryAdventistutopiawiththesocialprinciplesofBaaltheywouldnothavearisen. TheyblossomedinthepreachingofJoachim,tosuchanextentthatasingleantithesisexposedthemasters'Churchhere:Theydeckthealtars,andthepoorman suffersbitterhunger.Thisveryantithesissounds,aswehaveseen,asifitwasfromtheBible,fromAmos,fromIsaiah,fromtheJesusquotedbyMnzer.Infacteven theidealstatesconstructedoutofpurereason,whichpreparedthewayforsocialismfromthesixteenthcenturyon,arethemselves,foralltheirrationality,stillbuiltinto thethirdaeon.Theynolongerkeepthisspaceoccupied,buttheystillkeepit,despiteanunspokenfinality,atbottom:therearenosuchutopiaswithoutan unconditionalelement.Thewilltohappinessspeaksforitself,buttheplans,orcontemporaryimagesofaNewMoralWorldspeakdifferently,i.e.chiliastically. Howeversecularizedandfinally,eventually,setonitsfeet,thesocialutopiasinceJoachimhasthesocietasamicorumwithinit,thisChristlikenessturnedintoasociety. Happiness,freedom,order,thewholeregnumhominis,resoundwithit,initsutopianapplication.AremarkbytheyoungEngelsin1842(MEGAI,2,p.225f.) containsanechofromJoachim,onlyafewyearsbeforetheCommunistManifesto:Theselfconfidenceofhumanity,thenewGrailaroundwhosethronethenations jubilantlygatherThisisourvocation:tobecometheTemplarsofthisGrail,togirdourswordsaboutourloinsforitssakeandcheerfullyriskourlivesinthelastholy war,whichwillbefollowedbythemillenniumoffreedom.UtopianunconditionalitycomesfromtheBibleandtheideaofthekingdom,andthelatterremainedtheapse ofeveryNewMoralWorld. ThomasMoreortheutopiaofsocialfreedom Thebourgeoiscitizengotmoving,wentinsearchofhisOwn,inwhichhecouldflourish.Hewasinfavourofwork,makingwayforefficiency,andtheendofclass differences.TheworkoftheEnglishChancellorThomasMore,DeoptimoreipublicaestatusivedenovainsulaUtopia(Concerningthebestconditionofthestateor concerningthenewislandofUtopia),

Page516 appearedin1516.Forthefirsttimeinagesthedreamofthebeststateishereonceagainpresentedasakindofsailor'syarn.More'sislandiscalledUtopia,No where,withafine,slightlymelancholic,butacutetitle.TheNowhereisconceivedasapostulatefortheWhereinwhichpeopleactuallyfindthemselves.Onceassured ofnotbeingdisturbed,aglobetrotterheretellshisfriendsaboutthedistanthappyisland.Thesailor'syarnthatMoreusesonceagainfollowingonfromtheutopian fablesofEuemerosandIamboulosisevenbasedonacarefulreportashasbeenproved,inhisbookMoreusedthememoirbyAmerigoVespucciofhissecond voyagetoAmerica.VespuccihadsaidoftheinhabitantsoftheNewWorldthatonlytheredopeoplelivenaturally,thattheyarerathertobecalledEpicureansthan Stoics,andtheyalsomanagewithoutseparateproperty.AndthehumanistPetrusMartyr,acontemporaryhistorianofthenewdiscoveries,praisedtheconditionofthe Americanislandersasonewithoutthecurseofmoney,withoutlawsandunjustjudges.ItmaycomeasasurprisethatThomasMore,thecourtierandthesubsequent martyroftheChurch(againsttheReformerHenryVIII),wassowelldisposedtowardstheprimitivecommunismofthesereportsandfurnishedtheNewIslandof Utopiawithit.Theegalitariantendencies,directedagainstclassprejudices,oftheincipientbourgeoisiemustbetakenintoaccounthereupuntiltheThermidor, equalitywasaseriouswatchword,howeverformalitmayhaveremained,ofcapitalistliberation.InthecenturyoftheUtopiaitself,around1550,ademocraticwork hadbeenwrittenbyafriendofMontaigne:EtiennedeLaBotie'sThecontrarymanorthewilltobondageMoredrewonthesamecontent.Onesentencefromthis rhetoricalbutinterestingworkisenoughtoshowhowlittletheculturedRenaissancehadtobearistocratic:Naturecastusallinthesamemould,sothateachcan recognizealikeness,orrather:hisbrother,intheother.OnemayfurtherpointtotheabsenceofpropertyamongtheupperclassesinPlato'sRepublic,thatbookso highlyesteemedbyhumanistsMore,whodoesnotfollowPlato'sidealstateinotherrespects,takestheideaofrefinedcommunismfromit,butturnsitfromthe privilegeofafewintotherightofall.OnemaypointnotleasttotheChristianMore'slovefortheearlyChristiancommunityitiseasierforacameltopassthroughthe eyeofaneedlethanforarichmantoenterthekingdomofheaven*noPopewillgivedispensationfromthissayingeventothemostfaithfulsonoftheChurch. WhatremainsstrikingthoughistheEpicureanismrevellinginthisworld,whichlikewiseanimatesthe *Matthew19,24.

Page517 communistislanditstandsasanextremelysecularheavenaboveUtopia.Evenmorestrikingistheabolitionofreligiouscontroversy:ThomasMore,since1935asaint oftheCatholicChurch,seemswithhistolerancealmostlikeanearlyRogerWilliams,nottosayVoltaire.CertainlyonthispointheisacloseforerunnerofJeanBodin, theideologist(thoughfordifferentreasons)ofanondenominationalstate.Thissurprisingcontradictionenabledalatebourgeoisienolongerinterestedinutopiastoturn Moresolelyintoachurchmanandtodisinfecthimofanyrevolutionaryodour.Amongotherthingsaphilologistwithcapitalistinterests,HeinrichBrockhaus,furnisheda hypothesiswhichconsiderspreciselythiscommunistEpicureantolerantforeignbodyintheUtopiaandcarefullyeradicatesit.ForaccordingtoBrockhaus(Thomas More'sUtopiawork,1929)More'swork,asitexistsandhashadacontinuinginfluencedownthecenturies,asademocraticcommunistdocument,issupposedtobe aforgery.Accordingtohim,Morewasnottheauthorbutonlytheofficialeditor,orrather:MorealsowroteaUtopia,butwhatwaslatercirculatedunderthisnameis nolongertheoriginalbutadistortionoftheoriginalUtopiaperpetratedbyanotherhand.TheotherhandisthatofErasmusofRotterdamtheEpicureanismofthework originatesfromhim,notfromMore,aswellasthecommunism,thesixhourday,thereligioustolerance.EradicatedbyErasmus,however,wasthemainsharp reformingcontent,thatistosaythenonpolitical,exclusivelyreligiousinterestwhichisallegedlysupposedtohavemotivatedMoreinthedraftingofhisoriginalUtopia. ThisinterestisinterpretedbyBrockhausontheassumptionthatMorewantedtorestoretotheChurchatthelastmomenttheasceticconscienceanditssalutarydignity, ayearbeforethecatastropheoftheviolent,schismaticReformationoccurredin1517.Accordingly,itisnotEnglandthatissupposedtohavebeencriticizedinthe originalUtopiabutthePontificalState,andaboveall:themodelforthisidealwasbynomeanstheprimitivecommuneofAmericanislandersbutthemonasteryon MountAthos.InsteadofEnglandandtheprimitivecommune,MoreissolelysupposedtohavecontrastedthetwocentresofChristianity:RomeandAthosUtopiais nothingotherthanthelandofAthosreconstructedwiththehelpofadditions.HenceitwasnotanoutlineofthebeststatethatMoreintended,inparticularandin general,butareformoftheChurchbutErasmusspoiltthisplanbyspoilingtheplanoftheoriginalUtopia,whichalreadylayreadyfordispatchtothedecisivecouncil intheVatican.ThusBrockhaus'stheorywouldliketoridMoreofthefoulodourofcommunism,aswellasthezestforlife,aswellasreligioustolerance

Page518 allthesemainideasoftheUtopia(whichhavebecomehistoricallyeffective)aredistortionsbyErasmus.Anditisnotasifthiswasacaseofanunimportant exchangeofnamesintheprovinceofthesamework(asintheShakespeareBaconcontroversy,forexample),onthecontrary:theworksthemselvesareasdifferentas afreethinkerandanangel.ThereisactuallyanoriginalUtopia,oneindisputablywrittenbyMore,andthisworkissimplyareligiousdocument,unlikethepoliticaltract byErasmus,thekingdomofUtopiaisnotofthisworldeither.SomuchforBrockhausthesocialbriefofthiskindofphilologyisquiteobvious:oneofthenoblest precursorsofcommunismistohavehiswordscutshort.Butthissuspecthypothesisisusefulinthatitfocusesattentionmoresharplythanbeforeonthecollaborationof Erasmusandtherebyremovesundeniabledifficulties.ThefactthatErasmuseditedtheUtopiabeforeitwasprintedwaswellknowncertainelementsoflightness, indeedofironicplayfulness(whichareinappropriatetoThomasMore)musthavebeenincorporatedbythegreatmanofletters.Erasmuscouldbetolerant,forhehad saidthattheHolySpiritwroteverybadGreekintheNewTestament.Erasmuscouldbeepicurean,forheistheauthorofthemostunprejudicedpedagogical Colloquia(theycontainadidacticdiscussiononthemannersofyoungpeopleinabrothel).ThetoneinthetwopartsoftheUtopiaisalsostrangelydifferent:thefirst partcontainsfiercecondemnationsofsocialconditionsinEngland(certainlynotinthePontificalState),whereasthesecondpart,whichwasafterallsupposedto proclaimtheideal,indulgesinageniallyrefinedmixtureofplayfulnessandseriousness,anditavoidstheexpectedorgantonesofhope.Atanyrate,theThomasMore whodemonstratedbyhismartyr'sdeathwhatitmeanttobelieveinacausedoesnotmerelymakethebeststateintoafairytale,asnotedabove,inharmonywithlate classicalforms,butheinserts,beyondthisharmony,elementsofacourtlydramaticfable.Butaboveall,theThomasMorewhoadvertisesintheUtopiatheresultsof asocialrevolutionisadifferentmantotheonewhoafewyearslater,whenthisrevolutionhadbrokenoutinGermany,defendedtheexistingstate,kingship,theclergy, inshorttheveryfortressofpropertywhichwasmissinginUtopia.Andthecontentforwhichthemartyrultimatelydiedwasnotthatofsocial,letalonereligious tolerancehediedafaithfulsupporterofthepapalChurch,whosememoryhasremainedpreservedsolelyinthisformforCatholicism.Ontopofthisthereare incompatibilitiesintheworkitself,especiallyinitssecondpartdissonancesbynomeansjustbetweenthetoneofacourtlyfableandcommunism,butbetween humanenessandindifference,

Page519 betweensocialparadiseandtheoldclassworld.Thefirstparthadexplainedcrimeintermsofeconomiccauses,andaccordinglydemandedthehumanetreatmentof prisonersthesecondpartrecognizescriminalslavesinthemidstofUtopia,whohavetoperformheavylabourinchains.ThewarfareoftheUtopiansandtheirdesire forannexationseemarelatedinconsistency:Theyregardit,Moreremarks,theyregarditasahighlyjustreasonforwarifanationseekstoprohibittheuseand possessionofland,whichitdoesnotneeditselfbutleavesbarrenandunproductive,byanothernationwhichaccordingtothedictatesofnatureshoulddrawits subsistencefromit.HermannOnckenrightlystressesinhiseditionoftheUtopiathatthismartialpassagenolongerhasanythingwhateverincommonwiththe isolatedandexemplarypeacefulexistenceoftheUtopians,butratherwiththelaterpracticeofEngland:Thecommunistandprimitiveagrarianidealstate,which alreadyrevealeditselfasaclassstateinthequestionofslaves,nowshowsitselftobeastatebasedondominationandpowerpoliticswiththefirstsignsofacapitalist imperialismwhichseemsalmostmodern.ThusUtopiabynomeansappearsofapiece,bynomeansasifithassprungfromonesinglepersonandhissocially consciousloveofChrist.ButtheeminentlyEnglishnatureofmanyoftheseinconsistenciesonceagaindoesnotargueinfavourofErasmusbutshowsthatMoretoo couldaccommodatebreaksinhiswork,andfurtherthattheabolitionofprivateproperty(withallitsconsequences)isananomalywithinbourgeoisanticipationswhich eventhenoblestfaithinChristcannotdisposeof.Dreamsoftheearlybourgeoisie,inwhichthebourgeoishimselfdisappearsasaclass,cannotavoidironyand dissonances.ThustheexplanatoryvalueofBrockhaus'shypothesisisverymuchreducedevenoverandabovethesuspiciousnatureofitssocialbrief:aseriesof difficultiescertainlyarisesnotjustfromtheeditingbyErasmus.NoideologyismoreEnglishthanthatofamorallyjustifiedcolonialwar,astaughtinUtopia,none couldbefurtherfromthemonasticrepubliconMountAthos.TheUtopiaismostprobablyahybridcreationwithtwoauthors,butEnglandisalreadycriticizedby More,notjustbyErasmus,anditisonceagainexclusivelyEngland,notRome,thatistobecomethebeststate.TheUtopiaisandremains,withallitsdross,thefirst modernportraitofdemocraticcommunistwishfuldreams.Inthewombofcapitalistforcesthatwereonlyjustbeginning,afutureandsuprafutureworldanticipated itself:boththatofformaldemocracy,whichdeliverscapitalism,andthatofmaterialhumanedemocracy,whichcancelsitout.Forthefirsttimedemocracywashere linkedinahumanesense,inthesenseofpublicfreedom

Page520 andtolerance,withacollectiveeconomy(alwayseasilythreatenedbybureaucracy,andindeedclericalism).Incontrasttothepreviouslyimaginedcollectivismsofthe beststate,intheworkofThomasMorefreedomiswrittenintothecollective,andgenuinematerialhumanedemocracybecomesitscontent.Thiscontentmakesthe Utopia,insubstantialsections,intoakindofliberalmemorialandmemorablebookofsocialismandcommunism. Peopleareonlymadewickedbydeprivation,whypunishthemsoseverely?Morecommenceswiththisquestion,heimmediatelymakesthesurroundingsresponsible fortheindividual.Thegallowsareappointedforthieves,whereasweshouldmuchratherseetoitthattheycanmakealiving,sothatnoneofthemfacesthedire compulsionoffirsthavingtosteal,andafterwardstodie.Rightnexttothis,Moreportraystheworldwhichallowsthepoormantobecomeguiltyandsetsitselfupasa judge:Howgreatisthenumberofnoblemenwho,themselvesasidleasdrones,liveofftheworkofotherpeople,andmakethemsweatbloodbutontopofthisthey gatheraswarmofwastrelsandsatellitesaroundthem.AndtheendofthefirstpartoftheUtopiastatesopenly:Whereprivateownershipstillexists,whereall peoplemeasureallvaluesbytheyardstickofmoney,itwillhardlyeverbepossibletopursueajustandhappypolicyThuspossessionscertainlycannotbe distributedinanyjustandfairway,andmortalhappinesscannotbeestablishedatall,unlesspropertyisdoneawaywithbeforehand.Aslongasitcontinuestoexist, poverty,toilandcarewillhanginsteadaninescapableburdenonbyfarthebiggestandbyfarthebestpartofhumanity.Theburdenmaybelightenedalittle,butto removeitentirely(withoutabolishingproperty)isimpossible.Moreputsallthesewordsintothemouthoftheglobetrotter,whomheintroducesasareporterfrom Utopiaandwhonow,fromthestandpointofthebeststate,regardstheEnglishoneinhorror.ThecautiousChancellorcallsthemanRaphaelHythlodaeus(which meanswindbag),butRaphaelundoubtedlyrepresentsMore'smostradicalopinions.TheislandofUtopiathen,ofwhichthereportergivesanaccountinthesecond partofthebook,isaboveallahumaneonebecauseitsinhabitantsaresolargelyfreeofdrudgery.Sixhoursofmoderateeffortaresufficienttosatisfyallurgentneeds andalsotoproduceenoughprovisionsforthecomfortsoflife.Thenlifebeyondworkbeginsitisalifeofthehappy,liberalfamilyunit,inabeautifullykepthousewhich unitesseveralfamilieslikeguests.Soastosuppresseventhesemblanceofprivateproperty,thehousesareexchangedeverytenyearsbydrawing

Page521 lotsintheforumtherearefreeeatinghouses,educationalestablishmentsforallandtemples.TheeconomicsystemofUtopiafocusesontheprimarygoalofgivingall citizensasmuchfreetimeaspossibleforthecultivationofspiritualneeds.Nottheleastaspectofthiscultivationofspiritualneedsistheartofeatinganddrinking, togetherwiththeworshipofphysicalstrengthandbeautythereisasharprejectionofasceticismatthispoint:Towearoneselfoutwithoutbeingofanyuseto anybody,merelyforthesakeofanemptyshadowofvirtuethisseemsquiteabsurdtotheUtopians:anactofcrueltytowardsone'sownpersonandthedeepest ingratitudetowardsnature.ThereisnosharingofwomeninUtopiaofcourse,onthecontrary:adulterersarepunishedwiththeharshestslavery,andwithdeathifthey repeattheoffence.YetmarriagescanbedissolvedandareonlyenteredintoafterthebrideandbridegroomhaveseeneachothernakedsincetheUtopiansthinkthat natureherselfhasmarkedoutpleasureforusasthegoalofouractions,andlivinginaccordancewithherdictatestheycallvirtue.Admittedlyotherpassagesinthe workcontinuetoextolmonasticrenunciation,thedelightinpainful,evendisgustingandunnaturalworkbutdespitetheseinconsistencies,Epicureanismremains dominant.ThesearetheviewsoftheUtopiansonvirtueandpleasure,andunlessareligionsentdownfromheavenshouldinspiremanwithmorepiousthoughts,they thinknoviewsaretobefoundwhichcouldcomeclosertothetruthinaccordancewithhumanreason.EvenChristianitydoesnotseemtotheUtopianstocontain morepiousthoughtstheyhaveadoptedtheChristianreligionchieflyonlybecausetheyheardChristhadsanctionedthecommunistlifestyleofhisdisciples. Otherwisethereisroomforallreligionsinasplendidlyunitingtolerance,evensun,moonandplanetworship.TheUtopianshaveagreedonacommoncultwhichevery factionfillsoutinitsownsenseandwithparticularformsofritualUtopiaistheEldoradoofreligiousfreedom,nottosaythepantheonofallgoodgods.Sinceitisone oftheoldestconstitutionalprovisionsoftheUtopiansthatnobody'sreligionmustcausethemanyharmThefounderofUtopiamadethisprovisionnotmerelywitha viewtopeace,butbecausehewasoftheopinionthatsuchastipulationalsolayintheinterestsofreligion.Hedidnothavethepresumptiontomakeanyfinalprovision aboutreligion,sincehewasnotsurewhetherperhapsGodhimselfmaydesireavariedkindofworshipandthusgavethisinspirationtooneperson,andthatto another.ThesesentencesarecertainlymostastonishingfromthemouthofasubsequentmartyroftheRomanChurchtheycallintoquestiontheabsolutesupremacyof Christianityitself.Theynotonly

Page522 humantendencytowardsfreedomasaminimumofworkandstate,asamaximumofjoy. CounterparttoMore:Campanella'sCityoftheSunortheutopiaofsocialorder Thebourgeoisblossomedlateron,preciselybyaffirmingnewconstraint.Imposedbythekingonthesmallfeudallordsandtheirsplinteredeconomy.Thiswasthecase intheseventeenthcentury,whenproductionchangedfrommanualcraftstolargeworkshops,tomanufacture.Whenitconsequentlymoved,inadvancedcountries, towardsalarge,uniformlyruneconomicbody.TheBaroqueistheageofcentralizedroyalpower,anditwasprogressiveatthattime.Atotallyauthoritarianandalso bureaucraticutopia:Campanella'sCivitassolis,publishedin1623,nowcorrespondedtotheharmonyofbourgeoisinterestswiththemonarchy.Insteadoffreedom, asinMore,thetunethatnowringsoutisthatoforder,withrulersandsupervisors.InsteadofapresidentoftheUtopians,inasimpleFranciscancloak,withaharvest crown,arulerappears,aworldpope.AndwhatCampanellafoundmostseductiveaboutAmericawasnolonger,asinMore,theparadisialinnocenceoftheislanders, butthehighlyconstructedIncaempireofthepast.LewisMumford,inTheStoryofUtopias,1922,callsCampanella'sutopianothingshortofamarriagebetween Plato'sRepublicandthecourtofMontezuma.Afterall,asnotedabove,Plato'sRepublicwasthefirstutopianizingorder,longbeforetherewasanovelofanideal statebasedonfreedom.Initstitleasinitsgeographicalsituation,Campanella'sCityoftheSuntouchesonthatofIamboulosthoughtheSuninCampanella'sCity doesnotshinewitheffortlessHellenisticorientalabundance,butsimplywithcentralizedrigour,ofthesortwhichwasalsopractisedintrulyCampanellanfashionbythe artificialJesuitstateinParaguay.Campanella'sdreamsasawholewereconnectedwithcontemporarypowerunitsheprojectedtheseontoautopianscreen.Notin ordertoideologizethem,buthebelievedinthecomingofhisdreamkingdomandemphasizedtheexistinggreatpowerssolelyasinstrumentsforhasteningitsarrival. AlthoughhespenttwentysevenyearsinthedungeonsofSpanishreaction,whichdidnottrusthim,Campanella,whoisfirstsupposedtohavehadrelationswiththe Turks,wildlyacclaimedSpanishworlddomination,andultimatelythatofFrance,butinbothcasesexclusivelyasplacesofpreparationforthemessianic

Page524 kingdomofthesun.HestillcharacteristicallyendedthededicationtoRichelieuofhisworkDesensurerumetmagia,newlypublishedin1637,withamessianicclaim, notwithcourtlyflattery:Thecityofthesun,devisedbyme,tobeestablishedbyyouinthisarroganthopeCampanellaalsowelcomedthebirthofthefutureLouis XIV,whowaslateractuallycalledtheSunKing.Lookingatitinmoredetail,theworkabouttheCityoftheSunisameticulousaccountgivenbyawidelytravelled Genoantohishost.TheGubernatorGenuensisrelateshowonavoyageroundtheworldhelandedontheislandofTaprobane(Ceylon)andfellintothehandsofa bandofarmedmenwhohadconductedhimtotheCityoftheSunandexplaineditsinstitutionstohim.Forallitsboldnessandtheusualnovelistictrappings,the accounthasafeeloftechnicalengineeringaboutit:thecivitasisconstructedlikeacontemporaryplanoffortificationsbyVauban.Onthewhole,Campanella'sutopia mustbeunderstoodinconformitywiththeworldsystemofitscreatorapartfromBaconandtheFichteoftheClosedCommercialStatev,Campanellaistheonly philosopheramongthemoremodernutopians.ItwasnoaccidentthattheCivitassoliswaspublishedastheappendixtoaPhilosophiarealis,thatis,asa paralipomenon,butalsoasameansofputtingtothetestanaturalandmoralphilosophy.JustasmanisalikenessofGod,soishisextension,thestateaccordingly,this socialutopiadescendsfromthesupremebeingtothestateandseekstoshowthatthelatter,conceivedasperfect,resemblestheradiationsofadivinesolarsystem. Thecommunistfeaturesofsuchautopiaofdominationmaycausesurpriseonlyinfactitisnotautopiaoffreedomatworkhere,butoneofimpersonalorder, conceivedintermsofaninternationalstate.Itsthoroughadministrativeorganizationwasreflectedinamodelisland,andthecontradictionbetweenauniversalkingdom andanislandcityissuppressed.Liferunslikeclockworkinamilitarymonarchicfashion,thestrictestpunctualityandpreorderednessdemonstratetheirtechnical efficiencyintermsoftime,administrationandeconomy.Theincipientmanufacturingsystem,whichbroughttogetherworkersandtechnologicalmeansofproductionin largeworkshops,isutopianizedalongthelinesofstatesocialism.Ontheotherhand,CampanellatransfigurestheHispanicizationofthecontinentatthetime,the deliberateintolerance(thoughwithcontentsofhisown,notwiththoseoftheInquisition).Astatesocialismappears,orrather:apopishone,withalotofByzantineand astrologicalpathosbehindit.Withthepathosoftherighttime,therightsituation,therightorderofallpeopleandthingsacommandingcentreestablishesorderina classlessbutextremelyhierarchicalway.

Page525 Ifthingsareruninthisway,thenthereareneitherrichnorpoor,privatepropertyisabolished.Allcitizenshavetowork,afourhourdayisenough,exploitationand profitareunknown.Eachtradeisacommunalenterprise,undersupervisionandwithoutindividualgain,thehighesttaskisthecommongood.Currentstatesareriddled withselfishness:Butifthereisnoprivatepropertyanymore,thenitbecomespointlessanddisappears.Thevicesofpovertyandthegreateronesofwealthhave vanished,theonlyquarrelsarethoseonpointsofhonour:TheSolariansclaimthatpovertymakespeoplelowminded,cunning,thieving,homelessandmendacious. Butwealthmakesthemimpudent,arrogant,ignorant,treacherous,boastfulandheartless.Inatruecommunity,however,everybodyisrichandpooratthesametime richbecausetheydonotwishforanythingthattheydonothaveincommon,poorbecausenobodypossessesanything,andconsequentlytheSolariansarenot enslavedtothings,butthingsservethem.Butwhileprivatepropertyhasthusdiedout,thestateisnotdiminishedaswell,asitisinMore,butitbecomesinsteadthe highestpurposeofsocietyascendingfromtheprovindatotheregnum,totheimperium,tothemonarchiauniversalisandfinallytothepapalkingdom.Thestate guaranteespreciselythepleasantpartoforder,thedistributionofgoods:TheSolariansreceiveeverythingtheyneedfromthecommunity,andtheauthoritiesstrictly seetoitthatnobodygetsanexcessiveamount,andnobodyisdeniedanythingtheyneed.Aboveall,Campanella'sstatealsoseeksitspowerinthepresent metaphysicsitportrays,intheimageofGod,inaccordancewithCampanella'sphilosophy.Theauthoritiesreflecttheprimaryforcesofcosmicorder,thosethree primalitiesofbeingwhichgovernhumanexperiencesandspheresofactivity.TheseareSapientia,Potentia,andAmor,theirunityisGod,theyreachandemanate fromGod,throughfourworldsgrowingevermorecorporeal,intotheirrespectivehistoricalexistence,themundussitualis.Withinittheprimalitiesthemselvesneed anembodimenttocreatetheorderwhichcanalwaysonlybeoneoftherightcoordination:Godbecomesthepapalworldruler,alsocalledSolorMetaphysicusin Campanella'sutopia.SubordinatetohimarethreeprinceswhosesphereofactivityexactlycorrespondstotheregionsofSapientia,Potentia,andAmor,asina cabbalisticspace.Historybecomestheproductionofthisstatespace,whichistheonlyveritable,i.e.verticalonejustasspaceingeneraliscelebratedthroughout Campanella,asanimmortalandalmostdivine,allpervadingreceptacleofthings,whichitselfstrivesforfulfilmentandfillsthehorrorvacui,thehorrorofchaosand nothingness.Necessityastheexpression

Page526 ofdivinePotentiaconquersthecaseofchance(contingentia),certainty(fatum)astheexpressionofdivineSapientiaconquerstheindividualcase(casus),butorder (harmonia),aboveall,astheexpressionofdivineAmorconquersthecaseofluck,ofvicissitude(fortuna).ThusinCampanella(asearlierinCusanus)therising bourgeoisiestandsfirmlyinthestruggleagainstnothingnessunlikethedeclining,panchaoticbourgeoisie,wallowinginnothingness.ButCampanella'sorderofwisdom, powerandlove,i.e.thatofthethreeprimalities,isopposedtothechaotic:tothecaseofchance,theindividualcase,andthecaseofvicissitude.Andthisorderis preciselyactiveinitsopposition,sincecontingentia,casus,andfortunaaresupposedtobemerelyanihilocontracta,simplytheremnantsofthedeadnothingness(De monarchia,p.1)fromwhichGodcalledtheworldintoexistence.Thoughinatrulyemanatisticfashion,Campanellaultimatelysoughttoconquerthenothingnessor nonensintheworldbyanirradiationoftheens,theSol,thesolaressence.Itthereforecomesasnosurprisethatthefurtherdirectiveofsuchathoroughlyruledworld couldbecomethemythofastrologyforitaboveallguaranteesdependenceonabove.Astrologycorrespondedtothefanaticismofthisorder,itcastsmanalongwith allthingsamongplanetsandtherulinghousesofthezodiac.BoththedomesticandthepubliclifeoftheSolarians,thetrafficandthelayoutofthecity,evenbaths,meals andtherightmomentforsexualintercoursearegovernedbythestars:Menandwomensleepintwoseparatechambers,andawaitthemomentoftheirfruitfulunion:at aspecifiedtimeamatronopensbothdoorsfromoutside.Thistimeisspecifiedbythedoctorandtheastrologer,whotrytohitthemomentinwhichVenusand Mercurystandeastofthesuninafavourablehouse,intheauspiciousaspectofJupiter.Freedomofchoiceandfreedomingeneralarethustakenawayfromman,not inamechanizingwaybutratherinthemannerofadictatorshipofthestars,fromabove,onallsides.Nowadaysastrologyisjustaruinofsuperstitiousarchitecture,but inthosedaysitwasstillaliveandaccepted,akindofclassmeetinghouse,extendingwithitspatriarchalismsthroughthewholeworld.Andonlyincidentallydoafew exemptionsnotfreedomslodgeinthetotalhierarchy,theyaresolelymissingprohibitions.Thereareseveralsuchmissingprohibitions:TheSolariancanspend hisfreetimewithpleasantstudies.walks,mentalandphysicalexercisesandwithpleasures.LikewisethemountofVenusdoesnotattaintheheightoftheother pedantry,theastrologicalrulesforsexualintercourseareonlyobligatoryforprospectiveparents:Therest,whoassociatewiththosewhoareinfertileorprostitutes eitherforpleasureor

Page527 ondoctor'sordersorasastimulant,disregardthesecustoms.Infactthereisevenanillusionofliberalismatthepointwherethestateismostseriouslyinevidence,on theoccasionofadeathsentence:Themanfoundguiltymustinthiscasemakehispeacewithhisaccuserandwitnessbykissingandembracingthem,asthedoctorsof hisillnesssotospeak.Moreover,thedeathsentenceinSolariaisnotcarriedoutonanycondemnedmanuntilhehimselfhasbecomeconvincedbysuperiorreasoning thatitisnecessaryforhimtodie,anduntilhehasbeenbroughttothepointofwishingforthedeathsentencetobecarriedouthimself.Rousseau'sContratsocial admittedlymakesasimilardemand,butthedifferencebetweentheattitudeofthelatterandthatofCampanellacouldnotbegreater.Rousseauwantstopreserveself determinationevenintheactwhichdestroysit,whereasCampanellausesliberalityasanaidtothestrongesttriumphofauthority.Fortherightlycondemnedindividual herewantstoseehimselfdestroyedasadeviation,orinthelanguageoftheChurch:laudabilitersesubjecit.Subjectivitypreciselyexistsonlyinsofarasitagreestoits ownextermination.Thatis,itisevendeprivedoftherefugeofbeingabletobearebelorapersistentheretic.Thustotalconformismtriumphsexactlywhereitseemsto sufferanexceptioneveninitshumaneness,Campanella'sCityoftheSunrepresentsthemostextremeantithesistotheutopiaoffreedom.Orderisvirtueitselfandits assembly:TheSolarianshaveasmanyauthoritiesaswehavenamesofvirtues:magnanimity,bravery,chastity,generosity,cheerfulness,sobrietyandsoon.Andthey arechosenforpostsaccordingtowhethertheybetrayedthegreatesttendencytothisorthatvirtueevenaschildrenatschool.Eveninthisharshutopia,happiness remainsthesummumbonum,butitispreciselythehappinessofservitude,harnessedtoadivineservicewhichwiththetotalunityofspiritualandtemporalpower isthesameasservicetothestate.SomuchforCampanella'sfuturestate,itcontainsanintoxicationofconstraintwhichisunparalleled,itsurpassesPlato'sidealof SpartabyusingthewholeByzantineandCatholichierarchywhichhadarisensincethen.Apartfromthedistributionofproperty,lifeisonlysobadbecausepeopleare notintheirplace,becausemundussitualis,themeresituationalstateoflife,tottersintothesituationalaccidentsofitsseminothingness.Becausenoconcordprevails andnoagreementwiththerulingcelestialforces,noharmonywiththembecausethestateisnotonanevenkeel.Thisistimeandagainthebasiccontrasttotheutopias offreedom,insuchvariousforms,fromtheCynicstoThomasMore,andultimatelytoanarchisminCampanellathecontrastbreaksoutconsciously.

Page528 Theabolitionofprivatepropertydoesnotdissolvethecontrast:forwhileinMorethisabolitionovercomessubordinationandsuperiorityingeneralandpositstotal equality,inCampanellathisequalitybecomestheveryfoundationsoilonwhichanewhierarchyarises,thatoftalents,virtuesandprimalities.Ifweclarifythiscontrast betweenMoreandCampanellaintermsofthetwomorecompetingthanconnectednaturalmythsoftheirtime,thenwecansaythatMoreortheutopiaoffreedom correspondsalmostasmuchtoalchemyasCampanellaortheutopiaofordercorrespondsinfacttoastrology.Morenevermentionsalchemy,ifonlybecausegoldis despisedonhisislandandbecausetherefiningofmetalsinthesymbolicsense,asarefiningoftheworld,nolongerseemstobenecessarythere.ButwhenMore relatesrightatthebeginningthatthefounderofhisislandfirstblasteditawayfromthemainland,andwhen,asMoresays,itisisolatedpreciselyfromtheworldofthe plumbeiorleadenones,thenthesepassagesweresooninterpretedalchemicallyandcouldbeinterpretedlikethis,inthesenseofthelaterRosicruciansorinitiated generalreformers(Andreae,Comenius).Utopiaisdistilledfromtheevilworldlikegoldfromlead,alchemywasregardedasthemythologyofthisliberation. Campanellaontheotherhandcertainlydoesmentionalchemy,eventhegoldenlustreinSolandCivitassobssuggestedthisreminiscence,butthecontinuouspathosof astrologyinhisworkpreventedtheliberationofsocialgoldfrombreakingoutofitspreorderedspaceandexplodingit.InCampanella,theharmonyoftheworld belowwasalsostilltobefounded,buttheCivitassolisremainsstrictlychainedtotheregencyofthestars.Utopiadoesnothavetobeprocessedouthere,butitis cosmicharmony,andtherehasbeennottoomuchbuttoolittlegovernmentinsocietyuptonow,andconsequentlytoolittleastrology.Thusthecontrastbetween More'smodelandthatofCampanellaisalsoamythologicaloneanditextendswithoutamythologicalcloakintoallfollowingutopias.Liberalfederative socialism(fromRobertOwenonwards)hasMoreasitsancestor,whilecentralistsocialism(fromSaintSimononwards)haspointsofcontactwithCampanella,witha broadbased,highbuiltsystemofrule,withsocialutopiaasstrictnessandarrangedhappiness. Socraticinquiryintofreedomandorder,withregardtoUtopiaandCivitassolis Thebiggerthewords,themoreeasilyalienelementsareabletohideinthem.Thisisparticularlythecasewithfreedom,andwithorder,ofwhich

Page529 everybodyoftenhashisownidea.Theislandonwhichtheoneortheotherhassettled,despiteitssmallness,doesnotdiminishtheextensiveambiguityofthese principles.AmanlikeSocratespretendedtobeignorantaboutconceptswhicheveryonethoughttheyunderstood,andheironicallysoughtadvicefromsocalled experts.Buttheyquicklybecameentangledincontradictions,becameconfused,andreflectionfinallygotunderway.Freedomtoo,andthenconstraintandordermust bequestionedinthiswaysoasnottobeslogansformere,andoftendeceivedopinions.WhileThomasMoreassumesdemocraticfreedom,andCampanella authoritarianorder,tobesynonymouswithsocialhappiness,thesepoliticalissuesalsounderwentandsignifiedverydifferentthingsbothbeforehandandafterwards. Theproblemoffreedomisitsambiguityandtheparticularlygreatchangeinitsfunctionduringthecourseofhistory.Thuswedonotonlyhavetodifferentiate psychologicalfreedomorfreedomofchoice,politicalfreedomorfreedomofselfdeterminationfromoneanother.Evenwithinfreedomofselfdeterminationeverything dependsonthegroupthatisstrivingforit,ontherespectivestateofthesocietyinwhichthecallforlibertisstillavirginone.Thusitrangesfromfreecompetition, economicManchesterismtothestruggleagainstpreciselytheseliberalmasters.Itrangesfromthebourgeoisrevolutionaryactwhichestablishedfreecompetitioninthe faceofbarrierssetupbytheguildsandfeudalpatronage,tothefreerevolutionaryactionoftheproletariat,whichemancipatespreciselyfromtheemancipated bourgeoisagain.ThecallforfreedomrangesfromtheLibertyoftheGermanterritorialprinces,stabilizedagainsttheEmperorinVienna,totheoppositethe abolitionoftheprinces,andofthedominantclassstateasawhole.Freedom:itisdemandedbytheneofeudallibertyoftheprincesofindustryandmonopolies,andit fulfils,witharadicalcontrast,theprogramme:expropriationoftheexpropriators.ThePhrygiancapcoversboththenationalwarofliberationandtherevolutionarycivil waragainsttheGesslerclasswithinthenationitself.Allthisshowsfreedomtobeaconceptofrelationvariableinitscontentseventheformalaspectofthisrelationis stilldifferentaccordingtowhetherliberationfromsomethingortosomethingisaspiredto.Privateownershipofthemeansofproductionnecessitatesipsofactothe oppressionofthosewhoselabouristheonlycapitaltheypossess.Acallforlibert,howeverradicallyintended,ifitoccurswithinasocietybasedonproperty,only changesthedependenceofeconomicallyweakerclasses,belowthevictoriousliberatingclass,orpositsnewslaves,liketheindustrialproletariat.Thefreedomof acquisition,bynotbecomingafreedomfromacquisition,

Page530 totherunningofaffairsandthemanagementoftheprocessesofproductionevenhereitdoesnothaveanypathosanymore,thestatebecomesintangible,itspressure diesaway. Theharshwordconstraintseemsnotsomuchambiguousasdownrightreactionary,itscaresus.Andyetthereissomethingshakyevenhere,howevermucheverything lookslikeascrew,nothinglikefreedom.Forwemusttakeintoaccountwhoisimposingtheconstraint,andthereforethemaintenanceoforder,andforwhatpurpose orderisbeingimposed.Ifwetakethisintoaccount,thenitisclearthatordertoohasseveralfaces,andthestatethatisformedbyitdoesnotremainthesame.Thereis anorderofpureconstraint,withwhichabadcommunityassertsitselfagainstsomeofitswolves,butchieflyagainstallofitsvictims,andanotherorderwhichemerges fromthecommunityitself,fromitssupportandstructure.Inthefirstcasethereisnorealorderatall,butonlyregulatedorratherforciblymaintaineddisorder.Eventhe capitalistcommunitythenonlybecomespossiblebyindividualfreedom,herethatoftheownersofgoods,beingrestrictedinthesocalledstateundertheruleoflawto alevelwhichleavestheequallyindividualfreedomofeveryothercitizenuntouched.Thisrestrictionisnottakenfromthisfreedom,althoughthisisassertedinliberal NaturalRight,buthoversoverit,isimposedonitasastateofemergency.Thisstateofemergencyiscalledbourgeoisorder:asconstraintitisopposedtothosewho areoppressedeconomicallyanywayandtotheirrebellion,ascunningitisinleaguewiththestrongandtheircompetition.Theorderinthesecondcase,inthecaseofa socialisteconomyandsociety,provestobequitedifferent.Itdoesnotthenappearaspureconstraintoranenforcedstateofemergency,norastheconditionofsocial life,orevenofthecommunityitself.Butcommunityisthenprimaryinanycase,andman,asMarxobservesonthispointinhisworkOntheJewishQuestion,has recognizedandorganizedhisforcespropresassocialforces.Hethusnolongerseparatesoffsocialforceaspoliticalforce,asanabstractpoliticalstatebasedonorder, incontrasttoitsegoisticallyeconomizingelements.Orderthenlosestheconstraintofindividualrestrictionforthesituationofhomohominilupusisbroughttoanend, restrictionoftheearningcitizenbyanabstractcitizenofthestateisnolongernecessary.Everybodyhastheopportunitytobeahumanbeing,becausenobodyany longerhastheopportunitytobeamonsterthusthesocialorderlosesbothitscharacterofconstraintanditsabstractideality.Thesocialindividualhastakenbackinto himself,andtakenhimselfupinto,theabstractcitizenofthestatethuscommunitybecomesselfevident,orderconcrete.Assoon

Page532 asthecapitalistthreatonitsbordershasceased,thisordernolongerhastomaintainitselfwitharms,againstanoppressedclass,butshowsitself,oncethecausefor oppressionhasdisappeared,tobeamutuallyagreedorganizationandencirclement.Suchconcreteorderisultimatelythesameastheclasslesssociety,isthestructure ofthisnonantagonisticcommunityperse.ConcreteorderappearsintheunessentiallyBecomeasthecontrolofprocessesofproductionand,intheessentially Permanent,astheconstructionofamoreandmorecentralunityofgoalinthehumanraceorastheconstructionoftherealmoffreedom.Thisclearlyconstitutesa differentconceptoforderfromthatofpureconstraintandofrestrictionorderoperatesinthecommunityitself,asitsimmanentsupport.Orderdoesnotthusbecomea gameofcourse,onthecontraryitretainsitscharacterasorganizationandrealm.Preciselyasorganizationitdoesnotthereforenecessarilycontradictthemost importantmotifinCampanella'sutopiaoforder:theabolitionofuncontrolledcasesofchance,individualcases,casesofluck(contingentia,casus,fortuna)thewillto setthingstorightsfromacentralvantagepoint.Anditisnoaccidentthatapartfromthetolerantelementasitwerethatexpressesitselfintherealmoffreedom, Marxismisalsoanimatedbythecathedralelementasitwere,whichexpressesitselfpreciselyintherealmoffreedom,infreedomasarealm.Thepathstoitare likewisenotliberaltheyarethecaptureofpowerinthestate,discipline,authority,centralplanning,ageneralline,andorthodoxy.Andthegoalwhichgivessupportto everyfuturefreedomlikewiseshowsnoaffinitywhatsoeverwiththeliberalismofdissociationonthecontrary,totalfreedominparticulardoesnotgetlostinaswarmof friskingcapricesandintheinsubstantialdespairinwhichtheyend,buttriumphssolelyinthewilltoorthodoxy.Thusorderislikewisenotasimpleconcept,and Socrateswouldhaveneededalotofthemidwife'sartbeforeitsessencefinallyappeared.Anessencewhichinanycaseevenmoreclearlythanfreedomcan onlyunfoldinapropertyless,classlesssociety.Theessenceoffreedomhasthewillbehindit,theemotionalintensitythatseekstobreakthroughandboundlesslyto realizeitselfwhereastheessenceoforderhasperfectlogiconitsside,thetangibilityofwhathascomegoodorbeenachieved.Eventheexperimentoforderinall possiblefieldsandsphereslivesoffthisintheend,fromcleanlinessandpunctualitytothesurveyofthemanlyandthemasterly,fromtheceremonialtoarchitectural style,fromthenumericalseriestothephilosophicalsystem.Insomeofthesearrangementstheorderisonlyexternalorimposed,likethelawsofstateinoppressiveand classsocieties.Butinotherarrangements,

Page533 aboveallinthosewithartisticprecisionandinthoseofphilosophicalsystemsofquality,theorderalreadycomespartlyoutofthematerialitself.Intendencyitis inscribedwithinit,sothatchaos,whichisnotordoesnotremainsuch,itselfholdslatentwithinitthestarandthestarfigure.Commontothemanifestationsoffreedom isthedesirenottobedeterminedbysomethingalientooralienatedfromthewill:butcommontoorderisthevalueofbuiltness,theelapsioninneedofnoemotionany more.Itisthiselementofreleaseandofhavingfounditsplace,indeedthisrealmlikeelement,whichinotherworldslyinglessinwickedness*thanthepoliticalone indicatesbestreposeandindicatesitasthebestasinGiotto,asinBach.Theessenceoforderandallessenceissomethingdifferentfromappearancethus remainstheutopiaofchancelessness,ofsituationlessness.Evenintheabstractordersorthoseofconstraintinclasssociety,thisrealmspiritisatributeofvicetovirtue. ItconstitutestheseductionorhalftruthinCampanella'spathosofstrictness,pathosofsocialconstruction,inharmony,whichrisesoutofthemundussitualisagainst contingentia,casus,fortunaandpositsBeingofsituationlessness.Inthisrespectorderisopposedtofreedom,namelytofreedominthebourgeoisantagonisticsense, withnothingbutcapitalistindividualcasesasitsvehiclesandthehappinessofacquisitionasitsgoal.Bourgeoisorderwasofnecessityalreadypartlyopposedtothis kindoffreedombutconcreteorderisnotopposedtoconcretefreedom.Forconcretefreedomisthesociallysucceedingwillwhichhasbecomecommunallyclear,just asconcreteorderisthesuccessfulfigureofthecommunityitselfboth,includingfreedom,arenowconstructive.Concretefreedomandconcreteorderareconnectedin thispostulateofindependence,intheutopiaofasituationlessBeing,whichgovernsthepostulateoffreedomandorder.Thisconnectionisnounspokenidentity(asin Kantianethicsforexample,whenitpresupposestheidentityofitsfreedomwiththemorallaw).Butrathertheconnectionisdialectical:freedomandorderturnintoone anotheroverandoveragain,toproducesituationlessness.Freedomisbroughttoanendbyorder,whichmakesitlandinabuiltspaceorrealm,insteadoffreedom endlesslycontinuinginvolitionaltime.Orderinturnfindsitsendinfreedom,namelyitssolecontent,ortheonethingthatneedstobeinorder:thehumanwill,the intrinsicselfandWhatofthiswill.Thisultimatelypointsordertowardsfreedom,towardsthatwhichiscertainlythesolesubstantialelementoforder,whetheritis freedomoftheoppressedclassorfinallyofindividualswho *AndweknowthatweareofGod,andthewholeworldliethinwickedness.1John,5,19.

Page534 havebecomeclassless,withacollectivewhichspringsfromthem.Onlyfreedomthewillhasacontent,orderthelogoshasnocontentofitsowninotherwords:the realmoffreedomdoesnotcontainanotherrealm,butitcontainsthefreedomorthatBeingforitselftowardswhichthingsaresolelyorganizedandordered.Marx equallyconnectedandovercamethefreeconfederativeelementinMoreandhissuccessors,andtheorderedcentralistelementinCampanellaandhissuccessors. OrderisheretheNovum:democraticcentralism,itiscommonorganizationoftheprocessesofproduction,acommonunifiedplanofhumaninformationandcultivation. Justasthedetachedpoliticalstatediesaway,soculturenowlosesitsdetachedreificationandhoveringabstractnessitacquiresaconcreteframework,aconcretely cohesiverelief.Culturelosesthearbitraryandaimlesselement,itgainsthesharplyorientatingbackgroundofaWhatForaneworderofsalvation,namelyforhuman material,approaches.Solelythroughthisorderdoesfreedomattainitscontent,adefined,oratleastmoreandmorepreciselyarticulatedone.Butwhatpossibly emergesinthefigureoforderisandremainspreciselynothingotherthandefinedfreedomorderisincontrastsolelythespace,whichisneverthelessindispensable,for thedefinedfreedomcontent.OnlythepathviaCampanella(conceivedasapathosoforder)thusleadstoademocracyofMore(conceivedasapathosof freedom),inwhichnoliberalistjustemilieuispossible,inwhateverform,butarealmofindividualscouldbeginwhohaveleftbehindthemthefreedomofisolated robberyandmildunorderednessandknowwellthebestlegacyoffederationandcentralization:profusioninunity.Thisisthesameassolidarity,therichlyanimated harmonyofindividualandsocialforces.Freedomandorder,harshcontrastsintheabstractutopias,thusmergeintooneanotherinmaterialistdialectics,andassisteach other.Concretebeingfreeisorder,thatofitsownfield,concretebeingorderedisfreedom,thatofitssolecontent. Continuation:socialutopiasandclassicNaturalRight Dreamsdidnotalwayshavetobeofthingsfaroffinordertoseelight.Particularlynotwhenademandwasmadeforsomethingbetter,insteadofitmerelybeing pictured.Somethingcloser,seeminglyremembered,certainlyevidentalwaysthenappeared,namelythesocalledright,bornwithus.Whichisoroughttobe unchangeableandasnaturalrightsuperiortoallarbitrarystatutes.Itjustifies,andevenencourageswherenecessary,

Page535 resistancetostatutes,fromahigherpositionthanthatofwrittenlaw.ThisageoldAntigonemotif,typicallydefinedinmatrilinearterms,gainedanewlustreinthe sixteenthcentury,mediatedbyStoicNaturalRight.Itsmatrilinearfeatures,thoughstillclearlyrecognizableintheStoics,almostdisappearedofcourse.Almost,butnot entirelyfortheyarestillclearlyatworkinRousseau,inhispraiseofnatureasbothbenevolentandegalitarian.ButNaturalRightimmediatelytakesatoughline,by becomingrevolutionaryandhostiletotyrannyinthestrengtheningbourgeoisie.Itismadeofsternerstuffthanthesocialutopias,althoughtheirwishfulgoalsarerelated, andtemporarilyreplacedthem.SuchstrangebedfellowsasHuguenots(aftertheStBartholomew'sMassacre)andJesuits(inthefightagainsthereticalstates)prepared thewayforthetheoryofbourgeoisrevolutionbylegallyjustifyingtyrannicideNaturalRightasagainstthewrittenkindacquiredfromthenonitspoliticallyand methodicallydistinctform.Althus(Politica,1610)taughtthatresistancetounjustmasterswasnotrebellionbuttheprotectionofone'sownviolatedrights.Indoingso, heusedtheEpicureandoctrineofthecontractwhichpeoplevoluntarilyenteredintoonfoundingastate.TherewasnotalkyetinEpicurusofaterminationofthis contractbutAlthususesittojustifyresistance.Ifthecontractisbrokenonthesideoftheauthorities,iftheynolongergoverninaccordancewiththewillandwelfareof thepeople,thenitisnolongerbindingontheothersideeither.Thepeoplethenrightlyresisttheauthoritieswhohavebecomeunjust,theyrevoketheirauthority.The logicizeddreamofwhatisrightinGrotius(Dejurebellietpacis,1625)appearswiththetheoryofresistancetempereddown,butwithanincreaseddistinctionbetween positiveandunwrittenlawthisdreamsawthebeginningofmodernNaturalRightasasystem.Thatistosay,thedriveanditsintention,withwhichacommunal contractwasconcludedhere,appeartogetherastheprinciplefromwhichthetenetsofNaturalRightarededucedapriori.Theoriginofthestatewhichjustifiesitin thiswayistheappetitussocialis,thedrivetowardsanorderedandpeacefulcommunityconsequentlyinjusticebecomeseverythingwhichdisturbsthiscommunityor makesitimpossible(likebreakingpromises,andtheappropriationofotherpeople'sproperty),andjustice,ajusticewhichmustbeeternallydemanded,remains everythingwhichkeepsthiscommunitygoinginaccordancewiththeinitialprinciple.Thisidealjusticeisclearlybourgeoisdemocratic,notonlyintheprotectionof privateproperty,butaboveallinthecallforuniversality,forthegeneralvalidityofthesetenetsofjusticeforall.InthisrespectGrotius'theoryismoreadvancedthanhis political

Page536 opinion,whichinmanyaspectswasstillclassbound,stillrepresentedtheprivateinterestsoftherepublicanaristocracyinHolland.ButtheoreticallyGrotiusdefinitely seeksgenerallycorrectreasonincommandsandprohibitions,therectaratio,ashesayswithCicero.InhisinterpretationoftheoecumeneofhisNaturalRight, whichwasequallyvalidforallmen,heclearlyfollowedtheStoics.Theyhad,afterall,firstportrayedNaturalRightasbeingthesameatalltimesandinallnations, beyondhumanarbitrariness,beyondchangingopinionsandbeyondinterests(whichshapedpositivelaw).GrotiustakesuptheStoicdoctrineoftheconsensusgentium, asanempiricalproofofNaturalRight,andthedoctrineofthecommunesnotiones,whichonlyhavetobebroughttoscientificconsciousness,asapriorinotions.The agreementinthecertaintyofwhatisrightisthusfoundedinthenatureofreason,inthereasonofnatureasthecausauniversalis(l.c.,Proleg.40).Thereisno dispensationfromthisrationallawwhichuniversallyprevails,althoughrepeatedlyobstructedbyparticularinterestsitisliketwotimestwoequalsfour,andtherefore couldnotevenbechangedbyGod,butwouldindeedbelexdivinaevenifGoddidnotexist(l.c.,Proleg.71).Thestrangethingisthattheaprioriconstructiondidnot evenresultinquitetheoppositewhenthecontentofitsprinciplewaschanged.AsinthecaseofHobbes(Decive,1642,Leviathan,1651),theoriginaladvocateof theRoyalistpartyinEngland,thefiercestchampionofabsolutecentralpowerandyetademocrat.Thebasicdriveandintentionnaturaltomanarenownolonger theappetitussocialis,whichisfriendlyandoptimistic,butboundlessselfishness,hencehomohominilupus,hencebellumomniumcontraomnesasthestateofnature. Thesameselfishnessconsequentlyconcludesthestatecontractnotasoneofunification,butofsubjugation,ofthedeliberatesuppressionofwolfishnature.Thisnature isentrustedtoonepersonwhokeepsitandnowonlyusesitdejure:foroppressingallsubjects,forestablishingpeaceandthesecuritywhichseeksselfpreservation, inaccordancewithitsprinciple.Thereisnolawatalloutsidethestate,andwithiniteverythingislawthattherulercommands,thoughinaccordancewiththe principleofpeaceandthesecurityofallauctoritas,nonveritasfacitlegem*(Leviathan,cap.26).Ofcoursedemocracyemergedheretoointheend,evena moreunlimitedkindthaninthearistocraticallyclassboundpoliticianGrotiusanawkwarddemocracycertainly,butonewhichneverthelesscausedCharlesIIto exclaimofLeviathan:Ineverreadabookwhichcontainedsomuchsedition,treasonandimpiety.Ifpeoplecometogetherwiththeintention *Authority,nottruth,makesthelaw.

Page537 ofsettingupastate,thenthisbasicactisitselfademocraticoneButweunderstandthattobethewillofthecouncil,whichisthewillofthemajorpartofthosemenof whomthecouncilconsists(Decive,5,7).Thenullitytowhichallarereducedinthefaceofabsolutestateauthorityfurtherbreaksdownfeudalclassdifferences:all peopleareequal,becauseallpeoplearenothinginthefaceoftherulerthegeneralityofthelawprovescompleteinthisparadoxicalway.Butaboveall,Hobbesdid notportrayabsolutekingshipasdemonstrable,butsolelytheabsolutesovereigntyandunityofstateauthority.Thelatterwasfeasibleeveninrepublicanformevenin hisworkDecive,Hobbeshadcomparedthedemocraticstatewiththearistocraticoneashavingfundamentallyequalrightsalsothedefinitionofmonarchyas receivedwolfishnaturewasincompatiblewithanointeddignitybythegraceofGod.Sostrangelydidthebourgeoisiesmooththewayforitselfhere,interpretingthose whoruledoverittotallycynicallyandLeviathan,thestate,isamonster.TheenmityofthenobilityandtheChurchtowardsHobbescertainlydidnotpreventallfuture NaturalRightfromappearingasantiHobbesinitswording.ThisisclearlythecaseeveninLocke(CivilGovernment,1689)hereturnstoGrotius:theoriginofsociety, andthereforethemeasureofitscorrectness,isonceagainmutualgoodwill,notmutualfear.Here,inLocke,notinRousseau,thenaturalgoodnessofmanis monstrouslyexaggerated,onedoesnotknowhowanemergencyanddespoticstatecouldeverariseatall.WhereHobbesintroducesawolfishcapitalism,whichdid notevenexistinhisday,intohisportrayalofthestateofnature,LockeintroducesautopiawhichisreminiscentofthatofMorethestateofnatureispeace,goodwill, mutualaid,protection.Thisfelicitouselementcontinuestohaveanormativeinfluenceintheestablishedlegalpositionandaboveit:Thestateofnaturehasalawof naturetogovernit,whichobligeseveryone:andreason,whichisthatlaw[againaliteralagreementwiththelogosnatureoftheStoics]teachesallmankind,whowill butconsultit,thatbeingallequalandindependent,nooneoughttoharmanotherinhislife,health,liberty,orpossessions.Clearlynatureisaguidingideathroughout here,butstillnotacontrastingideatobourgeoissociety.Alsothewholenation,undiminishedsotospeak,isstillbynomeansthevehicleoftheidealofrationallawbut onlyarepresentativepartofit,inclassesorinaparliamentbuiltontheclasssystem. Onlyinthefinal,fieriestfigureofclassicNaturalRight,inRousseau(Contratsocial,1762),doesthenationappearwithtotalpower,undividedintoclasses, unrepresented.Thecitizenwantedtoseethatthingswererighthimself,didnotwishforanybodytotakehisplaceanymore.As

Page538 theupperclasseshavedisregardedhiswill,hedoesnotwanttoengageanynewsuspiciousadvocatetodistortit.HenceRousseau'sSwisspreferenceforsmallstates, smalltowns,wherethepublicwillcandeclareitselfandintervenedirectly.HencehismockeryoftheEnglishparliamentandthedemocraticfarcewhichtheupper classesactoutwithit.TheGenevan'sinsightisamazingonthispoint:theEnglishnation,jeersRousseau,thinksitisfree,butissoonlyatthemomentofelectionswhen theseareover,itisaslave,itisnothing.ThecompletelynewfeatureofRousseau'sNaturalRightisthedoctrineoftheinalienablenatureoffreedomtopreserveitand italoneisthepurposeandmeasureofthetruestate.Andjustlikefreedomintheindividual,sovereigntyisuntransferable,indivisible,irreplaceable,illimitableinthe nation.Apersoncanthereforenomoreenterintoslaveryonacontractualbasisthananationcanplaceitselfinthehandsofaprince:anyadditionofacontractbased onruleconsequentlydropsoutofthecontratsocial,itremainsevenmorethaninGrotiusacontractofunification.AndRousseau'sgreatquestionreads:Howcana statebecreatedinwhichthereisnotasingleunfreepersonanymore,inwhichtheindividualinthecommunitydoesnotsacrificeanythingatallofhisfundamentalright tofreedom(Trouveruneformed'associationquidfendeetprotgedetoutelaforcecommunelapersonneetlesbiens[!]dechaqueassocietparlaquellechacun s'unissanttous,n'obitpourtantqu'luimmeetresteaussilibrequ'auparavant?Telestleproblmefondamentaldontlecontratsocialdonnelasolution[Contrat socialI,6]).Theanswertothistremendousquestionisunderstandablylessexhaustive,inkeepingwiththebourgeoisclasscontentitreads:asrelinquishmentoccursin everyone,inthewholecommunity,theindividualhimselfremainsanequalpartofthistotalityandgetsbackfromthecompletewealthoffreedomithasreceivedexactly asmuchashehasgivenup.Throughthisreciprocityfreedomissupposednottobegivenup,andtheconstraintwhichisadoptedbythestatecontractissupposedto benoneotherthanthegeneralwillconstrainingitsmembertobefree(onleforcerad'trelibre).Thisresponseisasformallyarithmeticalasitisoversubtleinconcrete termsitmeanslittlemorethantheguaranteeofindividualfreeenterprisebyasyndicateoffreeentrepreneursactinginsolidarity.Thegeneralwill,thevolontgnrale, nowbecomesasitwereonlythemoralNaturalRightstillmissinginthemere,morallyneutralstateofnature.ForitcanonlybeinferredfromEmileandotherworks byRousseau,butbynomeansfromtheContratsocial,thatman,andconsequentlythenation,isgoodatallevents.AccordingtotheContratsocial,maninthestate ofnature

Page539 isnibonnimchantheisalsoonlymadethelatterbyanevilsociety,bythesocialarousalofselfishness,bytheinequalityofproperty,theseparationoftheclasses.If then,accordingtotheContratsocial,manisneithergoodnorbadinhimself,hisarticulationandorganizationinthevolontgnraleisneverthelesssimplygood. Volontgnralecannoterr(II,3),itisthelanguageofrealjustice(II,6),itisreasonitself.bywhichitisdeterminedwiththesamenecessityasthelawofnatureinthe physicalworld(II,4).Andthegeneralwill,otherwisedirectedtowardsaroughequalityofprivateproperty,maypossiblyalsoknowallaboutsocialism,atleast accordingtoEmile.Herethemanwhowasotherwisetheideologistofprivatepropertyalmosttouchesonthebasiccommunistmotifofmostutopias:Thesovereign power(volontgnrale)hasnorighttotouchthepropertyofoneorseveralindividuals.Butithaseveryrighttoappropriatethepropertyofall(inasimultaneousact ofgeneraldispossession)(EmileV).Thisisadmittedly,ifnottheonlyplace,thenoneofthefewplacesinwhichsystemsofNaturalRightcontaintheideaof expropriation.ItwassuggestedtoRousseaubyMorelly'sCodedelaNature,1755,besidesMably,themostimportantforerunnerofutopiansocialism,with completegalitineconomiclife.ButthestrengthofclassicNaturalRightlaynotinthefactthatitrebelledeconomicallybutthatitdidsopolitically,inotherwords:that iterodedtherespectforauthority.Itbuiltsubjectivepublicrightsintothesocalledbasicrightsoftheindividual,codifiedintheDroitsdel'hommeoftheFrench NationalAssembly.TheseDroitsdel'homme(Libert,proprit,sret,rsistancel'oppression)*arethepostulate,inplacesalsoeventhelegalsuperstructure,ofan overduebourgeoisie,ofabreakthroughoftheindividualcapitalistmodeofeconomyagainstguildbarriers,aclasssociety,andacontrolledmarket.Butthisideologyin factshowsasurpluswhicharousedenthusiasmtheidealoffreedomarousedthisenthusiasm,insofarasitwasnotcompletelycoveredordischargedbymerefreedom ofmovementorbyfreecompetition.ItcommitteditselfinrevolutionaryNaturalRighttotheindividual(andtothenationasanaggregateofindividuals),onlythe personalpathosemployedwasfarolder,derivedfromChristianity,fromitsmetaphysicalestimationoftheindividualsoul.TheDroitsdel'hommethemselvesarealso justasinfluencedinhistoricalandliterarytermsbythereligiousidealismoftheyoungAmericanstatesandtheirconstitutionastheyarebyRousseau'sNaturalRight.All thisexplodedthedoctrineofthedivinerightofauthority,initsownfieldbutitalso *Freedom,property,security,resistancetooppression.

Page540 explodedthelegalsystemofapolicestate,accordingtowhichonlythestateexistssuijuris,initsownright,whereasthesubjectmerelyexistsalteriusjuris,byderived right.ThewholecleansingpowerofNaturalRightonlybecomesclearagainstthecontemporarybackgroundofarbitrarydespotismBeaumarchaisandtheyoung SchillerputRousseauincontext.Thespiritofidolizingprinces,whichatthattimewasnotfoundonlyinpolicestates,wascombattedbyNaturalRightitstands diametricallyopposedtoVersailles.Inthefaceofthedoublebarrageofastatecontractandnaturalhumanrights.theparticularlypreciousmaterialofkingsand masterswasrendereddefenceless.Theoldframeworkofinjusticecollapsed,reasonandnaturebecamethebannersbeneathwhichaworldofhumandignityproposed tocomemarchingin.Thisdignitywasinterpretedpurelyindividualisticallyatthattimeandcouldnotbeotherwise,correspondingtotheprivatemodeofeconomythat wasbreakingitswaythroughandtowhichitwasstillrelated.Butforthisveryreasonthisdignity,asoneofindividualfreedom,wasaimedpreciselyatfeudal oppression,andalsoatthepatriarchalsystemofenlighteneddespotism.ThiskindofhostilitytothestatebrokethrougheveninPrussiaatthattime,evenifonlyin literaryterms,inW.v.Humboldt'sIdeasforanattempttodefinethelimitsoftheeffectivenessofthestate,1792.Chapter15decrees(ineffectivelyofcourse,bothin thearistocraticbookitselfandinPrussianreality):Evenifthestateconstitution,whetherthroughsuperiorstrengthorviolenceorhabitandlaw,insistsonacertain attitudeinitscitizens,thereisadifferentattitudeaswell,voluntarilychosenbythem,infinitelyvariedandoftenchanging.Anditisactuallythelatter,thefreeworkingof thenationamongstitself,whichprotectsallpossessions,thelongingforwhichleadspeopletoenterintoasociety.Theactualstateconstitutionissubordinatetothis purposewithinitandisalwayschosenonlyasanecessarymeans,andsinceitisinvariablyconnectedwiththerestrictionoffreedom,asanecessaryevil.Junkerdom, whichstillliesbeforetheprogressivetendenciesofbureaucracy,andthehopesofRousseau,whichalreadycombattheincipientmilitarystateanddenounceit,are strangelycombinedinthisbookofliberty.Butitsimultaneouslyrevealsaconsequenceinherentinthedreamofdignityitself:NaturalRightasdemocracymeansan aristocracybestowedoneverybody.Freeworkingofthenationamongstitselfisnottradinghere,wasnotconceivedasamarket,butinvokedasanagorainthe Greekurbane,utopianurbanesense:sothateveryonemaywalkupright.Theideaofeveryonewalkinguprightisofcourseanillusionintheveryclasssocietyinwhich NaturalRightblossomed,buttheheroicillusionofaworldwithoutcorruptionandpressure,withhumandignity.Natural

Page541 Rightfullyconstructedthisworldasaworldofstillbourgeoishumane,sociallyguaranteed(notjustpermitted)licencetowant. EnlightenedNaturalRightinplaceofsocialutopias ItisveryconstructivetoconsiderfromthispointofviewtheattitudewhichclassicNaturalRightadoptstothesocialutopianproject,withwhichithasanaffinity anyway.Itdoesnotclaimtobemerelywishedlikethelatter,itsdreamisnotlavish.Whatwasrightemergedamongitschampionswithsparingdignity,notpicturedbut sharplythoughtout.Whathasbeenthoughtoutbydeductionclaimstobebinding,absolutelyvalid,insteadofthenowhereofreasonthereappearsitsdeducible everywhere.ThatiswhyNaturalRightalsointervenedmuchmoreclosely,andalsopartlyofcoursemoreapprovinglyinthecurrentcircumstancesofthetimethan novelsofanidealstate.Though,aswehaveseen,thesealsohavetheiragewithinthemandtheimmediatelyfollowingageabovethem,yettheyskimoverbothatthe sametime.WhereasNaturalRightsharpened,tookaim,demandedthereandthen,intervenedinbourgeoisconstitutions,wrotenewones.Internationalrightswere draftedbyGrotiusalongthelinesofhisNaturalRight,indeedtheFrenchRevolutiondrewitsmostvitalimpulsefromRousseauandparticularlyalsothewordingofits principles.Paragraph6oftheDclarationdesdroitsdel'hommedecreeswordforwordfromRousseau:Laloiestlexpressiondelavolontgnrale.*Evenin Germany,whichneverbroughtoffarevolution,NaturalRightstillinfluencedreformlegislationlikethatofSteinHardenbergand,mediatedbyAnselmFeuerbach,the liberalBavarianCriminalCodeof1813.EventheGeneralPrussianCommonLawof1794borrowedatleasttheformofitsorganizationfromNaturalRightatribute ofthebenevolentlypatronizingpolicestatetoformallyinevitablereason.ThisinfluenceisadmittedlyboughtatthepriceofNaturalRightalsobeinglessofasocial utopia,insofarasitismorealerttohalfrealizedtendenciesthantofutureones,especiallytoradicalfutureones.Becausethisistheotherwayroundinsocialutopias, becausetheydocontainthetendencytotheimmediatelyfollowingstage,correspondingtothetimetableofutopiasindicatedabove,andexpresstheirexcessivewishful dreamlargelyinthismerelyrelativeone,butindoingsoseldomforgettheexcessivewishfuldream,whichinalmostallsocialutopiasisacommunistone:becausesocial utopiasthustranscendedintotheunconditionalandtreatedexistingoverduematerial *Thelawistheexpressionofthegeneralwill.

Page542 onlyveryimmediatelyorincidentallyorinsteadasclothingtheunconditional,theyinevitablydidnothavenearlyasmuchinfluenceontheliberationofthebourgeois forcesofproductionasthemuchmorelocalizedNaturalRightandtheyhardlyoccurevennominallyduringtheFrenchRevolution.Asawhole,justiceisatopicmuch closertotheclasssocietythanutopiais,andthereiscertainlynoChristian,letalonechiliasticutopiainjustice.Jesusexpresslydeniesthatitishisjobtoadminister justice(Luke12,14),andthevernacularretainstheoldsayingMenoflawanspoor.AndonlytheNaturalRightofthesects,i.e.thatwhichwasnotlegally implemented,bygoingbacktotheprimalstateofparadiseasastandard,keptalooffromamalgamationwiththelawofproperty,thelawofbonds,debt,punishment andthelike.InherentinimplementedclassicNaturalRightisthebuddingentrepreneurialinteresthenceitsalmostcontinuousprotectionofprivacy,henceitsliberalist eggshells.But,asnotedabove,thisisjoinedbytheexcessintheidealoffreedom,thatmalepridebeforeroyalthroneswhichdoesnotwhollycoincidewithideologyin favouroffreecompetitionandindividualeconomy.AndfromthisexcessthegreatbourgeoisrevolutionaryexpansionisultimatelyderivedwhichNaturalRightafforded tosubjectivepublicrightinitsinfluenceonempiricalcircumstances.Socialutopiasthereforehavenothingtosetalongsidethis,becausetheyhardlydealwithrevolution itself,becausetheyalreadyassumethatitsimaginaryresulthashappened.Howevermuchmorefuturesocialutopiascontain,thisfutureiscertainlymoreoneofhappy humanflorathanofdemandsthathavebeenforcedthrough.Thingsaredifferentinthetrenchantconceptofjustice*whichhasbeendevelopedintermsofNatural Rightsinceithasaprovocativeambiguityofpostulationaboutitrightfromthestart.Justiceasindividualjustificationandjusticeastheallegedrepresentationofa generalinterest,asanobjectivelegalprescriptionfromabove:thesetwoelementshaveastrangeequivocationintheidenticalexpression:justice.Thiswasnotasyet thecasewhensubjectiverightmerelyrepresentedaclaimbycreditorstodebtorsandmerelyajustificationtoforceotherprivateindividualstomeetanobligationat thisunpoliticalstagejustificationandlegalprescription,facultasagendiandnormaagendi,werestilloppositesidesofthesamecoin.Justinian'slegalcodesawinprivate lawandconstitutionallaw(thelawofthestate)merelytwopositionswithinthesamearea(Inst.VI,4):Publicumjusest,quodadstatumreiRomanae,privatum,quod adsingulorumutilitatempertinet(PubliclawisthatwhichreferstotheRomanstate,privatelawthatwhich *BlochusesthesamewordRechthere,whichhastoberenderedvariouslyinthissectionaccordingtotheEnglishcontextasright,justiceorlaw.

Page543 referstothebenefitofindividuals).If,however,tensionarisesbetweenaneconomicallyprogressiveclassandthestateastherepresentativeofaneconomically outdatedclass,thenjusticeasjustificationandjusticeasanobjectivesystemoflawsnolongerlooklikeoppositesidesofthesamecoin.Thenneitherofthemare equivocalanymoreintermsofcontent,thetwolegalbranchesbecomeseparatelymanifest,andontheonesitsthenation,ontheothertheauthorities.ThenNatural Rightcandevelopapostulativerevolutionaryforceofwhichsocialutopias,withtheirmereinvitationorevenincitementtotheirpicturedhappygoal,wereincapable.It waspreciselyclassicNaturalRightwhichequippedsubjectiverightwiththewholeexcessoftheidealoffreedom:rightbecomesessentiallytherighttosomething,and furthermorefromthepointofviewofwhathasformerlybeengoverned.Subjectiverightceasestobeamerepermittedexception,amereexceptionfromthesphereof beinggoverned.NaturalRightmadethisexceptiontheruleandmainpoint:facultasagendidemolishesthepreviousauthoritariannormaagendiandsetsupitsown democraticlegalnorms.ThetheoryoftheFrenchRevolutionultimatelydevelopedoutofthis:astheliberationofthebourgeoisie,butalso,asKantsaysofthe Enlightenment,astheemergenceofhumanbeingsfromanimmaturitywhichistheirownfault.Andafurtherpointappearshereastowhythesocialutopiasinthe eighteenthcenturywereunabletoprovidethesamekindlingforceasNaturalRight:thelattershowed,intheframeworkoftheoverdueresistancemovement,the strongermoralpathos.Theutopiasarelessapprovingofthecircumstancesandtheimmediatelyduetendencywithinthemtheyaremorealerttoradicalfuture tendencies,asisdemonstrablefromDiogenesdowntothelastpreMarxistblueprintsofanidealstate,buttheyalsostakemoreonhumanfloraasopposedtotheiron aspectandtocharacter.Theaccentsaredifferentinwhichthebestconstitutionisexpressed,insocialutopiantermsontheonehand,intermsofNaturalRightonthe other.Thesocialutopiapredominantlyaimsathumanhappinessandconsiders,inmoreorlessnovelisticform,itseconomicsocialform.NaturalRight(withonlythe partialexceptionofHobbes)aimspredominantlyathumandignityand,inasreasonedadeductionaspossible,derivesfromtheconceptofanapriorifreesubjectofa contractthelegalconditionsinwhichdignityissociallysecuredandmaintained.OnlyThomasius(Fundamentumjurisnaturaeetgentium,1705)teacheshappinessasa targetofNaturalRight,butevenherehappinessisneverwithoutbackbone.HenceasocialutopialiketheStoicone,inwhichNaturalRightprevails,showsfarmore pathosofmalepridethancomfortableinstitutionsoroccupiedseats.Becauseofthisrepublicancharacter(compare

Page544 withOwen,Fourier,andSaintSimon,didthepicturechangeagain,whenMoreandCampanellafoundworthysuccessors.Forthenaturalsystemofcapitalismwas disturbedbyquiteastonishingproblems,RicardoandSismondidevelopedthefirsttheoriesofcriseswithinthissystem.Itwasthereforepreciselytheeconomic tendenciesoftheagewhichslowlystartedtofindthatagoodmanythingsintheoldcommunistcloudcuckoolandwerenotquitesoremoteorfictional.Butbetween CampanellaandOwenthereischaracteristicallyaspacealmostdevoidoforiginalsocialutopias,inkeepingwiththerequirementsofbourgeoisemancipation.Ashas becomeclear,NaturalRightcamemuchclosertothemitismuchnearertoideology,evenifbynomeanscoincidingwithit.TheinheritanceofNaturalRight:the thoughtoutfacultasagendiwasnotamassedbysocialutopia,itismerelyenteredintobythatutopia,underbannerswhicharenotcapitalistanymore. Onthewhole,asnotedabove,thedreaminsearchofjusticewasbynomeanslavish.Insteaditremainsconceptual,neverdepartsfromhardworkandcoldtheoretical effort.Anovelofanidealstatemayperhapsstillhavebeenabletodevelopthetheoryofanoriginalsocialcontract,butnotthestrictconclusionsonwhichNatural Rightintrinsicallydepends.Inanycase,theoriginalcontractisnotessentialtoNaturalRightafterall,theformerisfirstfoundinEpicurus,whoneedsnoNaturalRight atall,whereasthecopiousNaturalRightoftheStoicsknowsnothingofacontratsocial.Inanycase,thetheoryofacontractistheweakestintermsoflogicinNatural Right:sincethecontract,asahighlydevelopedinstrumentoflaw,alreadypresupposesthewholelegalspherewhichisfirstsupposedtobeformedandlegitimatedby thecontratsocial.SowhatisandremainsessentialtoNaturalRightisnottheoriginalcontract,thiscomponentthatseemsasifitisfromaprehistoricnovelofanideal state,buttherationalconstructionofthebestconstitutionwithanaxiomofnature,withanaturebasedonprinciplesandcapableofbeingdeduced,notwitha tropicallyfruitfulandtransfigurednature,asonthesunnyislandsinthenovelofanidealstate.TherationalunityofNaturalRightthusdemandedthedevelopmentofall conclusionsfromasingleprincipleifpossible(thewillforusefulnessorthewillforcommunityorthewillforsecurity)itdidthisinthestrictestdeductivefashion,in accordancewiththelawofnoncontradictionandofsufficientreason.ThemodelforclassicNaturalRightwasmathematics,andNaturalRightcameclosesttothis exampleamongallthegeometricallytreatedsciencesofthisperiod.Certainly,thesocialutopiaswereconstructivetoo,butloosely,theywere

Page546 constructive,sotospeak,onlythroughtheimaginationofpurereason,notthroughitslogic.ClassicNaturalRight,however,representsatleastsincePufendorfoneof themostconsciousattemptsatappliedlogic,andfromthisangleitsrelationtothesocialutopiasislikethatofastrictcanontoasongorlikethatofadramabyRacine toavaudeville.AnditwasthemathematicianLeibnizwhoassertedthefollowingtothelawyerofthisperiod:Onecandrawfirmconclusionsfromeverydefinition,by usingindisputablelogicalrules.Andonedoespreciselythisintheconstructionofnecessarysciencesbasedonrigorousproof,whicharenotdependentonfactsbuton reasonalone,asistrueoflogic,metaphysics,arithmetic,geometry,thescienceofmotionandalsothescienceoflaw.Forallthesedonothavetheirfoundationsin experienceandfactsbutservetoaccountforthefactsandtoregulatetheminadvance:andthiswouldbetrueofjusticeeveniftherewerenolawsinthewholewide world(Leibniz,Hauptschriften,Meiner,II,p.510f.).Thecalculuswithintherisingbourgeoisiethereforeservesnotonlythemathematicalanalysisoftheturnoverof goodsbutalsoinalessoutwardlyformalwaytheantithesistofactswhichhindertheriseofthebourgeoisie.Here,inNaturalRight,purereasonisrevolutionary andinsteadofbowingtofactsitpositssecurityinnature.Inanaturewhichiscomposedinahighlyvariedway:inonewithrationallycoherentlaws,andthenofcourse also,inRousseau,inoneofoppositiontoallartificiality,innatureassimplicity,wildness,unspoiltness.Rousseau'sconceptofnaturehasalmostcompletelylostthe characterofrationallaws,insteaditiscloselyconnectedwithalltheenthusiasmatthattimeforsimplityanddemocraticgenerality,withnaturallanguage,naturalpoetry, naturalreligion,andnaturaleducationalltheseidealsweremonstrancesintheaxiomofnature.Thus,fromthispointofviewaswell,NaturalRightacquiredalustre whichsocialutopias,aftertheirchiliasmwastoneddown,couldnotmatchforalongtime.ButasfarastherevolutionaryeffectofNaturalRightatthattimeis concerned,itcertainlyremainedhistoricallylimitedandextendedlessthansocialutopiasintothefuture.ConsiderthecloselinksofNaturalRightwithimmediate currentsofsocietyatthattime,withthoroughlyindividualisticonesaswell:couldsocialrevolutionborrowsomethingfromthese?Thecaseisundoubtedlycomplicated, MarxveryoftentreatsNaturalRightasifithadbeenputonfileforgood,onbourgeoisfile.Ontheotherhand,bourgeoisreactionthroughoutthewholeofthe nineteenthcenturyspeaksofNaturalRightonlywithcontemptandhatred.DoesnotthishatreddocredittoNaturalRight,doesitnotindicateapossibleinherited

Page547 substratuminit,oneworththinkingabout?Andifitsolderopponents,fromHugo(TextbookofNaturalRight,1799)toBergbohm(JurisprudenceandthePhilosophy ofRight,1892),condemnedNaturalRightfromthestandpointoflawbecomehistorical,modernsociologistslikeParetoorevenGentiledothesamefromthe standpointoftheirvitalismorofthefascisttheoryofelitism.ThisissomethingthatspeaksverymuchinfavourofNaturalRightitsrationalismisstilldangeroustothe hereditarywhipandastrangelylivelyenemytoindustrialfeudalism.NaturalRightthereforeseemstohavenotonlyconfineditselftothealmostachievedtendenciesof itstime,ortothosewhichalreadyhaveonefootinthedooranyway.Despiteitsbourgeoissubstructure,despitethestaticunityofitsabstractideals,ithasthatvery excesswhichmakesallrevolutionsappearrelatedtooneanother.ThusthedeclarationofsubjectivepublicrightsintotalitythathasoccurredintermsofNaturalRight occasionallydisplayseconomicindividualismlessasasubstructurethanasatemporarymeasure.Thedeclarationofsubjectivelypublicrightspositedtheseasacadre intowhichrightsagainsttheemployercouldalsobeinserted,notjustthoseagainsttheauthorities.Hencetherighttostrike,therightofcombination,theprincipleof equalrightsforallhumanbeingsandnations,inshorttheformercodeofbourgeoishumanrights,onthestateofwhichStalinstillhadthistosay:Thebannerof bourgeoisdemocraticfreedomshasbeenthrownoverboard.Ithinkthatyou,therepresentativesofcommunistanddemocraticparties,mustraisethisbanneragainand carryitbeforeyou,ifyouwanttogatherthemajorityofthenationaroundyou.Thereisnobodyelsewhocouldraiseit.NaturalRightwasadeclarationoftheserights, itmadeitpossibletoexpressthem,thatisandremainsitslegacy.Evenitspathosofthefreeindividualseemslikeawarningagainstanyconfusionormixingupof collectivitywiththeherdandherdcharacter.TheveryreferenceofconcreteordertothewillcontentofconcretefreedommaintainsthelegacyofNaturalRightagainst everycollectiveconceivedinmerelyabstractandisolatedterms,againstacollectivewhichiscontrastedwithindividualsinsteadofspringingfromthem,fromclassless individuals.Thegoaldefinedincommunistterms:Fromeachaccordingtohisabilities,toeachaccordingtohisneedsitselfclearlypreservesamatureNaturalRight evenifwithoutrecoursetonatureandperhapswithoutthepermanentnecessityofaright.SotheproblemofNaturalRighttheproblemwhichformerlyhada revolutionarycharacter,notofcoursetheeternallawofthecapitalistsocalledconstitutionalstateisnotyetsettled,althoughitdoesnotprecedeMarxismas preciselyasthesocialutopias

Page548 do,eitherinchronologicalorfactualterms.Theseutopiasinstantlyemergedagainwhenquestionsarosewhichcouldnotbereconciledwithlegalexposure.Thedream ofprotectedhumandignitydidnotinthelongrunreplacethemoreurgent,ifnotmorecentraldreamofhumanhappiness. Fichte'sclosedcommercialstateorproductionandexchangeinaccordancewithrationallaw Itissurelydeprivationwhichmostmakespeoplecowerinanundignifiedway.Thepoormanistotallyincapableofholdinghisheadupashighashispridedemands. Sowhatifitwereaboveallrightforeverypersontoliveaspleasantlyaspossible?Ifproperjusticewerebroughttobearpreciselyonhappinesstooandonitsstarving opposite?Ifdignityitselfregardeddeprivationandmiseryasasituationwhichfollowsfromitleastofall,indeedisincompatiblewithit?Thesewerequestionswhich wereboundtoleadfromconsiderationsoforiginalrightstoeconomicconsiderations.Farbeyondolderconcernsandmoderatepangsofconscienceorrespectabilities, alongthelinesofafairpriceandthelike.Therethusarosethenewphenomenonofaneconomic,notjustpoliticallegalclaim,acritiqueofthemarketintermsof NaturalRight.Initswakearosethestrangehybrid:alegalsocialutopiaFichteelaboratedit.HisworkTheClosedCommercialState,1800,appearedasan AppendixtoJurisprudence,butalso,inadistinctlyutopianmanner,asthesampleofapoliticstobesuppliedinthefuture.Thedifferencesinmethodandportrayal betweenNaturalRightandsocialutopiaarenotremovedbuttoneddowninFichte'shybrid.Abetterconstitutionisherebothsharplythoughtoutandvisiblypictured, bothportrayedasabsolutelyanduniversallyvalidandyetoncemoretransferredtoakindofisland,namelyintoanenclosedstate.Alegalclaimaprioriannouncesits arrivalthroughout,aclaimnotjusttodignitybutexpresslytohappiness.Indeedtosocialisthappiness,withoutthatspeciesofmalepridewhichinNaturalRight,among otherthings,hadcloakedfreeenterprise.Liveandletlive,thatistheruleaccordingtowhichNaturalRightherelinesupsocially,notindividualistically.Accordingto whichitlinesupabovealleudemonistically,asinsocialutopias:Everybodywantstoliveaspleasantlyaspossible:andsinceeverybodydemandsthisasahuman being,andnobodyismoreorlessofahumanbeingthananyoneelse,allareequallyrightinthisdemand(Werke,Meiner,III,p.432).Andthestateisnotpresented asaprotectorofthepropertywhichitfinds

Page549 andleavesunequallydistributed,butonthecontrary,itbecomesthedestinyofthestatefirsttogiveeverybodywhatistheirs,firsttosetthemupintheirproperty,and onlythentoprotectthem(l.c.,p.429).Thusdeductionfrompurelegalmaximsandsocialutopiaheremergedintooneanother,withtheearlyintentionofunitingboth. Asearlyas1793FichtehadwrittentoKantthathewasfiredbythegreatideaoftacklingtheproblemofPlato'sRepublic,oftherationalstate.Andthefruitswerea totalparadox:statesocialisminthespiritofRousseau,portrayedinbothadeductiveandcolouringway.Thiswasofcoursejoinedbyathirdelementwhichsoughtto detachFichte'sprocedure,thatwasotherwisesolittleempiricaloramicabletothegiven,frompreviousutopianizingandfrompreviousNaturalRight.Aglanceat existingconditionswasadded,withtheintentionofactingpracticallywithinthem,withoutbelongingtothem,andofdrawingthemclosertotheidealstate.The speculativepoliticians,saysFichte,haveremainedfictitious,andassurelyasthereisorder,consistencyandcertaintyintheirideas,assurelydotheirregulations,inthe waytheyhavebeendrawnup,onlyfitthestateofthingspresupposedandinventedbythem,inwhichthegeneralruleisportrayed,asinasuminarithmetic.The practisingpoliticiandoesnotfindthispresupposedstateofthingswaitingforhim,butaverydifferentone.Itisnowonderthataregulationdoesnotfitthelatterwhen thatregulationisnotdesignedforitinthewayithasbeendrawnup(l.c.,p.420).ThoughwhatFichteusestoreplacethepureworldofideasisasisnaturalina Germanysolittledevelopedineconomicandpoliticaltermsonceagainideaswithgeneralabstractdefinitions,exceptthatthesearefurtherdefinedforagiven actualstateofaffairs.If,however,idealismdoesnotbecomepracticeinthisway,itdoesdevelopascriticismintheworkofFichte,theangrymanofvirtue.Fichte takesuptheindirectcriticismwhichtheimageofautopianlandofhappinessimplicitlyportrayedconcerningconditionsathome.Andhetakesupthedirectcriticism whichtherationalityofNaturalRightexplicitlyappliedtotheirrationalityoftheexistingconstitutionofthestate.ThismadeFichte'scriticismallthesharperashe completelytransformedNaturalRightintorationallaw,i.e.severeditfromallprimordialandprehistoricfictions.Thereisintheworkofthisgreatnaturehaterno freedomatallinandthroughnatureexistenceinanimalorprimitivesocietyisnotArcadian,butcoerciveanddespoticonlysociallifemakesitpossibletothinkof freedom.AnElysiangoalremains,notonegivenasworklessorexistingsomewhere,butrather,inconnectionwithFichte'sradicalidealistphilosophyofactivedeeds. ageneratedgoal.

Page550 Thisinaconstructive,butpartlyalsoinatechnicalworkingsense:Unlesseithertheforcesofourownnatureincreaseenormously,orunlessthenatureoutsideus transformsitselfwithoutourassistancebyasuddenmiracleanddestroysitsownpreviouslyfamiliarlaws,wecannotexpectthatprosperityfromit,wecanonlyexpect itfromourselveswemustearnitourselvesthroughwork(l.c.,p.453).Thisisakindofintroductionofthetheoryoflabourvalueintoutopia,intoautopiawhichno longerlivesoffrawmaterialsorevenmanna.ButthepathosofactivereasonneverthelessremainssoidealisticinFichtethatitdoesnotdevelopitssocialutopia economicallybutsyllogistically,intheformoflogicalconclusions.InthistootheexerciseofNaturalRightisstrongerthanageneticdevelopmentfromthepointof viewoftheworkprocess.Fichte'sworkthusbeginswithamajorstatementasthefirstmainpart:Whatisrightasregardscommerceintherationalstate.Thisis followedbyaspecificminorstatementasthesecond,criticalmainpart:Ontheconditionofcommerceincurrentactualstates.Thisisfollowedbytheconcluding statementasthethird,ideallyresultingmainpart:Howthecommerceofanexistingstateistobeputintheconstitutionrequiredbyreason.Thewholethingaimsat freedom,butatfreedomwhichonlyfindsroomthrougheconomicrestraint.ItisanopenquestionwhethertheethicalindividualistFichtebecameaneconomicsocialist becausehesawhisethicalindividualismthreatenedbyeconomicindividualism.ButeveninthecaseofFichtehimselfitisevidentthatsocialismiswhathasbeensought invainforsolongunderthenameofmorality. Theindividualpersonisstilltakenthroughoutasthebasisinallthis,everythingfollowsfromhim.Fromhimaloneasathinkingbeingtheshapewhichjusticehastotake isdeveloped.Originalrightsarethoseoftherationalindividual,anditishisIthinkwhichnotonlyhasbutdevelopstheserights.Fichtedistinguishesthreeoriginal rights:theindividual'spowertodisposeofhisbody,hisproperty,andhissphereasaperson.Thesearesupposedtobeboundlessfreedoms,andtheyareonlylimited bythefreedomofallotherindividuals,andhencebynothingalientotheoriginalrights.Inorderthatpeopleareabletolivetogether,thefreedomoftheindividualmust berenderedfinite,butinsuchawaythatitmayberestrictedfirstlyonlybyfreedomandsecondlyonlyforthesakeoffreedom.Strikingconclusionsaredrawnhere fromtheoriginalrighttoproperty,notatallprivatecapitalistconclusions.InFichtethereisnorightofownershipofthingsbutonlyofactions,sothatnobodyelseisto beauthorizedtocultivatethispieceofland,oronlyonegroupistobeallowedtomanufactureshoes.

Page551 Oldguildrightsarethusfunctionallyrenewed,astheguaranteedabilityoftheindividualexclusivelytopursueagreaterart.Inthecaseoflandthereisabsolutelyno ownership,itbelongstonobodyandtothefarmeronlyinsofarashecultivatesit(andisconsequentlynotanidlefeudallord).AfterFichtehasthusbroughtpossession andownershipoutofthelawofpropertyintoakindoflawofproduction,heprogressestologicalsocialistconclusions.Preciselybecauseoftheoriginalrightto property,itmustbegiventoeveryonebythestate:Ifsomeonedoesnothaveenoughtobeabletolive,thenhedoesnothavewhatheisentitledtohavehedoesnot havewhatishis.Intherationalstatehewillreceiveitinthedivisionwhichwasmadebychanceandforcebeforetheawakeningandtheruleofreasoneveryone certainlydidnotreceiveit,becauseotherstookmoreforthemselvesthanwasduetothem(l.c.,p.433).Andfurtheroninthisstatesocialisttext:Thetaskofthe statehasbeenonlyonesidedlyandhalfunderstooduptonow,asaninstitutionforkeepingthecitizenatthesameproprietarylevelatwhichwefindhim,bymeansof thelaw.Themoredeepseateddutyofthestatefirsttoestablisheveryoneinthepossessionofwhatisduetohimhasbeenoverlooked.Butthelatterisonlypossibleif theanarchyofcommerceisabolishedinjustthesamewayaspoliticalanarchyisgraduallybeingabolished,andthestateclosesintoacommercialstatejustasitis closedinitslegislationanditsjudicialoffices(l.c.,p.483).Fichtetherebyextends,inhispostulatedidealstate,thegeneralityofthelawwhichhadabolishedtherights ofclassandprivilegetoageneralityofjobcreation.Inaddition,asameanstowardsthis,thereistheeliminationoffreeenterprise,theshutdownoffreecompetition. Inadditionthereistheabolitionoftheopenmarket,inshort:thedestinyoftheidealstatetobeacontrolledeconomy.ThisinaGermanywhichstillhardlyexhibitedone exponentoffreeenterpriseandwhichthereforeinvitedmoreeasilythantheadvancedwesternstatesakindofprecapitalistanticapitalismashasalreadybecome apparentinFichte'sworkguilds.TheRomantictransfigurationsofmedievalsocietywhichNovalishadexpressedshortlybeforethis(ChristendomorEurope,1799) alsoprobablyhadaninfluencehere.Asinglecommoninterest,saidNovalis,connectedtheremotestprovincesofthisbroadspiritualrealm.Fichte,solittleofa Romanticinotherrespects,wasinanycaseoneofthefirsttotouchonthebackwardlookinganticapitalistutopiawhichisnotentirelylackinginSaintSimonand whichstillemergedinRuskinorWilliamMorrisasakindofGothicsocialism.Itwouldbeerroneous,asMehringsays,inthecaseoftheclosedcommercialstateto thinkofamereidealization

Page552 becausethepermittedproductionandmanufactureisalreadycalculatedinthebasisofthestate(l.c.,p.443).SoFichte'sstatebelievesthatitdoesnothavetotake ondomesticbartering,itcontentsitselfwiththesocialsupervisionoftheimplementationofcontractsenteredinto.Itcontentsitselfwiththisifonlybecausethereally supremeorstateclassinthisutopia,asinPlato,consistsofteachersandscholarsbutthesehaveFichte'sTheoryofScienceinmind,notbookkeeping,financial exchange,discountcredit.Thestate'smonopolyofforeigntradeisalsosimplyconceivedasadefensivemeasure,astheprotectionoftheproductionbudgetagainst theuncontrollableinfluenceoftheforeigner.Andpreciselyfromthiswilltowardsoverallcontroltherenowfollowsthemostradicalconclusionoftheplan,thatmost reminiscentofthehappyisleagain:autarky.Theworldcurrencyofgoldandsilverisabolished,adomesticcurrencyofworthlessmaterialtakesitsplace,whichcannot behoardedandwhichisunsuitableforthepurchaseofforeignproducts.Perhaps,saysFichte,therewillthenbenofursandsilkclothesanymoreinautopian Germany,andcertainlynoChinesetea,butnorwilltherebeanyeconomicwarsandwarsofconquest.Foreigncreditsaretobehandedovertothegovernment(an amazinganticipationofforeignexchangelegislation),infactFichteevenindicatesthehomeproductionofsubstitutesforcottonandotherimportedmaterials(an amazinganticipationofsyntheticchemistry).TheChinesewall,thepatrioticwallthusbecomesutopian:Thereisaspecificgoalwhichthegovernmentmustresolveto attainbeforecompletelyclosingoffthestate:namely,thateverythingwhichisbeingproducedanywhereatthetimethestateisclosedoffisproducedfromnowon withinthecountryitself,asfarasatallpossibleinsuchaclimate(l.c.,p.532).Thisideaofautarkyisknowntohavekindledreactionaryfervourinthesemifascist BrningperiodoftheWeimarRepublic.Itrecommendeditselfasameansofrunningtheeconomywithoutgoldbacking,withoutinternationalclearing,ofpreparinga wareconomy.ButitrecommendeditselftoFichteonaccountoftheclosedunitywhicheverysystemoforganizedworkneedsaslongasitisnotintroducedinother statesaswell,andthenofcourseonaccountofpatriotism.UndertheinfluenceoftheNapoleonicWars,Fichteincreasinglyabandonedhisinitialprinciple:ubilux,ibi patria.ButthesocalledtransitionfromcosmopolitanismtonationstateinFichte'sutopiamustnotbeoverestimatedeventheGermannessonlyprovesandjustifies itselfheresoastobemostuniversallyhumanorthestrongestHumanum.ThebasisofFichte'sdistinctionofGermannessfromforeignness,eveninhisSpeeches

Page554 fromtheunbrokencontinuationofwhichthosesovereignsandcreatorsinthekingdomdescribedwillemerge(Werke,Meiner,IV,p.615).ThoughFichteexplains littleornothingaboutpractice:howandbywhatmeansitmaycomeeventothebeginningsofaclosedcommercialstate,letalonesuchanenthusiasticartofreason.In theGermanyofthattimenoproletariathadyetappeared,anditwasalreadyagreatdealforFichtetoadmitandcondemnthefactthatthecombinedmassofowners couldforciblypreventtheweakerindividualfromproclaiminghislegalrights(l.c.,p.475).Eventhisslighthintofsocialrevolution,astheexpressionoflegalrights,was abstractatthattime,wasalmostasspeculativeasFichte'sentiredesignitself.Thushisdesigneriscontentwiththefactthatthewholethingmayremainamereschool exercisewithoutsuccessintherealworld.Heisastonishedatexistingconditionsandfindsinthisastonishmentthatphilosophicalspurwhichcouldonlybecomea practicalonemuchlateron.AlthoughFichteconsidershissocialistconclusion,likeallthathavebeencorrectlydeduced,tobeconceptuallynecessary,statesocialismin thisworldisstillonlyconsideredtobeabstractlypossible,onlytobedemandedbytheruleoflaw.Anythingotherthanproposalsanddemandswasnotsubmittedby Fichte'slaterdiscipleseither,byRodbertusforexample,theancestorofacademicsocialists.AndevenLassalle,whowasinfluencedbyFichteinmanyways,didnot getbeyondreformistagitation,despiteproletariancontact.Infact,LassalleendorsedthecurrentstatemorethanFichte,especiallytheauthoritarianPrussianstate. Workers'productivecooperativeswithstatecreditweretoformatransitiontothefuturesocialistsociety:Fichte'sutopiacertainlycouldbemisusedonbehalfofthis substituteforrevolution.ButasocialismintheGermanyof1800hasahistoricalfreshnessanddistinctionwhichcannotbemisusedatall.Itexhibitspreciselythebrilliant naivety,theintuitiveyouthfulness,whichwerelackinginaLassallearound1860,andwhichwerelackinginthelaterreformismevenasanexcuse.Theclosed commercialstateremainsthefirstsystem,deducedfromoriginalrightsandpicturedinautopianway,oforganizedwork.Morethanthis:Fichte'sworkconsiders socialismtobepossibleinasingle,sufficientlylargeandautarkicalcountry. Federativeutopiasinthenineteenthcentury:Owen,Fourier Miserydidnotremainidleinthemeantime,itgrewdisturbingly.Whileitsbearershadsofarbeenpeasants,theywerenowjoinedbytheworker.

Page556 Preciselythemoreeconomicallyadvancedacountrywas,themoregruesomethesituationofitspoorbecame.Theserfhadthingshardenough,sufferingseemedto havereacheditsheight.Buteventheworstperiodofdeprivationforthemedievalpeasantsissurpassedbythemiseryofthefirstfactoryworkers.Theearlyfactories werethesameasgalleysastarving,sleepless,desperateproletariatwaschainedtomachines.Entrepreneurialprofitknewnomercynorletup,dailyworklasted eighteenhoursandover,afilthyworkbeyondcompare.NeverweresuchalargenumberofpeoplesounhappyasinEnglandaroundtheturnoftheeighteenthcentury. ThefirstmantocomeoutagainstitwasadoctorcalledHall,hesawthecountryrottingtothecore.In1805hisworkTheEffectsofCivilizationappearedinit, besidesmedicalandmoralindignation,thereareseveralutopianproposalsforimprovement.Thepoor,saysHall,barelyreceiveaneighthoftheproceedsoftheir effortsitisthetrendofthetimestomakethericheverricher,andthepooreverpoorer.Theonlysalvationistoreduceindustrialdevelopment,butnotinordertobring backthesocalledgoodolddays.Hallalreadysawthatallisnotyetwonifthefactoriesdisappearbutthelordsofthemanorremain.Thesoilshouldbesharedout againinequalportionsamongallthefamiliesinthecountry:beyondmachinewreckingtherethusarisesafuturefulloffreepeasants.Ifthisprotestagainstthemiseryin factorieshadmetwithlittleresponse,emanatingfromamerephilanthropist,theappealofafactoryownerhimselfmetwithamuchgreaterone,aboveallsinceitwas linkedwithanextremelyusefulexample.Theexamplethatawellfedandnotdiscontentedworkeraccomplishesthesameandbetterworkthanagalleyslaveinhalfthe time.RobertOwenhadmadethisdiscovery,butnotonlythisone:Owen,ananimacandidissima,amanwithasimplicityofcharacterthatwaschildliketothepointof sublimity,andatthesametimeabornleaderofmen,asEngelssays,alsobecameoneofthefirstutopiansofthenineteenthcenturywithafederativesocialist objective.PreeminentamonghismanyworksareTheSocialSystem,1820,andTheBookoftheNewMoralWorld,1836intheformerheturnsawayfrom patriarchalsocialwelfaretowardscommunism,andinthesecondworkheseekstorecommendittohisprofessionalcolleagues,fromthestandpointofkindness.Butif theutopianthussawsofftheboughonwhichheissittingasacapitalist,itwasabsurdtodemandthesameofcapitalistswhowerenotevenutopiansasasideline. Owenstillconsideredsocialwellbeingtobeattainablethroughreformsherejectedstrikes,eventhestruggleforpoliticalfreedoms,hesoughtreconciliation,he expecteddukes,ministersandmanufacturerstorenounce

Page557 calledprivateproperty,marriage,andpositivereligiontheTrinityofevil,allthreeareidols,andonlycreatehumanunhappiness.Thustheagrarianskilledbasis reproducesnothingofitsoldsocialforms,despitetheoldvillagestructurethatwasplanned.Federatedgroupsofthreehundred,atmosttwothousandpeoplewill covertheearth,withacollectivereadinesstohelpinandamongthemselves.Thoughtheonlysettlementwhichcoveredtheearthinthisway,NewHarmonyinIndiana, associatedwiththeneighbourhoodethicoftheAmericanpioneeringage,perishedevenmoredecidedlythantheLondonexchangebazaarfortheageofsectarian colonieswasover.Inanageofmaturecapitalismsuchsmallstructureswerenotabletotranscendtheircapitalistenvironment,infacttheyremainedatleastinterms oftechnologicalproductionalongwaybehindit.ButOwendidnotprimarilywanttoimproveproduction,inordertopavethewayforanimprovedhuman situation,fromtheoutsethewantedtoimprovethenoblestmeansofproduction:man,andtolifthim,cleansed,outofthedirtofthefactory.Hencetherestrictionto small,humanlyachievablespheresoflifehencenotleastOwen'spedagogicaldreamonalargesocialscale,thedreamofforminganewhumanity.Accordingto Owen'stheory,humanbeingsdohaveacharacterwhichisinnateinoutline,butthisoutlineisfinallydeterminedonlybythecircumstancesinwhichtheindividualends up.Ifthecircumstancescomeoutallright,thenthepersonalsocomesoutallright,hebecomescheerfulandgood.Thishealingisthereforetobebestaccomplishedin smallfederatedcommunities,withoutdivisionoflabour,withoutseparatingurbaneconomyandagriculture,withoutbureaucracy.Preciselybecauseofthepedagogically humanegoal,whichseemedtoneedclosehumancontact,thereisnocoherentlargescalemanufactureinOwen'swishfuldream,buttheInternationaldisintegratesinto federatedislands. Allthesegoodthingsweretocome,tobefoundedallatonce.LifesofarwasforOwenasinglemotionlessnight,thenewlifeisabruptlysetoffagainstit.Owenthinks almostcompletelyunhistoricallythisdistinguisheshimfromtheothergreatfederativeutopian,fromCharlesFourier.Evenhisfirstwork:Theoryofthefour movements,1808,criticizesthepresentonahistoricalbasis.Fourierlaterrejectedthiswork,yetitremainsthebasisofhisothermajorworks.BothTreatiseonthe domesticagriculturalassociation,1822,andTheNewIndustrialWorld,1829,contain,likehisfirstwork,criticismofcontemporarylife,history,andchorusesofthe futureallinone.Morespecifically,therearefourepochsaccordingtoFourier,theearlierstrivingtowardsthelateroneineachcase,

Page559 andthelateronecannolongerberescinded.Thefirstepochisthatofthehappyearlycommunistageofinstinct,thesecondthatofpiracyanddirectbartereconomy, thethirdthatofpatriarchyandthedevelopmentoftrade,thefourththatofbarbarismandeconomicprivileges.Thelattercontinueinthefifthepoch(whichstilllargely coincideswiththefourth):intheageofcapitalistcivilization,whichisthepresent.ItepitomizesFourier'shistoricalforcethathedoesnotcriticizethispresentlikeall earlierutopiansfromthestandpointofanidealstate,butasaproductofdegenerationatthatverytimeandplace,asanintolerableintensificationofbarbarism.Fourier provesthatcivilizedorderraiseseveryvicepractisedbybarbarisminasimplewaytoacomplex,ambiguous,equivocal,hypocriticalmodeofexistenceinthis historicallysoundfashion,hebecomesnotjustasatirist,butadialectician.AlthoughFourierdoesnotrepresent,anymorethanOwen,theclassinterestsofthe proletariatinthesenseoftheclassstruggle,hedoesnotbelievethatbourgeoissocietycanbeimprovedassuchorthroughitsownresources.Withoutanyknowledge ofHegel,andmorethanagenerationbeforeMarx,Fourierdiscoverstheextraordinarypropositionthatincivilizationpovertyspringsfromaffluenceitself.Miseryis nolongerregarded(asitisintheworkofbourgeoiseconomistsevendecadeslaterandeveninAmericatoday)asatemporaryconditionwhichwouldberemovedas amatterofcoursebythecornucopiaofgrowingriches.Onthecontrary,miseryisthedialecticallynecessaryreversesideofcapitalistsplendour,positedalongwithit, inseparablefromit,growingwithitthatiswhycapitalistcivilizationnevercannorwilleliminatepoverty.ThesamedialecticalgeniusmadeFourierkeenlyalivetothe tendencieswhichareforcingtheirwaytomaturityandtosuddenchangewithinthepresentincohrenceindustrielleitself.Asfarasthemoreimmediatefutureof capitalismisconcerned,Fourierpredictedasearlyas1808theultimateendoffreecompetition,theformationofmonopolies.Withaquiteincredibleperspicacityhe prophesied,inanagewhichhadonlyjustbrokentheguildbarriersandsawthebeginningsoffreecompetition,thebankruptcyofeconomicliberalism.Fourierhoped herethatevenbeforetheformationofmonopoliesasocialupheavalwouldabolishcommercialanarchyandgrantmankindaguaranteedexistencebeyondcapitalism. Thisguaranteewasalsoinherentinthetendenciesofcapitalistcivilization,sothatFourierstipulates:Civilizationinitself,inaccordancewiththewillofnature,strives towardsguaranteeism.Clearlythough,Fourier'shistoricaldialecticalmediationbrokeoffhere,attheendofhiscritique,andprophecypurelysubjectivewishful fantasydictateditsimagestothe

Page560 future.Thegoalwasacooperativeorganizationofthemanufactureanddistributionofgoodsstrangelyenough,Fouriersawthebeginningsofthisintheexisting savingsbanks,incooperativeinsurancecompaniesandsimilarbourgeoiscaricaturesofasocialistguaranteeism.AlthoughFoutierforesawlaterstagesofproduction: specificallytheformationofindustrialmonopolies,hesimplyfearedthemanddidnot,likeSaintSimonandespeciallyMarx,welcomethemandincludetheminhis utopiaasriperstages.Fourier'soutlookandevaluationhereremainedfixedlypetitbourgeois,andmoreoveranarchistsympathiesmadetheirpresencefeltinhis federalistguaranteeism.LikeOwenheplanssmallcommunes,socalledphalanstres,infactevenwithoutthetotalabolitionofprivatepropertyananomalyin utopias.Instead,themanofthefutureisalsotobeallowedtogainhisindependencebyacquiringasmallfortunecertainlynotfortheexploitationofothers(thereisno privateownershipofthemeansofproduction),butratherwiththeaimofpreventingindividualnullificationinthecollective.Eventhephalanstresarenothingbut individuallyautonomouscommunities,manageablyintimatecommunesofoneandahalfthousandpeopleoralittlemoreeveryphalanxpreserveswithinitacareful balancebetweenindividualandcollective.Evenamongstthemselves,thephalanstresareonlyassociated,althoughunderafantasticallyembellishedworldleadership noothersocialismthanthepersonalfederativeoneispermittedhere.Thebusinessofagricultureandskilledtradesinthephalanstres,andtheabsenceoflargescale industry,wastopreserveforthecommunitythesweetnessofapastoralinthemidstofasocialistfront.Twohoursworkareenough,sothatworkshouldremaina pleasure,andanabundantchangeofoccupationislikewiseenvisagedinkeepingwiththebutterflypassionofhumanbeingsandthemakingsofatleastthirtyjobs whicheveryonehasinhimaccordingtoFourier.AtthispointtheutopianbecomesalmostAmerican:theresourcefulnessandversatilityofthepioneerisintroducednot intotheprairie,ofcourse,butratherintothesafegardencitiesofthefuturephalanstres.Also,justasinOwen,allthisfreedomwithoutthedivisionoflabourandthis pronouncedfederativeutopiaservesnotsomuchalavishproductionasthevictoryofourbasicpassionaccordingtoFourierwithasuddenastonishingoptimism thisistheChristianloveofmankind.Capitalistcivilizationdoesofcoursealreadybearwithinitthetendencytowardsthenewphaseofsociety(justaseveryepoch hasinherentwithinittheonewhichfollows),despitethefearedmonopolies,thosewhicharealreadytobenippedinthebudbysocialism:butwithmorethanhistorical, withgeometricalnecessityFourier'sfuture

Page561 stateflowsfromthesupremeprincipleofChristianity.FourierconceiveshiscommuneasamusicofsheerChristianharmony,andthevoiceswhichclamourforthis higherfederationarenotonlyindividualhumanbeings,butalsotheindividualdriveswithinthosehumanbeings.ThusFourierevendesignedakindofanthropological counterpoint,withtwelvepassionsandnolessthaneighteenhundredcharactersalloftheseflourishintoauniversalloveofmankind,oncesocietyisattunedand dissonantdeceitremoved.Arichunisonaltogetheristhedestinyofman,forhimselfandinrelationtotheworld.Hisindustrialdestinyistoharmonizethematerial worldhissocialdestinyistoharmonizetheemotionalmoralworldhisintellectualdestinyistodiscoverthelawsofuniversalorderandharmony.Accordingly, Fourier'sutopiaconstructsoutsheerconnectionsinwhichconsonancenecessarilyreignsutopiaismedicineandinstructionforagreement.Withoutpoverty,without thatdivisionintojobswhichcarvesupmanhimselfherethefederativecommune,thehappystructurecouldalmostcomefromakindofearlyWaltWhitmanAmerica, thoughwithoutcapitalism. Centralistutopiasinthenineteenthcentury:Cabet,SaintSimon Thatwhichbringshappinessinsteadofmiserydoesnotalwaysneedtobefriendlyitself.Likewisetheplanwhichmeanstoabolishtheharshnessoflifeisnotalways soft.InOwenandFourierthebetterlifeappearsasindividualandfederative,itsframeworkisloose.Thecentralists,however,whonowemerge,closertoindustry, makefreedomorganized,andstressthepowerofsolidarity.Theydonotthinkintermsofsettlementsbutoflargeeconomiccomplexes,andinsteadofOwen'sdistrict councilsastrictsystemofadministrationarises.Onecouldevensaythatastricterorderarisesinfreedomagain,freedomisnolongeraffirmedaseconomically individualbutsolelyassocial,i.e.orientatedtowardscommongoals.Itisthusmorethanindicative,itisdecisivethatthecentralistutopiansnolongerfurnishtheir dreamswithfield,houseandworkshop,withacastofpeasantsandcraftsmen.Buttheyaffirmthecollectivemeansofproductionofindustry,theydenyonlythe subjectivismwithwhichtheseareusedandadministered.Cabetwasoneofthefirsttoturntoworkersinthiswayandwasfelttobeaspokesmanoftheirpowerful future.

Page562 Thoughhetoobelieved,stillbelieved,thatthetensionbetweenrichandpoorwasbasedonakindofmisunderstandingwhichcouldbeclearedupwithoutaclass struggle.Henolongerputhistrustinthezephyrofahumanetorrentofwords,ofcourse,butinsteadhehopedthatthecriseswouldsufficetoappealifnottothe capitalist'sconscience,thentohiscommonsense.Butapartfromthis,Cabet'sutopialiesthoroughlyonthestrict,unsentimental,organizationalside.HisVoyageto Icaria,1839,onlyappearstoprovideanewdreamofanislandsettlementhisIcariawasmodernandcomplexinstead.InthisspiritCabetfirstusedtheword communiste,inhisprogrammeof1840Heineintroducedtheneologismscommuniste,communismeintoGerman.Nocommunitspartiellesaretocovertheearth, Icariaisauniform,highlyindustrialcreation,supportedbyamightynationofworkers.Cabetpraisesindustryanditsrevolutionarypower:Byplainfireandsimple waterthearistocracywillbeblastedintotheairandsmashedintotheearth.Therearethefourancientelements,butsteamisafifthandnolessimportantthantheyare, foritiscreatingtheworldofthefuture,itisseparatingourpresentfromthepast.Thefuturestate,whichwastospringfromorganizedindustry,wasdevisedwithall theeleganceandprecisionofthedecimalsystem.Adictatorwastocreatethepoliticalstandardmetre,thedecimalsystemitselfsignifiesthemostclearlyarrangedlogic oforder.Theprojectedcountryisdividedintoahundredprovinces,ofroughlythesameareaandpopulationeachoftheseprovincesisagainsplitintotencommunes provincesandcommunesareruledbytheworkingbrainoftheircity,attheverytopbyIcara,thecentre,acrystalcompletelyrationalizedthroughout.Thedayis meticulouslyregulated,asevenhourdayofearlyrisers,aCampanelladay,filledfromtoptobottomwithworkuniformsandcommittees.Thereareonlyofficial newspapersandnootheraidtoorganizedcriticismeitherengineersandcivilservantsgovernatechnicalworldthecontrasttoFourier'sphalanstrescouldnotbe sharper.Theclockofdutyeversetthesame*wastotalizedinnootherutopiawithsolittleaversion,withsomuchidolizationofexactness.Butthroughoutan elementofrealityalongsidethisidolizationasocialistplannedeconomyprevails:anindustrycommitteefixesinadvancethenumberandkindofgoodswhichhaveto beproducedintheyear.Thusproductionmanageswithoutthecriseswhichdestroywelfareandmaketheirsystemahellforthecapitalists *Schiller,MaxinPiccolominiI,4.

Page563 themselves.Thecapitalistswerenot,however,inclinedtoallowthemselvestoberidoftheirdiseasebyhavingtheirlivestaken:thereisnovoluntaryIcaria.ThusCabet experimentedforbadandall,whollyagainsthisdoctrine,withsettlementplansofthemostminimalkind,exactlylikeOwen.Icariawasdesignedasagloriousworkers' statewithametropolisinthemiddleitbecameinrealityalaboriouscolony,establishedonthebanksoftheMissouribycommunistpioneers.Despitesteampower, extensivemechanization,andattemptedmodelfactoriesitperished,swallowedupbyswampandprairie.Inanycase,LittleIcariawasalwaysconceivedasa substitutetherealIcarialiesontheSeine,wasconceivedastheperfectFranceofthedecimalsystemandthedepartments,fromwhich,afterallthemedievalmessor confusion,eventheaccidentsofprivatepropertyhavebeenremoved. Steamoverturnedthingsatthattimemorequicklyandmorethoroughlythananyonehaddreamed.Notyetforthebetter,asfarastheworkerswereconcerned,forthe timebeingthatwasonlyahope.ItwaschampionedparticularlybySaintSimon,heglowswithpraiseofindustriallifeevenmorethanCabet.ButthenSaintSimon againinterpretedthislife,insofarasitwasanactiveone,toobroadly,tooindiscriminately:healsoutopianizedtheemployeralongwiththeworker.Thiscontemporary ofFourierdidnothavehisdialecticalperspicacitythushefailedtonoticethecreationofmiserybywealth,thecontrastbetweenproletariatandbourgeoisie.Thushe backedaworkingclassperse,astheworkingpartsofthenationthesealsoincluded,becausetheirinterestinprofitdidnotseemtobeidleatanyrate,the capitalists,peasants,workers,traders,employers,engineers,artists,scientistsalltypeswithoutinheritedfeudalprivilegebelongedforSaintSimontothecreative partofhumanity,andconsequentlytoitsfuture.SaintSimondidnotyetcomprehendthebourgeoisieasaseparateclass.andhence,althoughallhislifehewishedto standonthesideofthosewhoaremostnumerousandmostpoor,apeacefulbalancebetweencapitalandworklikewiseseemedtohimtobepossible.Whattoday isdemagogyortheharmonizingstupidityofthebackmosttablereservedforregulars,wasatthattimestillbedazzlementbyyoung,uptodateindustry,bythe modernityofallthosewhowereoccupiedwithsteampower,withindustryandprogress.Workersandemployersweresimultaneouslyattheheadofthedevelopment thustheystoodoutequallyfromrottenfeudality.Propertyearnedbyone'sownefforts,withouttherightofinheritance,wasdifferentfromthathandeddownbytitled landowners,byparasiteswithtwentyancestorsthepowerofwealthbyvirtueofone'sownlabourwasmoreprogressivethanthe

Page564 formidablebymeansofacrossmixtureofsocialistmannersandpoliticalpolice.SaintSimon'ssplendidinsightatrueFrontalideathatbigbusinessitself containedsocialistelementsdegeneratedintosuchquestionablenotionsandconcealeditselfamongsuchstrangenotionsasthese.SaintSimonlagsfarbehindthesocial criticismofhiscontemporaryFourier,buthefarsurpasseseventhefederativesocialistinhispremonitionthatitisnotassociationbutorganizationwhichbringsuscloser tosocialism. YettheCount'shatredofourformermastersinsofarastheyarebrazentyrantsisasgenuineasitismottled.ItisnoaccidentthatSaintSimonpresentedhimselfunder twotitles,namelybothasasoldierunderWashingtonandasadescendantofCharlemagne.Astheformer,asafighterofLords,heportrayedthedrawbacksof industrialconcerns,whichhecannotdeny,exclusivelyaspreservedorrevivedformsoftheoldserfdom.AccordinglySaintSimonconsiderseveryexploitative employertobeaneofeudalist,i.e.itisnotindustrywhichistheprimarysourceofexploitationandoppressionbutsimplythefeudaldispositionwithinindustry. AccordingtoSaintSimon,eveneconomicliberalismappearsassuchadisposition,skilfullyborrowedandtransformed,thatattitudeinotherwordswhichweareused toregardingastheextremeoppositeoftheguildandclassworldofthepast.Liberalismisstatedtohavebeenthisoppositeeveninitsbeginnings,itoverthrew feudalism,butinmanywaysonlywiththeaimofputtingitselfinitsplacebyequallymercilessmeansofoppression.Thetruemottooftheleadersofthispartyis:te toidelquejem'ymette,*withthisstatementSaintSimoninfactsuperblydescribedinadvancethenewrobberbarons,andalsotheneofeudalpowerideologies andluxuryformsofcapitalisminthenineteenthandespeciallythetwentiethcentury.OnlySaintSimonbelievesthatthetotalextortionoftheweakisnotessentialtothe industrialsystem:soiftherightofinheritanceandotherlordlyformsofunearnedincomeareabolished,thentheblessingsofindustrialismcanbeginatonce.Somuch forthepurehatredoffeudalitybutitisfollowedbythesecondformofthishatred,namelythelovehateoffeudality,andthecondemnationofliberalismprovidesan astonishingbridgetothis.CountSaintSimon,theallegeddescendantofCharlemagne,livedinthemiddleoftheRestorationperiodifonlyforreasonsofthecapacit administrative,butespeciallyofcentralism,hewasnotimpervious *GetdownsoIcansetmyselfupthere. BlochagainreferstotheultraconservatismassociatedwiththerestorationoftheBourbonmonarchyinFranceafterthefallofNapoleonanduntiltheRevolutionof 1830.

Page566 toauthoritarianideas.Thusontheotherhandhethoughthediscoveredpreciselyintheprecapitalistsystem(andtheCatholicismconnectedwithit)considerablymore tenableelementsthanmerehostilitytothepeopleandoppression.Theprophetofindustrynevershowsanymercytofeudalism,buttheprophetofthecentralized collectiveseesintheMiddleAges,restrictedasitis,thebetterEurope.SaintSimoncoincidesatmanypointsherewiththeRestorationthinkersofhisage,withthe hatersofrevolutionandtraditionalistslikedeBonaldanddeMaistre,withthereactionaryanticapitalistsandpreachers.ComparethiswithdeMaistre'shope:Tout annoncequenousmarchonsversunegrandeunit*ortheotherone,fromhisAStudyofSovereignty,fulloftheHolyAlliance:Legouvernemeritestunevraie religion,ilasesdogmes,sesmystres,sesprtres.Thisisamystifiedpathosoforder,firmlyinthestyleofCampanella,andnowSaintSimonalsodescribesanarc towardsit,inthemidstofindustry,anindustrytobeorganized.Namelybyoverthrowingthefeudallords,liberalismonlydidhalftheworkevenwhereitdidnottake overtheirpositions,foritsproductisnegativeorthemeredestructionofwhathasbeen.Economicandothersubjectivism(containedintheManchesteristprinciple,in laissezfaire,laissezaller)dissolvedandatomizedsocietyinthemidstoftheunleashedupturninindustryreignchaosandanarchy.SaintSimon'sintentionwasto eliminatethemandtoputinchargeoftheunleashedforcesofproductionthatcapacitadministrativewhichhasnothingincommonpreciselywithJacobinideas. Whichcreatesorderinstead,anoverallviewfromtheheightsofacentralinstitution,anewhierarchyinfact.ThisisinSaintSimonismahighlymomentous,highly paradoxicalencounterbetweenreactionandsocialism,unitedintheirhatredofindividualeconomicfreedom.Notonlyisthecaricaturefeudalsocialismencountered here,whichtheCommunistManifestoderidesintheFrenchandEnglishlegitimists,butthenastyreverseoftheparadoxcontinueditsinfluencerightuptoLassalle's flirtationwithBismarck,rightuptothevariousalloysofPrussiannessandsocialism,ofstatecapitalandsocialism.ButthecentralistSaintSimontookupilliberal Romanticismwhilecompletelyignoringitsreactionaryapplicationandnaturallywithoutareactionarybrief.Hewantedtochangethefunctionofilliberalisminorderto reachrightthroughittothelightandthehumanevalueofbondednessLikeFourier,SaintSimonwasalsoconvincedthatnoearlierepochcould *Everythingsuggestswearemarchingtowardsagreatunity. Thegovernmentisatruereligion,ithasitsdogmas,itsmysteries,itspriests.

Page567 berestoredassuchandlikehimhetookhisconvictionfromasystemofphasesofhistoryitself.SoinspiteofeverythingthesoldierofWashingtonfinallytriumphs overallkindsofinheriteddescentfromCharlemagneandthroughthehistoricalconsciousnesswhichhereseekstosignifyprogress,andbynomeansRestoration:The watersofthepasthaveextinguishedthefiresofchivalry,andNtreDame,abornruin,becamearealone.Forhistorypassesthroughthreestageshere:atheological onewhichpresentstheworldashavingbeencreatedbygods,ametaphysicalonewhichdeducesitfromabstractnaturalforcesorfromideas,andapositiveonewhich graspsitthroughtheanalysisoffactsandonthebasisofimmanentcauses.Nowmodernindustrialsocietyisthepositiveone,thereforeithastotallyemergedfromthe religiousandsemireligiousmythologyofthefirsttwostages,andthereforeitcannolongerreturntotheessentiallyreligiousmetaphysicalideaoflifeattheheartof feudalism.Butitcanstillregainonthebasisofknowledgethesocialandspiritualbond(substance)whichformerlyexistedonthebasisoffaith.Industryandscience havetakentheplaceoffeudalityandtheChurch,materialitythatofreligiousmetaphysicsbutmaterialityitselfdemandsacentralstructureinwhichandhereagain wehaveasecularizedMiddleAgesthoughttohavebeendetoxicateditcandistributeavarietyofintelligentsacramentsthroughthecapacitadministrative.Saint Simon'sIndustrialSystem,1821,andaboveallhislastworkNewChristianity,1825,thusaspiretoastrictlyhierarchicaldivisionofindustrialfunctionsanda centralizedendtoamateurishdisruptivefreedom,tofreedomasanarchy.Intellectualauthority,whichwasvestedintheclergyintheMiddleAges,passestothe researchersandscholarstheorganizedindustrialstatebecomesandmoreoverimmortally,eternallytheChurchofIntelligence.Asocialhighpriest,akindof industrialpope,willbeattheheadofit,thespiritofarejuvenatedChristianitywillguideit.Theseareallideaswhichrecurredagenerationlaterinthefinalperiodof AugusteComte'sphilosophy,andtheyfilloverandoveragainthefantasticdreamweddingsbetweensacredsocialismandprofaneVatican.Protestantismisherea laxlyindividualhalfmeasure,deismalaxlyagnosticgeneralitywithouthierarchythereisnoreligion,andhencenoneofthenewintelligenceeither.TheEnglishnatural scientistHuxleycalledthissortofthingCatholicismminusChristianity,andfromtheschoolofComtetherethencameacorrectionwhichwasaconfirmation:the positivefuturereligionwasCatholicismplusexactscience.IfthisistrueofComte,itcertainlyisnottrueofSaintSimonofcoursehissocialpapismwasby

Page568 nomeansintendedtodowithoutChristianity.Itwasnotbasedonhierarchicalarchitecturealone,butonasharpened,thoroughlyorganizedChristianhumaneness.The precursorofallthesechurchesofthefutureorofintelligencewasdespiteComte'santideistframeofmindnaturallyadeist,andmoreoverinthespiritofso callednaturalreligion:JohnToland.InhisPantheistikon,1721,hehadnotonlyalreadydemanded,likealldeists,areligionwhichbycompletelydisposingofother worldlyrevelationagreeswithscientificreason.Tolandalsoerectedtohisnaturalgod(theuniversefromwhicheverythingisbornandtowhicheverythingreturns)a cultofhisown,thatoftruth,freedomandhealth,themostvaluablepossessionsofthesages.Andaboveallheinstalled,justlikeComte,newsaintsandChurch Fathers,namelytheexaltedspiritsandthefinestwritersofallages.ThisisalreadytheChurchofIntelligence,SaintSimonaddedtheindustrialpopeintheageof factoriesandRomanticismandofcoursecertaincontinuingcorrespondencesofbondednesswhichdidnotexistbefore:thecorrespondencesbetweensocialismand churchorganization.Apartfromthis,thepathosofsocialorganization,herealsothatofasocialstateindustry,isconceivedinagloriouslyilliberalwayallthesame. SaintSimon'sutopiaisconsiderablyclosertoCampanellathantoMoreandcontainswithinitalltheadvantagesandalsodangersofacollectiveideawhichisnot providedinitscentralizingorganizationwithdemocraticfederativeelements,anddoesnotinfactbuildupwiththeminaspiritofsolidaritythestrictnessofthe organizationitself. Individualutopiansandanarchy:Stirner,Proudhon,Bakunin Doesnotthelifewhichisfreeofviolenceseemthebestofall?Beingone'sownmaster,independent,unrestricted,growingwild,oratleastgrowingtostandardsof one'sown.EvenSaintSimonsaidonhisdeathbed:Mywholeendeavourissummedupintheoneideaofsecuringforeverybodythefreestdevelopmentoftheir talents.Theguardian,eventhesocialone,whoturnsouttobethebestistheonewho,atastroke,nolongerexists.Theanarchists,ofcourse,whodeliverthisstroke inutopianfashion,alwaysdisplay,despitealltheirdefiance,petitbourgeoisbehaviour.Notbecauseoftheirbackgroundwhichispredominantlyofthiskind,but becauseoftheirimmediategoalsfortheseoftenseemtocomefromanindependentprivateworldlikethatofamanofleisure.Stirner,more

Page569 awildoldprimaryschoolteacherthanalion,beganwiththecallfortheegoassuch,fortheownerofone'sself.ThisownerisoneoftheheroesinMarx'sHoly FamilythatstrangeworkTheLoneIndividualandhisProperty,1844,wantstofreetheindividual,andnobodyelse,fromthelastquirksorghostswhichhave beenleftoverfromtheotherworld.Thus,fromthestandpointofthecompletelyprivateperson,itisthesocialandmoralquirkswhichhavebeenleftover.Thelone individualscornstohavehimselftrainedanyfurtherforsuchidealservice,foraservicetohisneighbour,tothenation,tohumanity.Theloneindividualisalreadya humanbeing,hedoesnotneedtobecomeonefirstbyfulfillingsocalledgeneral,andthereforespectralduties.Everysuperegodisappearsandeverydemandit makes:Idonotliveforajobanymorethantheflowergrowsandisfragrantforajob.Theegoisitsownsuperegoandalsoitsownutopianstate,itmaintainswith othersofitskindatmostacontactorassociation,justaslongasthelatteraidsselfbenefit.Assoonastheassociationbecomesfixed,assoonasitthreatensto becomeasocietyorevenastate,itmustbeterminatedbytheloneindividual.Inshort,theloneindividualwhoonlyentersintothecontratsocialforhimselfisafree outsidernotmerelyinexistingsocietybutineveryconceivableone.Healsodemonstratesofcoursehowmuchsocietyandthefactofbeinganoutsiderarecorrelatively connected:theloneindividualishimselfonlyasocialphenomenon.Stirner'sindividualandhisassociationhasmuchincommonwiththatoftheCynics,apartfrom absenceofneedstheCynicalsobecameacompletecynic.Naturalistdramaparticularlylikedtoportraysuchloneindividuals,onlytheydidnotturnintoafuturestate oftheirown.Butintoscornfullyunhappybohemians,ormovingbankruptones,orsimplycynicsofthelivinglie(BrauninHauptmann'sLonelyPeople,UlrikBrendel inIbsen'sRosmersholm,RellingintheWildDuck).Andthecounterpartoftheloneindividual,inthesamesphere,isthephilistine:histotalfreedom,ifitisnoother thanthatoftheprivatesphere,containsjustasmuchtotallimitation.Thereleasedindividualevenasasocialdreamgetsnofurtherthanthesocietyofprivate entrepreneurs,orevensmallinvestors,whichdeliveredhim.Theloneindividualandhisproperty,thisinscriptionlogicallyadornsnotonlythecoatofarmsof libertinismbutalsothehousesignofphilistinismandthelatteriswhollythecasewiththeanarchistProudhon.Originallyofcourse,initsinfancyasitwere,Proudhon's songstillsoundedrough,infacthislyrics,whichsoonbecamesopetitbourgeois,appearedtobefullofpower,anattackonpropertysuchashadnotyetbeenmade before.Proudhon'sfirstwork

Page570 1846,butaboveallinhismajorworkOnJusticeinRevolutionandintheChurch,1858,Proudhondevelopsthisnotionofconsistentfutureharmony.Itwillbringa socialexistencewhichhasfounditscentre,itsmiddleclass,andrunsassmoothlyhereasawheelaroundahubitwillbringasocietywithoutfriction,thereforewithout power,andthereforewithoutastate.Allthisisconstructedonthebasisofthetwoaxioms:ontheindividualindependenceoftheproducersconceivedassmallholders andpetitbourgeoisonthereciprocalappreciationoftheindividualandofthemutualitormutualaidwhichspringsfromit.Privateproperty,whichisderivedfromthe axiomoftheselfsatisfiedindividualjustasmuchasitguaranteesthisindividualfreedomagain,mustofcoursebepurified.Itispollutedfirstlybythephenomenonof mintedmoney,andsecondlybytheinterestoncapitalloans.Bothdesecrationsofprivatepropertyaretoberemediedbymeansofanextensivesocialcredit,precisely inthespiritofmutualaid.Tobemoreexact:intheshapeofanexchangebankwhichissuescirculationvouchersinsteadofmoney,tothevalueofthegoodsdeposited. Proudhon'sutopiathusseekstoabolishcapitalismandtheproletariatatoneandthesametime,andhencenotfirstcapitalismforexample(byproletarianaction),and thentheproletariat(bytheselfcancellationofthisfinalclassintotheclasslesssociety).Butalevellingorharmonyofthecentreoccurs:thebourgeoisieandproletariat dissolveintothepetitpropritaireruralouindustriel.Marxoncespeaksofthepetitbourgeoisieasthestratuminwhichthecontradictionsoftwoclassessimultaneously bluntoneanother:thisverysituationisimmortalizedinProudhon'sideal,thedeproletarianized,decapitalizedcentre.OrasMarxsaidmorespecificallyofProudhon andhisproclaimedequalityofpossessions:heremovesnationaleconomicalienationwithinnationaleconomicalienation.Thoughanarchyinparticularcertainly doesnotremoveallcontradictions,namelythatofthebourgeoisboughonwhichitissittingandwhichitissawingoffatthesametime.Theanarchistsdoofcourse rejecttheexternalfeaturesofbourgeoisjustice:stateconstraintandlaws,buttheyallowitsinternalessencetopersist:thefreecontractbetweenindependentproducers orthosefeignedtobeindependent.ThisbecomesveryclearinthecaseofProudhoninparticular,asthetheoristoftheloneindividualandhisassociationinthecase ofBakuninorKropotkinthissortofthingisblurredinthelargerworldoffireorlove.Proudhon,inhisGeneralIdeaoftheRevolution,declaresatonepoint:Iwanta contractandnotlawsinorderformetobefree,thewholesocialedificemustberebuiltonthebasisofthemutualcontract(p.138).Laterhowever,

Page572 whenitisaquestionofsomethingsoessentialtothecontractfromthestartasfulfilment,theanarchisthastoaddinthesamebook:Thenormaccordingtowhichthe contractistobefulfilledshallnotrestexclusivelyonjustice(thesecondaxiom),butalsoonthejointwillofthepeoplewhoarelivingtogether.Thiswillshalleven enforcethefulfilmentofthecontractwithviolenceifnecessary(p.293).Noaxiomhadmentionedviolence,notevenajointwill.Butnosocialutopiacaninfactbe foundedonthecontract,asthecentreofbourgeoiscivillaw,withouttheconsequencesoftheviolentsocietycomingtotheforeagain.Anarchismcancelsitselfoutin thiscontradictiontheindividualofthefreecontracthowevermuchofanidealpetitbourgeoishemaybecannotmanagewithoutconstraint.Thatwhichemanates fromthebasiclegalinstrumentofasocietybasedonpropertycannotlandupinnonviolentassociations.AnAmericandiscipleofProudhon,theanarchistJosia Warren,didadmittedlyconfess,stillwhollyinthespiritofStirner:Everymanshouldbehisowngovernment,hisownlaw,asystemwithinhimself!Buttheradical slogansoffreedomultimatelydissolveintheidealofthefamilyhermitandintheculturalbackwaterofbourgeoisconformisminwhichhefeelsathome.Theoutcomeof Proudhon'sutopiawouldbetheallpervadingpoweroftheprovincesandhence,sincepreciselythemiddleclassesareimmortalizedasthemajority,adictatorshipof mediocrity.Thethreatofthisdictatorshipofmediocrityisincidentallytobefoundeverywherewhereademocracyisbasedonbroadmiddlestrataofsocietyand inevitablyabsorbstheirparlourinfection,amixtureofresentmentandlackofculture.Thereistheninthespirit,thoughnotintheletterofProudhon'sworkakind ofdrapedcommunismtransplantedintothepetitbourgeoisie.Proudhon'sanarchy,withitsphilistinecontentandthecheapnessofthecommonsensethatcorresponds tothiscontent,bearswithinitinanycaseasystemofbohemianBabbittryandalsorevolutionarykitsch. Forthefactthatthisisneverthelessnotallthatanarchyamountstoandthatitappearedasabogeyofthebourgeoisie,forashorttime,ithastothankitsmostvehement exponent:MichaelBakunin.Hedidnotcalluponthecentrebutuponunrulyelementswhichwishandknowhowtolivepreciselyinanunsecuredway.Hekeptthefire inthesocalledfederationsortradeassociations,andtaughtadangerouslyemptyenthusiasm.Thewildwoodsandthefreesteppes,togetherwiththelifeofSouth Russianrobberswereoccasionallyincorporatedbutmostlyonlyrehearsedinit.FromBakunincomestheabstractpropositionthatthepleasureofdestructionisa creativepleasure,andheappliedthisdialectics

Page573 toreactionarythinkinginGermany.Thisgaverisetotheviolentpropagandaofdirectactionbymeansofwhichindividualswantedtodestroythestatebyexterminating individuals.ButalsofromBakunincomesthenervousstatement(in1868,inalettertoChassin,amemberofBakunin'sFraternitinternational):Proudhon,thegreat teacherofusall,saidthatthemostdisastrouscombinationthatcouldarisewasthatofsocialismwithabsolutism:theendeavoursofthenationtowardseconomic liberationandmaterialprosperitywithdictatorshipandtheconcentrationofallpoliticalandsocialpowersinthestate.Maythefutureprotectusfromthefavoursof despotismbutletitpreserveusfromthefatalconsequencesandstultificationsofdoctrinaireorstatesocialismLivingthingsandhumanbeingscannotprosper outsidefreedom,andasocialismwhichexpelleditfromitsmidstordidnotadoptitasitssolecreativeprincipleandasitsbasiswouldleadusstraightintoslaveryand bestiality.Thereisacompletemonomaniaofhatredofauthorityintheselines,andatthesametimetheycontainthedeclamatorystridencyandtheunconsideredsense offreedom,exhaustingitselfinimmediacies,ofanarchistutopia.Forthis,themainevilisnotcapitalbutthestateBakunin'shatredisprimarilyfixedonthelatter, everythingelseappearsanevilofsecondaryrank,aderivativeoneinfact.Ifthestateisabolished,thencapitalperishestoo,foritlivessolelybythegraceofthis conglomerateofprisons,soldiersandlaws,andisallegedlyderivedfromit,theoldestoppressor.Accordingtoanarchisttheory,thestatewassolelycreatedby conquerorsandimposedonsubjectswhohadfirstbeenreducedtodrudgeryandhelotismbythisverymeans.Accordingly,thestateaspoliticaloppressor chronologicallyandcausallyprecedesexploitationandremainsrankedaboveit.Consistentwiththis,Bakunindiagnosesthestate,amereeconomicfunctioninMarx, astheseatandoriginoftheentiresystemofexploitationand,incontrasttotheMarxists,focusesontheabolitionofthisfunction.IntheMarxiststhestatedoesnot evenhavethehonourofbeingspeciallyabolished,insteaditdiesoutofitsownaccord,inEngels'famousphrase,withthedisappearanceofclasses.Thisinterpretation isaneconomicallyrealisticoneaccordingtotheanarchists,however,profit,thestockmarket,andaccumulationaresetinmotionbythestate,andevenbytheother worldtosomeextent.Fortheinstrumentofthestateisalsomademoreandmoreofafetishhere:Bakunin'sDieuestl'tat,*1871,tracesthesourceofoppression backtoGodhimselfbeliefinGod(i.e.amerefalseconsciousness)isthe *Godisthestate.

Page574 feudallordofallauthority,allrightofinheritance,henceofallcapital.Intheanarchistimageofthefuture,Churchandstatearereplacedbythefree,godlessWorkers' International,furthermoreitreplacesthemimmediately,notthroughseizurebutthroughthedemolitionofstatepowereconomicfreedomthendirectlyfollows.Bakunin, inhisabstracthatredofpower,despitethepropagandaofdirectactionrejectspowerevenwhenithasbecomerevolutionary,governmentalcontrolinthehandsofthe victoriousproletariat.Fromtheveryfirstdaythegalisationdesclasses,cohabitation,andspontaneousfraternitywillbegininthenewcommunity,merelyby abolishingauthority.Infact,assoonastheshipofstatesinks,inawaythewholeinhospitableoceanwillsinkanddisappear,theoceanofheteronomy,withitssharks anditsnightvoluntarysolidaritywillblossombeneaththesunofautonomy.Thisisanarchistfaith,founded,asisobvious,ontheconvictionthathumannatureis originallygoodandonlycorruptedbythemasterservantrelationship.Soonthewholetheanarchistimageoffreedomremainspartlysuperannuatedindividualistic ideologyfromtheeighteenthcentury,partlyabitoffutureinthefuture,forwhichnopresentprerequisitesexistanywhereatall.Exceptintheputsch,therashheroic deed,andinpoliticallyricismwhichknowsnothingaboutepicpoetryandevenlessaboutthedialecticsofhistory.Thusanarchyhomelesslydescribesavitalistidealistic curve,withoutmatter,withoutdetectiveknowledgeofeconomicmatter.Thoughiftheirupheavalsucceededforonce,thencertainanarchicthemes,beingappliedinthe rightplace,wouldalsobecomeMarxistones.Infact,theyarealreadytobefoundinMarxism,sensiblyenoughnotaspresentpostulatesbutaspropheciesand conclusions.TheabovementionedpredictionbyEngelsisrelevanthere,hishopethatthestatewilldieoutoneday,thatitwillpassfromrulingoverpeopletorunning affairs.AllthemorerelevanthereistheformulawhichLenincitesinStateandRevolutionassummingupthecommunistgoal:Everyoneproducingaccordingtohis abilities,andconsumingaccordingtohisneeds.Thoughofcoursethisformulawhichsoundssoanarchicthequintessenceofnonconstraintdoesnotstemfrom anarchistsatall,butstrangelyenoughfromaSaintSimonist,fromLouisBlanc,theotherwiseveryquestionableinventorofnationalworkshops.Tosumup,wecansay thatthedreamofasocietywithoutruleis,wheninterpretedtactically,thesurestmeansofnotrealizingthisdreamwhenfundamentallyunderstood,aftertheeconomic foundationsofthestatehavebeenremoved,thisdreambecomesamatterofcourse.

Page575 ProletariancastleintheairfromtheVormrz:Weitling Shortlybeforepeoplewakeup,theyusuallyhavethemostcolourfuldreams.Weitling,oneofthelastpurelyutopianthinkers,gavenottherichestbutprobablythemost ardentandwarmestpictureofanewage.Hewasaproletarianbybirth,andthisfactalonealreadydistinguisheshimfromtheotherworldimproverstreatedhere. Proudhonwasalsoofplebeianoriginofcourse,buthesoonworkedhiswayupintothepetitbourgeoisieandspokefromitsstandpoint.Proudhon,theownerofa printingworks,spokefromthestandpointofhiscreditproblems,thetravellingjourneymanWeitlingspokefromthestandpointofproletarianmiseryandofthedawning awarenessofhisclass.AccordinglythetoneofpityisalsoabsentherewhichmorearistocraticutopianssooftenshowtowardsthosewhoareverypoorinWeitling bitternessandhopecomefromhisownsuffering.Weitling,asFranzMehringsays,threwdownthebarrierwhichseparatedtheutopiansofthewestfromtheworking classthatishishistoricalcontribution.WeitlingdidnotofcoursebecometheheadandleaderoftheGermanworkingclass,thiswasonlyjustbeginningtodevelopin theGermanyoftheVormrz.Buttherewasacontacthere,evenanidentity,ofamanfromthedisinheritedclasswithitsthenexistingclarityaboutitself.Accordingly, Weitlingpresentsbothapenetratinglygenuineandabackwardaspecthispathosisrelatedtothatofanotherearlyproletarianspokesman,thatofBabeuf.Weitlingis theearliestproletarianvoiceinGermany,BabeufoneoftheearliestinFrance,andhewascertainlythefirstpersonafterthestiflingoftheFrenchRevolutionto representthosedemandsforrealequalityoutofwhichthebourgeoishadcheatedthecitoyen.Sothereareconnections,bothofpurityandprimitiveness,betweenthe headofthegalitairesandWeitling.Theearlyproletarianmanifestoof1795issuedbythegalitairesisunjustlyhalfforgottenWeitlingalsosharestheiremotions (onemightsay:theirconfusedfarsightednessandradicalism).TakeafewsentencesfromBabeuf'smanifestoonthissubject:TheFrenchRevolutionisonlythe forerunnerofamuchgreater,muchmoreseriousrevolution,whichwillbethelast.Noindividualownershipofthesoilanymore,thesoilbelongstonobody,we demand,wewantthecommonenjoymentofthefruitsoftheearth,thefruitsbelongtoall.Awaywiththeoutrageousdistinctionsbetweenrichandpoor,betweenrulers andtheruled.Themomenthascometoformarepublicofequals,

Page576 andthemajoritywillnevermakeanattempttodestroythisright,becauseitisitsownright,therightofthemajority.Thisisnaiveandstirringpopularlanguage,fullof theoldoriginalstateofthingsandChristiandreamsbutasforbringingthisstateofaffairsabout,Weitlingtheproletariantalksconsiderablylessnaivelythanmost bourgeoisutopians.Hehastherealismoftheafflictedman,evenmorethanthat:ofthecapitalistvictim,henolongerbelievesinsocialistmeasureswiththeaidofthe rulingclass.Inthisrespect,Weitlingtheproletarianisfarsuperiortopreviousillusionists,heseesthroughtheslybelievers,criticizesthedilettantebelieversofeverykind ofsocialismfromabove.Thisisshownbythefollowingsentence:Letusmistrustthereformsintendedbymeansofcapital,aswellasthefinanciers,wecannotexpect perfectionfromeitherbutratherthesametraps,ofwhichthegoodcanneverbewaryenough.Hereisawarningnottoallowourselvestobedivertedfromthehard pathonthemarchtothelandofhappinessbysomethingworsethanfalseprophets:byfalsefriends.Thiswarningisaccompaniedbylessrealisticpiecesofadvice,but allunbowedanddemonstratingaChristianitywhichhasnotbeenheardforalongtime.AsintheGospelofthepoorsinnerandespeciallyintheGuaranteesof HarmonyandFreedom,1842,anassociationofdreamswhichisfrequentlyreminiscentofthehopesoftheGermanPeasantWar.Actandcontentofsocialrevolution areconciselyexpressedintwosentences:Fearistherootofcowardice,andtheworkermusteradicateit,thispoisonousplant,andallowcourageandbrotherlylove totakerootinitsplace.BrotherlyloveisChrist'sfirstcommandment,thewishandwillandthereforethehappinessandthewelfareofallthatisgoodiscontainedwithin it.Thereisalsoahintofadventisthope,shortlybeforethepeoples'springof1848:AnewMessiahwillcome,toimplementtheteachingsofthefirst.Hewill demolishtherottenstructureoftheoldsocialorder,channelthespringsoftearsintotheoceanofoblivionandtransformtheearthintoaparadise.Weitlingwasno greatarchitect,buthiscastleintheairhasparticularlyhumanedimensions.Thereissomethingofthefairhandofwomeninit,apieceoffemalematernalutopia,which loatheswarandbrutality,exploitationandtyrannyfromthebottomofitsheart.AndWeitling'sstructurecertainlyalsocontainsapieceoftheworkofthecarpenter's son,anelementofearlyChristianlove.SaintSimonhadalsotriedtorestoretheconnectionbetweenJesusandthetribuneofthepeople,buttheresultwasnotso muchanewChristianityasanewkindofChurch.Weitling'smoregentledreamneverbuildsintotheworldofmasters,notevenintothesocialistoneof

Page578 SaintSimonheisabosomcompanion,friendlybynature,butforthefirsttimeinagesagain,andforthelasttimeforages,heknowshowtoreadtheBibleasitwas readbyaBaptist.Fromtheaspectofanundevelopedproletariat,ofcourse,whatemergedwasmoretheimageofasocietyofordinarypeoplethanaclasslessonein fact,noteventhesocietyofordinarypeoplecouldberealizedinthisway.Butthegreatfamilyleagueofmankind,madepossiblebyacooperativebusinessorder, isneverthelessmorethantheBiedermeierstyleinutopia.Ithasthegraceandpurityofthisstyle,butitdoesnotlackcrudegreatness,thoroughaspirationandwithinita problemwhichradicalmovementsweretodisregardforacentury.Itistheproblemofthecarpenter'ssonandsocialism,orChrist'shomecomingtothosethatlabour andareheavyladen.WeitlingsoughtaredtradeunionofJesustheproletarian,heintendedasocialismwhichdoesnotevenguardagainstbeingdevotional.Weitling's dream,withmuchbitternessandpurity,glancedintoaPromisedLandatatimewhenMarxandEngelshadjustbeguntodiscoverandtoopenuptherealentrancesto it. Aconclusion:weaknessandstatusoftherationalutopias Itcomesasaconstantsurprisethatgreathatredcanstillremaintrusting.Manyofthevisionarythinkerswhohaveappearedsofarfoundthemselvesinthissituation, theywereultimatelyconciliatory.Thesamedeadlyenemiesofexploitationwhohavejustportrayeditsmercilesshorrorturntotheexploitersandsuggestthattheyput anendtothemselves.Withtheirheartstheutopianscondemnedinjustice,andwishedforjustice,withtheirmindstheysoughtasabstractutopianstoconstruct thebetterworld,andintheirheartsagaintheyhopedtokindlethewillforthisworld.Afewfriendly,andalsosnobbishexceptions,afewdesertersfromfawning commerceweremadetheruletheappeal,forallthat,wastojusticeandreason.Onlyaround1848didtheexperienceopenupmoregenerallywhichHerwegh expressedasfollows:Onlythelightningwhichstrikesthemcanilluminateourmasters.Butjustastheemployersweretobepersuadedintotheiropposite,sotherest ofreality,societyasawhole,wastobeturnedintoitsopposite,immediately,asifbyabruptlybreakingaspell.Althoughafewutopians,suchasFourierandSaint Simon,exploredhistoricalmediationsandpremonitionsofexistingtendencies,evenhere

Page579 theessentiallyprivateandabstractfathomingofanimaginarystateindependentofhistoryandthepresent(ofthedrossofthepresent)winstheday.Fourier,theonly dialecticianinthisgroup,tookmostnoticeofrealtendenciesyeteveninhiscasewefindmoredecreesthaninsights,moreabstractthanconcreteutopia.Thedream lanternshinesintoanemptyspaceinthecaseoftheabstractutopians,thegivenhastobowtotheidea.Thustheconstructivewishfulimageswereappliedunhistorically andundialectically,abstractlyandstaticallytoarealitywhichknewlittleornothingaboutthem.Thoughthisweaknessisonlyrarelyapersonaloneoftheutopians rather,itwaspreciselyherethattheconceptiondidnotattainrealitybecausetherealityatthattimedidnotattainconception.Industrywasundeveloped,theproletariat immature,thenewsocietybarelyvisibleintheold.MarxcommentsonthisinhisPovertyofPhilosophy(admittedlyonlycontraProudhon,butalsodescribingallthe olderutopians):Aslongastheproletariatisnotyetsufficientlydevelopedtobeconstitutedasaclass,andhencethestruggleoftheproletariatstillbearsnopolitical character,aslongastheforcesofproductionarenotsufficientlydevelopedeveninthebosomofthebourgeoisieitselftoallowthematerialconditionstoshinethrough whicharenecessaryfortheliberationoftheproletariatandforthecreationofanewsociety,thesetheoristswillsimplyremainutopianswho,inordertoremedythe needsoftheoppressedclass,devisesystemsandsearchforaregeneratingscience.Buttothesameextentthathistoryprogressesandwithitthestruggleofthe proletariatbecomesmoreclearlyapparent,theynolongerneedtosearchforthisscienceintheirmindstheymerelyhavetoaccountforthatwhichistakingplace beforetheireyes,andtomakethemselvesamouthpieceofit.Aslongastheysearchforthisscienceandonlyconstructsystems,theywillonlyseethemiseryinmisery, withoutperceivingtherevolutionaryaspectwithinitwhichwillthrowouttheoldsociety.Fromthismomentonsciencebecomesaconsciousproductofhistorical movement,andithasceasedtobedoctrinaire,ithasbecomerevolutionary.Andtheoldutopiasweredoctrinairebecausetheycombinedtheirotherwisesohighly imaginative,indeedfantasticnaturewiththerationaliststyleofthoughtofthebourgeoisie.Uptotheendoftheeighteenthcentury,thefundamentaldisciplineofthe bourgeoisiewasmathematics,nothistorybutthemethodofthismathematicswasformal,wasthecreationoftheobjectfrompurethought.Itwasnotleastthe methodicalmodelforthedeductionsofNaturalRight,thisstrictcousinoftheutopias.Howeverlittleutopisticconstructionhasincommonwithexactmathematical construction,andeventhatof

Page580 NaturalRight,howeverlittleutopianismingeneralrepresentsascience,itdoesoccasionallyproceedinlogicalconstructions(evenwithabasisofaxiomsin Proudhon),asifittoowereaformalscience.Thisconstructivenaturehadsuchapowerfuleffectthatboththeexistingstateandespeciallytheutopianrationalstate couldbepresentedasamechanism,andthemodernutopianwasasocialengineer(outofpurereason).HenolongerwaitedforJerusalemtodescendbyanactof grace,heexchangedapoorlyfunctioningsocialmachineforaperfectone.Andnoneoftheutopianscompletelyunderstoodwhytheworldtooknointerestinhis plansandwhyitgavesofeworderstocarryoutthenewdesign. Yetthesedreamershaveastatuswhichnobodycantakeawayfromthem.Theirverywillforchangeinitselfisunquestionable,anddespitetheirabstractappearance theyareneversimplycontemplative.Thisdistinguishestheutopiansfromthepoliticaleconomistsoftheirtime,evenfromthosewhoaremostcritical(towhomtheyare sooftengreatlyinferiorinknowledgeandresearch).Fourierrightlysaysthatthepoliticaleconomists(hiscontemporariesSismondiandRicardoforexample)hadonly exposedthechaos,buthewantedtoleadthewayoutofit.Thiswillforpracticealmostnevereruptedofcoursebecauseoftheweakconnectionwiththeproletariat, becauseofthescantyanalysisoftheobjectivetendenciesinexistingsociety.Butthereisalsothefactofcoursethatincreasedattentiontothesetendenciescan,ifitis mechanicallyincreased,ifitturnsintoeconomism,weakenthewillforpracticeallthemore.Itcanweakenitfarmorethoroughlythanabstractutopia,itcancausethe socialist(ortobemoreprecise:thesocialdemocrat),asacompletelynonutopiantype,tobecomeaslavetotheobjectivetendencies.Objectivistidolatryofthe objectivelypossiblethenwaitswinkinguntiltheeconomicconditionsforsocialismhavebecomecompletelyripe,sotospeak.Buttheyarenevercompletelyripeorso perfectthattheyareinnoneedofawilltoactionandananticipatorydreaminthesubjectivefactorofthiswill.Lenin,asiswellknown,didnotwaituntiltheconditions everywhereinRussiagaveleaveforsocialism,inacomfortablydistantageofhischildren'schildren:Leninsurpassedtheconditions,orrather:hehelpedthemtoripen bymeansofsurpassingtargetsofaconcreteanticipatorykind,whicharelikewiseapartofripeness.Andwhentherealizationthatwiththeruleofmonopolies capitalismhadreacheditsfinalstage,thatofdeathanddecay,thatthechainhadtobreakatitsweakestlink,whenthisrealizationwasalsocertainoftheobjective conditionsofrevolutionaryvictory,howcouldthehouroftheGreatOctoberRevolutionhavebeenseizedandhowcould

Page581 powerhavebeenmaintainedwithoutthesurpassinggoalimageofsocialism,withoutthesubjectivefactorinthehighlyorganized,disciplined,consciousformofthe Party?Marxismisinstructionforactionbutifitbecomesbothsubjectlessandalienatedfromitsgoal,thenafatalisticantiMarxismarises,thatdegeneratesintothe justificationfornothavingactedbecausetheprocesswasalreadyunderwayofitsownaccord.Suchautomatismthereforebecomesacookbookofmissed opportunities,acommentaryonwastedchances,vacatedpositions.ButMarxismisonlyaninstructionforactionwhenitsgraspissimultaneouslyagraspahead:the concretelyanticipatedgoalgovernstheconcretepath.Hence,evenmoredecisivethanthewillforchangeisthepathosofthebasicgoal,whichisusuallysoinstructive forthestatusoftheoldutopiansandforthesignificancewhichisstillduetothemtoday,andindeedmakesthemintoalliesagainstsocalledsocialdemocracy,for whichsinceBernsteinthemovementmeanseverythingbutthegoalmeansnothing.Regardlessofthefactthatthegoalpathosoftheutopians,beingalltoodirect,is questionableinadifferentwaybecauseitreplacedthepath,itskippedoveritabstractly.Itoperatedaboveallasastaticpathos,asoneofthemereexposureof existingcathedralsitpositedgoodorderasreadilyavailable,areadyalternative.Inthisrespectthereisveryoftennogenuine,historicallynewfutureatallinthegoalof utopians,butafalse,nonnewfuturebadutopianslikeProudhonevenimaginedameretransfiguredpetitbourgeoisintotheIdegnraledelarvolution.Andeven greatutopiansdecorated,indeedoverfilledtheirconstructionswithfalseideals,i.e.withthosewhichintermsofcontent(essentially)wereexactlyknownandcomplete, onlynotyetrealizedsotospeak.Butifinsteadofsuchideals(theyallstemfromastatictheoryoftwoworlds)Marxteachestheworkofthenextstepanddetermines littleinadvanceabouttherealmoffreedom,thisdoesnotmean,asweknow,thatthesegoalsubstancesweremissinginhiswork.Onthecontrary,theymovewithin theentiredialecticaltendencyasitsultimatelyinspiringpurpose,theyestablishthespiritoftheentirerevolutionarywork.Marxlikewiseusesidealsasameasureof criticismanddirection,onlynottranscendentallyintroducedandfixedideals,butthosetobefoundinhistoryandthusunfinishedideals,i.e.thoseofconcrete anticipation.ThiswasclearlydistinguishedaboveasthewarmstreamofMarxism(cf.Vol.I,p.210f.),asthetheorypracticeofreachinghomeorofdeparturefrom inappropriateobjectification.IfMarxismdidnothaveitsdialecticalmaterialisthumanism,inhistoricallydawning,andalsoinheritinganticipation:thenwecouldnever speakofcapitalistalienation,dehumanization

Page582 Marxeventeachesarestorationofman.Exceptthatthishumanelementorthecomplexitiesofarealmoffreedomasawholearenotrigidgenera,butensemblesof socialconditions,andaboveallthattheydonotstandbehindhistoryasanunchangeableessence,existinglikeaGoldenFleecewhichonlyhastobefetchedfrom existingColchisafterithasbeendescribedanddepicted.Thiswastheplanoftheabstractutopias,butnotinfacttheironlyone:theintentiontowardsthebetterworld itselfisbynomeansdischarged,itanditaloneisamajorinvariableinhistory.Withoutsuchanticipationingeneralthereisnoundisappointability,nobeliefinthegoal, nodistributableabundanceofbelief.AndevenifMarxrightlyassignedthestimulustothenewlifedecisivelytothehomooeconomicus,tothecontrolofpointsof economicinterest,inordertoconquertheparadisialorder,beyondtheworldandassumedtobealltooArcadian,ofrationalandatheartchiliasticsocialisminaharsh mannerandwithaworldlywisestruggleagainsttheworld:onesurelydoesnotdiemerelyforathoroughlyorganizedproductionbudget,andeveninthevery BolshevistfulfilmentofMarxismtheoldTaboriteJoachitetype,aggressivetowardsGod,ofradicalBaptismrecognizablyrecurs,withastillhidden,secretmythofthe WhatFor,forwhichchiliasmneverthelessconstantlyfiguresasapreludeandacorrective(ErnstBloch,ThomasMnzeralsTheologederRevolution,1921,p.128). Theabstractelementisthedefect,theremorselessandunconditionalelementisthepowerofgreatoldutopianbooks.Andasaconditionofthisunconditionalelement theyalmostalwaysnamedthesamething:Omniasintcommunia,leteverythingbeincommon.ItisacredittopreMarxistpoliticalliteraturetopossesstheseisolated andrebelliousenthusiasmsamongitsmanyideologicalinsights.Eveniftheydidnotseemtocontainashredofpossibility,andnakedappearances,andallthemoreso thosecloakedinideology,contradictedtheirreveries.Afterall,thesocietyprojectedwithinthemmanagedwithoutselfinterestattheexpenseofothersandwasto keepgoingwithoutthespurofthebourgeoisdriveforacquisition.Forthousandsofyearsthishopeofthesocialutopiasinparticularwaspassedoffasparticularly unworldlyandmuchlaughedat.Untilthissortofthingactuallystartedtobegininavastcountry,insteadofonadreamislandwhereuponthelaughterstopped.So therewasultimatelyalsoinsightintheseenthusiasmsafterallanddespiteeverythingagreatdealofreality:atfirstonewhichwasstillimmature,whichconfinedthe betterworldtoanabstractlypictured,immediatelyanticipatorysysteminthemindofitscreator,butthenaforciblypreventedrealitywhich,howeverdifficultitsbirth, finallybreaksthrough.SinceMarxtheabstract

Page583 characterofutopiashasbeenovercomeworldimprovementoccursasworkinandwiththedialecticalcoherenceofthelawsoftheobjectiveworld,withthematerial dialecticsofacomprehended,consciouslymanufacturedhistory.SinceMarx,mereutopianizing,apartfromstillhavingapartialactiveroleinafewstrugglesfor emancipation,hasturnedintoreactionaryorsuperfluousplayfulforms.Thesedonotlackaseductivequalityofcourse,andareatleastusefulfordiversion,butthisis preciselywhytheyhavebecomemereideologiesoftheexistent,beneathacriticalutopianmask.Theworkofthegenuinesocialdreamerswasdifferent,honestand greatthisishowitmustbeunderstoodandtakentoheart,withalltheweaknessesofitsabstractnessanditsalltoonimbleoptimism,butalsowithitsconstant insistenceon:peace,freedom,bread.Andthehistoryofutopiasdemonstratesthatsocialismisasoldasthewesternworld,mucholderinfactinthearchetypewhich continuallyaccompaniesit:theGoldenAge. III.ProjectsandProgressTowardsScience Topicalremnants:bourgeoisgrouputopias Previoussociabledreamswerenotseparatelyinviting.Theydidnotconcernthemselveswithaparticular,orsmallergroup.Insteadtheywantedtocurethewholeof society,thelivesofeveryone,evenifasinglediscontentedstratumwastoseetothis.Butnowgroupsappearontheirownandpeelthemselves,withsupposedor genuineindividuality,outofthewholeinordertoseekandpictureaheadwhatisspecificallybestforthem.Theyseparatethemselvesinalongitudinalsectionwhichis supposedlytogothroughallclassestheywerelinkedbyorganicandnationalcharacteristics.Andofcoursebythoseofoppressionorpersecution,likeyoungpeople, thefemalesex,andespeciallytheJews.Quitelatesocialutopiasthusarosehere,alongsideMarxsotospeak,thoseofagroupemancipation.Itoperatesastheyouth movement,asthewomen'smovement,andasZionismgulfsliebetweenthem,butalsothecommonelementoffeelingoppressedinexistingsocietybyvirtueofasingle characteristic.Theprogrammeofthesegroupsdoesnotcontainrevolutionbutsecession,exodusfromamanifoldghetto.Whattheystriveforanddreamofisofcourse aninfluenceonsociety,inawayanewvirtuepouringoutofyouth,womanhood,andnational

Page584 Judaism.Thusitwantsorwantedtoescapefrommustiness,pressure,andalsotheatmosphereoflazyscepticism.Butthewilltowardsrebuildingthewholeofsociety, thatwasusualinthegreatsocialutopias,islacking.Itisneverthelessremarkablethattheprogrammesconfinedtogroupshaveacertainspecialiststatus:theyknow theirwayaroundintheirgroupsandundertakeutopiangleaningthere.ManyelementsfromthesespecializedutopiaswereevenincludedinMarxism,whichdidnot happenwithanybourgeoisfullscaleutopiaafterMarx.Theseemancipatoryplansarecertainlynotlackingintheshortsightednesswhichcharacterizeseverymere reformism,buttheydolackordidlackdeceit.Theyarethusasdifferentfromthebourgeoisfullscaleutopiasofthepresentasthepatchonadressfromthefestive garboffinishedrags.Utopianremnants,asdishedupbycapitalistdemocracyandlaterbyfascism,weresheerdeceit,eitherofanobjectivekind,withprivateself delusion,orofathoroughlyconscious,deliberatekind.Oneonlyhastocomparewiththespecializedshortsightedcharacterofthegrouputopiascitedabovethetotally boguscharacterofthebourgeoisfullscaleutopiaswhichhaverecentlysprungup.AfutureasenvisagedbyMoellervandenBruckinhisThirdReich,andRosenberg inhisMythoftheTwentiethCenturyiscapitalismplusmurder.ErnstJfinger'simaginedunityofworkersandsoldiersisthesamedemagogyinitstoneofcommand whichRosenbergdemonstratedinbloodandflickeringflames.WhatSpenglercalledPrussiannessandsocialismevenaround1920isadreamofthefuturewhich rightlyfollowedthedeclineofthewesternworld.Evenearlier,Kjelln,anotherutopianreactionary,haddeclaredtheideasof1914tobesuperiortothoseof1789, indeedtobePrussiansalvation,athirdRomeinBrandenburgthusfullscaleutopiahadafascistappearance.Thereremainsthebourgeoisdemocraticfuture,withH. G.Wellsasitsfirstchampion.Itcertainlydoesnotwearsuchawarlikedeathmaskasfascism.Insteaditwearsmoralmakeup,andfeignshumanrightsasifthe capitalistwhorecouldbecomeavirginagainWilson'sfateshowedwhatcomesoutofthis.*Freedomfromfearcannotbebroughtbythosewhothemselvesrepresent andproducethecauseforfearfreedomastheutopiaofwesterncapitalismischloroform.Thusthesmallerorgrouputopiasstillstandoutashonestexceptionstothis, theyreallywantedtoreachthelight.Onceagainadreamofthebetterlifesurfacedhere,evenifbyunsuitablemeans,onsoilthathad *ThomasWoodrowWilson(18561924),whoseFourteenPointswerethebasisonwhichtheLeagueofNationswasestablished.TheywerepresentedattheParis peaceconferencein1919.

Page585 becomewhollyunsuitable.Allthesame,acauseforthedreamexistedandagoaloffreedomtherealsoisorwasrealmovementthereandbehindit,whichislackingin allbourgeoisfullscaleutopiasafterMarx.Escapefromminority,fromthedoll'shouse,frombeinganationofpariahswaswhatwaslongedforinthesemovements thisistheaimofthespecialutopiaoftheirprogramme.Thewomen'smovementevencontainsitsownutopianquestion:thatconcerningtheborderofsex,andit entertainsthedoubtwhethersuchaborderexistsatall.ApieceofThomasMore,alateromanticstirringofliberalismcirculatesinthesemovementsforthelasttime.In places,thatdraughtoffreshairblowsthroughthemwhichamanlikeIbsenwantedtosendinallitslivelypuritythroughthebourgeoishomeandcommunity.Butthe movementendsatthebourgeoisbarrierserectedforitandwhichtolerateonlycorruptionorabstractness.Lifewastoresemblenothingbutthenobility,nothingbut Sundayweather,buttheydidnotseetheconnectionwherebybourgeoislifeisnotlikethat.Fortheliberalabstractelementtocometoanend,thenecessary informationstillliessolelyinsocialismevenforthesesocialdreams.Boththingslieinsocialism:theendoftheirmovementandtheendofthedeprivationwhichcaused thismovementtobegin.Thepartialutopiasoftodayrepeatedlyexhibitdreamsofemancipationwhichareasequeltooranafterripeningoftheeighteenthcentury althoughorbecausethelatter,apartfromafewpointsintheprogrammeoftheSturmundDrang,stilldidnotintheleastdreamofsuchfarreachingemancipation. Beginning,programmeoftheyouthmovement Thechildisonlytospeakwhenitisspokento.Evenwhengrowingup,itbelongstoitsparents,hasalwaysbeenmoreorlesskindlyenslaved.Butaround1900awill surfacedamongyoungpeople,onafairlybroadscale,tobelongtonobodybutthemselves.Youthexperienceditselfasabeginning,woreitsowncostume,loved travel,cookingintheopenair,andwasconsciouslygreen.Itwishedforanewlifeofitsown,differentfromthatofadultsandbetterineverything,namelyinformaland sincere.Familypressurewasfeltheretothesameextentthatitdecreased.Foronlythoseparentsnolongersureofthemselves,onlythehomenolongerstableitself hadchildrenwhorenouncedthemandjoinedtheircontemporariestomakeafreshbeginning.Theformerbourgeoishomeaswellastheschoolcorrespondingtoitstill atleastgaveasupportwhichdid

Page586 notmerelycoincidewithconstraintorwithemptyhabit.Thefathersstillsetanexample,theteachersbyvirtueoftheirstrictnesstowardsthemselvesandtheir knowledgeoftheirsubjectsweresuchthatyoungpeopletrustedthemandallowedthemselvestobeguidedbythem.Itwasonlypossibletobecomewidely disrespectfulandtosetone'sowngoalswhentheoldsimplyknewhowtooppressandtolie,andnottoguideanymore.Aboveallwhennewpathsseemedtoopen up,onwhichtheoldintheirinsecuritywereunabletofindtheirway.Anopenfieldlayahead,itonlyseemedtobeaccessibleandindeedvisibletotheyoung.First boysandthenalsogirlsbandedtogetherandemigratedasitwere. Green,thatwastheapprovedcolour,inordertobeginafresh.Inordertoremainfreshandnottogrowwooden,notevenlateronasaman.Everyonewasascout,the leadersdevelopedoutofthecircle.Theyouthmovement,inthiscontrasttotheold,ishistoricallynew.OnlythestudentfraternityoftheVormrzmaycomeclosetoit, butitwaspoliticallymoredistinct,i.e.notseparatedfromitsoldermenoffreedom,withfullbeards.Thefederatedformofthefreeyouthmovementisalsoold,even veryold,ithasbeenplacedalongsidetheelementalcommunity,alongsidethesocalledorganiccommunity,fullofcustoms,sustainedandheldtogetherbytradition.But theearlierfederations,preciselywhentheycontainedyoungpeople,wereintermediateforms,theypreparedthemforadultlife.Asisselfevidentinarestrictedsociety, andallthemoresointhehorde,intheprimitivetribe.Howevercarefullytheoriginalmalefederationswerecutofffromolderagegroups,unmarriedyoungpeopleby themselves,nopathledfromhereoutofthecustomsoftheold,norwasonesought.Also,thebachelorsofthemalefederationwerebynomeansalwaysyoungmen theprimitiveonlymarriesataroundtheageofforty,sotheyoungpeopleofthattimewerestronglymixedwithmenofmatureyears.Thetensionisquitedifferentwhich themodernyouthfederationswiththeirutopiangoalsfeltbetweenthemselvesandtheolderworld.Fromthistensioncametheenthusiasmsinthewardirectedagainst thefunctionallyrationalsociety,oftenintoxicated,streamsofloveorhatredpouringfromtheheartorsoul.Thoughthistookformswhichfrequentlycopiedandeven helpedthesocietyagainstwhichtheywereprotesting.Afterall,thissocietyitselfwasnolongersolidlyrespectable,dignitylovedtomakeitselfuptolookyoung,and evenrebelliousyouth,ifconfusedandrebellious,slowlybegantoseemquiteusefultoit.Thefederatedemotionalhazeinwhichyoungpeoplefoughtbefore,without seeingtheirrealopponent,couldbeeasilycombinedwiththeintoxicatedfascisthaze.TheSAhadlongbeentolerated

Page587 andallowedoutintotheforestbeforeitwascalledtogetherandputtouse,beforetheywerenolongermadetoramblebuttomarch.TheWandervogel*isnotjusta Germanphenomenonbutaboveallapetitbourgeoisone,hencetheblurrednatureofhisdreambothintermsofclassandcontent.Thiskindoffuzzinessisdifferent fromyouthfulvagueness,anditisonlyroughlyconnectedwiththestrivingforcandour,withstudentfraternities,hatredofeverydaylife,andthelongingforelemental, unbrokenlife.Oneparticularreasonforitlayaboveallinthefactthatyouthwasnotmerelyexperiencedasaconditionbutwronglyasaclassofitsown.Oralso:a purelyorganiclongitudinalsectionwasdrawnthroughallclasses:thatwhichfellonthesideofyouththerebyalreadyseemedtohavecontentsofitsown,notjustits owntempo.SchultzHencke,oneoftheleadersatthetime,thusspokeofanovercomingofpartiesbyyouth.Apetitbourgeoissenseofharmony,apetitbourgeois deadeningthuspretendedtobeYoungGerman,FreeGerman,anadvanceguard,evenafountainofyouthorvariousotherthings.Thatiswhytheyouth movementcouldbesoeasilycaptured,thereweredenominationalfederations,againinaccordwiththefamily,especiallywhenthemotherhadanearphonehairstyle herself,andthefatherpluckedthelutehimself.ThelongingforacommunitysuchasdidnotexistamongadultsfinallylistenedtoHitlerforiftherewerenonew contentstocounteroldpeople,therewerestillnewburningblowingoverblownwords,andtocounterthoseoldpeoplewhowerenotyetfiredwithbloodlustthere waspower.Thetensionbetweenfatherandsonandtherevoltofthesonagainsttheoppressivefatherwasreplacedbytheparents'fearofthememberoftheHitler Youth.Withhimtheseeminglychangingsocietyentersthehomerelationshipswhichhadbeenfalteringforalongtimethroughbourgeoisinsecuritywerenow completelyandmostalarminglyoverturned.ThefactthattheFatherEgo,againstwhichthedreamoftheyoungwasfighting,hadmerelybeenreplacedbythemuch harsheroneofamurderousstatedidnotoccurtothem.Theyoungpetitbourgeoisobviouslywasnothimselfbroughtontothepaththatcouldhelphimbyhisyouth alone,bythereformoflifewhichwastopassthroughallclasseswithagreenlight.Silt,mud,mustiness,andbusinesswerelittleaffectedbycookingintheopenairin theforestandbytheopencountrythatshonebeyondit *Literallybirdofpassage,amemberoftheWandervogelyouthmovement. AreferencetoDasJungeDeutschland,arevolutionarygroupofwritersafter1830. AreferencetoFreieDeutscheJugend,ayouthmovementinEastGermany.

Page588 thepotofdreamswasfilledwithevenmoremud,andfinallywithhisownblood.Althoughtheopencountrywascertainlymeanttobeliberaloriginally,withpeople whodidnotbelongtoeverydaylifeasguidestoitandnoeverydaylifewithinit.TheWandervogelhadmoreoverfoundacertainnestinnewschools,likewise longitudinallythroughtheclasses,foundedforthesonsanddaughtersofliberalfamilies.Thesewereforestschools,Wyneken'sfreeschoolcommunity,andalsoa federationofdeterminedschoolreformersbelongedhere,representedbyDanzigerandKawerau.Educationwasnolongerhandeddownfromabovethecultivationof individuallife,andacommunityspiritwereattemptedintheseemphaticschoolsofyouth.Noblegeneralgoalshoveredaboutthepicnicandthelampofevening gatherings,comradeshipandevencouragewerecultivated.Aswastheloveofverseonlythelifeitselfwhichwasafterwardsinstoreremainedunrhymedandabsurd. Itlaybehindaglimmerwhichlastednolongerthantheyouththatcreatedit. Whichdidnotpreventthisyouthfromfeelingveryrebellious.Especiallyasthecity,seenfromthecampfire,seemedparticularlycorruptandstunted.Theword bourgeoisacquiredaspecialresonanceintheyouthmovement,Blherspokeoftheatrocitiesofthebourgeoistype.Hewasregardedprimarilyastheagedandsenile type,histhrifty,economical,calculating,zestlessnaturewasderivedfromthisalone,andlikewisetheherdofbourgeoisconformists:bourgeoissociety.Therewasfar lesstalkofexploitation,infacttheothersideofthebourgeois,solovinglyelaboratedevenbySombart:thatoftheentrepreneur,themanwhotakesrisks,the conquerormetwithsympathy.Thehostilitytowardsthebourgeoiswasthereforecertainlynotproletarianorakintotheproletariatthebourgeoiswasregarded insteadasthecounterparttotheirownbohemianworld,thatofknightsofchivalry.Thesocietydreamedupbythiskindofyouthwastobeultimatelyardentandstrict, anarchisticandclassboundatoneandthesametime.Neverthelesstherewasandisalsoaproletarianyouthmovement,onlynotanindependentone,withachildish landofitsown.Theyoungworkerfeelsnomorediscriminatedagainstbyadultsassuchthanthefemaleworkerdoesbymenassuch.Theenemyofbothisthe employer,theirideaofthebourgeoisprimarilyreferstothecapitalist,notthenastybourgeoisconformist.Alsothetensionbetweenfatherandsonisabsentoris powerfullydiminishedintheworkingclassfamilyforwhereasthebourgeoisseesinhissononlytheheir,theclassconsciousproletarianbringsuphissontobea comrade.Bourgeoisyouththoughtitwasbeingunbourgeoisbycarvingpeopleintoagegroups,andby

Page589 contrastingitsrosycheekswiththepallorofadultswhereupontheyturnedouttohavelittlemoreincommonthanafreshskinandageneralairoftheMarch revolution.Proletarianyouth,however,doesnotcreateanyfictitiouscontrasttoitsclass,butidentifiesitselfwithit.Itseesthelatterasjustasyoungandfuturistasitself, andjustaspreoccupiedwiththemorningoflife,withthelifeoftomorrow.Whatitbringstothatclassisthereforenotagoalofitsownbutanunbrokenimpetus towardsthecommonproletariangoal.Sorrowhowever,greatness,noblemindedness,allnaiveandhighvaulted,donotconstituteafutureontheirown.Thegoodof notbeingcheatedofouryouthwillonlybeachievedwhennobodycanbecheatedanddeprivedoftheirrightsanymore. Struggleforthenewwoman,programmeofthewomen'smovement Womanliesatthebottom,shehaslongbeentrainedtodoso.Sheisalwaysavailable,alwaysserviceable,sheistheweakersexandtiedtothehome.Servingandthe obligationtopleasearerelatedinfemalelife,sincepleasingalsomakesforservitude.Theyounggirlhadtobeprovidedforthroughmarriage,soshesatontheperch, andhadtowaitforahusband.Orshecapturedmenwithcunningandherselfasthebait,remainedaminoreventhen,withoutahuntinglicence.Ifhercatchwasnot successful,orifthevirginwastoochoosy,thenshesufferedabarrenmockery:thewomanrankedasanoldmaid.Sexuallife,ifitwaspresent,asitmostlywas,was notallowedtobeshown.Ajobwasregardedasindecentrightdowntothelowerpetitbourgeoislevelsofsociety.Butcourageousgirlsandwomendrewadifferent conclusion,dreamsofthenewwomanbegan.Around1900,alittlebeforeandafterwards,alightflaredupherewhichretainsitsattraction.Thefreegirlannouncedher arrival,butsotoodidthemasculinewoman,bothnolongerinclinedtobeoppressedorevenmisunderstood.Theincipientdisintegrationofthebourgeoishomeandthe growingneedforemployeesfacilitatedorjustifiedthispathintotheopen.Newlove,newlifeweredemanded,athoroughlyselfchosenlove,withouttheofficialstamp ofapproval.Butwhatseemedmoreimportant,andcertainlymorestronglyaffirmativewastheaccesstopubliclife,toajob.Thelongingwastoenjoylifetothefull, happybroodingonthenestwasnolongerthegoal.Thislayinsteadoutsidethelimitsofthefamily,outsideallthelimitswhichhadpreviouslydeterminedwomanby hemmingherin.Thebourgeoisgirlwhodidnotyetneedtoearnher

Page590 livingwasdifferentinthisconnectionfrompoorerandbolderwomen.Thelatterhadmostlybrokenwiththefamilycompletelyandboretheconsequencesthey adoptedthemasculinecourse,thatoftheprofessionalperson,entirely.Theyoungladieswhonolongerwantedtobesomerelygotoverexcited,butthemasculine womanacteddifferently,theleadingwomanofthetime,theincipientsuffragette.Theintentionofthisfemaleprotesterwas,unconsciouslyandveryoftenconsciously,to goherownway,toattainmasculinesuperiority.Anundeniablehatredofmenwasastrangemixturehereofhatredbythosewhowereoppressedandofreluctant recognitionatthesametimehencetheirenvy,theiremulation,indeedtheirgrotesquewilltooutdomen.Sufferingfromtheirownsexmadethempronetothis,andin turntheirownsexwastobeledtovictory,againstitself.Thisbrokenwishdidnotpreventthefemaleprotesterofthetimefromprovidingandsustainingtheboldnessof thecallforthenewwoman.Thefreegirlalsoblazedupnow,asonlyyoungboyswoulddoasarule,andthemasculinewoman,inhernewhaircut,thoroughly sharpenedthedreamofbeingawomaninadifferentway. Butitturnedoutthattherebelliouslifedidnotremainfreshforlong.Themoreworkerswereneeded,thelessroomtherewasforthesocalledfreegirl,thelessreason thefemaleprotesterhadtobeone.Thebourgeoisyoungwomanwhowascapableofworkingforalivingcametostandonherowntwofeet,butthisonlymadeher seeminglymoreindependent.Insteadoftherighttoselfchosenloveandafreelifetherearosethetediumoftheoffice,mostlywithasubordinatepositionaswell. Hardlyhadshegainedtherighttovote,thanparliamenthadlesssaythaneverbeforehardlywerethelecturehallsopeneduptowomen,thanthecrisisofbourgeois sciencebegan.Atthesametimecapital,whenitopenedupjobsforwomen,wasinterestedinremovingeverythingthatsmackedofthedesireforfreedom,and especiallyeverythingneighbouringonthoroughemancipation,onsocialistemancipation.Thetamerfemaleleadersnowarose:HeleneLange,MarieStritt,andfinally GertrudBumer,allforamovementwithoutaberrations.Around1900theaberrationshadbeensecessionist,thehatredofthejustemilieu.Atthattimethenew womanhadherutopiaofwaterliliesandsunflowerstogetherwiththeArtNouveaumanitwasabohemianliteraryone,butforthisveryreasonnotatameone.The backgroundofthefuturedreamedupforwomenwasfilledwithfestiveDionysianimagesofrevolution,ofwhichlittlemoreremainedagenerationlaterthanthe liberationfromthecorsetandtherighttosmoke,tovoteandtostudy.WhenBebelwroteWomanand

Page591 Socialismin1899,herecognizedwomanasthefirstcreaturetobeoppressed,oppressedearlierthanthemaleslave,andthequestionofwomen'srightswasstill inflammatoryandshocking.Butsoonafterwards,whenthespoonshadbeenwon,therewasnomilletgruelandthebourgeoiswomen'smovementnowdefendedthe righttokeepitselfclearofsocialism.HeleneLangefoughtforthegoalthattheheadshipofthesecondaryschoolforgirlsshouldbeentrustedtoawoman.MarieStritt wassatisfiedwithwomen'seducationwomen'sstudiesingeneral,andGertrudBumersawthefulfilmentofthenewwomaninthecitizenshipoftheWeimar Republic.Allthishadnotbeenforeseenofthemovement,neitherbythesuffragettesnorevenbytheearliestchampionsofthesecondsex.Afterall,themovement whichseekstoadvancetheorganicandpoliticallimitsofwomaninautopianfashionisactuallyasoldasthestruggleforfreedomitself.InsteadofbeingconfinedtoArt Nouveau,thismovementextendsfromtheAthenianEcclesiazusaemockedbyAristophanesintotheOttonianage,intotheRenaissanceanditsvirago,intothe programmesoftheSturmundDrang,intotheYoungGermanyoftheVormrz.ThepassionateMaryWollstonecrafthadpublishedafundamentalbookaboutwomen's rightsin1792,whichradicallyappliedthehumanrightsofthetimetowomen.GeorgeSandhadmadetheconnectionbetweentheJulyRevolutionof1830andwomen, infactasentencefromhernovelTheMillerofAngibault,unliketheDaughtersoftheAmericanRevolution(whobelongtothemostreactionarygroupinAmerica andarenotconfinedtoAmerica),positssubversiononthehorizonofthewomen'smovementtoo:Theviolent,terribleblowtoallegoisticalinterestsmustgivebirthto thenecessityofauniversalchange.OneGermanfemalepioneerfromtheVormrzisquiteastonishing:LuiseOtto,areddemocrat.Shewastheonewho,whenthe revolutionarystrugglesbrokeoutin1848,foundedthefirstGermanwomen'smagazine,withthemotto:Irecruitfemalecitizensfortherealmoffreedom.Thefirst numberdeclarestothesefemalecitizens:Whenthetimesgrowforciblyloud,itisinevitablethatwomentooshouldheartheirvoiceandobeyit.In1865LuiseOtto summonedthefirstwomen'sconferencetoLeipzig,foundedtheGeneralAssociationofGermanWomenandensuredthattherepresentationoffemaleworkersand theirrightsalsobecameapointinitsprogramme.Butbourgeoisliberalism,stillsoheatedbefore1871,verysoonbecameapillarofthestateintheempirean associationofwomenwhoknewwhatwasseemlyespeciallymoderateditsdemands.Therealmoffreedominitspoliticalaspectfoundfewfemalecitizensamongthe femalecitizens,theirfreedom

Page592 wasshatterednotonthebarrierofsexbutonthatofclass.Theclassbarrierwasclearlyapparentin1896,andthereforeintheearlylightofthenewwomanandher struggleforfreedom,itwasapparentinthestrikeofthefemaleclothingworkersinBerlin.Womenwereforbiddenbylawtoparticipateinpoliticalassociationsa deprivationofrightsagainstwhichradicalbourgeoiswomenwerethefirsttoact.Butthesamebourgeoiswomenusedthislawatthetimeasapretexttoleavethe strikingfemaleworkersinthelurchtheclassbarriercutthroughtheclaimsoftheheartortheseeminglygeneralfemalesolidarity.Thusthequestionofwomen's rightsisafunctionofthesocialquestionashadalreadyoccurredtoGeorgeSand.Andalsotoalmostallearlierutopians:ThomasMoredemandedtotalequality,and Fouriertaughtthatthedegreeoffemaleemancipationwasthenaturalmeasureofgeneralemancipationinasociety.AstatewhichappearsintheguiseofPapuadown belowwillnotbeabletoreleasewomenfromtheirminorityeither,notevenfromtheirgildedminorityintherulingclass. Inspiteofallthis,thequestionremainsastothemovingforceinthisnewdeparturebywomen.Sexisinfactthemovingforcewithinit,butonewhichstepsforward andseekstobedeterminedinsocialterms.Itisfalseofcoursethatonlytheoldmaidoreventhemasculinewomanhadrebelled.Itwaspredominantlyyoungwomen whowerestirredbythestrangemovementintheNineties.Therehavealwaysbeenoldmaidsandmasculinewomen,butformanycenturieswomenweresilentinthe community.Andwomen'srevolt,althoughitoccurredagainandagaininbetweentimes,hadnobreadthuptotheendofthelastcentury.Itonlygainedsupport,and alsotheaspectofathoroughsocialutopia,whenthecapitalistneedforforcesofproductiongaveitapermitwhentheinterestinfreedomofmovementreleasedeven thiskindofserf.Thoughinthisconnectionnomorewasaskedaboutthemovingforceinthisnewdeparturebywomen,aboutthesubmergedorremotelypossible contentsofthesex,thancapitalasksonthewholeabouttheunusablequalitiesofitsemployees.Peopleweremeasuredbyresults,ultimatelyonlytheflexibilityof womenwastakenintoconsideration,whichwaspresentandtreasuredinmalelawevenbeforethissocalledemancipation.Itwasgoodforbadlypaidjobs,for voluntarysubordinationthisisalsoareasonwhythewomen'smovementwentflat.Infact,anundeniableinsipidityofwomen,whichthecultoftheVirginMaryso vehementlyrefusedtoadmitandwhichisnotpredeterminedinutopiantermseither,wasrewardedbycapitalistobjectification.Andpoliticallynothingactuallychanged whenwomenwere

Page593 giventherighttovote,exceptthatthevotesforallpreviouspartiesdoubled.Reactionarythinkingwasevenrathermorethandoublednoexplosiveorevenjust particularlyhumaneimpactofthepoliticalwomanisdiscernibleonbourgeoislife.Theseniorfemaleofficeclerkthustriumphedoverwhatthelovernotunreasonably sawinthefirstfictional,variedwomencreatedbythisemancipation,inIbsen'sNora,Hauptmann'sAnnaMahr(LonelyPeople),Wedekind'sFranziska.Thusinthe bourgeoiswomen'smovementthecontentsofthesexcertainlydidnotbecomemanifest:andyetfromthebeginningtheywereintendedasneverbefore,andyetthey wererejectedbytheopponentsofemancipation,asifthemovementwasnotheadingfortheofficehoursinwhichitdied,butasifitwasarecollectionofCarmenon theonehand,andofAntigoneontheother,infactautopianconjuringupofthehetairanageontheonehand,andofmatriarchyontheotherandaboveallasifthe women'smovementwerethatofaspecifichumantotalityandfullness,whichforthisveryreason,initsremotelypossiblecontents,isinconsistentwithsoullesscapitalist enterprise,asthemortalenemyofartandwoman.Thebourgeoismalehatredofthewomen'smovementannouncesallthesethemesagainandagainecontrario, devaluingthemandthedevaluationofwomanhereintoahetairaseemedthecheapestandmostambivalentofall,withsimultaneousreductiontonomorethanthis,and stabilizationwithinit.Weiningerproceededinthisdirectionwithtotalobsession(SexandCharacter,1903):W,theessenceofwoman,isaccordinglydownright lechery,withoutego,memory,orloyalty,thetotallyoppositespirittoJesusinmanortopurity.Carmenthusappearsasagenuinewomanwhohashadnovoicein civilizationandisnotathomeinacceptedmorality:Theneedtobeengagedincoitionherselfiswoman'sintensestneed,butitisonlyaspecialcaseofherdeepest,her onlyvitalinterest,whichisincoitioningeneral:ofthewishthatthereshouldbeasmuchcoitionaspossible,bywhomsoever,wherever,wheneveritmaybeAndthis characteristicofwomantobetheenvoyandagentoftheideaofcoitionisalsotheonlyonewhichispresentatallagesandevensurvivesthemenopause:theold womangoesonprostituting,nolongerherself,butothers(l.c.,p.351ff.).Andevenmorewildly:Theeducationofwomanmustbetakenawayfromwoman,andthe educationofthewholeofmankindmustbetakenawayfromthemother(l.c.,p.471)foronlywomanashetairaisthetruth,womanasmadonnaisacreationofman, thereisnothingthatcorrespondstoherinreality.Somuchforthemostvehementmisogynyknowntohistory,asingleantiutopiaofwoman,in

Page594 themiddleoftheperiodofsecession,*alsoduringtheincipientplayingdownofwomanintoagreysisterofreform.Butpreciselyinthisabyssofnegationitisevidentat thesametimewhatunknown,unobjectifiedelementsareonthemoveinthewomen'smovement.Afterall,itwasitselfconceivedasanemancipationofhumanityfrom woman,thatis,fromthewomanwhosevoicehasbeenhearduptillnow.Itsbasicquestionwasalwaysthatconcerningthelimitsofsex,andwhethertheselimitsexisted atallwhether,ifshecouldnotjumpoverthesexualbarrier,womancouldmakeitintoasteppingstonethatwouldleadtohiddenuntroddencontentsofhumanity itself.Extravagantdreamsundoubtedly,aimedatanawakeningofhalftheearth,yetwithahistoricalandsocialdepth,theverydepthunwillinglysensedbyWeininger's hatredofhetairai.Fundamentally,inaccordancewithitsdemonstrableutopiathewomen'smovementdidinfactkeeptheideaofCarmenalive,i.e.recollected hetairanism,butalsotheessenceofAntigoneaswell,thesecondprimitivewomanbeforetheageofmen:recollectedmatriarchy.Bothformsoflifeinfactprecededthe patriarchalone:theirregularmixtureofthesexes,whichcorrespondedtothegatheringandhuntingstage,andmatrilinywiththeprimacyofwomanandtheearth,which correspondedtotheagriculturalstage.Bothrecollectionsrevivedagaininthewomen'smovement,explicitlyandimplicitly,andoccupiedarchaicutopianunfilled imagination.ThehetairanagewasinterpretedbyBachofenintermsofmythicalornamentalswampsymbols(reeds,jungle),thematriarchalageintermsofnightand earthsymbols(moon,cave,earofcorn).Thehetairanage,withaninterchangeablefemaleandmalecommunity,precededmarriage,thematriarchalageposited marriage,assigningthefamilyandindeedtheentirecommunitytothemother.WhileBachofendiscoveredtheserelationshipsandundoubtedlytransfiguredthembeyond whatwashistoricallyprovable,heonlyexpressedwhatdawnedaheadonthesubsequentwomen'smovementasarchaicutopia:Dionysianlifeontheonehand, regainingthenightofDemeterontheother.Bothformsoflifeareassignedtoalanguageofthewomb,whichwaslaternolongerheardintheworldofmalelaw, unlessinmaenadlikeoutburstsorintributesofthestrictmasters'lawtotheequallyolderandmilderlawoftheBonaDea.Themythofthefemaleloverthussoundsas followsinBachofen:Forthis,Helen,whoisnotsorichlyendowedinorderthat,givenuptotheexclusivepossessionofonemanalone,herbeautyshouldfade,is *Blochisagainreferringtothebreakawaymovementamonggroupsofartistsinthe1890s.

Page595 thegreatmodelofeverymortalwoman,thesymbolofeveryDionysianwoman.Andthemyth,orratherthearchaicutopiaofwomanasarulerannouncesitselfin Bachofenasfollows:Therelationshipbymeansofwhichhumanityfirstgrowsuptocivilizedbehaviour,whichservesasthestartingpointofthedevelopmentofevery virtueandthecultivationofeverynoblersideofexistence,isthemagicofmotherhoodwhichactsinthemidstofalifefullofviolenceasthedivineprincipleoflove,of agreement,ofpeace(PrefacetoMatriliny).Sexofaquiteunfinishedkind,onewhichsoughttoberecollectedinnoncapitalisttermsandfurtherdeterminedinsocial utopianterms,wasthusonthemoveinthewomen'smovementthroughout,itwasnotconfinedtooldmaidsandmasculinewomen.Itwasfullofunobjectified expectation,nolongerandnotyetannouncedinpreviousobjectivities.Woman,aftersuchalongperiodofminority,hadthefinepresumptiontowanttointroducea pastandneverrealizedislandofthegreatmotherintothepatriarchy. Themovementisatonceoutmoded,replacedandpostponed,allwithgoodreason.Itisoutmodedbecauseithaspushedopenbourgeoisdoorsthatwerealready open,andbehindwhichtherethenprovedtobenothing.Thesexlessworkerbeeisnotthegoalforwhichwestartedout,wecannotgetanyfurthernowinbourgeois terms.Itisirrelevantwhetherwomanhasthesamevalueasmanifbothareemployeesofafirmwhichdoesnotvaluethematall,butsqueezesthemdry.The movementisreplacedbecauseastruggleagainstthesexualbarrierbecomespatheticwithoutastruggleagainsttheclassbarrier.Thefemaleworkerdoesnotfeel discriminatedagainstbythemenofherclass,anymorethantheyoungworkerfeelsdiscriminatedagainstbyadultsassuchthusanimportantelementoftheproletarian youthmovementrecursintheproletarianwomen'smovement.Thesemicolonialstatusofwomeningeneralcannotbespeciallylamentedbythosewho,likethe workingman,arethemselves,ifnotevenmoreso,keptascoolies.Thefemaleworkermeasuresherselfjointlywithpoormaleworkersagainstrichmenandwomen, andtheoldsocialdemocracyalreadysupportedtheprogrammaticstatement:Thequestionofwomen'srightscoincideswiththequestionofworkers'rights.The SovietUnionfacesnoquestionofwomen'srightsanymore,becauseithassolvedthequestionofworkers'rightswheremasterandservantcease,thelowerstratum: womanalsodisappears.Athirdproblem,though,aseparateproblemofcontent,continuestobesex,whichdetermineswomanfarmoreextensively,butalsofarmore indecisivelythanman(GottfriedKellerspokeoftheunfathomablehalfmeasureofwoman).Thismeans

Page596 thatthewomen'smovement,evenwhereitisreplacedbytheproletarianone,isstillonlypostponed.Thatistosay:womanthesexualbeing,solittleclarifiedinprevious malesocietiesandsolittledefinedbeyondthemerefamily,emergesasaproblemagainevenbeyondeconomicandsocialliberation.Theverydeclineoffemale oppressiondoesnotcreate,perseipsum,thedeclineoffemalecontent.Lover,mother,evenobjectifiedworkerhaveneveryetshapedthiscontentletaloneexhausted itsutopianpossibilities.Itisnotevenshapedinthecategoriesofloverandmother,howeverpoeticallycondensednottospeakofnew,previouslyunknownandyet possiblecategories.ThelevellingofsexualdifferenceswhichappearedintheSovietUnionduringthefirsturgentgeneralprogrammeofconstructiondidnotgovery deep.Preciselywhereitdependedonlessregimentedintervention,specificallyfemaleattitudesandenergiesappearedandareprovingthemselvesoverandoveragain. Themother,asGorkypresentsherinhisrealisticnovel,knewhowtodoherrevolutionaryworkdifferentlyfromhermalecomradesthenatureofherkindness,ofher hatredandofherunderstandingcouldnotbereplacedbyaman.Onthewhole,thedifferencebetweenthesexesliesinadifferentfieldtotheartificialdifferenceswhich theclasssocietyhasproducedthusitdoesnotdisappearwiththelatter.Sexualdifferencedisappearssolittlethatfemalenaturecanonlybecomeclearinsocialism. Enoughofitremainsinanycasetorefurbishitinitscontent,tohaveitasEveinsearchofherform.Thelargelyambiguouselementremains,thefermentinghalf decisive,wronglydecisive,indecisivemuddleandtangleinwoman,astheprevioussocietydeliversittoacomingone.Itissomethinggentleandwild,destructiveand compassionate,itistheflower,thewitch,thehaughtybronzeandtheefficientlifeandsoulofbusiness.ItisthemaenadandtherulingDemeter,itisthematureJuno,the coolArtemisandtheartisticMinervaandallsortsofotherthings.Itisthemusicalcapriccioso(theviolinsoloinStrauss'Heldenleben)andtheprototypeofthelento, ofcalm.Itisfinally,withanarcwhichnomanknows,thetensionbetweenVenusandMary.Allthisisincompatible,butitcannotbecorrectedletaloneabolishedwith astrokeofthepenthroughtheproblemofthecontentofwoman.Thisisevenlessthecasewiththatwhichhasnotyetbeenannouncedinwomanuptonow,that utopianindefiniteelementwhichcausedthegreatvarietyofpreviousdefinitionsinthefirstplace.Asiftheyweremereattemptsandexperimentswithnames,inwhich themainthinghasstillnotbeennamedandrevealedatall.Hasnotbeennearlyasrevealedasinthecaseofmanandhispredicatesalthoughthelatter

Page597 alsohasagreatdealofdistinctionsandagreatdealofunfinishedmaterialbehindhim,withhistoricalguidingtypeslikewarrior,monk,citoyenandsoon.Thewomen's movementisthereforestillsufficienttoformapartialutopia,justasitformedoneinthepreviousfullscaleutopias.Thisspecificallyannouncedandhopedforelement willstillcallforadviceandactionevenintheclasslesssociety,asaspecialproblemwhichisthelegacyofhistoryandprehistory.Considerthehetairanfeaturesinthe Cynic,andinpartsalsointhelibertineanarchisticutopiatheyhavenotbeendealtwith.ConsiderthematriarchalfeaturesintheStoicsocialutopiaanditsaftereffects, downtoNaturalRightandRousseau'snotionofabenevolentNaturetheyhavenotbeencompleted.Thuselementsfromthefemalepartialutopiahavecertainly alreadymadeacontributiontopreviousfullscaleutopias,oneofunrestandofcollection,andalsoofthedistantattractiveideal(forGoethe,inhisownwords,always conceivedinfemaleform).Andthefragrance,fullness,melodyofthisgenrecontinuetohaveaneffect,mutatismutandis,intheutopiawhichhasprogressedtowards sciencetherethusremainsaspecialcontributionofthefemaleutopiancontenttotherealmoffreedom. Thedesiretoescapefromconfinementhascometoanendinbourgeoissociety,andwillonlyreturninaclasslesssociety.Onlyherewilltherebeanewtide,anopen voyage,andcorrectlyplacedordersforawomen'smovementtoo.Whichutopianforcesandvalueswillthenbegincanonlybestated,likeclasslessmanasawhole,in termsofdirectionandnotunemptiedcontent.Itisadirectionwhichleadsoutofthepreviousbadbreadth,theincompatiblemuddleoffemaletypes.Itleadsoutonto anexistencewheretheunfathomablehalfmeasure,andalsotheunaimedartofexperimentationdisappearswhichinfactfirstmadepossiblethefalseabundanceof femalepredicatesandtypes.Anabundancewhosefalsityandindefinitenessisalreadydiscernibleintheswifttransitionofonetypeanditsattitudeintoanother,wholly incompatibleone.SincetheflowerlikequalityinexistingwomancanbecometheSetitalight,setitalight!ofthewitch,sincetheefficientlifeandsoulofbusiness almosteffortlesslyturnsintoamaenad,andevenVenusintoMary,theseindividualdefinitecharacteristicsoftenappearsoprovisionally,asiftheywerenoteven irregularexperimentsoffemaleBeing,butmeremasks.ChasteLunahascapriciousmoods,*thisstatement,whisperedbyMephisto,showswhatthishysterical abundanceandfalsebreadthofvariationisallabout.Femaleemancipation *Faust,PartII,4955.MephistoispromptingtheAstrologerashespeaks.

Page598 ofaconcretekindaimsinsteadatgenuinetestsofutopianessentialsitbringsoutofthemuddleoftypestherealabundanceoffemalenaturewithinhumannature.All themorereliablyasthevariousandalienatingcategoriesofgoodsandcategoriesofrulewhichhavehelpedtomodelthefemaletypeswhichhavesofarappeared, chieflyincapitalism,vanishinasocietythatisbecomingclassless.Thenareallegacyarisesbesidetheprevious,sofrequentlydisguisedanddivertedpredicatesof femininity,andisabletoarisefromthem.TherealPossibleismoreunformedinwomanthaninman,butalsointendedfromtimeimmemorial,inallvisionsoffemale perfection,asmorepromisingitreachesmorepowerfullyintowellfoundedimagination.Justasthemusicalismorepromisingthanthepoetic,whichisalreadycoined byitsprecisestatement.Andjustasmusic,whereitisalreadyformed,cangodeeperthanevenalotofverbalpoetry,sotheutopianelementinwoman,whereit valuablyappearsinadvance,signifiesacountenanceofcentralhumandepthandacomfortingdepth.Thegentleandthecompassionateelementoperatemore intensivelyinthefemaleversionofmankindthequalitiesonceascribedtoArtemishavenoequalinpurecoolnessamongyoungboysthefemalesaintdisplaysa Christianconditioninitsfullglory.Thebourgeoiswomen'smovement,beingbourgeois,indicatedlittleornothingofcourseofsuchpossibilitiesorthatwhichmay correspondtotheminanewguiseithardlygotbeyondcontrastingtrivialitieslikefreeloveandsuffragettes.Ifahumanspringbeginswiththeclasslesssociety,thenso doestheprospectofventuringbeyondanundeterminedsexualbarrier,ofdispellingfrozenvagueness.Asocietywithoutanassignabledarksideoflifewillundoubtedly bethefirsttogivefemininityprobationandlicence.Andwomanascomradewillbethatpartofsocietywhichkeepsherfullofsubjectandunobjectifiedinevery respect. OldNewLand,programmeofZionism ThereisnosufferingthatcanbecomparedwiththatoftheJews.Othersmallnationswerealsodispersed,ledawayfromtheirsoil,butthentheyquicklyperished.Not eventhenamesoftheothertribeswhichhadbeendraggedofftoworkbytheNilehavecomedowntous.TheJewsdidnotallowthemselvestobegobbledup,aswe know,althoughtheywereconstantlybetweentheteethoftheirhostnations.DevotedtotradeandtheScriptures,theyrescuedtheirfearfulexistenceinthefaceof endless

Page599 killing,untilafterlongcenturiestheairoutsidetheghettoseemedalittlelessdangerous.TheJewwasnowsimplybeaten,despised,butnolongerburnttodeath.This patronagefurtherincreased,inthecourseofbourgeoisliberation,theyellowpatchwasremovedfromthecaftan,thelatteralsodisappeared,andaround1800the JewishfellowcitizenemergedintheWest.Hetookuphisnewpositiontrustingly,andsincedoingsanddealingsprevailedintheworldoutsideanyway,andalsothe morechivalrousorofficialprofessionscontinuedtoremainclosedtohim,thestartwasforthemostpartcommercial.Heenteredexistingcapitalistsociety,nolonger,as intheSpanishheyday,afeudalandecclesiasticallylearnedsociety.ThiscausesdistinctionstheyarenotsimplyaburdentothoseJewswhososmartlywentinto generalbusinesslife,thestationofthecrossisalsoimportantatwhichthelonglifeofsufferingfinallystops.Thisstationwasthecapitalistone,forthesamereasonthatit wastheprovisionallyliberatingone:freecompetitionrequiresthelegalequalityofitspartners.AmongstthesepartnersthebestJewishelementdidnotalwayscometo light,anymorethanthebestGermanorFrenchelement.Thestockmarketdoesnotlookgoodfromallangles,anditwasthecolumnsoftheliberalpressfromwhich thebreathoftheageblewmostfiercely.TheJewishspiritcametobeonewhichgabbledeverythingtopieces,whichproducedsolelyforthemarket,anddistinguished itselfinthisrespect.Onlyinthebeginning,whenliberationarrived,thissortofthingdidnotyetbecomeapparent.Thefallofthewallswhichhadsurroundedsomuch oppressionandofcoursealsosomuchseriousnessanddevoutstrictnessseemedevenbiblical.Itwasafirstreddawn,thatofconformitybehinditnothingbut democratichappinesswassuspected,newlifeafterlongparalysis.ItwasnotjusttheJewshowever,butalsotheGentileswhodidnot,asweknow,whollyachieve whatwashopedforinthisliberation.TheequalityofJewswithothers,ifiteverexisted,wasatemporaryexception,itneverbecamearule.Intheendthatwhich seemedunthinkableonlytothefoolswhobelievedinanemptyrollingprogressreturned,returnedinanintensifiedform:extermination.Theliberalcitizenstoodby,arms attheready,insofarashewasnothimselfaiminghisrifleatJews.Thereseemedorseemsnothingleftforitbuttoseparateforgoodfromfellowcitizenswho endangeredtheirlives,ahomeland*gleamsbeforethem. *BlochisnotusinghisownconceptHeimathereforhomeland.WetranslateitthusinthissectioninviewofthelanguageoftheBalfourdeclarationdiscussed below.

Page600 Thishadbeenlongedforforages,evenwhenconformityflourished.ManywouldnothavechosentobeJewishofcourse,butnownothingcouldbedoneaboutitthey pretendedtobeproudofthefact.Thiswasafalsepride,andtheyonlypaidlipservicetothePromisedLand.JustasmanyJewshavenowbecomeextremelyZionist whodonotwanttoemigrateatallfromthecountrywheretheyaregettingontolerablywell.TheyareZionistpartlyoutofsympathyforexiledracialcomrades,partly outofthepassionwithwhichoneusuallytakesoutaccidentinsurance.AndforthelasttwothousandyearsorthodoxJewshavebeenexpressingthewishintheir prayers:nextyearinJerusalemalthoughastrongaversiontoactualreturnemanatedfromtheseverycircles.Nevertheless,thedreamofarestoredkingdomofDavid hadneverwhollydiedinpoliticaltermsthereweremilitaryadventurerslikeDavidRebeni(around1530),whocalleduponthenationsolongunaccustomedtoarms toundertakeakindofJewishcrusadeagainsttheTurks.TherewasthefalseMessiahSabbataiZewi(around1640),whofirstwantedtocallIsraelhometoJerusalem inthecampaignofredemption.Providedthatanationstillfeltitselftobesuchandstillhadcoherence,itseemedhardtotakeawayfromitthememoryofthesoilwhere ittookrootand,infrequentlydeceptivememory,washappy.EventheexiledSpanishJewswereconsumedbylonging,ifnotforPalestine,thenforSpain,andhave oftenremembereddowntothepresentdaythenamesoflongvanishedstreets,andlongcollapsedhousesinwhichtheirancestorshadlivedasseores.Thusevenreal naturalization,whenthebourgeoisskystillhadafriendlyaspect,didnotpreventwishestoreturnineveryone,inthiscasewithoutlipservice,wisheswhichwereeven passionatelygenuine.Astonishinglyitdidnotevenpreventavaried,leading,teachingconnectionwiththeinternationallabourmovement.Onthecontrary,thesocialist MosesHess,theformerfriendandprecursorofMarxandEngels,thelaterfriendofLassalle,admittedlyapermanentlyidealisticdialectician,wroteinRomeand Jerusalem,1862,themostmovingZionistdreambook.Hewasaidedinthisbythesimultaneouslywarmandobscuremannerinwhichhebelievedinraceasasource ofinspiration.Hesswasanuprightrevolutionarytotheend,butneverthelessbelongedtothebrainspinningoftheleftwingHegelianschool.Hebelongedtothetrue socialismwhoseeconomicignorance,speculativecobwebs,andpracticalnaivetywereafterwardssosharplycriticizedbytheCommunistManifesto.Hessremained withinidealisticdialecticsalthough,indeedbecausehewantedtointersperseHegel'sselfmovementofreasonwiththatofenergyandthewill.Withthisphilosophyof actionhewent

Page601 backfarmoretoFichte'sactivedeedsthanforwardtoacomprehensionoftheeconomicmaterialfactorsofhistory.HeadoptedMarx'seconomicmaterialist interpretationofhistory,butalmostatthesametimeaccusedMarxandEngelsofhavingexchangedthenebulousstandpointofGermanphilosophyforthenarrowand pettystandpointofEnglisheconomics.EconomicswasthusdefinedbyHesshimselfinthenarrowsense,notinthetotalsocialsenseofMarxheregardeditasthe typicalclassscienceofthebourgeoisie.Consequentlyevenenergyandwill,thedrivingforcesindialecticsactivisticallyintroducedbyHess,werenotprimarily understoodintermsofradicaleconomicchangebutethically,approximatingtoFichte'sactivedeeds,andfinallyintermsofracialtheory.Alongsidetheproletariat, whichisstillcelebratedastherealsubjectofradicalpractice,racewastheshapingforceofhistoryforthelaterMosesHess.Ofcourse,MarxandEngelsalso discussedrace,asakindofinneraspectofnature,andthismustnotbeforgotten.Inaletterof1894,Engelsacknowledgedraceasaneconomicfactor,andMarx alsodeclaredeconomicdevelopmenttobedependentonthefavourablenatureofthecircumstances,ontheracialcharacter.Therewerenationswithmoreorless temperamentanddispositionforcapitalistproduction,andMarxnamestheTurksamongthelessdisposed.ButMarxandEngelsmaderaceneitherintoan intrinsicallydeterminingfactornorintoaconstantfactorwithinhistoryracialfetishistideasaretotallysmashed.Theracialdispositionisalsohistoricallyredisposedagain andagaininMarxbyman'swork:Becauseheactsthroughthismovementonthenatureoutsidehimandchangesit,healsochangeshisownnatureatthesametime. ItisdifferentinthecaseofMosesHess,differentbecauseapartfromappearingasaneconomicfactorracealsoappearsinhisworkasafactorindependentlyshaping ideology,evenwiththesameeconomicsubstructure:andforhimthestrongestspiritualraceisandremainsJewish.TherehavebeenseveralsmallNearEasternnations withafairlysimilaragrarianeconomyandpoliticalconstitutionbut,MosesHessadds,onlytheJewshavecarriedthebannerwhichthenationsarefollowingtoday.It isthemoralpropheticbanner,andonlyforitssake,forthesakeoftheinscription:Zion,areJewstobeplantedintheiroldsoilagain.ThusZionismwantedthistobe doneonthebasisofZionandnotonthatofachancesojournoftheJewsinPalestinetwothousandyearsago:Carryyourbannerhigh,mypeople,Hessdemandsin RomeandJerusalemThelivingcornisstoredinyouwhich,liketheseedcornsinEgyptianmummies,haslaindormantforthousandsofyearsbuthasnotlostits powersofgerminationOnlyfromnationalrebirthwill

Page602 thereligiousgeniusoftheJews,likethegiantwhotouchesnativesoil,drawnewstrengthandbefilledbytheholyspiritoftheprophetsagain.Butthecontentofthese emotiveexpressionsormissions,ofthisratherlongwindededification,remainssocialismaloneforHesstherevolutionary:hewasoneofthefirsttoapplyJudaism,as heknewitfromtheworksoftheprophets,tothecauseoftherevolutionaryproletariat.SocialismbecomesforHessthevictoryoftheJewishmissioninthespiritof theprophetsonlytothisenddidthisinternationalsocialistplananactioncentreinPalestine,inwhichthespiritoftheJewishracecanriseagain.Admittedlywiththe aidofFrance,thoughnotofimperialisticFrancebutthatofthegreatRevolution,whichHessthoughtwasstillatworkwithinit.Onceonitsownsoilagain,oncelifted backontotherailsofworldhistoryagain,theJewishnationwastoastonishtheHouseofRothschild:Thesocialanimalkingdom,whichlivesoffthemutual exploitationofhumanbeings,iscomingtoanend.SomuchfortheZionistutopiaofMosesHess,dreamedanddesignedasasocialistoneabovo,basedonthe prophets. ButthewesternJewsweremostlybourgeois,therewerenotmanyworkersamongthem.TheZionistdreamsthereforeonlygainedinfluenceonthesemiddleclassesin sofarastheynolongerhadasocialistring,butweremoderateandliberal.LongafterHess,agenerationlater,TheodorHerzlappeared,theoriginatoroftheonly Zionistprogrammetobecomeeffective,maybewithJeremiah,butwithoutIsaiah.Thisfortworeasons,onepoliticalandoneideological,bothinkeepingwiththe situationofaJewishbourgeoisietowhichZionismpassed,verymuchwithoutsocialism.Politically,inthewakeofthecrisesofthemiddleclasses,thethinliberalpro semitismofthesurroundingworldhadswiftlybeencompletelyunderminedagain.Ideologically,liberalJudaismitselfwantedtoknowverylittleaboutcommittedlove, abouttherevolutionarylovewhichitsprophetshadpreachedandwhichwouldhavecostmoremoneythansuitedmerecharity.PoliticallyitpromotedHerzl'ssuccess thatasocalledAntiSemiticLeaguehadarisen,thattrialsforritualmurderadvancedfromRussiaandRumaniatoHungaryandGermany.HerzlsawintheDreyfustrial thateventheclassicbourgeoislandofhumanrightsnolongerremainedwhatitwas,andhedrewfromthisnoconclusionsaboutthecitizensthemselves,onwhoseside heremained,butabouttheircharacterasGentiles.WhatwasideologicallydecisiveforHerzl'sinfluenceontheJewishbourgeoisiewasinfactthebourgeoisdtente,the liberallevelofenlightenmentwhichwasgivenheretothedreamofZion.Aboveall,Herzlremovedevery

Page603 connectionwiththesocialradicalismoftheprophets,withsocialistmissionandothersocalledextravagancesofMosesHessZionismthusbecameacceptabletothe liberalJewishbourgeoisie.NowHerzlfoundthemodelforaseparateJewishstateinthemanifoldirredentistmovementaswhichtheAustroHungarianmonarchy masqueradedlikeCzechs,Poles,Ruthenians,Rumanians,Serbs,andItalians,theJewswerealsotoreturnhometotheirownnationstate.Noteventheancientgolden soundofJerusalemwasheardatfirstHerzl'sutopiawaveredinitially,insearchofthelandofthefuture,betweenArgentinaandPalestine.AndthepathstoCanaan werepoliticalrealistanddiplomaticones,cleverlytakingintoaccountexistingshadydealsandimperialistinterestsofseveralgreatpowers:TheJewishquestionisa nationalquestioninordertosolveit,wemustaboveallmakeitintoaworldquestionwhichwillhavetobesolvedinthecouncilofcivilizednations.MosesHess,as wehaveseen,alsohadinternationalpoliticalaidinmind,thatofFrancebutwhatwasnaivetyorakindofRomanticisminHess,stemmingfrom1789,became capitalistapprovalinHerzl.TheonlyalternativeforJudaismseemedextinctionthroughintermarriageornationalrebirth:Herzlpreachedthelatter,butintheformofa capitalistdemocraticminiaturestatebythegraceofEnglandorevenGermanyundersovereigntyofthesultan.TherethusappearedTheJewishState,1896,worked outasaschemeinconsiderabledetail,cooperativeprivatecapitalismwithlandreform,thelandispublicproperty,andisonlyleasedforfiftyyearsatanyonetime. Theentirecivilizationoftheturnofthecenturyistransferred:WhenwetroopoutofEgyptagain,wewillnotforgetthefleshpots.Thusthefairytalewillcometrue,if theJewswantitto,andautopiannovelOldNewLand,1900,furtherpicturedthebourgeoislandofprogress,sittinginone'sowntent,beneathone'sownvine,at homeasbefore,sotospeak,inEurope,butnowbyoneself.InkeepingwiththeslighteconomicchangeinthemodelJewishstate,thisutopiaissetnotfarinthefuture: itclaimstobeareportfromtheyear1920.EvenintheJewishState,criticslikeAchadHaamhadfoundfewJewishelements,almostnone,whichwouldhave differedfromthebusinessofwesterncivilizationotherthanthroughtheadmittedlyinvaluablesecuritywithwhichthisbusinesswasnowtobecontinuedontheirown soil,intheirowncities.InmodernHebrew,certainlyalsowiththehopedfordecomplicationthroughagriculture,dairycooperativesandotherkindsofreturntothe land,whicheverybankmanagerfindsasoundproposition.Herzl'sZionwasthusautopiaoftheimmediately

Page604 attainable,withacapitalistdemocraticbackgroundfirmlyrootedinthesoil,theonlythingitdidnotyethave,itdidnottiltatanywindmills.Ifitthusrecommendeditself tothespecificidealismoftheJewishbusinessman,andlawyertoo,thenasfarasthenationalelementisconcernedthisutopiacutverysharplythroughassimilation, muchmoresharplythanMosesHesspride,notasenseofmissionwasthesubstanceofJewishnationalconsciousnessaccordingtoHerzl.Thediasporawithits thousandsofdistortionsandformsofpariahdomwastobereversed,butsowasMosesMendelssohnorassimilation,asafalsereddawn,inwhichthediasporahad notbeenclearedbutaffirmed.InsteadthesecondandtruereddawnnowseemedtobebreakingwithZionismorantiMendelssohn:ahomelandfortheJewishnation inPalestineprotectedunderpubliclaw.InspiteofthefactthatatleasttheimmigrantskeenoninvestmentandmostcertainlythefleshpotsofEgyptpresupposeand profitbyastrongassimilation.TheHasidimwouldnothavefoundedaTelAviv,thestudyoftheTalmudwouldnothavedepositedanEinsteinmanuscriptinthe UniversityofJerusalem,andtherewouldnotbeanyprofessorsofthecabbalathere,butcabbalists.Jewishfascisminparticular,asaconsequenceoftheadopted contemporarycapitalistdemocraticstate,wouldbetotallyunknownwithoutsuchanadoption.Herzl'sutopiaisinnuceitselfmoreofanassimilationthantheapparently muchmoreassimilatedutopiaoftheromanticZionistMosesHess.ThelatterwasmuchmorecloselyconnectedwiththeoldMessianism,abelieverinthesocialZion, whofoughtinthelabourmovementuptothemomenthedied,andwhobelievedhewasactivatingthespiritoftheprophetspreciselyinhisconnectionwiththe internationallabourmovement.AsHess,unlikeHerzl,triedtoshow,thereisclearlyaZionismforwhichthefamilygraveislessimportantthanresurrection.Ifnotthat oftheJewishnationalconsciousnessofthebourgeoisie,thenthatofaveryold,frequentlysubmergedfaith.Ifthisfaith,becauseitisstillautopia,alsosoughtanaction centreinPalestine,thenthiscentrewasclearlyconceivedasradiatingoutwards,asanappealtotheworldandnotasaminiaturestate.Theelementofsocialmission andpropheticlegacywhichisstillatworkinJudaismandwhichmakesituniquelyimportantwasproclaimedbyMosesHessfarfromPalestine,andmadecurrentby MarxevenintotalalienationfromPalestine.Forthem,Zionwaseverywherewherethesocialanimalkingdomisdestroyedandthediasporacomestoanend:thatof alltheexploited. WhenthedreamhadbeenturnedintoabourgeoisonebyHerzl,it

Page605 immediatelybegantowork.Itwasundoubtedlyskilfullynurtured,from1897ZionistcongressesregularlytookplaceinBasle.Themovementgrew,avoluntary transplantationofminoritiessuchashadnotyetoccurredbefore.Italsocameclosetosuccessagainandagain,andthiswasowingtoatotallyunsentimentaltrend whichpromoteditevenamongGentiles.IftherehadinfactevenbeensentimentaltrendstowardsZionismamongGentiles,thenthiswasalsotrueofmillenariansinthe EnglishrevolutionandofotherAdventistsects,againandagain.Butthissortofthingwaspowerless,temporaryandmystical,therulingclassisnotexpectingElijah.On theotherhand,theEnglishrulingclasshadlongbeeninterestedinsafeguardingtheoverlandroutetoIndia,andPalestinefittedthebill.Hollingworth,apoliticalwriter, suggestedaJewishstateinthisspotevenearlierthanHess,letaloneHerzl(JewsinPalestine,1852).LordsPalmerston,Beaconsfield(thelatteradmittedlyflirtingwith ahighlyillustriousIsraelitetribalfeeling),andSalisburywerealreadynegotiatingwiththePorte*overtheconcession.ItistruethatEnglandwasnotonlyinterestedin theoverlandroute,in1903italsoofferedHerzllandinEastAfrica,forwhichcolonistswerelackingandwhichitdidnotwanttopopulatewithconvictsaswasonce thecasewithAustralia.Besides,itwasnotjustEnglandthatwasinterestedinPalestine,WilhelmIIandGermanimperialismalsohadZionistsympathiesin1898the KaiserdiscussedwithHerzlaJewishPalestineunderGermanprotectionandTurkishsovereignty.Thereasonforthiswastheinterest,whichhasbecomeproverbial,of theDeutscheBankintheBaghdadrailwayandallthatwasconnectedwithititwasthewholeGermanlegacyhuntingaroundTurkey,theSickManofEurope.Thus Zionismwascertainlyentrustedonseveralsidestothecouncilofcivilizednations,asHerzlhadsaid,apieceontheboardofimperialistpolitics.ButwhenGerman imperialismlostthegameandTurkeystoodtherewithoutthispatronofIslam,thethingwhichhadbeenwaitingforsolonginthefilesoftheForeignOfficeforits momenttocomewasproclaimedin1917:theBalfourDeclaration.ABritishmandateofPalestinewasdeclaredasahomelandfortheJewishnationunderpubliclaw. PartsofHerzl'sprogrammetherebyadmirablysuitedimperialistEngland,magnanimousasalways,andtherealization,ifwecancallitthat,oftheZionistdreamarrived intimetoestablisharefugeforthelatervictimsoffascism.Orrather,itwouldhavearrivedintimeifthe *TheSublimePorte,thecentralofficeoftheOttomangovernment.AnolddiplomatictermderivedviatheFrenchfromtheTurkishtitle.

Page606 Englandwhichopenedthehomelandhadnotcloseditattheverymomentwhenitwasmosturgentlyneeded.Butin1939,theappropriateyear,aWhitePaper appearedtothefollowingeffect:inthenextfiveyearsatmost75,000Jewswillbeadmitted,andafterthatnomorewithoutArabconsent,hencenomoreinfact.A peacefulbusinesssituationinArabEgyptandMoslemIndiawasautomaticallydearertotheheartsoftheEnglishphilanthropiststhansayingthelivesoftheEuropean Jewsand,saidChurchill,thelogicindoingsoissimple.ItsimplyleftseveralmillionJewstobeslaughteredbytheNazis,andinfact,itdrovethembackintotheir handsagainbypreventingthemfromlandinginPalestineEnglandaidedandabettedthemurderwhich,moralasalways,itsohotlycondemned.Thehomelandfromthe periodoftheBalfourDeclarationwasimmediatelyinterpretedasanArabstate,anditsJewishpopulationwasnotallowedtoamounttomorethanathirdoftheArab one.Herzl'sJewishstatehadthusresultedinanumerusclaususoftheJewishrightofabode,whichwasunknowninanyothercountrybeforetheJewishstate,apart fromTsaristRussia.TherealitywhichcameaboutaccordinglycorrespondstoHerzl'smeansofrealizingit:thelandoftheJewsbecameonefromwhichpolitically awkwardJewscouldevenbedeportedastroublesomeforeigners.Certainly,themeansdonotalwaysruintheend,therelationshipbetweencauseandeffectdoesnot holdgoodhere,wherecausaaequateffectum,butdifferentmeanscanalsopossiblyleadtoagoodendbutthentheenditselfmustbeapowerfuloneandnota beggingone.Ifitisnotpowerful,thenitdoesnotusethemeansbutthemeansusesit,andifitisconstructedonexactlythesamecapitalistdemocraticlinesasthe Englandwhoseimperialismitusesasameans,thentheinterestofthestrongercapitalmusttriumphovertheprogrammesoftheweakerone.Zionthusbecamea fractionofthebusinesstobeattendedtointheEnglishempire,andJewishsecession,sinceitoccurredasaninvasion,becameanobjectofhatefortheArabnational revolutionarymovement,whichforitspartrepresentsinturnacardinthegameofBritishimperialism.NowtheJewswhoescapedfromfascismorevensimplysocial discriminationhaveanewconflictwiththeArabs,andtheplannedJewishstateismoreprecariousthananyassimilationeverwas,uptoHitler.Thedifficultieshereby nomeansappeartobetemporaryones,unlessgeographicalZionismitselfbecomesamereprogrammeonceagain,thatis,aftertheendofHitler'sfascismonlya handfulofJewsfromcapitalistcountriesdemandsadmissiontoPalestineagain.Orfarmorethoroughly:thedifficultiesdecreasebecauseageneralsocialupheavalalso solvesthese

Page607 miniatureproblemsdrippingwithblood.AnditisnotthenHerzltheJewfromtheNewFreePresswhowillberesponsibleforthisupheaval,butMarxtheJew,who wasnotmerelynoZionistbutonlybecamewhatheisandwasabletodowhathedidbecausehewasnotaZionist.Preciselytheoriginallybetter,subjectivelypure, thoughfalsewillattheoutsetofZionistenthusiasm:thatofarealnewbeginninginPalestine,withaverydifferentnemusrerumthanbefore,doesnotcomewithHerzl's blessing,letaloneasaresultofit.TremendousenthusiasmpouredwithJewishyouthintothecultivationoftheoldearth,agrariancommuneswereformed,relatedin theirintentiontothoseofOwenorCabetinNorthAmerica,andinplacesevenattemptedcollectivefarmsveryfaratanyratefromTelAviv,therealcontemporary expressionofthebourgeoisieandspeculation.ButallthisonlypromotedthefactthatthestateofIsrael,populatedbytheflightfromfascism,hasitselfbecomeafascist state.Andatthisbitterend,whichwasnotyetforeseenevenbyHerzl,IsraelevenbecamethenotevenwellkeptcurofAmericanimperialismintheNearEast. BoththearchetypeofMoses,andtheotherofEgyptthedesertCanaanhavedevelopedadifferentpowerandhopeinrevolutions.ButtheJewishstatelooksas ifthesearchetypesofitsownhavebecomealientoJudaismitself,whichisnotalwaysthecase,however,astheexampleofMarxshows.Here,too,theconclusion remainsthatthereisnoisolatedsolutiontoanyproblemofminoritiesornationalitiesassuch.ThismeansthatthereisnosolutiontothesocalledJewishquestion,inso farasitexists,withoutanoverallsolutiontotheeconomicandsocialone.ZionismisnotevenpossibleinPalestinewithoutsuchasettlementthereisnopaxBritannica anymore,letaloneapaxAmericana.Andhowevermanypsychological,anthropologicalorevenmythologicalsecondarycausesantisemitism,astubbornand conspicuousphenomenon,mayhave,itsbasisistheprecariouseconomy.ItwasafterallpreciselyaRussianZionistinthedaysofLeninwhofeltcompelledtoobserve thatBolshevismwasbeginningtorealizewhattheoldprophetshadpreachedtheSovietgoalwasbiblical,whetherpeopleknewitornot.Ifthatisso,thenJudaismin thespiritofMosesHessisintactandhasnewthingstodo,evenwithoutitsownminiaturestate.Zionistutopiawasnotaloneincultivatingthespecialdistinctionof beingtransfiguredpastandhopedforfutureatoneandthesametimethisiscultivatedbyothernationalandminorityutopiastoo.SuchastheWendsinPrussia,the Czechs,thePolesbefore1918,theyallhadatraditionalutopiandreamofresurrectioneventheGermanshadit,intheimperialdreambetween1806and1871,inits variouspatrioticfantasies.

Page608 SoamereirredentistmovementdoesnotdistinguishtheZionistgrouputopiafromothersordoitcrediteveniftheJewswereonlyregardedasAhasuerusesf*where thePoles,dividedupamongthreeempires,werestillathome.Ontheotherhand,theuniquefeatureoftheJewishutopiaistheobligation,positedalongwithitand stressednotforthefirsttimebyMosesHess,toactinaccordancewiththeintentionoftheprophetsandthisobligation,asaresultoftherevolutionarysituationwhich hasripenedinEuropesincethedaysofMosesHess,certainlyneedsnoactioncentreinPalestineanymore.ItneedsnogeographicalZionisminanextensive liberationmovementtheJewshaveroomatanytimetomakethelastghettosuperfluous.Tolineupwiththemovementtowardsthelight,ineverycountrytowhichwe belong,thisseemsthegenuinehomelandoftheJews.ProvidedthatJudaismnotonlyrepresentsamoreorlessanthropologicalquality,butacertainmessianicemotion, oneforthegenuineCanaan,whichisnolongerrestrictedinnationaltermsThomasMnzer,withtheswordofGideon,displayedit,theHouseofRothschilddidnot. Itismostlyrighttoexplainhatredineconomictermsfromthestart.Whatcanbedirectlyseized,oftenwhatissomeoneelse's,andevenbetterwhatisweak,simply givesgroundsforgivingventtoit.ForagesitwaseasiesttoventhatredandrageontheJews,onpooronesaswellasandevenbetterthanonrichonesitremainsthe simplestthingtoblamethemfordisaster.Theyarenotasconspicuousasthegypsies,letalonethenegroes,buttheyaremorepopularscapegoats,preciselybecauseof theirfamiliarstrangenessasitwere.UntiltheNazisarrived,theywerenotchargedwithsuchmonstrousthingsaswitcheshadoncebeen,butinsteadtheyaremore credibleasmischiefmakerstoanenlightenedrabbleasitwere.Therearewishesandnonwishes,imagesonwhichwhatwaswishedforwasunloaded,andimageson whichwhatwasnotwishedforwasunloaded,andtheJews,asMusilsplendidlyremarksononeoccasion,providedthenonwishimage,whichwasformerlythefetish thatthesorcererpulledoutofthesickman'sthroat.Thehumandelightinawhippingboywasthereforeundoubtedlyaddedtoeconomicdistress,averyoldand stubborndelight.Allthisistrue,andyetwithoutfamine,withoutfinegentlemenanddeflectorstherewouldnothavebeenthisfatteningofscapegoats.Themotivationof antiSemitismchangedthreetimesinthecourseoftime,evenitsintensitywasdifferentineachcase,butinspiteofallthisitsessentialfeatureremainsrecognizable.In antiquitytheallegedarrogancewasregardedasprovocative *Ahasuerus:theWanderingJew.

Page609 withwhichtheJewscutthemselvesofffromtheGentiles,hadtheirownrulesaboutfoodandtheirownfeastdaysandotherthingsaswell.PhilotheJeweven maintainedthatPlatoowedhisbestworktoMoses,whichwasundoubtedlygoingtoofar,especiallyinaRomestilllittleinfluencedbytheMiddleEast.IntheMiddle Ages,JudasfurnishedthemotiveforantiSemitism,despitethefactthatalltheotherdiscipleswerealsoJews,likeJesushimself.Intheageoffascism,though,racial theoryandthewisemenofZionmakeupthebusinessofantiSemitismforthecrucifixionofJesustheJewnolongerenragesfascistsatall,theysympathizewithit instead,indeedthebloodofthewholeofJewryistobedrainedwithhisblood,sothattheAryanisfinallyredeemed.Incompatiblemotivesobviouslyandyet,asthe antiSemitessay,unitedintheirinstinctagainsttheJew.SothattheJewstillofferedauniquestartingpointforfalseconsciousnessandtheideologysurrounding economicgroundsforapogrom.Asiftherereallywassomethinginthisgroupofpeoplewhichhascondemnedthemfortwothousandyearstoallowthemselvestobe treatedastheguiltycauseofeveryproblem.ThisbroadavailabilityoftheJewsforthepurposeofthebogeymanalmostrepresentsacounterparttothebroad availabilitywhichtheBiblehasfoundintheentirewhiteraceforthepurposeofedification.AnditisunprecedentedthattheauthorshipofthatsameBibleisgrantedto theJews,buttheyarestillcheatedofthehonourthisbringswithit.Thiscanalsobeexpressedinpoeticterms,asBeerHofmannhasdoneinJacob'sDream,where thedevilprophesies:Peoplemaywellinclinetoyourword/Buttheywillsmashthemouthtopulpthatspokeit:/Youshallbeanationfromwhicheveryonetakesthe spoils.ThisdoubleviewofJudaism,thisunprecedentedsplitconsciousnessintheapperceptionofJudaismundoubtedlyindicatesanuncannyhatredoftheobject,a hatredwhichhasbecomealmostautarkical,withinwhichtheeconomicdiversionarytacticscouldonlysucceed.Allthisistruetooofcourse,justastrueasthedelightin awhippingboy,andyeteventhenotveryrationalsourceofoffencewhichtheJewishobjectmayrepresentwouldneverhavebeeneffectivewithoutaprofiteconomy. ThefactremainsthattheeconomicsocialrevolutionsweepstheJewishquestioninaninstantunderthetable.AntiSemitismisnotaneternalinstitution,astheZionists wouldhaveusbelieve,andifitwereone,thenitwouldnotbemitigatedbytheinvasionofanArabcountry,withnewfrictions,andanewprotectiveJudaism,butsolely bytheselfbanishmentoftheJewstoadesertisland,withoutwindowsanddoors.Whichwouldbeneithercapitalistdemocratic,inthesenseofTheodorHerzl,norby anymeanssocialist,inthegrandsenseofMosesHessthelatterwould

Page610 nownolongerlocatehisimaginedJerusaleminJerusalem,intheageoftheSovietUnionandthemovementtowardsSovietUnions.Theendofthetunnelisinsight, certainlynotfromthestandpointofPalestine,butfromMoscowubiLenin,ibiJerusalem.ItisnotinquestionwhethertheJewsarestillanationornotiftheyhad ceasedtobeanation,asistotallythecaseinWesternEurope,thenwhattheyhadlostcouldcertainlyberegainedthroughrenewedseparation,andinPalestine somethingofthekindhasclearlysucceededintheHebrewspeakinggenerationthatwasbornthere.ThismaybegratifyingandevennecessaryfromanationalJewish standpoint,butitisnomoremovingthanthepreservationofothersmallnations.JudaismstillclaimsinitsBibleatleastamorespecificpathosofitsexistence,without whichpathositsexistencewouldbeimmaterial.Sowhatisinquestionissolelythis:dotheJews,whetheranationornot,stillassuchhaveaconsciousnessofwhatthe GodofexodussaidtohisservantIsrael,notasapromise,butasatask:Ihaveputmyspirituponhim:heshallbringforthjudgmenttotheGentiles(Isaiah42,1). Withtheapostrophetotheverynationforwhichmiseryhasbeenprophesiedandwhichhaslearntbetterthananyothernationwhatitisallabout:Toopentheblind eyes,tobringouttheprisonersfromtheprison,andthemthatsitindarknessoutoftheprisonhouse(Isaiah42,7).TheJewsalsodidthiskindofmissionarywork, thoughonnothingliketheChristianorMoslemscale.NubiantribesacceptedtheMosaicLaw,inthesecondcenturyA.D.theJewishreligionspreadtoChina,andin theeighthcenturytheChazarempire,withitscapitalAstrakhan,wentovertoJudaism.Allthisoccurredlateofcourse,andprobablynotbecauseofanactualagitation thediasporaalsobecamelessandlessinviting.Andalmostallscripturaltextsonlytackletheideaofamissionasthatmessianictendencyandthefutureofitsexpansion whichistobekeptopenbyJews:Theyshallnothurtnordestroyinallmyholymountain:fortheearthshallbefulloftheknowledgeoftheLord,asthewaterscover thesea(Isaiah11,9).ThememoryofsuchtendenciescanbejustasburninginJewswhodonothaveanytraceofZionistnationalconsciousnessasitisinJoachimof Fiore.ConverselyitcanbetotallylackinginJewswhomerelyapplytheageofahighlyintensifiednationalismtothemselvesandconfuseeveryfutureInternationalwith thecosmopolitanismofcommercialtravellers.OrwiththeopinionthattheInternationalwouldbenothingbutallthenationalflagssewntogetherthenitwouldbe importantofcoursetohaveablueandwhiteZionistflaginthecombinetoo.ButifJudaismisapropheticmovement,thatis,amovementtowardsthatwhich

Page611 hasbeenconceivedasZionforthreethousandyears,thenitdefinitelybelongsamongthenationsandnottoanEnglishprotectorateattheeasterncornerofthe Mediterranean.Inwhichitisnotfoxesandwolveswhosaygoodnighttooneanother,buttheSuezCanalandMosuloil,ArabtensionandtheBritishsphereof influence,thesinkingempireandtheAmericanmonsterwhosaygooddaytooneanother.ThissortofthingisrathertoolittletosuittheideaofMosesHess,ortoo much.IfaJewishnationstillexists,thenitsliberationcoincideswithsocialliberation,oritsstateisaninventioninwhichtheBritishspeculativebuyerhasnolonger shownsuchaninterestasin1917,asinthesolventageoftheEmpire,andwhichisnowleadingAmericaintoatomicwar.IfaJewishnationnolongerexists,then experienceshowsthatthereremainsanoldaffinityinthebestJewswitheverythingwhichsuggeststhedestructionofthegreatBabel,andaNewWorld.Thisdream hasitsactioncentrewherethecountryoftheirbirthandeducationis,whereithelpstobuildthelanguage,history,andcultureofthelatter,whereitparticipatesboth patrioticallyandexpertlyinthestruggleforanewearth.HicRhodus,hicsalta,Zioniseverywhereaccordingtotheintentionoftheprophets,andthelocalmountin Palestinehaslongsincebecomeasymbol.NaziGermanywasitsstrongestcounterblow,theSovietUniondefeatedthiscounterblow,foralltheoppressedinthe world,includingtheJews,inharmonywiththeuniversalisthopeoftheprophets.Inshort,thispartialmovementcouldcometoanendwithoutaJewishcomponentitself comingtoanend,whetherasanation,whetherinaconsiderablymoregenuinefashionaswitnesstoandevidenceofamessianiccastofmindZionismflowsout intosocialism,oritdoesnotflowoutatall. NovelssetinthefutureandfullscaleutopiasafterMarx:Bellamy,WilliamMorris,Carlyle,HenryGeorge Itwassomeweekslater.ItwasnowthemiddleofNovember,andMrBritling,verywarmlywrappedinhisthickdressinggownandhisthickllamawool pyjamas,wassittingathisnightdesk,andworkingeverandagainatanessay,anessayofpreposterousambitions,forthetitleofitwasTheBetter GovernmentoftheWorld.H.G.Wells,MrBritlingSeesItThrough Sinceeverythinggrowsworseinbourgeoisterms,thedreamdoesnotcometoanendevenhere.Butitisonlyreasonablyfreshwhenitannounces

Page612 itselfinagroupandsubsequentlyforit.Ifatomorrowispicturedasawholehowever,thenthismostlybecomesdeceitinlatebourgeoisterms,andatbestitbecomesa game,orromantic.Weshallpossiblyhavetospeakabouttheselasttwovarietieslater,atleasttheykeptutopianinclinationafloat.Thepropheticlightnovelprovided thiskindofthingamongnonproletarianstrata,intheinquisitivepetitbourgeoisie.Hertzka'sAJourneytoFreeland,1889,belongshere,withagirlfromFreelandinit, mildlyadvocatingagrarianreform.Evenaprivatecapitalistfairytaleofanidealstateventuredforward,rareeveninancienttimes,andboldsotospeaktoday:Thirion's Neustria,1901,devotedtoanewGironde.ThecapitalistfuturewasseeninabetterlightinTarde'sUndergroundMan,1905:imagesofattemptedrestorationarise wherethepastisconcerned,butsolelythoseofundergroundescapewherethefutureisconcerned.Air,lightandsunshine,however,aretocurethedefectsathomein EbenezerHoward'sTomorrow,1898,andalsoinhisGardenCitiesofTomorrow,1902.Thefirstgardencityispicturedinthelatter,organizedaccordingto nothingbutsocialfunctionswhatkeepsthechimneysburning*isratherlessclear.Weakininsight,richinideas,suchanorganizationistobeestablishedandto succeed. Andasusualitisnotatallclearbywhatmeanslifeisradicallychangedintosomethingbetter.TheAmericanBellamystillappearsthemostsympatheticofallherewith hisoncefamousbookLookingBackward,1888,publishedinGermanbyDietzasEinRfickblickausdemJahr2000.Thestoryinwhichitiscloakediswelltested colportage:arichBostonian,MrJuliusWest,isburiedshortlybeforehiswedding,afterhehadsunkintoamagneticsleepheisdugupintheyear2000,themagnetic sleephasconservedhisbody,andMrWestbecomesacitizenoftheAmericanidealstatewhichhasariseninthemeantime.Thereadercannowinspectthisconstruct ofthefutureasifthroughoperaglassesmorethaninanypreviousutopiathatwhichisdreamedappearsasafabulouspresent.ThusBellamysatisfiesthedemand rejectedbyMarxiststogiveapictureoffuturesocietyhissensationalnovel,forallitsshallownessandthesuperficialityofitscivilization,isnotwithoutagilesocialist imagination.Ithallucinates,knowingMarxatbestbyhearsay,anegalitarianorganizationofeconomiclife,withoutslums,banks,stockmarkets,andcourtsAmerica(!) isregardedhereasapioneerofgeneralradicalchange.Thereisnomoney *ThegeneralmeaningoftheGermanphrasealludedtohere,damitderSchornsteinraucht,istokeepbodyandsoultogether.

Page613 anymore,onlygoodsandcreditnotesfortheworkaccomplished.Nothigherwagesbutsocialcompetitivenessintheserviceofthenationanddegreesofdistinction providetheimpetusinthegeneralarmyofworkers.Likeworkinghours,thehordeofcivilservantsisamazinglyreduced,asimplified,clearlyarranged,generous administrationprevailsonallsides,akindofcardindexofthedistributionofgoodsisstarted,statisticsofsupplies.Evenatthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury, Bellamyrelates,capitalhadpassedoutofthehandsofafew,inwhichitwasconcentrated,tothestate,andwhatismorewithoutanyviolence.Statesocialismhas arisensincethen,thatis,thestatehastransformeditselfintoalargebusinessassociation,towhoseprofitandsavingsallcitizenshaveanequalright.ThusBellamy propagatesakindofcentralistsocialism,thoughratherwithintheframeworkofBabbittwishes.Bellamy'sutopialiesflawlesslyinthelineofextensionofthemodern world,itisfundamentallysatisfiedwiththedispositionofcapitalistcivilization.Thenationalizationofprivatepropertyonlyremovesthesocialdefectsandhindrances fromthecurrentstateofaffairs,butitdoesnotchangethegeneralstyle.TheearthbecomesagiganticBostonorbetterstillChicagowithabitofagricultureinbetween thelatterregionwasformerlycalledNature.ManygoodEuropeans,incidentally,viewedAmericaasmechanizedlikethisanyway,butinabadsense,eventhe AmericathatalreadyexistedsothatBellamy'sutopiaproducedafloodofothercontrastingutopiasandtheoldEuropesotospeakroseupagainsttheAmerican's socialismofthebusinessassociation,witharomanticcountermove. Notonlyisthestockmarketthensupposedtodisappear,buttheverysteelandironinwhichitdeals.ThemostsignificantrejoindertoBellamy'ssteamassociationwas calledNewsfromNowhere,1891,andwaswrittenbyWilliamMorris,thegreatinnovatorinEnglishindustrialart,thefriendofRuskinandtheromanticanti capitalist.Morris,architectanddraughtsman,makerofglassandceramics,produceroffurniture,fabrics,carpets,andwallpaper,wasinagreementwithRuskin:only workdonebyhandputsthingsright,machinesarehell.Sothedrivingforcehereisnotsympathywiththepoor,orrageagainsttherich,butapreviouslyunfamiliarnote isstruckinasocialutopianfashion:Morrisisasocialistcraftsman,ahomespunsocialist.NewsfromNowhereisthusnotmerelyacontrastingutopiatoBellamy,itis acampaignagainstthewholemechanizationofexistence.Theworldofprofitleavesalottobedesirednotonlyinmoral,butalsoinaestheticterms,andthiswasthe sourceoftheangerwithcapitalhere.OrasthearchitectvanderVeldeexpresses

Page614 sakeofarevolutionarynewbeginning.TheoldRomanticismhadstilllackedthisagrarianartisanlongingtherewasnocauseforitasyetamongsttheprofusionofwell preservedcountrytownsandthepeacefulbeautyoflife.SeldomhasautopianhomespuncityappearedmoretastefulthaninWilliamMorris,butseldomtoohasitbeen directedatsuchasmallcircle,withitssimultaneouslynaiveandsentimentalintellectualmixtureofGothicrevivalandrevolution.Thecirclehasadmittedlyincreased sincetheGothicrevivalwasobliteratedandtheaversiontothehaste,enervationandartificialityofmechanicallifegrewalongwiththis.Especiallysincethelostgoods ofamorepeacefuldistantpasthavebeensoughtbyallkindsofmottledreactionarythinkinginrectifiedcapitalism,insteadofincapitalismwhichhasbeensurmounted anddriventoabruptchange.ThebourgeoisutopiasnowendwithhisneoGothicArcadiaMorrissuppliedthelastoriginal,thoughredundantmotif. UnlesswealsoincludeCarlyleandtheobsessionwithheroeswhichheconjuredup.Thiswaslikewiseopposedtotheindustrialworld,butonlyostensibly,sincethis exhorterdidnotsomuchlookatgreymiseryfrombehindaslookdownonitfromabove.Hispuritanicalsermonsonworkingandnotdespairingwereprecisely associatedwiththeimperialistkind,whichbynomeanswanttoshutdownthefactoriesbutrathertheclassstruggle.Thisplanisalsorelevanthereitwasafterall Carlyle,inconjunctionwithNietzsche,whocontributedalotdirectlyafterMarxtoautopian,andthenterriblecultoftheleader.Ofcourse,Carlyleisstillpure,isvery muchamoralperson,astheysay,anindividualistandlaterdefinitelyapatriarchalist.Hedefinitelysoughtthehappinessfromwhichalllifestreamsonlyinindividuals, butinthosewhomakeafinecombination.HesufferedlikeRuskinfromthenewfactorycivilization,andhecoinedtheundoubtedlyanticapitalistphrasethatcash paymentwasthesoleconnectinglinkinmodernsociety.HehatedManchesteristliberalism,describedthemiseryoftheEnglishworkingclassesandnotjusttheugliness ofthefactorybuildings,andutopianizedaworldwhichisnolongersurroundedbycoldgenerallaissezfaire.HeunderstoodtheFrenchRevolutionasthe breakthroughoftheindustrialageandofitsanarchy,butunlikeRuskinandMorrishedidnotevaluateitsolelyinnegativetermsbutalsopositively,withoutanylonging forthestaleMiddleAges:FrenchRevolutionmeansheretheopenviolentRebellion,andVictory,ofdisimprisonedAnarchyagainstcorruptwornoutAuthority. Aboveall,thepowerofindustrycannotberemovedbyanythinganymoreCarlyle,withhispuritanworkethic,isnotsparinginhiscontemptforthelazyandphantom aristocracy

Page616 sincetheendoftheMiddleAges.Nevertheless,thesamefriendofthevictimsofindustry,thesameenemyofbothliberalismandfeudalism,producedoutofblazing ignoranceoneofthemostreactionarylateutopiasinsofarasthissortofthingcanstillbecalledutopia,letaloneeutopia,thelandofhappiness.Carlylewasthefirst toposittheleaderworkforcerelationship,andhencetheindustrialneofeudalismwhichwasslylyrampantevenbeforethedaysoffascismandmergedwithitina systematicandviolentmanner.HewasthefirsttopositthecaptainofindustrydespiteSaintSimon,whohadunderestimatedtheproletariatandhadlikewise advocatedthatthebigemployersshouldbecometheleadersofthenation.ButinthedaysofSaintSimonitwasstillpossibletobelieveintheweaknessoftheworking classes,whereasCarlylelivedinthemiddleoftheperiodofsocialstruggleandheightenedproletarianclassconsciousness.AndthenSaintSimonconsideredthe exploitationbyemployerstobearemnantoftheactualandonlyageofoppression,thefeudalone,whichwouldvanishfromindustrywithprogressivepolitical liberation,whereasCarlylethoughtthatliberalismitselfwastherootofallevilandthereforeappliedfeudalismtoit.Thewaywasthuspreparedforthefascisttheory ofelitism(thedemigodwhoearnsalot):Carlyleseeshisideasofleadershipandproletarianvassalageinthoroughlyindividualtermstherethusarosetheparadoxofan individualisticneofeudalism.Hislaterworksinparticular(PastandPresent,1843,TheHistoryofFrederickIIofPrussia,1858)givewayinautopianmannerto enlightenedindustrialdespotism.InPastandPresentheconjuresupthenobleemployer,whoissummonedawayfromMidasearedMammonismtowardsthe exemplaryheroismkindledbyprophets,poets,andstatesmen.*Welfareinstitutionsareprophesied,cheerfulcommunaleveningsofthepatriarchalentrepreneurwithhis workerchildrenweallknowtheoutcome.EvenCarlylehimselfdidnotcherishverygreatexpectationswithregardtosuchanethicizingrelationshipbetweenemployer andemployeehewritesinhisFrenchRevolution,andhewritesthisnotjustasapuritan:InsuchprophesiedLubberland,ofHappiness,Benevolence,andVice curedofitsdeformity,trustnot,myfriends.Thebeginningofwinterthusdescendsonthe *ThepassagefromCarlyleBlochseemstohaveinmindhereis:inwhirlwindsoffire,youandyourMammonisms,Dilettantisms,yourMidasearedphilosophies, doublebarrelledAristocraciesshalldisappear! BlochusesthewordSchlaraffenlandtotranslateCarlyle'sLubberland.ElsewhereinBlochwehavetranslatedSchlaraffenlandasTheLandofCockaigne.

Page617 bourgeoisutopia,forthefirsttimeinitsexistence,andinfactaLubberlanddidnotarrivewiththisutopia.Theappealtothephilanthropyoftheexploiters,commonto allpreMarxistplansforworldimprovement,alsowreckedthisworldimprovementnotonlydidnothingcomeofthisLubberland,itbecameahell.Somuchfor Carlyle,asasideutopiatoRuskin'sneoGothicismandtotheOldNewformationsofMorris.Allotherlatecomers,afterMorris,treadafamiliarbeatentrackintheir utopias,andareatleastinsofarastheystillremainliberalismadilutedmodernizationofThomasMore.InthetwentiethcenturyH.G.Wellsleadsthewayinthe fabricationofthesepeepshowimagesofabetterfuture.Halfadozendreamtrains,timemachines,andMrBritlingswhowriteuntildaybreakweredispatchedintothe futurebyWellsandbroughtbacksnapshots.Anditischaracteristicherethathardlyoneofthesesnapshotsshowsrelatedlandscapes,apartfromtheliberallilacand eventhatisperforatedwithsarcasmintheTimeMachine,whichisinterestingfromatechnologicalutopianpointofview.Amongotherthings,Wellswrotetheidyllof thefuturewithGreekembellishmentsMenlikeGods,1923,afrolickinglifelikethatofnakedpianoteachersinArcadia.Bourgeoisutopiasthusendinskylarking, imaginationhasdisappearedtoo,andthesocallednoblefuture,whichdodgesMarxismbecauseofitsownvaguenessandespeciallyitsbourgeoissubstitutesfor socialism,becomesoddorepigonic.ThuswhatremainedintheendwasdilettantismandchaffthegrainofthesocialutopiashasbeenremovedalongwithMarxism. Evensocialismthenbecomes,inthemockingwordsofEngels,nothingotherthantheexistingsocialorderminusitsdefectsinthiswayofcoursebourgeoisliberal utopianizingstillfindsadherents. Otherwiseitwouldbetotallyinconceivabletowanttoimprovetheeconomyinsuchaparticularlysillyway,i.e.piecemeal.Andallthissortofthing,evenwhenitis dressedupinaparticularlynaiveAngloAmericanfashion,followstheleadofoneofthemostdubiousutopians,Proudhon.Inthisway,strangedwarfishcreationslike thefreemoneyandshrinkingmoney*utopiaappeared,buildingsocialismonmerecurrency.CapitalisabolishedinSilvioGesell'sdreamoffreegoldbyakindof legalinflationthusitdoesnotbreedinterestanymore.Similarmeasuresaretakenagainstgroundrent,relationsoffreemoneyfreelandtotheolderutopiaof *ReferencestoSilvioGesell'seconomictheory.

Page618 agrarianreformemerge.HenryGeorgewastheadvocateofthis,andinhisinfluentialbookProgressandPoverty,1879,hetaughtthattheincreaseinmasspoverty andtheindustrialcriseswereprimarilycausedsolelybytheprivateownershipoflandedproperty.Groundrentgiveslandownersthepowertomakelifeintolerably moreexpensiveinordertoestablishaparadiseforthepoor,Georgedemandstheconfiscationofthisrent,andindeednationalizationoftheland,inthecaseof uncontestedprofitfromindustrialandcommercialcapital.Andsinceonlylandcapitalwasfoughtinthisway,andnotproductivecapital,manufacturerswereableto joinforceswiththeworkingclassesonthebasisofHenryGeorge,particularlyinEngland.TheEnglishproletariat,themajorityofwhichhadsolittleclassconsciousness andMarxisttraininganyway,wasthusfurtherdivertedfromitsdirectexploiters.In1887theEnglishTradesUnionCongressadoptedaresolutioninfavourofthe nationalizationofthelanditseffectwasnothingmorethanaheaviertaxationofgroundrent.ThefollowinginstructivesentencefromJohnStuartMillstandsatthehead ofachapterofGeorge'sbook(itmocksitselfwithoutknowingit):Whentheobjectistoraisethepermanentconditionofapeople,smallmeansdonotmerely producesmalleffectstheyproducenoeffectatall.Thisisinfactamottoagainstthewholeofreformismanditsutopia.ButAngloSaxonsocialismasawhole,in theEnglishandespeciallyAmericaneconomy,forsolongthemostprogressive,managedonlypartiallyifatallevenjusttounderstand,letalonetoimplement,the conclusionswhichMarxdrewfromthisveryeconomy.Thetastefordelay,compromise,andappeasementinEnglishbusinesslifeanditspolitics,thecunning evolutionismwithwhichtherulingclassforestalledeveryrevolutionarywill,insofarasitexistedatall,anddefusedit,thishesitationandFabianism,togetherwiththe LabourPartyofthetime,butabovealltheillusoryexistenceofaworkers'aristocracy,owingtocolonialexploitation:allthispreserved,inoneandthesameact, capitalismandapreMarxistutopianizing,asifscientificsocialismdidnotexistatall.ThesearetheconsequenceswhensocialutopialagsbehindMarx,itthenevenlags behindOwen,andbehindThomasMore,itfallstotallyoutsidethesocialisttradition.Allthemoresowhentheeternalwaverers,posingasmenofprivatemeans,or whenartificialstickinthemuds,posingasrenegades,whenthesedisappointedorkeptloversofasocalledthirdforce,againstfascismandBolshevism,against everydictatorship,whetheritcomesfromtherightortheleft,foolthemselveswithabelatedLincolnutopia,orallowedthemselvestobefooledinAtlantictermsfora terriblylongtime,inordertostokeup

Page619 murderoushatredoftheSovietUnionwiththenotionoffreedomaswell,andatleasttoindulgeinboththeeasingoftheirconscienceandasocialismofthe heart(whichevenBellamyhadscornfullyderided).ReformismoftheHenryGeorgetypeis,incomparisonwithallthis,stilltotallyinnocent,unlessthepetitbourgeois patchworkasawholecontainstheelementsofdeceptionwhichnotonlypromotetheantiSovietphilistineorsnobbishrenegadebutwhichledtoSAfascism,which wasandispicturedandintroducedinthenameofsocialism,andtoUSAfascism,whichwasandispicturedandintroducedinthenameoffreedom.Butreformismin thenarrowsensealwaysremainstheartofnotadmittingcontradictionsbetweencapitalandwork,betweenthecompulsiontoexportandpeace,andthesiteofits seductionispreciselythemiddleclassinwhich,accordingtoMarx,thecontradictionsandtheinterestsoftwoclassesstillbothtaketheedgeoffoneanother.Thusa utopiansynthesisemergesoftheeraofthemaninthestreetandlargeprofits,ofoverproductionandguaranteedemployment,oftheatombombandaunitedworld. TheArchimedeanpointfromwhichfearandprivation,tyrannyandthecatacomblifeoftruthcouldberemovedhaslongsincebeendiscoveredinthemeantime,there wouldbenoneedforanyextravagancesatall.ButifthepositionofthispointwasavoidedbythefrivolousutopiansafterMarx,asiftheycouldnotseeit,itisavoided bythesurrogateutopiansbecausetheycanseeit.Withthedanger,whichhasherelikewisealreadyoccurred,thattheedificeofhope,occupiedbythoughtsof improvement,willtotallycollapse.Whatremainsleftoveristhennihilism,sothatitshallswallowupthesalvationofthosewhoarelostanddeceivedaswell.Social utopiawithoutfrivolityanderrorcanonlyoperateinsofarasitisconcrete,astheprogressfromittowardsscience,withtheundeceivablemandateoftherevolutionary proletariatbehindit.ThisistheresultofthehistoryofutopiasbeforeMarx,andespeciallyoftheirhistoryofdecayandultimatelyofopiumafterhim.Progressonly countersPovertywhenreformingProgressnolongerproducesPoverty,butactivePovertyproducesProgress. Marxismandconcreteanticipation Tothinkourwayintowhatisright,thiswillhastoremainmorethanever.Sinceitwassopowerfullyaliveintheearlier,reallyflourishingforward

Page620 dreams,thesedeservetoberememberedwithspecialemphasis.Rememberedallthemorefondlyastheprogressofsocialismfromutopiatowardssciencehaslong beenadecidedone.Sentimentalandabstractworldimprovementisplayedoutdisciplinedworkinandwithactualtendencieshastakenitsplace.Existingmiseryis notlamentedandleftatthat,butitappears,whenitbecomesawareofitselfandofitscauses,astherevolutionarypowertocancelitselfoutcausally.Marxlikewise neverallowedhissubjectiveindignationtoposeasanobjectivefactorandthustodeceiveitselfabouttheactuallyexistingrevolutionaryfactors.Henevertaught,like OwenandProudhon,andalsolikeRodbertusandespeciallyLassalle,thatbecauseworkersreceiveunfairwagesincapitalistsocietyanewsocietymustthereforebe created,withfairwagesforinstance.ButtheMustdiscoveredbyMarxisquitedifferentfromthatoftheintroducedmoraldemand.Itlieswithintheeconomically immanentmanifestationsofcapitalistsocietyitselfandcausesthelattertocollapseonlyinimmanentdialecticalterms.Thesubjectivefactorofitsdestructionliesinthe proletariat,whichissimultaneouslyproducedbycapitalistsocietyasitscontradictionandbecomesawareofitselfasacontradiction.Theobjectivefactorofits destructionliesintheaccumulationandconcentrationofcapital,inmonopolization,inthecrisisofaffluencewhichstemsfromthecontradictionbetweentheattained collectivemodeofproductionandtheretainedprivateformofacquisition.Sucharethenewrudimentsofanimmanenteconomiccritiquetheyarealmostentirely lackingintheolderutopias,theyarecharacteristicofMarx.Marx'scritiquedisplaysnorecessesoftheheart,asHegelwouldsay,butitdisplaysallthemoresharply therecesses,fissures,cracks,andcontrastsincorporatedintheobjectivelyexistingeconomy.Forthisveryreason,asfarasthesocalledStateofthefutureis concerned,thereisalsonodetailedspecificationprivatelyintroducedfromoutside,anterem,ofanabstractanticipatorykind,asintheoldutopias.Theabstract utopiashaddevotedninetenthsoftheirspacetoaportrayaloftheStateofthefutureandonlyonetenthtothecritical,oftenmerelynegativeconsiderationofthe present.Thiskeptthegoalcolourfulandvividofcourse,butthepathtowardsit,insofarasitcouldlieingivencircumstances,remainedhidden.Marxdevotedmore thanninetenthsofhiswritingstothecriticalanalysisofthepresent,andhegrantedrelativelylittlespacetodescriptionsofthefuture.Hence,ashasjustlybeen remarked,MarxcalledhisworkCapitalandnotAppealforSocialismforinstance.Itcontainsanoverallviewofeconomiclife,forthefirsttimesinceQuesnay's EconomicTableau,andonamuchhigherlevel.It

Page621 doesnotpictureaparadiseonearth,itrevealsthesecretofprofiteeringandthealmostmorecomplicatedsecretofprofitdistribution.MarxappliesRicardo'slawof valuetolabourasaproduct,hediscoversthedialecticsoftheproductbymeansofexchangevalueandwithinit,hediscoversprofitasextortedsurplusvalueandthe strangeaveragerateofprofitasthebasisoftheclasssolidarityofcapitalists.Inthiswayhefirstlaysthematerialfoundationsofthedialecticsofhistorywhichleadsto tensions,utopias,andrevolutions.Hesubstantiatesandamendstheanticipationsofutopiabymeansofeconomics,bymeansoftheimmanentradicalchangesinthe modeofproductionandexchange,andhetherebycancelsoutthereifieddualismbetweenwhatisandwhatoughttobe,betweenempiricalexperienceandutopia.He thusfightsagainstbothclingingempiricismandskimmingutopianism.Whatcountsinsteadisactivelyconsciousparticipationinthehistoricallyimmanentprocessofthe revolutionaryreorganizationofsociety.Allthisasrealismfulloffuture,inthemostthoroughinvestigations,withbreathtakingsharpnessandbreadth,forthepurpose ofrealrevolution,asbothitsgeneralstaffofficeandarsenal.Andjustas,fromthestandpointofattainedrealism,therewasnolongeranyjustificationforthenovelistic goalimagesoftheoldutopias,sotherewasstillnocauseatthattimetospecifytheconstructionofsocialismalreadyinaconcreteprocessiveway.Thehumane conditionsbehindthenationalizationofthemeansofproductionarestillbarelyindicated,forallthecomprehensivenessofthemodeofinvestigation.Engelsspeaksin generaltermsoftherealmoffreedom,Marxpositslittlemorethanthesparseconceptoftheclasslesssociety,eventhoughitispowerfullydifferentiatedfromwhathas gonebefore.Actualdescriptionsofthefuturearedeliberatelymissing,asnotedabove,andtheyaredeliberatelymissingpreciselybecauseMarx'swholeworkserves thefuture,andcanonlybecomprehendedandimplementedatallinthehorizonofthefuture,yetonewhichisnotpicturedinautopianabstractway.Butafuturewhich isilluminatedinhistoricalmaterialisttermsinandbythepastandpresent,andhencebythetendencieswhichoperateandcontinuetooperate,inordertobeatlasta knowingfuturecapableofbeingshaped.NothingwasmorenecessarythanthisemphaticcontrasttotheimaginedphalanstresorNewHarmoniesthantherejectionof allfantasiesofthesocalledStateofthefuturethantheomissionofthefieldtocome,togetherwiththerestrainedstylewhichisinkeepingwithit.Butinfactthis omissionoccurredsolelyforthesakeofthefuture,acomprehendedfutureintowhichitwasfinallypossibletotravelwithamapandcompasstheomissioncertainly didnotoccur

Page622 forthesakeoftherevisionistswhoconfusedconcretenesswithempiricismbecausetheydidnotwanttotravelatall.Intheircasethough,thefaintnessofthe descriptionsoftheirgoalwasturnedintooneofthegoalitself,andthedesiredomissioninMarxessentiallyakeepingopenlostitscriticalshadesofvalueaswell inanagewhichwasnotthreatenedbydreamsanywaybutabandoneditselftoaflatempiricism.Themovementbecameeverythingforthereformists,asnotedabove, andthegoalbecamenothingandthepathitselftherebycametoanend.Infact,themeetingofextremesevenresultedinostensiblyradicalsectarianismlikewisesinking intoempiricism,andthusrobbingMarxismofitsveryrichnessandthelifeofprofunditywhichthissectarianismdoesnotunderstand.ButMarx,whenhesetdialectics onitsfeetandcombattedthecloudformationsintheskyofhisstillthoroughlyidealisticage,definitelyhadnotpreachedempiricismandthemechanisticphilosophy analogoustoit(ahalvedworld).Occasionallysuchanundernourishmentofrevolutionaryimaginationoccurredandacomfortable,i.e.schematicallypragmatic reductionoftotalitydespiteLenin'scalltobearthistotalityinmindbothinthesubjectiveandintheobjectivefactor.Thusafartoogreatprogressofsocialismfrom utopiatowardsscienceoccasionallyappeared,suchthatthepillaroffireinutopias,thethingwhichwaspowerfullyleadingtheway,couldalsobeliquidatedalongwith thecloud.InsteaditmustberepeatedthatMarxismisnotnoanticipation(utopianfunction),buttheNovumofaprocessiveconcreteanticipation.Likewise,thisis preciselywhyitispartofMarxismthatenthusiasmandsobriety,awarenessofthegoalandanalysisofthegivenfactsgohandinhand.WhentheyoungMarxcalledon peopletothinkatlast,toactlikeadisillusionedmanwhohascometohissenses,itwasnottodampentheenthusiasmofthegoal,buttosharpenit.Withallthiswhat Marxhadestablishedasthecategoricalimperativefirstbecameandbecomesaccomplishable:namelytooverturnallcircumstancesinwhichmanisadegraded,a subjugated,aforsaken,acontemptiblecreaturewhatisbestinutopiaisgivenafirmpracticalfooting.ThusfromMarxonwardstheinsertingoftheboldestintending intotheoccurringworldelucidatesitself,theunityofhopeandknowledgeofprocess,inshort,realism.Everythinginflamedintheforwarddreamistherebyremovedas iseverythingmouldyinsobriety.Theconcretedreammakesitselfsoundandvalidallthemoreunmistakably,anditsperformedcontentdeveloped,itsunperformed contentworks,allthemorepowerfullyinreality. Tothinkourwayintowhatisright,thiswillhastooperatemorethan

Page623 ever.Thesounddreamactivelyfollowswhatishistoricallydueandunderwayinamoreorlesshinderedfashion.Concreteutopiaisthereforeconcernedtounderstand thedreamofitsobjectexactly,adreamwhichliesinthehistoricaltrenditself.Asautopiamediatedwithprocess,itisconcernedtodelivertheformsandcontents whichhavealreadydevelopedinthewombofpresentsociety.Utopiainthisnolongerabstractsenseisthusthesameasrealisticanticipationofwhatisgoodwhich musthavebecomeclear.ThereisprocessiveconcreteutopiainbothbasicelementsoftherealitydiscernedbyMarxism:initstendency,thetensionofwhatisdue thoughhindered,andinitslatency,thecorrelateofthenotyetrealizedobjectiverealpossibilitiesintheworld.Whereversomuchisconstructedintothemediatedblue, autopiangroundisrequiredifitdidnotexist,nothingofvaluecouldbecreated.Everydreamofabetter,ofahigher,ofafulfilledlifewouldbeconfinedtoaseparate, inner,slender,andquitemysteriouslyisolatedenclave.Butagreatsuggestingandanintendingofthestillunarrivedrunsthroughthewholeworld:concreteutopiaisthe mostimportanttheorypracticeofthistendency.Accordingly,utopianintentionisconfinedneithertothemereinnerdreamenclavenortotheproblemsofthebest socialconstitutioneither.Onthecontrary,itsfieldisbroadinsocialterms,ithasalltheobjectworldsofhumanworkinitsfavour,itextendsasmustberemembered andasistobedemonstratedinwhatfollowsnolessintotechnologyandarchitecture,intopainting,literatureandmusic,intoethicsandreligion.Thereare technologicalwishfulimagesaswellassocialones,theyarenotinferiortotheseinboldness,andhavealwaysbeenintertwinedwiththem,insofarastheypushback thebarriersofnatureandfashionaworldforus.Andeveryworkofart,everycentralphilosophyhadandhasautopianwindowinwhichthereliesalandscapewhich isstilldeveloping.Evennaturalforms,apartfromwhattheyareasformsthathavebecome,constituteacipherinwhichaNotYetBecome,anobjectbasedutopian elementcirculates,whichisfirstonlypresentasalatentformnaturalbeauty,andalsonaturalmythologygaveandgiveaccesstotheserealutopianciphers.Justasa NotYetConscious,whichhasneverbeenconsciousbefore,dawnsinthehumansoul,soaNotYetBecomedawnsintheworld:attheheadoftheworldprocess andworldwholeisthisFrontandthevast,stillsolittleunderstoodcategoryoftheNovum.Itscontentsarenotmerelythosethathavenotappeared,butthosethatare notdecided,theydawninmererealpossibility,andcontainthedangerofpossibledisaster,butalsothehopeofpossible,stillnotthwartedhappiness,capableof

Page624 beingdecidedbyhumanbeings.Sofardoesutopiaextend,sovigorouslydoesthisrawmaterialspreadtoallhumanactivities,soessentiallymusteveryanthropology andscienceoftheworldcontainit.Thereisnorealismworthyofthenameifitabstractsfromthisstrongestelementinreality,asanunfinishedreality.Andcertainlyonly thesociallysuccessfulutopia,alliedwiththetechnologicallysuccessfulone,canpreciselyenableustodefinethatpreappearanceinart,letalonereligion,whichisnot illusion,letalonesuperstition.ButMarxismisthefirstdoortothepositionwhichremovestherootcauseofexploitationanddependence,andconsequentlytoan incipientBeinglikeutopia.Itpositsliberationfromblindfate,fromunfathomednecessity,alliedwithaconcreteactofpushingbackthebarriersofnature.Sincehuman beingshereconsciouslymakehistoryforthefirsttime,theappearancevanishesofthatfatewhichhasbeenproducedbyhumanbeingsthemselves,inclasssociety,and ignorantlymadeintoafetish.Fateisunfathomed,uncontrollednecessity,freedomiscontrollednecessity,fromwhichalienationhasvanishedandrealorderemerges, preciselyastherealmoffreedom.Utopiathathasbecomeconcreteprovidesthekeytothis,tounalienatedorderinthebestofallpossiblesocieties.Homohomini homo:thisisthereforewhattheoutlinesofabetterworldsuggest,asfarassocietyisconcerned.Andonlywhentheinterhumanrelationhasdulybeenputinorder,the relationtoman,themostpowerfulthingalive,canatrulyconcretemediationalsobeginwiththemostpowerfulthingthatisnotalive:withtheforcesofinorganicnature.

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37WILLANDNATURE,THETECHNOLOGICALUTOPIAS
Beneficentisthefiremight Ifmancontrolsandguardsitright. Schiller Betterlikethisthough: Sublimespirit,yougaveme,gavemeall ForwhichIasked.Youdidnotturninvain Yourcountenancetomewithinthefire. Yougavemegloriousnatureformykingdom, Thestrengthtofeelandtoenjoyit.Not Justcoldastonishedvisitsdoyouallow, Youletmelookintoherbreastsodeep Asifintothebosomofafriend. Goethe Inthelanguageoftheoldlegendsthetaskofmanwithregardtonatureinvolvednothinglessthanpropagatingandspreadingaparadiseoverhisearthin otherwords,man'svocationasaheavenlybodyoftheearthwasnolessthantohelpthisearthtobringforthheavenlyfruitsandformsandthustoperform asimilarserviceforit,onlyinahighersense,astheexternalheavenlybody,thesun,performsforit:whichlikewisenotonlyliberatesandreleasesthe sealedearthlypowersfromtheirchainslikethevanishedandfetteredspiritsinfablesbutalsogivesthemthenecessaryrestorationforgrowth,for blossomingandbearingfruit.Justasintherisingoftheexternalsolarimagetheentireexternalorganismunfolds,sointherisingofthedivineimageinman thisexternalnaturewastobeequippedandfortifiedfortheunfoldingandconsequenteffectsofaninternal,higherorganism. FranzvonBaader,OntheFoundationofEthicsthroughPhysics Itischaracteristicoftheideologyofadecayingclassthatitisincapableofimaginingtheharmonybetweenhumanbeingsandtheuniverse.The contradictionsinthesystemopposetheconsciousmasteryoftheforcesofnature.Theworldseemstobehostiletoasocietywhichisparalysedby internaldisorder. RogerGaraudy Thehumanessenceofnatureonlyexistsforsocialmanforonlyheredoessheexistforhimasabondwithman,asexistencefortheothersandofthe othersforhimonlyheredoessheexistasthebasisofahumanexistence.Onlyherehashisnaturalexistence,hishumanexistenceandnatureforhim become

Page626 manforhim.Thussocietyistheperfectessentialunityofmenwithnature,thetrueresurrectionofnature,theimplementednaturalismofmanandthe implementedhumanismofnature. Marx,EconomicandPhilosophicManuscripts I.MagicPast Plungedintomisery Ourbareskinabsolutelyforcesustoinvent.Manassuchisstrangelyhelpless,evenagainsttheweather.Heonlyprogressesinregularlywarmregions,andcouldnot surviveasinglewinter.Thesouthpermitsustowalkaboutnakedofcourse,butnottowalkaboutunarmed.Theteethoftheapesrecededinprimitiveman,eventhe manliestfistishardlyanyuseagainstasinglewolf.Forprotectionandattackitmustgrowfurther,intosomethingwhichdidnotgrowwithit,intotheclub,intothestone axe.Aslongasthesehadnotyetbeeninvented,itisstrangethatmenremainedaliveatall.Sincethenatanyratetheypreservethemselvesonlybyworkingathing,by planningsomethingbetter. Fireandnewarmament Ournakednessisnowcovered,notofourownaccord,butonlyfromoutside.Thealienskinisputroundourshoulders,andthecavefromwhichthebearandlion sometimesfirsthadtobedrivenawaywasreplacedbythehouse,madeofwoodorlargestones.Birdsalsobuildanest,butitisonlyusedforrearingtheirbrood,not forextendingthefortificationofthebodylikehumanimplementsandhouses.Theant,thebee,thebadger,andespeciallythebeaverallbuildstructuresandpartlyeven actuallylikeanextensionoftheirbody,likeanartificialshellasafortress,buteverythingessentialtotechnologicalinventionislacking:implementsandtheirconscious use.Manistheonlyanimalwhomakesimplements,whointensifiedthenailintoafile,thefistintoahammer,theteethintoaknife.Onlyselfmademanutilizedfire, whichcooksthefood,smeltstheore,andscaresoffeverypredator.Andevenmorequicklythantheplundered

Page627 rawmaterialsgrewtheartofmakingsomethingoutofthemthatneverexistedbefore.Sincethen,inventionmeansprocuringadditionalstrengthorcomfortfromorganic ordeadresourcesoutsidethebodybyprocessingthem.Whereby,afterthehostofcommoditieshasarisen,itbecomesessentialforinventiontoaddsomethingnewto theseaswell,whichhasnotbeenfoundamongthemuptillnow.TheGermanpatentjournalof1880givesanadequatesupplementarydefinitionalongtheselines: Inventionistheproductionofanewkindoranewkindofproductionofartifacts.Thefirstcanbethezipfastenerforinstance,thesecondadifferentmethodfrom previousonesoffasteningtheheelofashoetothesole.Thewholeoflifeisthussurroundedbyabeltofartificialcreationswhichhaveneverexistedbefore.Thehuman houseisvastlyextendedbythem,itbecomesmoreandmorecomfortableandadventurous. LunacyandAladdin'sfairytale Almosteverythingwasdreamedinhisfieldwhichhassincecometoexist.Andmoreaswell,ifonlybecausethefieryowlofdelusionisparticularlyinventive.It promptedoneofthelunaticstoinventabedwhichisbothakitchenandalaketobathein.Aschizophrenictailorkeptinathimblewatermixedwithchildlike innocence,whichwasheduptheplatesandcleanedthesuitsinaflash.Stainremoversarepopular,whichinadditiontocleaningchangecottonintosilk.Ahunterwho sufferedfromparanoiaeveninventedalampbymeansofwhichhehatchedeaglesfromhen'seggs.Butallthesefoolishtricksaretakenfromanareawhich,aswas seeninthecaseofmedicalwishfuldreamsandthoseofanidealstate,haslongbeenoccupiedbythefairytale,andoccupiedinparticulardetailonthetechnological level.Theneedlewhichsewsbyitself,andthesaucepanwhichputsonandcooksthemealonitsown,isincomparablefairytaleinvention.Asisthemillwhicheven growsoutofthecornitself,andthreshesandgrindsit,asisthefruitloafwhichalwaysgrowsagainprovidedjustalittlecrustofitisleftover,andwhichreplacesall otherfoods.ThusGrimmalsoexplainsthesocialaspectofthefairytaleoftheLandofCockaigneintechnologicalterms:Thehumanimaginationheresatisfiesthe desiretowieldthebigknifewhichcutsthroughallbarrierswithtotalfreedomforonce.FromthefamilyoftheknifefromCockaignecomethewishinghat,themagic hoodandsomuchelsefromthewitch'sstore,themagictable,thesevenleagueboots,thecudgelfromthesackandthe

Page628 alchemicalassBricklebritwhopoursforthgoldwhenallendswell.SaidinHauff'sfairytaleblowsthesilverwhistlewhichthefairygavehimasapresent,andthewaves immediatelysubsidethepieceofwoodtowhichtheshipwreckedsailorclingsbecomesadolphinthatcarrieshimtotheshore.Themagictablealsoturnsuphere again,thistimefromthewaves,butasdryasifithadstoodinthesunforaweek,andladenwiththemostdeliciousfoods.Said'swhistlehasdistinguishedrelations, theyareallgiftednotjustmusicallybutwithmagictechnology:Roland'shorninthevalleyofRoncesvallesalreadyhalfbelongshere,butaboveallthemagicfluteand Oberon'shorn.Thefullgloryoftechnologicalwishfulimageserupts,inkeepingwithitsmoreluxuriousneeds,intheorientalfairytale.Therethemagicobjectsareeven comparativelyrationalizedandamassedintoatechnologicaltreasurechamber.ThefairytaleofPrinceAhmadandthefairyPeriBanucontainsanivorytubethrough whichonecanseewhateveronewishestosee,eveniftheobjectofone'swishesishundredsofmilesaway.Thisfairytalecontainstheflyingcarpetwhichcarriesits ownerinamoment,evenifheonlyuttershiswishinhisthoughts,tothegoalrevealedtohimbytheivorytube.Thefairytalecontainswingedgiantswhonotonlycarry peopleoverimmensedistanceslikelightning,butalsobringuptreasuressorichthatpeoplewouldhardlydaretowishforthemfromunderground,infact,asinthecase ofAladdinandthemagiclamp,fromthevoid.Thatwhichappearsimpossible,thatwhichisalmostdeliberatelyarrangedtobeimpossibleisthuscreatedwitheffortless ease,aboveallalsobymeansofimaginaryinstruments.Difficultiesfallawayonallsides,nothingsoundsfantasticinsuchfairytalest,everythingsoundsplausible. Giganticforcesofnature,picturedasspirits,areimmediatelyandslavishlyatthecommandofAladdin,themasteroftheringandthelamp.OrofHassantheBasorite, themasterofthemagicrod,hestrikesthegroundwithit:Thentheearthgapedopen,andoutcametenIfrits,whoselegsstillstuckinthebowelsoftheearthwhile theirheadstoweredfarabovetheclouds(TheArabianNights).Thefairytaleoftheebonyhorsehallucinatestechnologicalwishfulimagesevensoberlyasitwere,in detail:themagichorsehasalockofhairforascendinganddescending,itcanbesteeredaccordingtothedirectioninwhichitsheadisturned,anditissowellequipped foreverypurposethattheridercarriesofftheking'sdaughterfromtheinaccessiblecastleorascendsandescapesfromtheranksofhisenemies.AChinesefairytaleon theotherhand,calledTheSuitofLeaves,enchantswiththemagicofarawmaterialwhichcanbetransformedatwill,almostasinfinitely

Page629 usableastheabovementionedallpurposeartificialbedofthelunatic.Thefairyheremakesasuitofgreensilkforherhumanloveroutofbananaleaves,cakesare bakedoutofthesamefoliage,ahenandafisharecutandcooked,andfinallydonkeysarecarved,onwhichtheloverrideshomewiththechildrenwhohavebeen borninthemeantime.Itisagainafairy(thewishforsuperhuman,moresuperhumanpowers)inafairytalebyLagerlfwhobestowsthegiftofnewcreation.Sothata blacksmithsuccessfullysetsaboutproducinganothersun,inthemiddleofthenorthernwinteronewhichdoesnotforsakepeopleforhalftheyearlikethecelestialone. Magictables,Aladdin'slamps,diviningrodsateveryturn,alongwithMedeancauldrons,capsofFortunatus,Oberon'shornsinthelegendsandsomuchmore obstaclesareremovedfromthecourseofthingsinawishfulmagicway.Sluggishtimeisovertaken,heavymatteristosettlelightlyandtransparentlyaroundallwishes. Themostpopularexpressionofthis,whichnolongerhadanimprobablefairytalequality,wasinthenovelsofJulesVerne,andpartlyinthoseofKurtLasswitz.The journeyAroundtheWorldinEightyDaysisalreadylongoutofdate,thattothecentreoftheearthandtothemoonisstilltocome.Butallthissortofthing,whether itisacrazydevice,whetheritisanevencraziersuccesswithit,is,asBaroquetitlepagesusedtosay,notonlypleasantbutusefultoread.Itissometimesthefutureof humanability,assertedanddescribedasifitalreadyexistednow. ProfessorMystosandinvention Inaddition,therearenowalsothoseeccentricswhoseducedothersandeventhemselves.Oftendeceitful,occasionallyobsessedandthennotwhollycapableof recognizingtheirsuspecttrade.Crooksanddreamersareamongthem,boastersasawhole,distributingunlaideggswithopenhands.Alchemistsformerlyusedtobeat theirhead,betterpeoplebyandlargethanthequacksoftoday.Forallaroundthemevenlearnedmenbelievedinspirits,inasummonablesomethingwhichfluttersup above,anddigsdownbelow,andabovealltheybelievedinthephilosopher'sstone.Thoughporcelainwasinventedinthisconnectionquitebychance,andalsoruby glass,thediscoverers,thecourtadeptsBttgerandKunckel,whohadthephilosopher'sstoneinmind,werehonestlydisappointed,sotospeak.ThealchemistBrand firstproducedphosphorusfromhumanurinein1674,

Page630 insteadofthephilosopher'sstonebutitseemedtoBrandasifhehadfoundasheassinsteadoftheexpectedkingdom.EventheswindlerCagliostro,inhisbyno meansscientificawareness,believedsomeofthetalesofalchemistsandghostseerswhichagreedy,corrupt,andboredaristocracysowillinglyswallowedfromhim. Thecontemporaryandasitwereliberaloccultfreemasonswerealsouptosomanycrankytricks,withcoffins,lights,hermeticarts,thatCagliostro,theirsocalled GrandCophta,couldalmostappearasaseriouscaseamongmerescenepainters.Itisaltogetherstrangehowatthattimetwoorthreetrendscouldrunalongside andevenintooneanotherinthisvariouslyinventivesorcery:Firsttherisingbourgeoistendencytowardspromotingthetechnologicalforcesofproduction,butthenthe obscurantistaddictiontomiraclesofthedecliningfeudalclass,whichproducedtheappearanceofCagliostrohimselfinawayreminiscentofRasputinatthecourtof theTsar.Butthesearejoinedbyathirdcomponent,thecabbalismwhichstillhadacontinuinginfluencepreciselyfromtheRenaissanceagain,fromitswitcheskitchens andincantations.Thoughwitchburningsthemselveshadalsobecomerareroflate,thebeliefinhelpfulspiritshadnotabookagainstghostslikeBalthasarBekker's EnchantedWorld,whichdeniedthepactwiththedevil,stillseemedboldandalmostparadoxicalaround1690andlater,outsidethehighestacademicsphere.The magicalRenaissanceandthetheosophicalseventeenthcenturylivedonforsuchalongtimethedividinglinebetweenfreemasonryandtheRosicrucianswasstilloften blurred.Swedenborg,deepintheAgeofEnlightenment,bestdemonstrateswhatastrangebackgroundopentowondershadstillremainedtoReason.Infact, mechanicsitselfoccasionallystillhadaghostlyelementofitsownatthattime,onewhichwasnoteventhatfarfetched.Itjoinedtheoldonesurroundingtheclock,this strangelifesimulatingphenomenon,aboveallthechurchclockanditslonelydarkactivity.Surroundingtheclickingandshiftingofthewheelsupinthecasing, surroundingthewholemechanicallifeindeathanditsaura.Thuscogwheels,gears,pulleyblocksstareoutatusfromwoodcutsofthisperiod,allnatural,allasiffrom thebelfry,allspooky.EvenL'ommemachine,thematerialistcatchphraseofLaMettrie,whichseemedtobreakthespellsothoroughlyaround1750,producedanew shudderofhorror,onewhichuntilthenwasevenunknown,forthediverselyuncontemporarybizarrenesswhichpersistedevenduringthebourgeoisEnlightenment.It wasamixtureofabitoftheGolem.legendwiththemetaphoroftheclockwithwhichtheBaroqueisfilled,particularlyinitsdramas:Hallmann'sMariannetalksofthe

Page631 bodyaspracticableclockwork,andLohensteingathersupthewheelsofhisfallenAgrippina,thefemaletyrant,whohadthestrangeideatheclockworkofher brain/Waspowerfullytorevolvetheorbitofthestars.Butthenewelementwasinfactaddedastheshudderofexposure,preciselyinmechanics:thefactthatliving manisapieceofclockworkwhichisselfwinding.Thissortofthingseemedtobecomeapparentintheautomatawhichemergedatthattime:inthesingingnightingale, themechanicalviolinplayer,themathematicalwizard,allmadeofwaxandinsideonlyclockwork,butallaliveasitwere.Itwascharacteristicthattheclockworkwas notconcealed,itwasmerelydrapedwithRocococlothesorrichTurkishcostumeandthusdoublyapparent.Themechanismwasemphasizedinadownrightcoquettish fashioninallthesefigures,theskirtorcurtaindrawnbackfromthewheelsdisplayedthemechanicspreciselyasanewmagicabyss.Thereisanechoofthisinthe keeperofthestoolshopfromtheTalesofHoffmann:withabarometer,hygrometer,andglasses,whoeverlooksthroughthemseeseverythingthatisdeadasaliveall themoresoinDoctorSpallanzani,thephysicistwhohatchesautomata.Thereisstillanechointheadvertisingpreparationsofmodernchemicallaboratories:the sparklingglassitself,andthebrightmechanisticlightreachesintoold,strangelyincreasedimagination.Atanyrate,mechanicsalsoseemedtorevealsomethingsecret,a landofadventureandhubrisbeyondthefrontiers,inthemidstofsobriety.Thegolemwastobefoundintheretoo,notjustinthepremechanicalregioninwhichrabbi Lbasacabbalistwantedtoattemptthebusinessofcreation,withalumpofclayandamagicslipofpaper.ThusthevariousCagliostroswerenotmadetotally impossibleevenbytheEnlightenment,especiallywhentheyusedamechanicaltechnologicallanguageapartfromthemagicone. Moreover,eventodaywestillsaythataliarinventssomething.Thestrange,badandgoodambiguityofthiswordparticularlyfoundadherentsatthattime,among bankruptandboredprinces.Anditwastheageoftherisingbourgeoisie,veryinterestedinprofitableinventions.Butinventingwasstillbizarre,sotosomeextentitwas uncriticallymergedinhumanconsciousnessassomethinglaMnchhausenandassomethingtechnological.Consequently,adventurersofthekindthatwerecalled projectorsintheBaroquealsomovedintotechnologyasmuchonawishfulbasisasononeofswindlingandshuddersofhorror.Theseprojectmakersordonneurs d'viseffortlesslyswitchedatthattimefromthedomainofstatefinances,wheretheywereneveratalossforanyinvention,tothedomainoftechnology,againwithan oftencomplicatedmixtureofconning

Page632 andardententhusiasm.Thesametypewhoconcoctedpatenteconomicremedies,andoftensoldthematgreatprofit(tohimself),alsohadtechnologicalarcanafor sale.Oneoftheseprojectmakers,hisnamewasBesslerandhelatercalledhimself,probablycrossingOrpheusandzephyr,Orphyr,alsoDrOrfyrus,firstekedout alivingasawoodturner,clockmaker,andgrinder,switchedoverintoaquack,astrologer,andalchemist,andthenunitedthisversatilityinthebusinessofacharlatan engineer.Assuchhecreatedthecuriousanddulyappointedrunningpearl,calledOrfyriPerpetuummobile.Aroundthishewroteatrashypieceoftechnological colportagein1720,withthefairgroundtitle:Theeighthiddenchambersoftheedificeofnature.Thiswasthendescribedlikeoneofthosefairytalecastlesinwhich entryintoonechamber,ofspecialluxuriousness,wasnotpermitted.TheedificeofnatureofDrOrfyrushadeightsuchchambersallatonce,theycontainedcuriosities andutopiangadgets,inonechambertherewasthesquaringofthecircle,inanotherthehyperbolicmirror,inthethirdthesolutiontotheproblemofmakingajetof waterriseoutofapondwithoutusingpipes.Inthefourththerewasinextinguishablefire,andsoonthroughtothelastonewherethemodelofthesaidPerpetuum mobilestood.ItispreciselythiswhichOrfyrusclaimstohavestolenfromitschamberofnature,hesetitup,afterathoroughinspectionoftheworks,firstinGera, andtheninasummerresidenceoftheLandgraveofHessenKassel.Therethemachineissaidtohavebeenonshowforalongtimeinperfectrunningorderandeven tohaveperformedsomework.Anunknowntrickaidedtheillusion,andthepublicwasblindedbytheillusion.Perhapstherewasahunchbackeddwarfhiddeninthe impossibleobject,whocouldbepackedintoitparticularlyeasily,asinanotherfamouscontemporaryautomaton,theinvinciblechessplayer.EveryPerpetuummobile wasinterestinganywaysinceitfulfilledinthemostradicalfashionthemissionofnewlybeguncapitalism:cheaperproduction.ThesameOrfyrus,hewasalsocalled ProfessorMystos,plannedtoplaceorchestrionswithwindmillsailsonhightowers,andinstormyweatheranorganconcertwouldpealinfortissimoabovethetown.A planwhichshowsthatthefieryowl,whenitadoptswindmillsails,seemsquitesplendid,almostAmerican.Ifevensevenleaguebootsweretechnologicallypromised andexhibitedtogoodeffect,thenthestyleofOrfyruswasalwayspresent,withandwithoutthetitleofdoctor.TheCosmicUniversalPowersinparticular, discoveredoverandoveragainalthoughalwaysgivenadifferentname,remainedimmortal.ThefluidofoldMesmerwasnewlyrevivedanywaywhenit

Page633 wasabletoadoptthescientificlanguageandtheelectricityofthenineteenthcentury.Andthetransitiontothereallyandtrulyrevivedradiationmagnetismoftoday wasrepresentedbyanotherwiseveryproficientnaturalscientistwithanequallyproficienteccentricity,thechemistReichenbach,thediscovererofparaffinand creosoteheprovidedthetransitionthroughthediscoveryhealsomadeoftheworldod.Thiswasactuallythesoughtafteroriginalradiatingforce,whichspiritualists weresoonabletousetoo(Physicalphysiologicalinvestigationsintothedynamicsofmagnetism,electricity,lightetc.inrelationtothelifeforce,1845)itrangesfrom protoplasmandthefuelofmachinesanimatedlikethegolemandoperatinginstinctively,tothecauseofthehalo.Andpartofthemostrecentbombastofthefluid, onewhichnowevenmakesitsPerpetuummobileagaininaroundaboutpsychoanalyticalway,isthesocalledorgoneofW.Reich.Thatis:ajuicyworldod,from theweddingnightofBeing,orthebiologicalcosmicpotentandorgasmicforceparexcellence.Moreover,thisorgasmicforceisvisible,itappearsbothintheblue colouringoffrogsduringcoitionandintheStElmo'sfireonship'syards,aswellasinthelikewisebluishtwinklingofthestars.Orgonesandseveralotherthingsof thiskind(sheercosmicsupervitaminsforthatkindofhopewhichdoesnotrunout)werealsocollectedbyAmericainaccumulators,whichdrawthepricelessbut saleablesubstancefromtheair,afterwhichitremedieseverykindofdebilitation,sexual,spiritual,social,andcosmicallatthesametime.Allthisisthestyleof CagliostroandOrfyrus,introducedintotheepigoniclightofhazybluenonsenseintheworld.Nevertheless,theCagliostroapproachbelongs,evenintheformofthe petitbourgeoishumbugoftoday,totheregionoftechnologicaldreamsitconstitutesitsoldtracesofmagic,eventhoughtheyaregrotesquelydecayed.Butjustas Gothiccapitalsoftendisplaylittlegrotesquefigures,withtheirheadslookingoutbetweentheiropenlegsormakingotherfaces,theeverrecurringProfessorsMystos alsohaveexactlythistraditionalplaceinthetechnologicalutopianstructure.Andapermanentattributeofthiskindofinventor,apartfromtheworldfluidmentioned above,isnotleasttheoldalchemicalgoldmaking,inthemostcomprehensiblemeaningoftheword.Soasnottotireourselvesoutwithtoomanytripodsinthe modernizedjunkshop,letusindicateonlyonenewmotifofancientalchemy.Typicalofthecontinuingappealofthecheapwitcheskitchenwastheactivityofthe alchemistFranzTausend,oneofthelastofthebreed.Withahostofpeoplebehindhim,rightuptothehighestcircles,rightuptotheGermangeneralstaff,

Page634 whoinvestedcapitalinthebusiness,sothatalthoughnevercomingtoanenditstartedupalloveragain.Tausendcertainlyintroducedaparticularlyacousticattraction intotheoldmagic,namelyakindofmusicalreform.Goldcookingwasnamelytransferredfromitstraditionalfurnacetotuningforks,andinfactachievedbymerely changingkeys.ForaccordingtoTausendeveryelementisformedbyacharacteristicfrequencyofoscillationhencebymeansofchemicalmusicalmodulationitcanbe readilytransformedfromitsoriginalelementkeyintoanotherone.Corrigerlafortune:thisunitesthecheatswiththeoldgravecourtadeptsandtheirshoddy Pythagoreandescendantsdowntotheveryend.Thecorrectionwouldbeperfectlygood,ifonlythemeanswereasgood,theunsuitablemeansforinventingthings whicharenotpossibleassuch. Andreae'sChemicalWeddingofChristianRosenkreutzanno1459 Themosttemptingidearemainedthatofbakingmoneyoutofthemuckthatislyingaround.Ifeveryoneforgeshisownhappiness,thenitisbestforgedatitsmetal origin.Thousandsuponthousandshaveworkedbeforethefurnace,withabstrusemeanstoaverygenerallycomprehensibleend.Andfurther,whatisrarer,more interesting,andmostlyoverlookedtoday:ifmostnecromancersmerelywantedgold,thenseveralotherswantedsomethingmorethanthis:thetransformationofthe world.TheChemicalWeddingofChristianRosenkreutzanno1459appearedin1616,itaimsatabroaderrefinementthanthatofbasemetalintogold.Theauthor ofthisanonymouslypublishedworkisalmostcertainlyJohannValentinAndreae,Swabianpoet,churchman,theosophist,utopian.Theworksharplycriticizesthebad goldcookers,inplacesitcanevenbeinterpretedasmockingthewholehermeticcraft.Butmorestrikingthantheundeniablepresenceofanelementofsatireisthe solemnsignificancewhichtheChemicalWeddinggivestothepathofgoldandtotheallegoricalknightwhotakesit.Intwoearlierworks,theFamaFraternitatisand theConfessioFraternitatis,AndreaehadalreadyinventedandintroducedRosenkreutz,afounderofanorder.Bornin1388,thelattertravelstotheEastasayoung man,isthereinitiatedintotheoccultsciencesandintoareformation,ofwhichthetransformationofmetalsisonlythebeginning.TheChemicalWeddingshowsthe sameRosenkreutzasanoldman,engagedinanewjourney,ontheeveofEasterDay,totheroyalcastlewhereaweddingistobecelebrated.Heisadmittedtothe mysteriouscastle,undergoes

Page635 akindofordealoffireandwater,thenafterwards,adornedwiththeGoldenFleece,attendsthesevendayweddingcelebrationaschiefguest,hasavisionofdeathand afterwardstheresurrectionoftheroyalcouple.TheguestsaredubbedKnightsoftheGoldenStone,butChristianRosenkreutz,havingforcedhiswayintoachamber wherehefoundLadyVenusasleep,isinduced,astheweddingisinfullswing,toremaininthecastleasadoorkeeperorasPeter.Alchymiagivesawaythebrideat thewedding,sheistheparergontotheergonofthesevendays.OnthewholethealchemicalmeaninginAndreae'sallegoryisclear,butnotasonewhichrefers exclusivelytometallurgy.Ifitisconfinedtothelatter,thentheChemicalWeddingbearsnooronlyverylittlerelationtogoldcooking.If,however,alchemyis conceivedasgivingawaythebrideofatransformationoftheworldorgeneralreformation,thenitisunderstandablethatcontemporarybelieverssawinthenovel, evenifitistypicallyafragment,themostsublimeallegoryoftheworkofperfection,oftheextractionofphilosophicalgold.ARosicrucianbythenameofBrotoffer publishedaninterpretationin1617:ElucidariusmajororSynopsisoftheChemicalWeddingF.R.C.,inwhichpraeparatiolapidisaureiisveryneatlydescribed.This interpretationopenlyexplainsthesevendaysoftheweddingasthesevenstagesofthelchemicalprocess,spirituallybroughttolight:asdestillatio,solutio,purefactio, nigredo,albedo,fermentatio,andprojectiomedicinae(tinctureofgold).ItisevencorrectthattheChemicalWeddingwasnotonlyintendedasallegorybutas symbolisminthecomprehensivelyfinalsense,i.e.asmetaphoricalreferencetoanultimateUnitas,tothefermentinggoldenPan.So,inalchemyofthiskind,thiswas supposedtobethesolemnsignificanceannouncedabove:thatofanEasterDaytobefantasticallycreatedagainsticeandbarriers.Thebourgeoisimpulsetowardsthe FreedomoftheChristianMan*thatdidnotarrivenowadoptedsuchstrangepathsandnaturallyadorneddisguisesinthesocalledhermeticsocietiesoftheGerman Baroqueandtheirstatedsymbolism.Areveillewasintendedwhichwastoresoundthroughthewholeearthlylayer,anAwake,frozenChristian,throughlead, creation,societyandtheremainingAlteritas.ThepreparationofgoldandthepromotionofhumanityarejumbledtogetherinRosicrucianismfromthenon,constitutethe peculiarqualityofitsmixedfantasy.In1622thesincefamousSocietyofRosicrucianswasfoundedinTheHague,thoughthenameoftheorderitselfisolderthanthe FamaandConfessiowhichAndreaeproducedaboutit.Paracelsus *Luther'sFreiheitdesChristenmenschen.

Page636 citesaRosicrucianlodgeinBaslein1530,notwhollyunequivocalmanuscriptsfromthebeginningofthetwelfthcenturytelloflodgesofthisnameinGermany.Not contentwiththis,RosicruciansfromthetimeofAndreae,andevenfromthatoftheMagicFlute,claimedtohavepreservedthatveramsapientiamforthousandsof yearsquaeolimabAegyptiisetPersiismagia,hodieveroavenerabilifraternitateRoseaeCrucisPansophiarectevocatur.*ButhoweveroldthenameRosicrucianis andhoweverfartheemblemmaygobackintoutopianizingorutopianizedmyths:onlyAndreaewithhisChemicalWeddinggaveitthesense,claimedtoberisingor humane,ofhigheralchemy.Wemustcontinueevenfurther,intothepeculiarconnectionwhichexists,throughAndreae'slinkofageneralreformation,between somethingassuperstitiousasalchemyandsomethingassunlikeandcrystalclearastheEnlightenment,thisbattleoflightagainstsuperstition.Forthepathosoflight itself,asthebirth,astheadvancingprocessoflight(gold),comesfromalchemy:Enlightenmentitselfisoriginallyanalchemicalconcept,justlikeprocessandits result.Converselythestrangeconnectionoffreemasonry,andeventheEnlightenmentwithoccultismarisesfromthis,ofcourseevenAndreaemixedhisfraternities withmagicrites.ThegoldendreamofasocietashumanathusfounditsphilanthropicalchemicalconventiclesinGermany,butalsointhestrangelytheosophicalEngland throughoutthewholeoftheseventeenthandeighteenthcentury.TherewasasecretsocietycalledAntilia,anothercalledMakaria,abrotherhoodofthecelestialwheel fortherestorationofhermeticmedicineandphilosophy.Therewas,withamixedsocialcosmologicaldream,thecollegiumluciswhichwasfoundedbynolessa personthanComenius,thediscipleofAndreaeandallthesesectionssetuptheRosyCrossorthehigheralchemy.Theyallwantedtoturnthecourseofsocietyand ofnaturetowardstheoriginalstateofparadise,wheresocialequalityandunfallenorgoldennaturewereoneandthesame.Thedreamofthesealchemicalsectsthus remainedgeneralreformationthroughout,inthesenseoftherestorationoftheoriginalstateofparadise,andaboveallofleadingthefallenworldovertoChristwhichis whytheRosicrucianswerealsocontinuallycomparedwiththeAnabaptistsbytheirenemiesatthetime.Goldcookingbecamechiliasticor,asahostiletractdenounced itatthetime:TurningthewholeworldupsidedownbeforetheDayofJudgementintoanearthlyparadisesuchasAdamoccupiedbeforetheFall,andtherestitutionof alltheartsandwisdompossessed *whichwasrightlycalledmagiainformertimesbytheEgyptiansandPersians,todaypansophiabythetrueandvenerablefraternityoftheRosyCross.

Page637 byAdam,aftertheFall,EnochandSolomon.Alchemyandchiliasmtogetherthusenteredthehermeticsects,withthetransformationofmetalsasapreludetothe truehomunculusortothebirthofthenewman.AlateafterimageofthisisstilltobefoundinGoethe'sfragmentTheMysteries,concerningthedreamofachemical kingdom.Thewanderer,exhaustedbytheday'slongjourneying/Heundertookuponimpulsesublime,hereseesamysteriousimageonthemonasterygate,seesthe crossentwinedwithroses,andlightcelestialcloudsofsilverfloat,/Tosoarintotheskywithcrossandroses.Thirteenchairsarestandinginthemonasteryhall,attheir headshangthirteenshieldswithunmistakablyalchemicalallegories:Andhereheseesafierydragonpause/Toquenchhisragingthirstinwildflames/Andhereanarm caughtinabear'sfiercejaws,/Fromwhichthebloodispouringinhotstreams.Theimagesontheshieldssignifyinthisorderthirteenstagesofturningtogold,andthus theyaretheancestralhallwhichtheoldmaninthemonasterytellsthewandererabout.Butthenthewiseman,whohassuchdiverseancestorsbehindhim,iscalled HumanusinGoethe'sstrangepoemandthisverynamehasalsobeenclaimedintheRosicrucianismofAndreaetobethefinalnameandcontentwhichrisesfromthe transformationofmetalsandtheworld.Crossandrose,thefirstthesymbolofpainandofdissolution,thesecondthesymbolofloveandlife,thusunitedallegoricallyin theworkofperfection.AndaFrenchphilosopher,asGottfriedArnold'shistoryofhereticsof1741relates,inthechapterontheRosicrucians,hassoughtthe secretofmakinggoldinthenameitselfandsuggestedthatrosecomesfromrosordew,andcruxmeansluxforthem,whichthingsthealchemistsusedmost.Thus againandagainRosicrucianismopenedoutintoakindofsecondstoreyofalchemythephilosopher'sstoneintheChemicalWeddingwasatthesametimeChristthe cornerstone.Forleadandmanandforthewholeworld:VitaChristi,morsAdami,MorsChristi,vitaAdami,*rantheepitaphoftheRosicrucianandfriendofJakob Bhme,AbrahamvonFranckenberg.OrasthesameFranckenberg,inconnectionwiththeChemicalWedding,hadtaught:alchemywasrenewalofthecelestiallights, ages,men,animals,trees,plants,metalsandallthingsintheworld.Moreoverthiskindofthingwaslevelledatanyconstraintorspellbindingbytheexistingcelestial lights,andtherefore,despitesomecrossconnections,atthemythologyoffateatthattime:astrology.Somecrossconnectionsdidexistofcourse,allmetalsbore planetarysymbolsandviceversa,thepositionoftheplanetswasalwaystaken *LifeofChrist,deathofAdam,DeathofChrist,lifeofAdam.

Page638 intoaccountwhencookinggold.Nevertheless,thesuperstitionofalchemyhasalwaysreservedtoitselfsomethingdistinctivefrom,evencontrarytothatofastrology, simplytheactofintervention,combination,thechangingprocessallthiswastobelevelledpreciselyatthefrozenheavens.Atthehoroscopeofthebeginning,which alsoclaimsrightatthebeginningtobeanepitaphaswell,anunchangeable,inescapableone.Theplanetarysymbolsthemselves,inmetalsandintheheavens,wereto bechemicallysurmounted,namelybythesunorbygold.ThatiswhyFranckenberg'sOculussideriusof1643boilsdowntothis:Sincewehavebeenstucklong enoughinthecircumscribedcageorwhitewashedimaginaryvaultofthefrozenheavensandhavefooledoneanotherwithallkindsoffantasticvisionsand constellations,wenowneedtorubthesleepofsevenagesoutofoureyesatonce.ThehiddenalchemyatworkinThomasMoreandhisliberalutopiahasalready beenreferredto,asthemythologyofliberation(cf.Vol.II,p.528).Thiswasincontrasttoastrology,thecharacteristicguidingsysteminCampanella'sauthoritarian utopiaastrologyissolelymagicthatdescendsfromabove,itdoesnot,likealchemy,ascendfrombelowintosomethingbetter.Turningtogoldasawholewasand remainedforAndreaeandhissuccessorsthetransformationoftheworld,andmetallurgyamerevicarioustestofthistechnology.Intheend,outofthereallydivined Pan,theworldwastoberebuilt,bymeansofpansophyandhumanity. Thepathstothiswereclearlyconfused,andinamorefamiliarregiontheybecameconspicuouslyshort.In1619,threeyearsaftertheanonymousChemicalWedding, Andreaealsopublishedasocialutopia:ReipublicaeChristianopolisdescriptio.Outsidethebackgroundwehavejustseen,itisnotparticularlyimportantandisnot independentinanycasethatisalsowhywecantalkaboutitonlynow,inconnectionwiththeRosicrucians.Thegoldenorderhasherebecomeakindofthoroughly Christianizedcityofartisansandschools,anislandcitywithacirculartempleinthemiddle,withamarket,gymnasticsandpleasurezonearoundit,withfieldsand workshopsontheoutskirtsofthecity.Admittedlythereisnomentionofalchemyeveninthecurriculumoftheutopianschool,eventheundoubteddispersionofthecity issurroundedbyakindofplanetarycircle,almostinthemannerofthesomewhatlaterCivitassolisofCampanella.Nevertheless,analchemicalconsciousness, opposedtotheastrologicalone,isatworkonthissocialutopia,aswasalreadythecaseinthatofMoreforChristianopolisrisesinanemphaticallyantitheticalmanner, asifprocessedout,fromthedrossofthetopsyturvy,completely

Page639 corruptworld.Andthescienceofitswisemen,dividedintothreestages,isnotstaticandselfenclosed,asinCampanella,butthefinallessoninthetopclassiscalled: Prophecyofthefinalstatus,prophetictheology.Withthisthearctowardsthegeneralreformationisdescribedonceagain,towardsRosicrucianism,which combinedsuperstitionwithlight,pansophywiththeDayofJudgementinsuchastrangeway.AndintheendthemostimportantdiscipleofAndreae:Comenius,the founderofvisualinstruction,butalsoofanEcclesiaphiladelphica,alsosummarizedtheintentionofRosicrucianalchemy.ExactlylikeAndreae,Comeniusalsospeaks ironicallyandnotjustenthusiasticallyaboutit,buteventheironysharesthesuperstitionfaithwhichitmocks.InTheLabyrinthoftheWorldandtheParadiseofthe Heart,1631,thefollowingisrelatedoftheRosicrucianstothesoundoftrumpets:Makinggoldistheleastamongahundredotherthingstheycandoforsincethe wholeofnatureisanopenbooktothem,theyarecapableofgivingaparticularformtoeverysinglethingatwillandofknowingeverythingthathappenswithinthe wholecircumferenceoftheoldworldandinthenewworld,especiallyastheycanspeaktooneanotheratadistanceofathousandmiles.Thentheypossessthe philosopher'sstone,withtheaidofwhichtheycurealldiseasesandconferlonglifeandaftertheyhavekeptthemselveshiddenforsomanycenturiesandhave workedquietlyattheperfectionofphilosophy,theyarewilling,especiallynoweverythingisinorderandintheiropinionapowerfulupheavalisinstorefortheworld, nottoremainhiddenawayanylongerbuttocomeoutintotheopen,andarereadytocommunicatetheirmostprecioussecretstoanyonewhoisworthyofthem.The precioussecretsareherealwaysthesameasthesecretwaystoturnthetopsyturvyworldtherightwayup,sothatthegoldemergesfromit.Thatverygoldwhich fortheverysymboliceconomictechnologicalenthusiastsofthattime,apartfromwhatitactuallyis,wasalsothesolarsymbolforwhathadblossomedout,was rounded,andluminous. Alchemyagain:mutatiospecierum(transmutationofinorganicspecies)anditsincubator Thepupilfirsthadtopurifyhimselfbeforehebeganthissortofthingoutside.Howeversoberandbusinessliketheimpulsetomakegold,thefieldsofgoldhadtobe tilledwithreverence.Otherwise,itwassaid(and

Page640 allworks,howeverconfused,areagreedonthis),noinitiatemaybeaccepted,andevenlessmayapieceoftheartbebetrayedtohim.Oftenfasts,sexualabstinence andothersolemnremittanceswererequiredatleastthepupiltherebyattainedanoutoftheordinary,devoutlypatientstateofmind.And,inabusinesswhichcould nevercometoanendanyway,therealwaysremainedthepossibilityofputtingfailuredowntoone'sownimpurity,toinadequateinnerpreparation.Inaddition,thefear ofevilspiritsplayedapart,inanagewhentheimpenetrablenightinhabitedbydemonsalreadybeganthreestepsfromthetallowcandleandthehearthwhenahellish somethingcroaked,groaned,threatened,hoveredorgropedinalldarkcorners.Thusitseemedadvisablefortheinitiatejuststartingouttobecleanhimself,and unassailablesotospeakapiousheartwasregardedasanamulet.Butsuperstitiousasallthiswas:someoftheseinwardpiecesofadviceneverthelessseemstrangely closetonature,subterraneanlyclosetonatureasitwere.Thealchemistalsochangedhispupil'sstateofawarenesssothatheshouldattainanunconsciousconnection withhismaterials.Theinitiatejuststartingoutthereforenotonlyhadtobecomejustandpureofdesiresbutalsohadtodojusticetohismaterial,connectedinsucha waywithfire,lead,antimony,ductilityandlustreasiftheywerefundamentallyapartofhim.Thenanimaginationofgoldwaspresupposed,inrealityprobablyone whichwasmostlyveryclearcut,oneoftheverycomprehensibleexchangevalue,butaccordingtotheidealregulationonewhichreferredtogold,frankincenseand myrrh,andthusalmosttothebirthoftheLord.Thiskindofthingislessblasphemousorevenideologicalthanitsoundsinviewoftheusualalchemicalgoldmakingand hencemoneymakingforitbelonged,accordingtothefaithoftheart,tothetechnologicalmethoditself.Heretotallydisregardingforthemomentdeeperallusionsand intentionswhichbecameapparentinthecaseoftheRosicrucians.Goldwasatanyratetobearousedandsummonedwiththevolitionalimageofitself,withthe preparationofaninternalphilosopher'sstone,beforethegreatmetallicsoundcouldbeevoked.Someregulationsconcerningthisimaginationseemasifthewhole passionatevolitionalsubjectitselfhadtoenterintonature,sympatheticallylinkedwithitsowncoreorsource,asifbyasubterraneanpassage.Psychological,religious andnaturalcategoriesfrequentlybecameintertwinedinalchemyjustasinthecontemporarycosmologiesofParacelsusandBhme.Thisstateofaffairscanhardlybe reexperiencedscientificallyanymore,whentheveryindependencefromtheexperiencingandinterpretingsubjectisregardedasthecriterionofknowledge.Aboveall, even

Page641 thepicturesofthelivesofalchemiststhathavebeenpreservedconveyadoggedandsinglemindedcharacterofcourse,butmorerarelyonewhichseemstohavejust takenHolyCommunionorhasevenjustcomefromthecaveoftheearthspirit.MenlikeRamonLull,andalsoseveralofthelaterRosicrucians,constituteaclear exceptionofcourse,andthiscounts.Inthemidstofthemessofhiskitchen,ofhisboundlessrecipesandendlesswrongpaths,henosiswasrequiredoftheinitiate,a neoPlatonictermwhichmeanssimplifyingoneself,concentratingonefficacityandseed. Significantly,eventheprincipalthingswhichthepupilhadtoknowwerenotallthatcomplicated.Thisalthoughthemanyswindlersdeliberatelyobscuredthebusinessin ordernottohavetosaywhattheydidnotknow.Andalthougheveninthesubjectivelyhonestbookstherecipesandthepicturesareoftenincompatiblewithone another,aswellasbeinginalanguagewhichhasbecomewhollystrange.Allthesame,certainunifiedandalmostwellformedbasicconceptsstirinthedrapery,but theyarebynomeansnumerous.Thewholethingisapuresearching,testing,andalsouncertainretestingofotherpeople'sexperiments,withtremendousindustry throughouttencenturiesandmore.PerhapsthealchemicaldreamgoesbacktotheBronzeAge,whenthefirstalloyingintoagoldengleamingmetalwassuccessful,and itwascertainlywidespreadinallculturesfromabout700A.D.ThereisnotonlyArabianandEuropean,butalsoIndian,Chinese,andSiamesealchemyandevenhere theessentialfeaturesarenotsoverydifferent.ThisartalwaysdealswithreleasingsomethingthathasBecomeinthingsagain,withdisplacingsomethingmixedupin them.Whatwassoughtinthem,aboveallinthosewhichwerethemselvesalreadyelementallydecayed,wasatfirstastilltotallyfeaturelesssubstanceinitself,the virginalbeginning.Everythinginexistencewastestedinturntothisend,thedulleroreventhemoredecomposedandexhausteditappeared,thebetter:rainwater,urine, andexcrementwerepromisingwhenitcametofindingthemateriaprimaandtheenzymeinthem.Themetalsthemselves,apartfromthispassiveoriginalsubstance, weresupposedtobeamixtureofthreebasiccomponents,invaryingproportions:ofmercury(quicksilver),sulphur(brimstone),andsal(salt).Thethreedonot coincidewithnaturallyoccurringdepositsofmercury,sulphur,andsalt,theyarerelatedtothemroughlyascarbonisrelatedtocoal,orrather:theyare,inamagicized scholasticsense,theiressence.Mercury,theessenceofquicksilver,wasregardedasthemostimportantcomponentofmetalsitconsistsofwaterandearth, facilitatesductilityandfusibility.Becauseofthesepassivepropertiesmercurywasregardedasafemininepower,and

Page642 thusitisclosesttothemateriaprima.Sulphurortheessenceofbrimstoneconsistsofairandfire,anactivemasculineentity,itgivesmetalstheircolour,andaboveall theircombustibilityandtransformability.Finallysal,theessenceofsalt,causesthecalcinabilityandalsothehardnessandbrittlenessofmetalsveryold,magicalhigh evaluations,eventouchedonintheNewTestament(saltoftheearth),occasionallyevenlinkedSalphilosophicumwiththephilosopher'sstone(cf.thehealing powderwithadecidedlyalkalinetasteinGoethe'sPoetryandTruth,bookeight).Butmorecrucialthanallthiswasthebeliefthatwiththemateriaprimaandwith themixtureofthethreeotherbasiccomponentsmetalswerenotyetexhausted,notyetattheendoftheirbeing.Chemistryitself,untiltowardstheendoftheeighteenth century,believedinthethreebasiccomponentsofmetalscitedabove(evenphlogistonorthermalmatter,firstdisposedofbyLavoisier,stillhassulphurasoneofits ancestors)only,theywerenotstruckbytheflashorthewillo'thewispofgold.Thusalchemyfurtheraddedtothethreebasiccomponentsthehighestessenceor thegermofgoldwhichpressesinallcommonmetals,hinderedingrowth,anentelechywhichisnotyetactualized.Likethefeaturelessmateriaprima,theideaofthe entelechyofgoldalsowentbacktoAristotle,inanadmittedlymonstrousoverwhelmingofallothernaturalentelechiesofspeciesandgenus.Aristotlehadonlycalled motionanunfinishedentelechy,butforhimtherelayinmatteritselfthepossibilityofeveryhigherformwhichisnextinorderbutthenallmatterispotentiallygold, justastheeggisanunhatchedbird.Thisgoldentelechywastobepromotedandliberatedbytheredlion,theredtincture,thegrandelixir,themagisterium magnum,whichallmeansthesameasthephilosopher'sstone.Welling'sOpusmagocabalisticumof1735(thesamewhichtheyoungGoethereadwithFruleinvon Klettenberg,thebeautifulsoul)*saysthefollowingonthispoint:Thephilosophersstoneisasubstancewhichisskilfullycomposedofahighlyrefinedanimated mercurioanditslivinggoldandcombinedtogetherbymeansofaprolongedheatinginsuchawaythatitcanneverbeseparatedagain,inwhichformitcanimmediately produce,refineandtincttheothermetalsinsuchawaythattheyareraisedintothenatureofthepurestgold.Atleastdescriptionsofthisfabulousstoneexist,andin factbyveryfamousmenthedescriptions *Cf.Goethe'sWilhelmMeistersLehrjahre.OnherdeaththecharacterofAurelieleavesbehindadocumententitledBekenntnisseeinerschnenSeele ConfessionsofaBeautifulSoul.ThiswasintendedbyGoetheasaposthumoustributetohisfriendSusannevonKlettenberg.

Page643 tallytosomeextent,justasifeachlateronestoodontheshouldersoftheonesbefore.RamonLullcomparesthestonewithacarbuncleParacelsus,inhisSignatura rerumnaturalium,statesthatthestoneisheavy,inmassbrightredasaruby,transparentasacrystal,butalsomalleableasresinandyetfragileasglassHelmont,the chemistandParacelsian,relatesthatthestone,whenhehaditinhishands,wasaheavysaffroncolouredpowder,shimmeringlikenotveryfinelygroundglass(cf. Kopp,DieAlchymie,1886,I,p.82).Bothsilverandquicksilveraswellastheunripemetals,namelylead,tin,copperandiron,aswellasbrittleoneslikeantimony, bismuth,zincandsoon,permeatedbythetinctureandthestone,aresupposedtoturntogold.Thisrefiningiscausedbyprojection,i.e.bythrowingthetinctureonto themetalwhenitisinastateofflux,suchthatthetincture,accordingtothepurityattained,cantransformbasemetaluptothirtythousandtimesitsownweight(cf. Schmieder,GeschichtederAlchymie,1832,p.2).Butthealchemistsalwaysspeakofthisutopian,alltooutopianjewelwithareverencewhichgoesfarbeyondsuch lucrativemetalmiraclesandalsomoreparticularlydoesnotomitGospelallusionstoanothercornerstoneandsaviour.Justasthemateriaprimaandmorespecifically MercuryarecomparedwiththeVirginMary,soisthestonetoherson.Thenthereisaconceptionoftheblessedstone,andRobertFluddcallsitthefoundation stoneoftheinnertemple,sothatthewholeworkofthesunisdone.ThenJakobBshmepraisesitastherootofakingdominwhichthereisnolongeranyother elementthantheSonofMan.JustasBhmeonthewholeelaboratedtheoutlinesofhistheosophyandtheogonyinaccordancewithalchemicaloperationsasifinthe alchemicalprocessmanwasonlydoingwhatGoddoesinasimilarorthesamewayinthecreatedlifeofinorganicnature(cf.Harle,JakobBhmeunddie Alchymisten,1870,p.off.).AngelusSilesius,inthewealthofhisallegories,spurnsthealchemicalMessianiconesleastofall:Iammyselfthemetal,thespiritishearth andfire,/ThetincturewhichtransfiguresbodyandsoulistheMessiah(CherubinicalWandererI,rhyme103).Butthecueforallthisidolizationofthestoneandof whatitbringswasgivenbyMarsilioFicino,theneoPlatonistoftheRenaissanceallthelaterallusionsandtransparenciesarefirstfoundinhiswork.Whetherstill hesitantlyveiledinahalfgnosticTheologiaPlatonica,oropenlyinthetreatiseDeartechimica,asfollows:TheVirginisMercury,fromheretheSonisborntous, thatisthestone,throughwhosebloodthetaintedlowerbodiesareledbackintothegoldeneavensintact.Atthesametimethroughthistext,asitrecursword

Page644 forwordorwithBaroqueembellishmentsinnumerousalchemicalRosicrucianwritings,thestone,thephilosophicalgold,andthegoldenheavensaremadeoneandthe same.SowhenAndreaesays:Theredtinctureisthepurplecloakaroundtheappearingking,thenthekingisboththestoneandtheheavenlyearthlygolditselfwhich itreleasesfromtheworld.Chemicalchiliasmcertainlybecameoneinwhichanalyticalchemistry,redtincture,gold,andparadiseattheendoftimeseemtocoincide,in facttheworkoftransmutationisregarded,incompletehubris,asthelaboratoriumDei.Itisnotastonishingthatnowalsoallothermyths,whenevermetamorphosis occurredinthem,seemedinterpretableintermsofalchemy.CirceandthevoyageoftheArgonauts,themarchthroughtheRedSeaandthedeedsofHercules,King MidasandtheGardenoftheHesperides,thestaffofMosestransformingbitterwaterintosweet,andtheweddingfeastatCana:allthisandmuchmorebesideshadto servetheworshipofthestoneforthebest.Mythicalarchetypesofchangehavebeenmostpowerfullypreservedinthelavishallegoryofalchemy,andifindeedthe Olympiangodsbreathedtheirlastonlyintheeighteenthcenturyasmetallicsymbols,metallicsouls,thenthePersianJewishMessianicfaithlivedoninsuchstrange metallurgynotjustinsecularizedform.Notjustallegoricallyeither,butsymbolicallyforthetransformationintoessencelackstheambiguitywhichsendsfromone Alteritastotheother,itischaracterizedinitstargetbyunambiguityandundeniablefanaticismoftheAbsolute.Gold,happiness,eternallifeareimprisonedinlead,the captiveChrist,thegoldentelechyofallthingsandbeings,mustbereleasedfromthedungeonofthestatusquobymeansofthegeneralreformationofwhichalchemyis ametaphor.Historicalimprovementandthetransfigurationoftheworldweretherebycrossconnectedjustastheyintroducedintooneanotheranorganicinorganic motifofthesaviour.ThusitwasnoaccidentthatAndreaeadoptedamottowhichwasprobablyalreadyinstructivefortheRenaissancevisionaryofalchemy,theneo PlatonistFicinoanancientmottofromtheMessianicOdesofSolomon,stemmingfromPhiloorfromhisschool.Itruns:Onlythepureman,transformedbyhisown conversion,possessestheresurrectingpowertodissolve,torenewandtowakethesubstancessunklikeleadintothechaos.Bymeansoftheholywater,thelogos spermatikos,hereturnsthemtoexistenceandleadstheminpurifiedformupwards,untilallthingsbelowaretransformedonhigh.Withthisstatementalchemicalutopia theboldestandmostmythologicalthatwaspossibleatallintechnologyisreallycharacterizedintotoevenbeyondtheChristoftheunripemetals.Finallyitis characteristicthatthepuremanorCathar,

Page645 whowasfoundintheOdesofSolomonandwhoisabsentfromArabianandChristianalchemyoftheMiddleAges,reappearsintheageoftheReformationasdoes thekingdomelementwithintheessence.ThepuremanbecomesinParacelsusachemicalElijah,ElijahArtista,andtheworkofalchemyasawholebecomesthatof thegreatMayorsimplyofthekingdom.HenceParacelsus(BookParagranum,Chapter3)saysofnature,intermsasMessianicastheyarechemicallychiliastic: Shebringsnothingtolightthatisperfectasitstands,butmanmustperfectit,andthisperfectioniscalledalchemythisisthediesseptimusorSundayoftheworld, createdbyman.Notleast,theinfluenceofJoachimofFioreandhisThirdKingdomisapparentinallmysticismofthestoneduringtheReformationandtheBaroque heandFicinotogetherarethefirsttoproducethisverycomplexalchemicalRosicrucianism. Themistsandthedifficultiessurroundingtheusualgreedforgoldcouldthushardlybemorecolourfulandmoreconvoluted.Butinorderthattheultimately uncomplicated,ultimatelyunambiguousnatureofthealchemicalwishfuldreamshouldemergeevenatthisfinalstage,wewillfurtherrefertotwoclearlyJoachitebooks onmutationfromtheBaroque(theheydayofalchemy)toSperber'sTreatiseonthethreeseculis,publishedin1660,andtotheworkbyNolliusTheoria philosophiaehermeticae,1617.Sperber,oneofthemostgenuinechiliasts,notonlyseekstodemonstratethatagoldenage,asthethirdandfinalage,isstill outstanding,andwhatitwillbelike,healsopromises:Thethirdgospelandtheartofalchemywillemergetogether.Nollius,asystematicdiscipleofParacelsusand persecutedRosicrucian,gavetheworkofperfectionatotalclimax,referringtothegeneralreformationthephilosopher'sstoneherebecomesaseriesofstagesitself, likeitsmanufacture,itbecomesthecelestialstairofnature.Thechemicalclimaxtothefinalkingdomruns:VerusHermes,Portaehermeticaesapientiae,Silentium hermeticum,Axiomatahermetica,Degenerationeverumnaturalium*andfinally:Derenovatione.Likewise,thegoldendream,apartfromthemetallurgyinwhichit wastechnologicallyimmersed,waseverywherereallyakindofmythologyofliberationaswell.Itwasnevermorethan,atbest,amythology,butalsoseldomlessthan oneofliberation.Somethinglikethecatharsisofobjects,togetherwiththatofsouls,didnotloseitsmainalchemicalsensefromthelateMiddleAgesuptothe metaphorsofclassicism,andespeciallyRomanticism.EvenGoethe,in *TrueHermes,GatesofHermeticwisdom,Hermeticsilence,Hermeticaxioms,Onthegenerationoftruenaturalthings. Onrenovation.

Page646 hishistoryofthetheoryofcolours,whendealingwiththealchemists,stillalludestotheseconnectionsheeveninterpretsthembymeansofakindofKantianism:If thosethreesublimeideasmostintimatelyrelatedtooneanother,God,virtueandimmortality,havebeencalledthehighestdemandsofreason,thenthereareclearly threecorrespondingdemandsofamoresensorykind:gold,healthandlonglife.Alchemycertainlydidnotfindanygold,norwasitcapableoffindingthisgoalwithits fantasticprocessmethods.Neverthelessitcanbejustifiednotmerelyasaforerunnerofmodernchemistry,andevenitsmorespecificplan:thetransmutationofmetals (elements)asaplanitselfsoundsbynomeansgrotesqueanymoreintheageofthesplittingoftheatom,andofthetransferofelectronsintheelements.Onthe contrary,itwasgrotesquethatinthelastcentury,inDarwin'scenturyofthetransmutationofspecies,theinorganicelementsthemselveswereregardedasunshakable andthewhollyidenticaltermmutatiospecierum(itfirstoccursinalchemy)wasnotunderstoodatall.Butaboveall,ashasbecomeobvious,thepurposeofalchemyis bynomeansexhaustedbypartialtransmutations,atleastnotinthecenturyshortlybeforetheEnlightenment.Instead,theinscriptiononthegateofthisdisreputable technologicalwishfuldreamran,inaquitetotalfashion:JehiOr,Lettherebelightthisthereforelayinthehorizonofthefantasticmutations.Thevastmajorityofthe goldcookerswereundoubtedlysearchingfornothingotherthanapursethatisalwaysfull,andherefooledneitherthemselvesnorotherswithanythingmuchgrander. Theenthusiastsinthisareahowever,sittinginfrontofthesamefurnace,andalsothoroughlyinclinedtowardstheprospectofasmanyducatsastheyliked,alsohadin mindanothertransfigurationofnatureasagoalofmetamorphosis. UnregulatedinventionsandPropositionesintheBaroqueperiod Itwasalwayspossibletoplanintothemereblue,arbitrarilyandalsoshakily.Butsoundertechnologicaldreamsandthosedirectedtowardsanextensionofimplements appearonlysparselybefore1500.HoweverremarkableRomanplumbing,Chinesepaperandgunpowder(onlyusedforfireworks),andEgyptiancranesare:onlywith themandateundercapitalismdidlargertechnologicalprojectsalsogetunderway.Admittedly,around550inByzantiumtherearealreadyplansforashipwithpaddle wheelswhicharemovedbyoxenatacapstanbutitnevergotfurtherthantheplanning

Page647 stage.MiniaturesbasedonthemedievallegendofAlexanderalreadyportrayakindofsubmarine,inwhichAlexandersinksintothedepthsandobservestheir monstersbuttheagewasonlyinterestedintheseoceandepths,notintheglasssubmarine.RogerBacon,theempiricalandscientificFranciscan,representsasolitary exceptioninthethirteenthcentury.InhisEpistoladesecretisoperibusartisheprophesiedcarriageswhicharemovedwithouttheaidofanimals,withincredible speed,andalsoflyingmachines,inwhichamanwhositscomfortablyandthinksabouteverythingbeatstheairinthemannerofthebirds.ButRogerBacon,with theseinventivedreams,metwithnointerestinasocietywhichwasjustasclassboundandstaticasitwasfullofmistrusttowardsnature.ThusonlyintheRenaissance, onlywiththebusinessinterestandpursuitofprofitofthecapitalismwhichwasgettingunderwayatthattime,wasthetechnologicalimaginationpubliclyacknowledged andpromoted.TheRenaissanceandBaroqueareboththeageoftechnologicalwindmakerslaDrOrfyrus,whomwehaveencounteredabove,andaboveallof practicalandcapabledesigners.Theyweredilettantestinkeringaroundinmanyareas,experimentingaroundinallareas,withoutsufficientmechanicalknowledge,but overflowingwithpatentableideas.AttheirheadstoodJoachimBecher(16351682),asplendidfigurewhomSombartrescuedfromobscurity(cf.DieTechnikim ZeitalterdesFrhkapitalismus,ArchivforSozialwissenschaft,Vol.34,p.721ff.),aluckySunday'schildofinventiveness:Becherbroughtblueprintsintotheworldby thedozen,newlooms,waterwheels,clockworkmechanisms,athermoscope,amethodofextractingtarfromhardcoal,andsoon.HisbookFoolishWisdomand wiseFollyoraHundredatoncePoliticalandphysical/mechanicalandmercantilicConceptaandPropositiones,1686,reallyravesintherealmofunlimited possibilities,unimpededbymathematicalandmechanicalknowledgeofthefacts.Thisstrangeconnectionbetweendilettantismandtechnology,incidentally,lastedfrom theRenaissanceuntilfarintotheeighteenthcentury.Adoctor,astudentoftheology,anEgyptologist,andayoungworkerinventedasphalt,theknittingmachine,the magiclantern,andthesteeringmechanismofthesteamengineatthattime,whilethegreatnaturalscientists,likeKepler,Newton,andevenGalileo,wereinterestedin technologymoreasasidelineandonlytwoscientists:Guericke,astheinventoroftheairpump,*andHuygens,astheinventorofthependulumclock,figureequally stronglyinthehistoryofphysicsandtechnology.Thecapitalistmandatewasthesamefortechnologyandscience,butforalong *OttovonGuericke(160286).Hisairpump,inventedin1654,precededRobertBoyleandRobertHooke'sversion,theMachinaBoyliana(c.1658).

Page648 timetechnologywasstillconnectedwithhandicrafts,andalmostonlyinAgricola(Deremetallica,1530)waspracticalactivityaccordedthesamestatusastheory. Thereisalsosomethingelsewhich,fortheirpart,keptthemajorityofinventorsinthosedaysalooffrommathematicalandmechanicalknowledge.Forthemagicnatural backgroundhadstillbynomeanscollapsedforthemtheworldofParacelsustookrootandsurvivedforalongtimepreciselyintechnologicalbooks.Aboveallin thosedealingwithminingtheearthspiritoraghostlylifeinthedepthshadanaiveeffectonthetechnologistsatthattime,justasitstirredthepoetsandthe philosophersofnaturesentimentallyagainsomuchlater,inRomanticism.Thegasesintheairweredemonswhowereaftertheminer'sblood,therisingwatersfromthe depthscontainedalivingwaterspirit,whereasthefallingwaterswhichhavetoberaisedwerethereforeregardedasdeadwaters,inshort,eveninthisdirection technology,andnotjustalchemy,livedinaqualitativelymagicalandnotinaquantitativelymechanicalworld.AlmostsolelyinItaly,asthemostadvancedcapitalist countryatthattime,wasinventionlinkedwithearlycalculation.Around1470theengineerValturiosketchedacar,calledastormcarriage,withwindmillsailsatthe side,thedrivewastransmittedtothewheelsofthecarriagebymeansofcogwheels,andthesketchwasworkedoutmathematically.AndwhenBrunelleschiput togetherthemachinesforbuildinghisdomeofFlorencecathedralhimself,theywerecombinedleversandinclinedplanesinamathematicallyconsidereddesign.Andas farastheboldtechnologistLeonardodaVinciisconcerned,heisthefirstpurelyimmanentinventorandscientistwhatsoever,workingonthebasisofcausality (necessity).Keenobservationandcarefulcalculationassistedhisvariedplansoccasionallywiththeerrorsofthepioneer,butwithoutanydilettantism.Thushe designedthefirstparachute,thefirstturbine(preservedasasketch:Propellerinacanal),andthefirstflyoversystem(likewisepreservedasasketch:Designfor streetslyingaboveoneanother).Hestudiedtheflightofbirdsinordertorealizethehumandreamofflight,theoldestofallthetechnologicalwishfulimages:Iintendto makethebigartificialbirdtakehisfirstflightitwillfilltheuniversewithamazement,andallworkswithitsfameeternalglorywillbeaccordedtothenestwhereitwas born.ThebirdwastoriseinFlorence,butitnevergotbeyondaplan,andIcarusdidnotevenfall,solittledidherisefromtheground.Andofcoursethemathematical mechanicsonwhichLeonardowantedtobasehisinventionswasonlydevelopedafterhisdeath.AndfurthermoreevenLeonardo,despitethemathematically constructiveinstinctwhichsocharacteristicallydistinguisheshim,didnotwhollyemergefromtheorganicviewofnatureoftheRenaissance.Onthecontrary:

Page649 Theseaofbloodwhichliesaroundtheheartistheoceanicwaters,itsbreathingandthewaxingandwaningofbloodthroughthepulsesisintheearththeebbandflow oftheocean,andthewarmthofthesouloftheworldisthefireinherentintheearth,andthefireswhichbreatheintospasfromvariouspartsoftheeartharetheabode ofthevegetativesoul(Richter,LiteraryworksofLeonardodaVinci,1883,p.1000).ThusevenLeonardohimselfhadamoresympatheticthanquantitative attitudetowardsnature,althoughandindeedbecausehebelievedthatitwasalreadywritteninnumbers.ButtheinventivewillintheRenaissanceandtheBaroqueasa wholeremainsessentiallyintheimpromptu,withthebeliefthatinventingisamysteriousprocess,asisultimatelythenatureintowhichitdelves.JoachimBecher,who wasregardedasthegreatestinventivegeniusofhisday,himselfspeaksindeeplymovedtonesofthegiftgrantedtohimwhichcannotbeacquired,thedonum inventionis.ForBecheritisnottiedtoprofessionalknowledge:Thereisnorespectofpersonorprofessionherekingsandpeasants,thelearnedandtheunlearned, heathensandChristians,thedevoutandthewickedhavebeenendowedwithit.Inventivenessbuiltintotheunknownforalongtimetocomeandtherebymadeit knownforthefirsttime,itproducedtheunprecedented,additionalworkingcapacityofthemachine,butoftenwithoutseekingtohavemorecontactwithexistencethan thatofthegift,theluckytouchandthechancewhichturnsoutluckyforthegift. Bacon'sArsinveniendisurvivaloftheLullianart Consciousinventionalsoappearedatfirstonlyasdreamandplanning.AsinFrancisBacon,inhisNovumOrganumscientiarum,1620,andtheinductiveinformation stillimpartedinverygeneraltermsthere.Thereisacallforexperiments,operationalknowledgeofthelawsofnature,therenunciationofmyth,andcautionwithrespect toteleologicalexplanations.Tricksofthetradeareomitted,asaretradesecrets,basedonmerelymanualskillorchancerecipes,especiallymagicaltheosophical backdrops.AdmittedlyBacondoesnotspeakinanunfriendlyfashionofalchemyinhisposthumousworksylvasylvarumoraNaturalHistory,hethinksthatgold makingispossible,asaripeningofthelightermetals,buthemocksthemethodsused,particularlythedesiredprojectionwiththephilosopher'sstone,thesefew dropsofelixir.HemocksthisashedoeseverythingabruptandmiraculousthatiswhytheconnectionsoftenclaimedtoexistbetweenBaconandtheRosicruciansare alsodubious.OnlyBacon's

Page650 aimofaregnumhoministouchesonthehigheralchemy,buttheregnumwasconceivedasthemasteryofnature,notasthetransfigurationofnatureorasJoachim's ThirdKingdom.EspeciallytheArsinveniendiintheNovumorganumscientiarumseekstofoundtheoreticalfindingandpracticalinventingwhollyonexperience (insteadofonsomethingbeyondthesensoryworld)andonregularinduction(insteadofondeductionswhichtrustwrittenauthority).Onlythroughobservationand analysisaretheconstantproperties,theprimitiveformsofallthingsdiscernibleonlythusisthegoalofknowledgeachieved:theproductionofartefacts. Knowledgeofearlierinventivedreamsisalsosupposedtobeusefulforthis,butessentiallysothattheycanbeusedtoemphasizethatwhichseemeddaringor impossibletomenandwhichwasneverthelesstobefoundintheirtechnologicaldreams.Therecordofrealized,andparticularlyofunrealizedplansalsogaveuseful hintsforinventiveideaswhichhithertolaybeyondthePillarsofHercules:butonlytheshipoftherealartofexperimentationwillreachthegoldenGardensofthe Hesperides.OnlyinthiswayaccordingtoBacondotheoldfairytalescometrue,theyarenotrealizedbycontinuallybeingtoldwalkingthesameoldtreadmillinan increasinglygarrulous,increasinglyepigonicfashion.Andjustlikeirregularanticipation,thequarrelsomelumberofwordsanddeductionshasanunfruitfuleffect:sothat thestateoflearningasitnowisappearstoberepresentedtothelifeintheoldfableofScylla,whohadtheheadandfaceofavirgin,butherwombwashunground withbarkingmonsters,fromwhichshecouldnotbedelivered.Forinlikemannerthesciencestowhichweareaccustomedhavecertaingeneralpositionswhichare speciousandflatteringbutassoonastheycometoparticulars,whichareasthepartsofgeneration,whentheyshouldproducefruitandworks,thenarisecontentions andbarkingdisputations,whicharetheendofthematterandalltheissuetheycanyield(MagnaInstauratio,Preface).Knowledgeispower,alsothepowertofulfilthe olddreamsofinventors,andindeedthoseofmagic,ifnottosurpasstheminboldness:Forasforthenaturalmagicwhereofnowthereismentioninbooks,containing certaincredulousandsuperstitiousconceitsandobservationsofSympathiesandAntipathiesandhiddenproperties,andsomefrivolousexperiments,strangeratherby disguisementthaninthemselvesitisasfardifferingintruthofnaturefromsuchknowledgeaswerequire,asthestoryofkingArthurofBritain,orHughofBordeaux, differsfromCaesar'scommentariesintruthofstory.ForitismanifestthatCaesardidgreaterthingsdeverothanthoseimaginaryheroeswerefeignedto

Page651 do.*ThetermmagianaturalisstemsfromaworkbytheneoAristoteliandellaPortafromtheRenaissanceanditwasalreadydirectedinhisworkagainstthe cabbalistsandbelieversinmagicatthattime.Intermsofdetail,ofcourse,Baconexhibitsratherthanfillsthegapsinpreviousknowledge,andgivesdesideratahimself ratherthanbuildingupnaturalmagic.Alsohistechniqueofinduction,directedtowardsthediscoveryofprimitiveforms,isstillitselffarmorescholasticthan scientific.Alsoheregardedmathematicsasamereappendagetophysicsandbynomeansasitsmethodicalbasis,whichtohiscontemporariesappearedtobea downrightbackwardelementinthisNovumOrganum,thisNovainstauratioscientiarum.Thoughhedidthisonthestillwhollyorganic,naturalphilosophicalgrounds thatthemathematiciansspoilphysics,becausethelatterdealswiththequalitative(withtheformofheatforexample).ButBaconshowed,withenormousforesight, ifnotthewaysthenthevariousandatthattimestillwhollyuntroddencadresandareasinwhichmodernscienceitselfwastodevelop,withapurelycausalmechanical technology. Regulatedinventionthereforeherepresupposespassingfromtheparticulartothegeneral.Buthoweversoundtheinductiveconclusionis,itneitherseeksnorisableto gobeyondamoreorlesshighdegreeofprobability.Inthestrictsenseitisvalidonlyforthesumofindividualcasesobserved,butnotforalltheotherunobservedones towhichthegenerallawobtainedisnowextended.WhereastheverydeductionrejectedbyBaconbringsnecessitywithit,atleastintermsofformallogic:ifaccording tothemajorpremiseallmenaremortal,thenCaiusasamannotonlyprobablybutnecessarilyhastodie.Andasfarasthiskindofpropagationofscienceis concerned,evenintheMiddleAges,asBaconhimselfremindsus,andhenceinreasonableproximitytoArthur'sRoundTable,therewasanArsinveniendi,whicheven appearedintheshapeofamachine.ItwasthesocalledLullianartorthetechnologicallymanufacturedsevenleaguebootofthedeductiveconcept,ofthesyllogism. EventheMiddleAges,thoughhardlytechnologicallyactiveatall,wasinterestedinsuchinstruments:asthoseofknowledge,notofchange.Thestrangely *TheAdvancementofLearning,Bacon'sworks,ed.Spedding,Vol.III,p.361.BlochisusinganinferiorGermantranslationofBacon.Hisquotationsuggests naturalmagiccanperformgreatdeeds,combinedwithscience,whereasBacon'soriginalstatesthatitisinferiortorealtruthandknowledge.InBloch'sversionnatural magicisthuscomparedwiththetruedeedsofCaesar,whereasinBaconitiscomparedtothelegendsofArthur,i.e.exactlythereverse.

Page652 rationalistscholasticRamonLullhadmadeadevicearound1300bymeansofwhicheverykindofdeductivederivationwastobediscoveredandchecked.Thedevice (Instrumentumadomnisscibilisdemonstrationem)consistedofasystemofconcentriccircles,oneachofwhichagroupofconceptswasspreadintheshapeofafan. Bymovingthesecirclesallpossiblecombinationswhatsoeverbetweensubjectandpredicateweresupposedtobeachievedwherebythenumberofpossiblesubjects andthatofpossiblebasicpredicates(predicables),andconsequentlythequantityofdiscswasfixed.TherewasthusaFiguraDeiwhichcontainedthewholeof theology,aFiguraanimaewhichcontainedthewholeofpsychology,andaFiguravirtutumwiththesevenvirtuesanddeadlysinsinalternatelyblueandredchambers (v.thedetailsinJ.E.Erdmann,GrundrissderGeschichtederPhilosophieI,206,412tableinStckl,GeschichtederPhilosophiedesMittelaltersII,1865,p.936). TheLullianartthussoughttogiveinstructionsfordiscoveringwhatiscategoriallydefinable,scientificallydistinguishable,combinable,andprovableineveryobject.And Lull'shopewassimplythatthedeductionmachineofknowledgeshouldencompassandexhausteveryvariationofcognitionthatwasatallmeaningfullypossible.It demonstratesliterallyadoculos,sothatanyoneeagerforknowledgecanalsoseeandnotmerelyunderstandthearchrationalistderivationofindividualdefinitionsfrom ideas.Allthisinthemostabbreviatedmodeofdeduction,basedonAristoteliantopics,thoughalsonotunconnectedwiththePlotinian,indeedcabbalisticdoctrineof emanationoftheworldfromideas.Atanyratethemostastonishingmachinewasinfactproduced,thatofanArsmagnaasbothArsinveniendiandArs demonstrandi,portrayedinsymbols,circles,tables,inthereductionsofakindoflogicallogarithmicclock.GiordanoBrunosoughttoimprovetheLullianartby decreasingthecircles,andPicodellaMirandolaconnecteditforthefirsttimewithPythagoreanarithmetic.Theneedinbourgeoiscalculationforanarithmetical universalderivationofallthatisgivenfromafewlogicalelementsorprinciples(firsttruths)ensuredthattheLullianartwasnotforgottenanyway,atleastwithregard toitsintention.LeibnizbeganhiscareerwiththeworkDeartecombinatoria,1666,inwhich,followingLullandBruno,hetreatedthemodesofcombinationof conceptsascalculablesothatonewouldbeabletodemonstrateanerrorinreasoningwiththesameclarityandcertaintyasanarithmeticalerror.Throughouthislife Leibnizsearchedforthevalidcombinationtheorycomposedofanalphabetofideas,accordingtowhichnewtruthscanbefoundmechanicallyasitwere.ThisArs combinatoria

Page653 survivesinanextremelyelementaryformeveninthediversecalculatingmachinesthoughnotinordertodiscovernewtruthsbut,asthesocalledManiac(Mechanical andNumericalIntegratorandCalculator)hassucceededindoing,inordertomultiplytwotenfigurenumbersinlessthanathousandthofasecond.Pascalhad constructedthefirstmechanicalcalculator,withrotatingwheels,andtodayLull'sarithmeticizeddreamhasbeenturnedintoawholeintellectualindustry,withspeedas witchcraft.EventhenewestAmericanmechanicalengineering,whichhasculminatedforthemomentinNorbertWiener'sCybernetics,stillincorporatesaportionof Lull'smechanicalidea.Hisplanneveraimedatsuchautomatismsthough,evenamathematicalalphabetofideasstilllaybeyondthehorizonoftheLullianart,inview ofthetimeatwhichitarose.Instead,Lulloriginallyhadamissionarypurposewithhismachinetheinventionwasplannedasakindofdeductiveapostleofthefaith. ThusLullhadintendedtoconvinceallunbelieversofthetruthoftheChristianreligionbymeansoftheirrefutabledemonstrationsofhismachine,freeofeveryerrorin reasoning.ThisaimisofcoursealsoasremoteaspossiblefromFrancisBaconandhisnaturalmagic,evenmoreremotethanitisfromLeibniz.Baconthusspeaks almostcontemptuouslyofLull,andnotonlybecauseofthescholasticmythologyitself,butalsobecauseofthecuriousdeductionandsubsumptioninwhichits machinerymoves.Nevertheless,becauseofitstechnicalnatureLull'sinventionwouldalsohavecutquiteagoodfigureinBacon'sArsinveniendi,andespeciallyinhis utopianhallofinstruments(Theatrummechanicum).NoteventhepassionatepraiseofinductionstandsinthewayofthisforevenBacon'sinductionstillseeksto explorethebasicformofthingsandfinally,althoughtheworddeductionisdeliberatelyabsent,permitsdescending,namelyfromthelawofformstotheexperiment oftheirselfapplicationinappearance.Onlyinthis,incontrasttopurelyflatempiricalprogress,istheregulatedartoftheinventorcompletedforBacon:Butafterthis storeofparticularshasbeensetoutdulyandinorderbeforeoureyes,wearenottopassatoncetotheinvestigationanddiscoveryofnewparticularsorworksFor ourroaddoesnotlieonalevel(nequeinplanoviasitaest),butascendsanddescendsfirstascendingtoaxioms,thendescendingtoworks(NovumOrganumI, Aph.103).InthisdescendendoadoperatheArsinveniendiwasforBaconaportionofLull'sArsmagnaaswelldirectedagainstthemethodoftesting,failure, andrenewedtesting(trialanderrormethod)ofthephilistines,notjustthesuperstitiousones.ButthegoalofknowledgefortheEnglishprojectmakerwasnot knowledgeforitsown

Page654 sake,butverymuchinthemannerofMarlowe'sDoctorFaustuspowerthroughknowledge,anewAtlantis,whereeverythingservesman,serveshimforthe best. NewAtlantis,theutopianlaboratory Andifperhapsahundredyears FromnowanairshipwithGreekwine Highladenthroughthereddawnsteers Whowouldnotbetheferryman? GottfriedKeller Butthehearthstillliesfaroffonwhichthenewusefulthingsdevelop.InBacon'sdreamofdistantshores,shipwreckedpeoplereachanislandintheSouthSeas,and arethereintroducedtoinventingasitoughttobe.Whatwashesitantlyandhaphazardlybegunelsewhereiscompletedonthecleverislandaseparateclassofnatural scientistsachievesincrediblethingsthere.Bacon'sNewAtlantis,1623,*whichappearedatthesametimeasCampanella'sCivitassolis,wassupposedtoanswer twoquestionsaccordingtotheplanofitsauthor:thatconcerningthebestresearchinstitute,andthatconcerningthebeststate.Theunfinishedworkonlyanswersthe firstquestion,itportraysasolomon'sHouse,vast,brightandwide.Whatthewisekingknewandcoulddobymeansofmagic,accordingtothelegend,ishere actuallycarriedout,insofarasitlieswithinhumanabilityandadvantage.Thevoiceofthebirdsisnotunderstood,nospiritsareinvoked,butthehyssopwhichgrows onthewallisrecognizedallthebetter.ThelegendaryaccomplishmentsoftheAtlantiansarealsorecalled,ofwhichPlatogivesanaccountinhisCritias,withtheirskills inmakingcanalsandworkinginbronze.ButinBaconitisaquestionnotofvanishedbutofutopiansplendour,notofapreMyceneanbutofapostGothicage.Inhis newAtlantisBacondescribessuccessfulinventionswhicharepartlystilltocome,andheoutlinesthemwithamazinganticipation.Eventhoughmerelyanticipatingthe result,andnotthemeanstoachieveitforinstance,asintendedbytheauthor *ThefirsteditionofBacon'sNewAtlantis,editedbyWilliamRawley,actuallyappearedin1627appendedtothesylvaSylvarum.Thereissomedoubtastoits actualdateofcomposition.Speddingsuggestsitwaswrittenin1624.

Page655 ofaNovumOrganum.DisdainformathematicspreventedBaconfromhavingavisionofproduction,buthisvisionofthefruitsisallthericher.Bacon'stechnological prophecyisuniquehisbookofdesideratamoreorlesscontainsmoderntechnologyinwishfuloutlineandgoesbeyondit.TheheadofSolomon'sHousedeclares theyhavemeansofproducingartificialrainorevensnowandartificialmountainair.Theycultivatenewvarietiesofplantsandfruitinhothouses,theyshortenthe ripeningprocess,mixthespeciesofanimalsaccordingtotheirneeds,mineralizetheirbaths,andproduceartificialmineralsandbuildingmaterials.*Vivisectionisnot lacking:Wetryalsoallpoisonsandothermedicinesuponthem[beastsandbirds],aswellofchirurgeryasphysic.TheAtlantiansareacquaintedwiththetelephone andnolesssowiththesubmarine:Wehavealsomeanstoconveysoundsintrunksandpipes,instrangelinesanddistances(admagnamdistantiametinlineis tortuosis).wehaveshipsandboatsforgoingunderwater,andbrookingofseas.Themicrophoneisnotlackingeither:Werepresentsmallsoundsasgreatand deeplikewisegreatsoundsextenuateandsharpAtlantisisevenacquainted,incredibiledictu,withthemostmodernquartertonetechnique:Wehaveharmonies whichyouhavenot,ofquartersounds(quadrantessonorum),andlesserslidesofsounds.Thereisatelescopeandamicroscope:Wehavealsoglassesandmeansto seesmallandminutebodiesperfectlyanddistinctlyastheshapesandcoloursofsmallfliesandworms,grainsandflawsingems,whichcannototherwisebeseen observationsinurineandblood,nototherwisetobeseen.Solomon'sHousefurtherharboursaeroplanes,steamengines,waterturbinesandstillotherMagnalia naturae,featsofnature,withitandbeyondit.ThusNewAtlantisisnotmerelythefirsttechnologicallyreflectiveutopia,infactd'Alembertcalledthiswork(thus surpassingthewishfulmodelsoffairytalesthemselves)uncatalogueimmensedecequirestedcouvrir.Bacon'sworkis,evensubsequently,theonlyutopiaof classicalstatuswhichgivesdecisivestatustothetechnologicalproductiveforcesofthebetterlife.Unlikeinreallifeatanyrate,themechanicalworldandtheeconomic socialonewerenotalwayslinkedinutopias.Bacon'sNewAtlantiswouldhavedeservedemulationhere,oneseriouslycorrespondingtotechnologicaldevelopment anditsimmanentpossibilities. *Blochgivesadirectquotationhere,buttheunreliabletranslationheisusinghasagaincondensedtheoriginal.Thefulltextinwhichtheseideasarefoundisnot includedherebecauseofitslength.itmaybefoundinSpedding'sedition,Vol.III,pp.15762.Wehavesetthequotationinindirectspeechhere. animmensecatalogueofwhatremainstobediscovered.

Page656 Apartfromthefactthatthetechnologicalcomponentneverappearedinanynovelofanidealstateotherthanasornamentation,socialutopias,asisclearinthecaseof Owen,oftenevenlaggedbehindthetechnologicallevelattainedbytheirage.AsidefromBacon,onlyCampanellaatbestformsanexceptionhere,insofarashetoo dreamsofunborntechnology,indeedofunbornarchitecture,thoughwithoutBacon'spowerfulwit.DelightingininventionalmostasmuchasBacon,hepredictsinthe Civitassolisthatthedevelopmentoftheprintingpressandofmagnetismwillfillthecomingcenturieswithmorehistorythantheworldforesawinfourthousand years.ButCampanella'sutopiacouldexistevenwithoutthesebreakthroughsinexistingnature,itevencontradictstheminitsastrologicallystaticform.WhereasNew AtlantisseekstolieineveryrespectbeyondthePillarsofHercules,i.e.beyondthebindingofgivennature.Bacon'sfragment,initstechnologicaloptimism,doesnot evenrecognizecatastrophesanymore,thereisnolongeranyfiredampinthecontrolledearth.Thereisofcoursenomentionofthefiredampswhichfillnotnaturebut uncontrolledhumanhistory,ofthevariousburningTroys.FateappearstobesorestrainedinpurelytechnologicaltermsthatSolomon'sHousealreadyseemstohave copedwithitbeforeSolomon'sStatehasevendeveloped.Thequestionastowhatmenshoulddowiththeirknowledgeandpower,withinthesocialnaturewhich Bacon,thefallenLordChancellor,hadnotfoundtobewhollywithoutcatastrophes,isnotyetposedbyBaconthephilosopherinthisfragmentofhisshortlybeforethe questionconcerningthebeststatetheNewAtlantisbreaksoff.Buttheoutlinesoftheunwrittensequel,concerningSolomon'skingdom,canbeguessedperfectlywell fromthephilosopher'sotherworks.GuessedincontrasttoamechanizationmadeabsoluteforBacon,contrarytopopularopinion,isneitherapureutilitariannora pureempiricist.Howevermuchhepraisesthelifeofactiveinvention,hestillgivesprecedencetothelifeofreason:Somustwelikewisefromexperienceofeverykind firstendeavourtodiscovertruecausesandaxiomsandseekforexperimentsofLight,notforexperimentsofFruit.*Onlyabalancebetweenthecontemplativeand theactivelifeappearscorrectandsalutarytothedreameroftheNewAtlantis:Butthisisthatwhichwillindeeddignifyandexaltknowledge,ifcontemplationand actionmaybemorenearlyandstraitlyconjoinedandunitedtogetherthantheyhavebeenaconjunctionlikeuntothatofthetwohighestplanets,Saturntheplanetof restand *NovumOrganum,Aphorism70.

Page657 contemplation,andJupitertheplanetofcivilsocietyandaction.*ButSolomon'sHouseisincorporatedintoanultimatelycalmkingdom:thecontrolofnature(inwhich privationandcatastrophescometoanend)servesinBacontheestablishmentofaregnumhominis.ThiskingdomandgoalofknowledgeisinBaconfilledwiththe hopeswhichearlycapitalismwasstillabletocherishformankindthroughtheunleashingoftheforcesofproduction:Nowthetrueandlawfulgoalofthesciencesis noneotherthanthis:thathumanlifebeendowedwithnewdiscoveriesandpowers.(NovumOrganum,Aph.81).Mankindwastoemergefromaworldfullof epidemics,shortagecrisis,andunderproduction,fromaworldtowhichBacon'sadmiredMontaignehadcalledout:Grcel'homme,intotheaffluencewhichonly seemedattainabletoearlierutopiasbytransferringthemtoaparadisialnature,intotheaffluencewhichprecedestheregnumhominisasdinnerprecedesthedance. Theplanofsolomon'sHousehasbeenfulfilledinthemeantimebytechnicalcollegesandlaboratories,beyondBacon'sdreamsthereisstillalongwaytogoas regardstheregnumhominis.AndeventheproductionofartefactsinBacon'ssense,anotonlyPrometheanbutalsoartificialproduction,hasnotsubsequently abolishedcatastrophesintechnology.Admittedlythecontactwithnatureremainedinthebourgeoiseconomyandsocietywhicharrived,butitremainedsufficiently abstractandunmediated.Bacon'sgreatmaxim:Naturaparendovincitur,natureisconqueredbyobedience,remainedactive,butitwascrossedbytheinterestofan exploitationofnature,andthusbyaninterestwhichhasnothingmoretodowiththenaturanaturanswhichBaconstillknowsandsinglesoutasthecausacausarum. letalonebeingalliedtoit.Inthiswaytherearose,alongsidealltheblessings,suchapeculiarlyartificialabstractcharacterinbourgeoistechnologythatitcandoubtless alsoseem,inmanyofitscunninginventions,stillunnaturallyfoundedandnotjuststillinhumanlymanaged.solomon'sHouse,soitseems,cannotdowithoutSolomon afterall,thatis,withoutnaturalwisdom.Itcontains,likeallwisdom,referencetoitsoppositenumber,naturetheregnumhominisattainedwithinittoo,andnotmerely aboveit,wouldthenhaveiteasier. *TheAdvancementofLearning,Spedding,Vol.III,p.294. Blochquotesamuchlongerpassagehere,againfromanunreliabletranslation.Afterthefirstsentence,itbearsnorelationtoBacon'sAphorism81.Wehaveomitted theextraneousmaterialandgiveonlytheopeningoftheoriginalaphorismhere.

Page658 II.NonEuclideanPresentandFuture,theProblemofTechnologicalContact Plansmustalsobespurredon Thereisnoinnerurgeassuchtoinventsomething.Amandateisalwaysnecessaryforthiswhichpourswaterontheplannedwheels.Everyimplementpresupposes exactneedsandhasthepreciseaimofsatisfyingthemotherwiseitwouldnotbethere.Hungerstartedeverythingoffatthisverypoint,theearliestimplementsarethose forhuntingandfishing,theformeralsoservedasweapons.Theplough,theinventionofspinningandweaving,pottery:evenifsomeofthiswascoveredwithornament, thelatterwasneverprimary,oritservedausefulpurposeitself,asasupposedmagicsymbol.Andtothisdaytheinventor,evenasadreamer,isapracticalman.At thesametimeheismoreconsciousthananyotherintellectualmakerofnotbeingawheelthatrollsofitsownaccord.IftheEnglishmineshadnotbeenindangerof flooding,thenWatt,likesomanyothersbeforehim,wouldhavewatchedthehissingkettleinvain,alegendarykettleanyway.Andwithoutasocialmandatetheimage oftheknittingmachineorchaintowingwouldnothaveflashedintothemindofanyinventor,outofinnervocationforinstance.Itwouldnothaveflashedthroughhis mindwithoutamandateanymorethantheinventionofartificialrawmaterialsorevenofatombombstoday.Unrecognizedinventorsaretherefore,inaparticularly clearway,thosewhocometooearlyoralso,asinthestagnantbusinessoftheWesttoday,toolate.Herethereareonlytwokindsofideas,thosewhichcanbebought andthosewhichcannotbeboughtthelatterdonotreallyexistevenasblueprints.Aninventorcannotdoanythingsuperfluous,norhasoneeverhaditinmindtoplan suchathing. Latebourgeoiscurbingoftechnology,apartfromthemilitarykind Thebourgeoismandatetoinventhasbeencharacteristicallywaningforalongtime.Beforethelastcrisistoomuchwasproducedforcapitaltobeabletocopewithit. Faminebegan,notbecauseofcropfailureasin

Page659 earliertimes,butbecausethegranariesweretoofull.Asisevidentandwellknown,theprivatecapitalisteconomyhasitselfbecomeachainfortheproductionwhichit onceunchained.Onlynewmeansofdeathareinteresting,shortlybeforeandduringthewar,wartechnologyisbooming,thepeacefulkindfollowsinitswake.And thereisalsoasecondmotiveforthiscurbing,onefromawhollyopposite,namelysocialistarea.Socialismatthepresenttimeismoreurgentlyinterestedinchanging backwardsocietythaninchangingatechnologywhichisadvancedenoughanywayandcanbereadilyadopted.Technologyisalreadycollective:theindividual workshopinwhichthemastercraftsmanstillcollaborateswithhisfewjourneymenhaslongsincebecomethefactoryofhundredsandthousands.Buttheprivateowner ofthefactorywhodoesnotcollaborateintheproductionisstillthoroughlyindividualforsocial,notfortechnologicalreasons.Itisinfactpreciselythecontradiction betweenthematurity,andalsothelongsincecollectiveformofproductionandtheantiquatedprivatecapitalistformofappropriationwhichparticularlydemonstrates thenonsenseofthecapitalisteconomy.Technology,insofarasitrepresentsatechnologyofthemeansofexistenceandnotthemeansofdeath,isitselfcumgranosalis alreadysocialistitthereforeneedslessfutureplanningthansociety.Allthiscombinestomaketechnologicalutopiasnowherenearasexcitingastheywereeveninthe timeofJulesVerne.Notmerelybecausetheskyisteemingwithfakebirds,bymeansofwhichitispossibletogoaroundtheworldinaconsiderablyshortertimethan eightydays,butaboveallpreciselybecauseeveninutopiantermsatemporarymoratoriumontechnologyhasoccurred.Thetermmoratoriumontechnologystems fromthelongperiodofcrisisbeforetheSecondWorldWarandisinthisrespectfarmorepertinentthanthejubilationoverproductionfleetinglyarousedbyasocalled economicmiracleasaresultoftheSecondWorldWar,withwhichitiswhollyincharacter.Acrisisofsurplus,themorethancyclicalfateofmonopolycapitalism, standsinthewayofthegreenlightoverandoveragain,ofthemandatewhichcapital,initsprogressiveperiod,hadgiventotechnologicaldaring.Thecontrasttothe paceofinventionfrom1750to1914isandremainsapiercingonenoinvestmentoftodayfeelsanythinglikeaselectrifiedanymore.Whollycontrarytohasty appearancesandpropaganda,thevauntedpaceoftechnology,asfaraschangesincivilianlifeareconcerned,ratheradvanceslikethatofamailcoach,comparedwith thatoftheIndustrialRevolutionandwiththenineteenthcentury.LookwhatbecameofPapin'soldsteamdigesteroncecapitalwasinterestedinmakingsteamdosome work.Andwhatalong

Page660 lackingtheleapfromthemailcoachtothetrainwasanincomparablygreaterchangeinlivingconditionsthantheleapfromthetraintotheaeroplane.Andwedonot evenneedtoconsiderherethehailofbombsbeneathwhichtheaeroplanehasbeenencounteredbymostpeopleandhasalsopossiblytransportedthem,tokingdom come.ThelatentLuddismoflatecapitalismeverywherecounteractstheprogressionofwhatisEdisonlike,althoughonceithasgotunderwayitisnotthateasyto stop.Onthewhole,however,inventionwillonlyhaverealutopiaatheartagainwhenaneconomydirectedtowardsthesatisfactionofneedsispursuedinsteadofa profiteconomy.Whenthelawofsocialism:maximumsatisfactionofneedsatthelevelofthehighesttechnology,hasfinallysupersededthelawofcapitalism:maximum profit.Whenconsumptioniscapableofassimilatingallproducts,andtechnology,regardlessofriskandprivateprofitability,isonceagaingivenamandateforboldness, withoutanyimperialisticallypromoteddemonism. Deoranizationofthemachineatomicenergy,nonEuclideantechnology Thisisallthemorelikelyasanothertrendisstirringbeneaththepresentcrust.Farbeyondsubstitutematerials,howevermuchitmaylieintheirfield,namelyinthat whichisnolongernatural,butartificialoralltooartificial.Theunnaturalelementalreadybeganwhenmeninventedthewheel,whichisnotfoundontheirbody.Usually, asweknow,implementsandmachinesarosefromimitatingpartsofthebody,thehammeristhefist,thechiselthenail,thesawtherowofteethandsoon.Butgreat progressoccurredonlywhenthissortofthingwasabandoned,whenthemachinesolveditstaskwithmeansofitsown.Thesewingmachinedoesnotoperatelike sewingbyhand,northetypesettingmachinelikehandsettingtheaeroplaneisnotanimitationofabird,onthecontraryitswingisinflexible,anditspropellerisnota wing.Onlyinthesteamengineandlocomotivedoesasemblancefromtheoldorganicseriesstillcontinuetooperate.Hissing,boiling,breathing,withconnectingrods likearmsatthesidechildrenplayingarethusstillinducedtoimitatelocomotives.AndhoworganicallyfamiliarthedescriptioncanstillbewhichJosephConrad bestowsontheship'sengineroominTyphoon,thepalelongflamesonthebrightlypolishedmetal,theenormouscrankheadsemergingfromtheflooring,andsinking downagain,thebigjointed

Page662 connectingrods,reminiscentofskeletonlimbs,whichthrustdownthecrankheads,andpullthemupagain:Anddeepinthehalflightotherrodsdodgeddeliberately toandfro,crossheadsnodded,discsofmetalrubbedsmoothlyagainsteachother,slowandgentle,inacomminglingofshadowsandgleams.Thissortofthing,inits expressiveandunerringmovements,stilllookslikeanartificialorganismoralsolikeanaturalmechanism.Butthetechnologywhichhasdevelopedinthepresent centuryshowslessandlessresemblancetohumanlimbsandproportions,andthesteamengineonlygivesafinalgreeting,itselfonlythesemblanceofagreetingtothe oldorganoidseries.Theretortisnolongeramixingbowlorkneadingtroughinwhichgivenexistingsubstancesarecombinedandremodelledintoformswhicharenot veryremotefromthemandthebigmachinedisposesofthefinalorganicresemblance.Iftherod,shaft,bearing,ballbearing,wheel,cogwheel,transmissionandall othermachinecomponentswerealreadythebeginningofdeorganization,thisisallthemoretrueoftheircombination,themachineasworktransformer.Notmerelyis theorganicguidelinebrokendowninit,butanotherbreakorconstraintredisposesthingshere,oneinthephysicalguidelineitself.Amachineasawhole,asdefinedby Reuleaux,isacombinationofresistantelementswhicharesoarrangedthatbymeansofthemmechanicalforcesarecompelledtooperateundersetconditions. Althoughthisdefinition,inaccordancewiththenineteenthcenturywayofthinking,omitsanyhumanfinaldesignation,andhencethesocial,unnaturalisticpurposewhich mechanicalforcesarecompelledtoachieve,itisstillevidentthatmachineryitselfisalreadyanunnaturalisticoccurrence,akindofunnaturalphysics.Andwithinitthe repulsiontothegivennaturalisticelementincreasesevenfurtherorganicprojectionisincreasinglyabandonedortranscended.Theelectriclocomotiveisacolossus fromnoman'sland,andtherocketpropelledaircraftthatshootsthroughthestratosphereisnotevenlikeapropellerandwinginrelationtothebird,butlikeameteor. Thisisallthemoretrueofthepossibletechnologyderivedfromthehithertoremotestpowerdrives:thesubatomicones,andfromthetransformersintowhichtheseare conducted.Withthistechnology,notjustorganicprojectionisabandonedbutalsopartlytherealmoftheatleastthreedimensionalmechanicalworld,inwhichthe electriclocomotive,thedieselengine,andtherocketpropelledaircraftarestilllocated.Graphicclassicalmechanicsitselfistherebyabandoned:intheelectronnothing lookslikeanythingatallanymore,electronsandprotonsarenolongerthematteroftheoldphysicalworld.Eveniftheyarebynomeans,astheiridealisticinterpreters say,mathematicallogical

Page663 structures,theformerether,whichconjuredupnotionsofgasforsolong,hasneverthelessbecomeasynonymforanndimensionalfield,foranelectromagnetic structuralfield.Ifarealradiationindustrywastoarise,stillwithincapitalism,or,asnowalreadyemergingforpeacefulpurposes,intheSovietUnion,thenasubstantial departurefromclassicalmechanicsanditsprojectionwouldbeaddedtotheabandonedorganicprojection.Classicalmechanicswasandisthatofourmesocosmic visualspace,,betweentheinhumanfourdimensionalworldcontinuumandtheinhumanlyrealizedabyssofatomicspace.Butsincefuturetechnologymustessentially feedonsubatomicimpulses,andthereforeonpreciselythisgrotesquelydimensionedatomiccentre,comparedwiththepresentoneitusesatotallydifferentworld,into whichitistranslatedandtransposed.Thetechnologythatcanbeexpectedisnotjustlikethedifferencebetweenwirelesstelegraphyandtheacoustichandbell,butby meansofannihilationradiationanypartsofterrestrialmattercanbetransformedintotheconditionofthematteroffixedstars:itisasiffactoriesstooddirectlyabovethe orgiesofenergyofthesunorofSirius.Syntheticchemistry,whichproducesrawmaterialsnotyieldedbytheearth,cheaperandoccasionallybetterones,isjoinedin atomicphysicsbyakindofanalyticalgainofenergywhichisnotatallofthisearth,thehithertofamiliarearth.Thoughthispresupposesasocietywhichcanendurethis upheavalintheforcesofproduction,andthisincludesthatkindofnaturewhicheventheoldsocietycalledupfromthedepthsofnature. Thestilluncannypathbeganwhensubstancesweresuccessfullyannihilatedbyradiation.Ithadlongbeenconjecturedthatthegaseousstateofabodywasnotitslast. Faradaygavethisstate,suspectedbutnotexperimentallyprovenbyhim,thenameradiantmatter.Theseriesofastonishingdiscoveriesiswellknownwhichledfrom cathoderaystoXrays,toBecquerelraysandfromtheretothesocalledradioactiveraysemittedbytheselfdecayofaveryheavyelement,uranium.In1919 Rutherfordfirstsucceededinsplittingtheatom,andthustheenergyfromannihilationradiationwasreleasedbyartificialmeans,thoughstillinaminutelysmallquantity. Rutherforddidnotyetthinkthatapracticalenergysourcecouldbeobtainedfromatomicdecay,buttheenergyobtainabletheoreticallywasalreadywellknown:one gramofradiumemanationcontainsaworkcapacityof160millionhp,andthereforeenoughpowertodriveashipwithacargoofathousandtonsforsixhundred nauticalmiles.Accordingtothetheoryofrelativity,theenergyofastationarybodywithamassofrngramsis:E=m.c2,wherecsignifiesthespeedoflight,expressed

Page664 inkilometresperhourc2isthereforeanenormouslylargenumber,anditsmultiplicationevenwiththesmallestmassingramsrevealslatentquantitiesofenergyof cosmicproportionsineverylargestone.Thusthesuccessfulpracticeoftheatombomb,thesodisgracefullypervertedforerunnerofsubatomicforcesofproduction, displayedthesamebasicenergywhichbuilds,sustainsandcandestroytheuniverse.Theneutronsintheexplodinguraniumbombhadthespeedof6210Englishmiles asecondacompletelyunearthlyhurricanceattherootfoundationoftheworld,andonestartedbyhumanbeings.Fortheelements95and96,whichareprovisionally usedinthemanufactureoftheatombomb,thenamespandemoniumanddeliriumweresuggested,whichhavesincebeenreplacedbythenamesamericiumand curiumthedeliriuminthechainreactionisinfactsolelyimperialistic.Justasthechainreactionsonthesunbringusheat,lightandlife,soatomicenergy,inadifferent machineryfromthatofthebomb,intheblueatmosphereofpeace,createsfertilelandoutofthedesert,andspringoutofice.Afewhundredpoundsofuraniumand thoriumwouldbeenoughtomaketheSaharaandtheGobidesertdisappear,andtotransformSiberiaandNorthernCanada,GreenlandandtheAntarcticintoa riviera.Theywouldbeenoughtopresentmankindwiththeenergy,whichwouldotherwisehavetobeobtainedinmillionsofhoursoflabour,readyforuseinslim containersandinhighlyconcentratedform.Togetherwithallthisthedeorganizationoftechnology,ofonewhichisnolongerEuclidean,wouldbecompletetoits remotestextentitwouldprojectfromourmesocosmicworldintoanimmeasurablydifferentone,notjustintoasubatomic,butalsointoamacrocosmicone.Anear futurewhichcanalsobestillustratetoitself,namelythroughpractice,thequantumtheoryandwhatistenableinthetheoryofrelativity,thenewtheoryofgravitation,will raisethepossibilitiesofanonEuclideantechnology,asitispursuedintheradiationindustry,outoftherealmoffantasyintoalmostsound,almostalreadydelineable prospects.IfitwereatallconceivabletoapplythespatialandtemporalrelationsofEinstein'sworldtoourown,paradoxeswouldappearwhichnotonlysurpassallthe visionsoftechnologicalfictionbutalmosttheclassicbooksofancientmagic.Outsideourthreedimensionalworld,moregenerally:inallspaceswithanevennumberof dimensions,spaceswouldremainbrightevenwhenthefightsourcedisappearedwhichissupposedtobededuciblefromthewaveequationoflightassoonasitis appliedtondimensionalspace(cf.Herm.Weyl,Philos.derMathematikundNaturwissenschaft,1927,p.99).Theindifferenceofmathematicalphysicallawstowards thenumber

Page665 ofdimensionsceasesatadeeperlevelsomethingimpossibleinthreedimensionalclassicalmechanicscanthusbevalid,becometechnologicallypossible.Itcandothis inawaywhichisatleastnolongerabsolutelyoutofthequestiontheutopiawhichhasbegunofanonEuclideantechnologyalreadyhaslimitswhichhavebeenpushed extraordinarilyfarforward.Inreturn,ofcourse,thereisalsothedangercitedaboveofevergreaterartificiality,ofprojectingeverfurtherintoamathematicizednoman's land.AndthisartificialityisinfactatthesametimetheNegativumemergingattheendevermoreclearlyinthebreakinthegraphicallyphysicalguidelineitself.A Negativumwhichindicateslikewiseatthisendafutureshiftintheexpansionoftechnologicalspacewhichissohighlyimportantandsohighlyprogressiveinitself.Only thisshiftwillnolongerbeabletooccuronthebasisofthebourgeoisrelationtohumanbeingsandtonature,i.e.withinthatcomponentoftherelationtonaturewhich belongstobourgeoisideologyandthussharestherestoftheabstractness(alienness)ofthebourgeoismaterialrelation.Butjustasitmanagesatomicenergies humanely,anolongerimperialisticsocietywillmediatetoitselfthismaterial,howevernonEuclideanitmaybe,asonewithoutultimatealienness.Alsoconnectedwith thisabstractnessisthepeculiarpathosofnongraphicnesswhichhasfilledallnonEuclideanphysicsuptonow.Whatismeantbythisisnotnongraphicnessinthe simplesense,namelytheobviouskindinherentinalloccurrencesoutsidethreedimensionalvisualspace.Butthatothernongraphicnessismeantherewhichisthesame asunmediatednessoftheindependentobjectwiththethinkingsubject,ofthethinkingsubjectwiththeindependentobject.InsofarasanonEuclideanphysics,despite constantrecoursetoobservation,stillconstructsitsworldasamerereificationofmathematicalsymbols,theabstractnesshasgrownsogreatthatsubjectandobjectno longermeetatall,indeedthatthenonEuclideanobjectpreciselyasrealkineticmattertotallydropsoutofsight.Completeunmediatednesswithcontentthusappears hereanideologicalanaloguetothetotallyalienated,derealizedfunctionaloperationoflatecapitalistsociety,projectedintonature.Anidealismofmethodthusstill increasesthatwherebyevenanonEuclideantechnologystilltowerssostrangelyintotheunmediatedandintowhatisdownrightdisparatetoconcretemediation. Certainlytheideologicalcomponentisonlytheoneindehumanizedphysics,andtheotherone,irrefutablebyideologicalanalysis,isthedictateofobservednaturetodo theoreticaljusticetoit.Butneitherarebothcomponentsalreadysharplyseparablenorcantherealthreatofalackofmediationbeoverlookedinthewholetrenchant businessof

Page666 abstraction.However,theverytriumphofnonEuclideanpractice,representedbythetechnologyofannihilationradiation,nowbringssalutaryanticipationsfromthe imageofanolongerapparatusriddensocietyintothearena.Theseconcreteutopianoutlinesspringintechnologyparticularlyclearlyfromthetaskofaconcrete subjectobjectrelation.Sothatthesubjectismediatedwiththenaturalobject,thenaturalobjectwiththesubject,andbothnolongerrelatetooneanotherasto somethingalien.Deorganizationwhichcompletelyabandonstheorganicandultimatelythemesocosmicmustnotlosetheconnectionwiththehumansubjectwhich preciselyintechnology,inthefinephraseofEngels,seekstotransformthingsinthemselvesintothingsforus.Andforthesamereasondeorganizationmustprovethe depictivecontactwiththeobject,withitsrealobediencetodialecticallaws,whichcombinesnatureandhistoryinthesameconnection,butalsoofwhichmoreina momentwiththatnuclearandagentimmanenceofthereallynaturalisticconnectionoftheobject,whichwasoncehalfmythicallydescribedasnaturanaturansor alsohypotheticallyassubjectofnatureandwhichiscertainlynotyetsettledbythequestionablecharacter(butalsothatworthyofquestion)ofthesedescriptions.It becameapparentatanyrate,forallitsprogressiveness,howmuchabstractnessandwhatanabyssofuncontrolleddisparatenessstillliesindeorganization. Deorganizationonlybecomesablessingwhenapartfromsocialorderitalsohasthefinalanticipationofnaturalmagic,touseBacon'sterm,initsfavour:themediation ofnaturewiththehumanwillregnumhominisinandwithnature. Subject,rawmaterials,lawsandcontactindeorganization Bourgeoisthinkingasawholehasdistanceditselffromthematerialswithwhichitdeals.Itisbasedonaneconomywhich,asBrechtsays,isnotinterestedinriceatall butonlyinitsprice.Thetransitionfromusetobarterisanoldone,butonlycapitalismintroducedthetransformationofallbarteredgoodsintoabstractcommodities andofthecommodityintocapital.Correspondingtothisisacalculationalienatednotonlyfromhumanbeingsbutalsofromthings,oneindifferenttotheircontent.Thus anonorganic,dequalifyingspirithasbeenspreadingeversincetheendoftheoriginalaccumulationofcapital,andhencesincetheconcentratedproductionof commoditiesandthecorrespondingcommoditythinking.Fromtheseventeenthcenturyon,thequalitativeconceptsofnaturedisappearwhich

Page667 hadstillbeencultivatedbyGiordanoBrunoandevenbyBaconhimselfinplaces.Galileo,Descartes,andKantareunitedintheideathatonlywhatisproduced mathematicallyisrecognizable,andonlywhatiscomprehendedmechanicallyisscientificallyunderstood.Butsugarasanabstractcommodityisdifferentfromreal sugar,andtheabstractlawsofmechanisticnaturalsciencearedifferentfromthesubstratumofcontentwithwhichtheselawsmaintainnorelation.Whatistrueoftheory isallthemoretrueoftechnologicalpractice,itcontentsitselfwithlawsaboutsheercontingency.Poincar,whoonlybelieved.inconventionsanywayandnotinmaterial laws,onceremarkedthatonecouldnothelpbeingsurprisedtoseehowlittleamanneededtoknowofnatureinordertotameitandmakeitservehiswill.Steamand electricityappearsolelyasquantitiesofworkingpower,whicharedefinedintermsofphysicaltechnologicalunitsofmeasurementandofproductioncosts.Thus bourgeoistechnologyitselfstandsinapurecommodityrelation,onealienatedfromthestart,tothenaturalforceswithwhichitoperatesfromoutside.Andthevery relationofcontentbecomesallthesmaller,thefurthertechnologyhasadvancedbeyondharnessingtheorganichorsetowardstheinternalcombustionengineorgainsa footholdontheultravioletvolcanoofatomicenergy.Inanycase,bourgeoissocietyrelatesinanabstractwaytothesubstratumofthingswhichaffectitsthinkingand behaviour.Thusevenaworkingsubstratumofnature,thataspectofitwhichhaselsewherebeencalledefficacityandseed,remainswithoutrelation.Butthisproblem ofrelationisthemosturgentoneforeverytechnologythatisbecomingconcreteforitisthatoftechnologicalhopeitself.Itremainsinstructivehereandwillbecome evermoreinstructivethateventhetechnologicalsystemofproduction,howeverabstract,willneverattainorseektoattainMnchhausen'stotallackofcontact,pulling himselfoutoftheswampbyhisownpigtail.Butevenperfectartificiality,despitealltechnologicalnihilism,stilldefinitelyusesnature,andcannotavoidthissupportfrom outside.Ifwefirsttakerawmaterials,theneventhegreatestcunningwithsubstitutescannotsucceedinavacuum.Ifsyntheticchemistrymanufacturesotherraw materialsorexistingonesinadifferentway,thenitdoesofcoursesecureindependencefromthenaturaloccurrenceorgrowthofthesematerials,butnotfromnatural elementsofrelationingeneral.Itobtainsdyesfromtar,petrolfromcoal,fertilizersfromThomasslag,rubberfromgrain,potatoesorotherbasicmaterialsrichin carbohydratesitproducestextilesfrommilk,whynotbutterfromthenitrogenintheair.Butonlythebasicorinitialmaterialshavechangedinthisway,andonlythe process

Page668 isadifferentonefromtheslowdevelopmentofnature.Onlythestartingpointismovedback,onlyfewerandfewerfinishedproductsofnatureareusedasraw materials.Buthoweverboldthenewformation,water,airandearthatleastremainindispensable.Howeversyntheticthechemistry,nocornfieldwillgrowontheflatof thehand,whichistosay:thelinkwithwhathasprevailed,whichcanonlybebettermanagedwhenalliedwithitself,stilldoesnotcometoanendhere.Thisiseven moretrueoftheexperimentwhichadvancesfarmoreprecariouslythansyntheticchemistry:ofpossibleradiationtechnologyoftheproblemastohowclassical mechanicsistobeabandonedtechnologicallyaswell,andhowmachinesaretobeestablishedonthenonEuclideanmargin.Eventhentheforcesusedremainderived fromnature,althoughfromaparticularlysinisterfund:andtheprocesswherebynewworktransformersarebuiltintopreviouslyundreamtofeffectivepowersand miraclescanbynomeansremaindisparatetotheimpulsematterinthenonEuclideansegmentofnature.Secondlythough:evenmorefalsethananabstractomissionof rawmaterialsisanomissionofwhathasdifferentlyprevailed:ofthenaturallaws.Itisapurelysubjectiviststateofaffairsifthelawsaremerelyregardedasimaginary things,andespeciallyasfictitiousmodels,inaccordancewithwhichasuccessionorasimultaneityofperceptionsisarrangedwitheconomyofthought.Thisfideism thenofcoursereveals,inallitsvariations,aparticularlyloudmouthedandostensiblefreedomintheobjectspacewhichhasbeenidealizedaway.Afreedomla Simmelwithregardtohistory,sincetheminditselfmapsoutitsshoresandtherhythmofitswaves.ButthenalsoafreedomlaBertrandRussellwithregardto natureanditslaws,assupposedlypurelylogicalstructureswhichconsistofevents,i.e.perceptionsaccordingtowhichtheselawscertainlyreflectednothingrealthat existsindependentlyofmethodicalconsciousness.Theconsequencefortechnologyherewouldbethatthedeorganization,stillprojectinginadangerouslyungraphic fashionasitis,wouldnowcompletelyendupinnoman'sland.Itistrue,however,thatallrecognizedlawsreflectobjectiverealconditionalconnectionsbetween processes,andhumanbeingsarethoroughlyembeddedinthiselementindependentoftheirconsciousnessandwill,yetcapableofbeingmediatedwiththeir consciousnessandwill.Alltheoristshavepointedoutthisbothinsuppressibleandhelpfulobjectivecharacteroftheselaws:oftheeconomiclawsofconcrete construction,butalsoofthenaturalisticlawsofthetechnologywhichservesit.Notsothatmenshouldbecomeslavesoftheselawsandmakeafetishofthem,but rathersothateveninMarxistterms,preciselyin

Page669 Marxistterms,noattempttotakethesenecessitieslightlyandsuperficiallyshouldgainground.Thusithasbeensaidnotunjustlyonthispoint,thoughtooonesidedly throwingalmosteverythingontothesideoftheobject:Marxisminterpretsthelawsofsciencenomatterwhetheritisaquestionoflawsofnaturalscienceorof politicaleconomyasthoseofobjectiveprocesses,occurringindependentlyofthewillofhumanbeings.Humanbeingscandiscovertheselaws,recognizethem, investigatethem,takethemintoaccountintheirbehaviour,exploitthemintheinterestsofsociety,givethedestructiveeffectsofmanylawsadifferentdirection, restricttheirsphereofaction,pavethewayforotherlawswhicharepushingtheirwaytothefore,buttheycannotoverthrowtheselaws(Stalin,EconomicProblems ofSocialismintheUSSR).Otherwiseputschismoradventurismarise,thoseexaggerationsofthesubjectivefactorwhichconfusechangingtheconditionswithleaping overtheframeworkoflaws,withinwhichthesechangescanalonebeconcretebeneficial,concreterealones.Aboveall,sincethenecessityissolelyinterpretedas external,unmediatedwiththesubjectivefactor,indeedoperatingagainstit,apossiblehostilityalsoarisestothisnecessity,andhencetotheobjectiverealtimetableof lawsingeneral.Andthereforethisnecessityappearstoconsciousness,howeverremotethelattermayotherwisebefrombourgeoisabstractconsciousness,notasone tobeintrinsicallyrecognizedandthustobecontrolled,butbecauseofitsaliennesssolelyasonetobeexploded.DespiteEngelsinstruction:Freedomdoesnot lieinthedreamedindependenceofthelawsofnature,butintherecognitionoftheselawsandinthepossibilitythusgiventomakethemoperateaccordingtoplanfor specificpurposes(AntiDhring,Dietz,1948,p.138).Hegel'sinsightalreadypointedinthisdirection,thoughinsuchawaythathisundeniablehostilitytonature,that is,hisrelativerejectionevenofaninternalnecessityinthemotionsofnature,nowagainpreciselyunderstoodthecontrolofthelawsofnaturejustasmuchandmorein thesenseofcunningthaninthatofmatterhavingbeenpenetratedinaconcreteway.SothatanearlystatementbyHegeladmittedlyskirtstechnologicalnecessity,but literallyonlyskirtsit,andthusagaindoesnotseekcontactwithitssubstratumofcontent.ThusthepassagefromHegelcombinesthecorrectapproach,thatmakes natureintoacollaborator,andthefalseapproach,thatassociateswithnatureintechnologicaltermsonlythroughtheabstractionofalienness,ofcolonialcunningasit wereitcombinestheminthefollowingway:Thispassivity(ofthemanwhomakesnatureworkforhim)istransformedintoactivity,sothatnature'sownactivity,

Page670 theelasticityofthewatchspring,water,windisusedtodosomethingverydifferentintheirsensoryexistencethantheywantedtodo,sothattheirblindactionsare madeintopurposefulones,intotheirownoppositeNothinghappenstonatureitself,individualpurposesofnaturalbeingbecomegeneral.Thedriveherewholly withdrawsfromtheoperation,itallowsnaturetowearitselfdown,calmlylooksonandmerelycontrolsthewholethingwithverylittleeffort:cunning.Thebroadflank offorceisattackedbytheedgeofcunning.Itisthedistinctionofcunningwithregardtopowertotackleblindpoweronaflanksothatitturnsagainstitself,toattackit, tograspitasacertainty,toworkagainstthisortomakeitretreatintoitselfasamovement,tocancelitselfout(Hegel,JenenserRealphilosophie,Meiner,II,p.198f.). Andthereisevenmoreofthesamethinginthestyleofapitfallwhichispreparedfornature,ofatreadmillintowhichdupednatureisled:Thecunningconsists generallyinthemediatingactivitywhich,bycausingtheobjectstoinfluenceoneanotherandtowearoneanotheroutinaccordancewiththeirownnature,without directlyinterferinginthisprocess,neverthelessonlycarriesoutitspurpose(Hegel,WerkeVI,p.382).Sotheedgeofcunninghereistheequallyshrewdand abstractlyincompletetermforthetechnologicalrelationshiptonature,tothisfoundationofhumanactivity.Cunninghasthesamerelationtonatureinthispassagefrom HegelasSchiller'smantofire:Beneficentisthefire'smight,ifmancontrolsandguardsitright.ThepassagefromHegeldoesnothaveFaust'sattitudetofire:Sublime spirit,yougaveme,gavemeallforwhichIasked.Youdidnotturninvainyourcountenancetomewithinthefire.*Goethe'sphraseisthatofarisingtrustinnature, finallyexpectingthebosomofafriendSchiller'sphraseisnotwithoutthatviolencewhichdrawsbenefitfromnature,likeatamed,guardedcolony,onlyonconditionof dominion.Thecapitalistconceptoftechnologyasawhole(andSchillerandHegelreactmorelikecapitalistsonthispointthanGoethewiththeolder,Renaissanceline inFaust)thusexhibitsmoredominationthanfriendship,moreoftheslavedriverandtheEastIndiaCompanythanthebosomofafriend.Thirdlyandlastly,therefore, onlythetotalpenetrationintotheessentialnecessityofprocessescouldalsopreservedeorganizationfromnonrelationtothefireofthenatureagent.Inthesense thatthemanufacturingelementinnaturetooisincreasinglyfelt,trackeddown,andcomprehendedinplaceofmerelyexternalnecessity,andespeciallytheagnostic modelextrarem.WiththeRenaissancedimensionhandeddownbyLeonardo,not *Faust,PartI,321720.

Page671 justinhispaintings:Thelawsofnaturecompelthepaintertotransformhimselfintothespiritofnatureandtomakehimselfthemediatorbetweennatureandart.With theRenaissancedimensionrecalledbyMarxhimself,afactitselfworthrecallingoverandoveragain,inhisHolyFamily:Amongthepropertiesinnateinmatter, motionisthefirstandmostexcellent,notjustmechanicalandmathematicalmotion,butevenmorethedrive,livingspirit,tension,andthetormenttouseJakob Bhme'sexpressionofmatter.Thiswithallcautiontowardsthenumerousmythicaltracesintheconceptofagushingsubstratum,andindeedtowardsapantheistic bogeymanwhichcouldlikewisestillhaunttheconceptofanaturanaturans.Whetherinitspoorlycleansedentrancesandforecourts,orbyvirtueofthetheological inconsistenciesofwhichMarxalsospeaksinthepassagecitedabove,evenwithreferencetoBacon.Nevertheless,thedifferencebetweenbourgeoistechnological aliennesstonature,especiallyunworldliness,andaffinitiveinhabitationofnatureiscrystalclear:naturanaturanscanbesetonitsfeet,physicalnihilismdefinitelycannot. Thustheproblemofacentrallymediatedrelationtonaturebecomesthemosturgent:thedaysofthemereexploiter,oftheoutwitter,ofthemeretakerofopportunities arenumberedevenintechnologicalterms.Bourgeoistechnologyasawholewasatypeofoutwitter,andthesocalledexploitationofnaturalforceswasnotprimarily related,anymorethanthatofhumanbeings,totheconcretematerialofwhatwasexploited,orinterestedinbeingindigenoustoit.Butpreciselyactivitybeyondwhat hasbecome,thissowonderfullystrongimpulseintechnology,needscontactwiththeobjectiveconcreteforcesandtendenciesitisthetechologicallyintendedsuper naturationofnatureitselfwhichdemandsinhabitationinnature.Prometheus,whenhefetchedfirefromheaventoanimatehishumancreationswithit,stolenotonlyfire butaccordingtoaphraseofPlato'sintheProtagoraswhichaimsatallornothingalsotheingeniouswisdomofHephaestosandofAthene,inordertogiveit tomentogetherwithfire.Andthemoretechnologylosesthefinaltracesofitsoldrootedness,orratherthemoreitgainsnewrootednesswhereveritwantsto,inthe syntheticproductionofrawmaterials,intheradiationindustryandwhateverelseinmagnificenthubris:themoreintimatelyandcentrallythemediationwiththe interpolatedsystemofnaturemustdevelop. Onlythencanthingsalsobechangedattheirrootcause,insteadofmerelydisplacedfromoutside.Everytechnologicalinterventioncontainsthewillforchange,without howevertheXofwhatistobechangedhavingtobefamiliartothemereoutwitter,orevenhavingtoexist.Anagentofthephenomenaisofcourseadmitted,butonly asonewhichis

Page672 absolutelyunrelatedtous,alienatedfromus,andasonewithoutasubject.Childrenandprimitivepeopleautomaticallyinsertasubject,correspondingtotheirownego, intophysicalevents.Andlessnaively,lessdirectlyanalogoustotheindividualego,asubjectisalsotobefoundinlaternonanimisticconceptionsofnature,provided thattheyarenotquantitative.ThisisalreadythecasewithThaleswhenheascribesasoultothemagnet,anditisthecaseinabigwayinallpanvitalistimagesofnature, inLeonardo,Bruno,andintheearlySchelling.Butasubject,intheempiricalorganicsense,isfundamentallylackingandthiswasagreatadvanceatfirstcompared withallanimisminthequantitativeviewoftheworld,andthereforealsoinclassicalmechanics.Itiscompletelylackingwherequantitativethinkingtotallypassesinto thinkingwhichistheoreticalintermsofrelationandfunction:innonEuclideanmechanicsnaturebecomesanabsolutelyfreefloatingassociationof(relativized)laws. Kantadmittedlybasedthephysicalassociationoflawsonatranscendentalsubject,ashedidwitheverycombination(TheIthinkmustbeabletoaccompanyallmy ideas)andthiswouldnotofcoursebeintroducingasubjectintothemechanicsofnature,,butratherahopelesssubjectintothemechanicalconceptsofnature. However,thelattersubjectis,asasocalledtranscendentalone,leastofallanempiricalorganiconenatureishererathersomethingtowhichanempiricalorganic subjectcanonlybeaddedinthemind,thoughitcanbeaddedinthemindinotherwords,theextremeobjectivityattainedbyNewton'snaturalsciencedoesnotso exhaustnatureinKantthatthereisnoroomforbasicconceptsofalessalienatedkindaswellinhisviewofnature,eventhoughonlyconceivable,regulative,andnot scientificallyconstitutiveroom.Thesebasicconceptsareaboveallthoseofaninnerpurposeofnature,withthefinalpurposeofarealmofrationalbeingsbutthis introduces,withanundoubtedlystillcloudyteleology,aconceivablenaturalsubject.Thecausalexplanationisthussupposedtobesupplementedbytheinevitable, althoughonlyregulativedefinitionaccordingtoacapacityimmanentinnaturewhichcouldpursueitscausesaspurposivecauses.Whichinanalogytothehumantypeof willgoestoprovethatweconceiveofnatureastechnologicalthroughitsowncapacitywhereas,ifwedonotattributesuchatypeofeffecttoit,itscausalitywould havetoberepresentedasablindmechanism(KritikderUrteilskraft,Werke,Hartenstein,V,p.372).Kantstillhadnoorveryfewtechnologicalviewpoints,and thereforethecitedasifdefinitionswerealsoaimedfarmoreatorganicthanatinorganicnature.Butassoonastheproblemarisesastowhethertheeminent expedienciesofhuman

Page673 technologycanhaveanycontactwiththeproductionofphysicalprocessesornot:atthismomenttheproblemofanaturalsubjectwhichcanbemediatedwithus emergesfromthemereregulativeadditiontomechanics.Thedefinitiondoesnotofcoursebecomeasstrictasmechanicseventhen,butmoreseriousthanthelatter:for theproblemofaconcretetechnologyconsistspreciselyinnotallowingdeorganizationanditsconsequencestorefertoavoid.Asquestionableasitremainswhethera subjectofnaturealreadyexistsasrealized,thissubjectmustjustascertainlybeleftopenasadrivingpredisposition,andfurthermoreasonewhichthoroughlyworks intoallitsrealizations.ButatthispointtherenowariseswithoutanyKantianregulativeelement,ifnottheologizingadditionalthinkingLeibniz'sproblemof energy:whathecalledinquitudepoussante.Leibnizpositsitasthenuclearintensityofallmonadsandatthesametimeastheexplicatingtendencyofthisnucleusof theirsitself.ThereisthusacombinationhereofthesharpnessofLeibniz'sequationofenergyandthatinwardnessofthemonadswhichsignifiessubjectnessinthe objectivesenseasdynamicnaturaldetermination.TheproblemofthesubjectinnatureisofcoursepluralizedinLeibnizintoahostofindividualmonads,butinthishost theprototypeofallthis:theoldnaturanaturans,isstillclearlydiscernible.Animismmayremainwhollyabsenthereandnolessthepsychologicalelementaswellin Leibniz'sindividualpointsontheproblemofthesubject.ButthefactthatLeibniz'sequationofenergyandsubjectriessretainsitsrelativemeaning,eveniftheutterly falsecombinationofenergyandthepsychologicalelementisomitted,isindicatedbyLeninhimselfinanextraordinarilyprofoundremark:Thereisindeedasubjective factorintheconceptofenergywhichdoesnotexistintheconceptofmotion,forexample(PhilosophicalNotebooks).Noteventhesoindubitablesubjectofhuman historyexistsasalreadyrealizedofcourse,althoughitincreasinglymanifestsitselfinempiricalorganicterms,andaboveallinempiricalsocialtermsasworkingman. Howmuchmorethereforemaythatwhichishypotheticallydescribedasthenaturesubjectstillhavetobeapredispositionandlatencyfortheconceptofadynamic subjectinnatureisinthefinalinstanceasynonymforthenotyetmanifestedThatimpulse(themostimmanentmaterialagent)intherealasawhole(cf.Vol.I,p.307). Inthisstratumtherefore,inthemateriallymostimmanentonethatexistsatall,liesthetruthofthatwhichisdescribedasthesubjectofnature.Justastheoldconceptof naturanaturans,whichfirstofallsignifiedasubjectofnature,isofcoursestillhalfmythical,asnotedabove,butby

Page674 nomeansposits(inanidealisticway)apsychologicalelementaspriortonaturanaturata.Onthecontrary,theconceptofnaturanaturanswasfromtheverybeginning, fromitsoriginator,thenaturalistAverrosonwards,appliedtocreativematter.Eveniftheremnantsofmythologycitedabovearenotlacking,whichmayreturnasa pantheisticbogeyman,andwhichhavelongaccompaniedtheproblemofthesubjectofnatureatleastasasecularizedIsis.Whichhaveneverthelessonlyaccompanied, notexhaustedandsettleditwhereasamereInitselfofnature,inwhichneithersubjectnorevenobjectoccur,ratherleadstoSartre,i.e.totheworldasadisparate stonewallsurroundinghumanbeings,thantoMarxism.Likewise:inplaceofthetechnologistasamereoutwitterorexploitertherestandsinconcretetermsthesubject sociallymediatedwithitself,whichincreasinglymediatesitselfwiththeproblemofthenaturalsubject.JustasMarxismhasdiscoveredthereallyselfgeneratingsubject ofhistoryinworkingman,justasitonlyallowsittobediscoveredandtorealizeitselfcompletelyinsocialistterms,soitisprobablethatMarxismwillalsoadvancein technologytotheunknown,initselfnotyetmanifestedsubjectofnaturalprocesses:mediatinghumanbeingswiththatsubject,thatsubjectwithhumanbeings,anditself withitself.Thewillwhichresidesinalltechnologicalphysicalstructuresandhasbuiltthemmustsimultaneouslyhavebothasociallygraspedsubjectbehindit:forthe constituentintervention,beyondthemerelyabstractexternalone,andasubjectbeforeitwhichismediatedwithit:forcooperation,fortheconstitutivecontactwiththe intervention.Andfinally:thefirstsubject,asthatofhumanpower,cannotbeconceivedinsufficientlyinfluentialtermsnorthesecondsubject,astherootnatural naturans,indeedsupernaturans,insufficientlydeepandmediatedterms.Technologyofthewillandconcretealliancewiththehearthofnaturalphenomenaandtheir laws,theelectronofthehumansubjectandthemediatedcoproductivityofapossiblenaturalsubject:bothtogetherpreventbourgeoisreificationfrombeingcontinued indeorganization.Bothtogethersuggesttheconcreteutopiaoftechnology,whichfollowstheconcreteutopiaofsocietyandisboundupwithit. Electronofthehumansubject,oftechnologyofthewill Thereisaninnerforcewhichhasnotbeenpurelyapplieduptillnow.Itconstitutesthesocalledstrengthinman,anddoesnotwhollycoincidewithhisfamiliarwill.It actsasapowerwhichsweepsthebodybeyondweariness,sharpensitasaninstrumentandequipsitwithastonishingcapabilities.Itactsequallyasapowerdirected outwards,asinfluenceor

Page675 weightofcharacter,orhoweverelsethispeculiarlytoughsubstancehasbeendescribed.Itsmostusualdisciplineismilitary,Spartan,avoluntary,extremelymasculine renunciationofdesires,whichpractisesinobediencethebeginningsofcommand.AllsoldiersbearSpartanfeatures,theyareunmistakablewherevertheyappearthey aremarkedwithstringentforce,authorityofcommand.Butthissharpeningofenergeticcapacitytoakindoflancepostureandlanceheadofitselfisonlyabeginning ofthatwhichsubjectiveforcehasbelieveditcando.IntheSpartanmilitaryposturethewillremainsonlyabstractlypolishedasitwere,itisofcoursealliedwith believedimagesandideasheretoo,butmostlyinasuperficial,atleastnotinanecessaryway.ThusthewillshapedinanabstractSpartanfashionwasoftenableto fightfororlendexecutivesupporttoanythingatall:officers,andalsoofficialsintheBaroqueperiod,servedinforeignservice,anattitudethatifyouarenotforusyou areagainstusdoesofcourseexist,butitscontentsarestillinterchangeablehere.Eventhefealtyoftheknightwasformal,itdidnotyetpulltogetherdirectionsofthe willwhichremainedseparate(macoeurdame,auDieumonme,mavieauroi,l'honneurpourmoi)*intoanirresistibleunity.Onlythereligiouswarwasabletodo this,hencetheentryofacontentladen,objectbased,indeedobjectbaseddemandinggoalintothemilitarilysharpenedwill.Thewillwithbelievedideasnownolonger becomestransportabletoanyforeignservice,thatis,whosecontentitfindsunimportant.Insteaditisstrictlyfixed,whichmeansitbecomesfanaticalanditisthis fanaticismwhich,whereitoccurs,nowfirstproducesthemostmonstrousincreaseofforceorkindlingofforceinman.Thepureforceofcommandisnowjoinedby thestrength,fixinginaccordancewithanidea,ofanideforceitaloneovercomeswhatwasformerlyinsurmountable.Loyolagavethemostimpressivecoinageof ideforce,moreoverintheconnectionwhichremainedwithmilitarydiscipline.TheExercitiaspiritualiaofthisformerofficer,andvisionaryfanaticalfounderofan orderaretechnologyofthewilltothehighestdegreereachedinEuropesofarpunctuality,obedience,authorityofcommand,cruelauthorityoffaithbecomeoneand thesamehere.Theyarejoinedbyimaginationoncommand,inflamedbytheserviceofChrist,bytheimageofheavenandhell,openedandcapableofbeingswitched offonthedot.Whatthehereticalsectshadcarriedintothefieldinthewayofcourageandobsessionwasnowmadeupforagainstthehereticsthemselves.Aboveall Mosleminfluenceswerenotlackingon *Totheladymyheart,thesoulisGod'spart,mylifefortheking,buthonourI'mkeeping.

Page676 Spanishsoil:thefanaticismwhichhadonceproducedthehallucinatingandmurderoussectoftheAssassinswasdeployedagainstthedifferentinfidels,againstthe GiaoursofProtestantism.Theresultofsuchtraining,ofonewhichwasoftenalmostmechanicallyrationalized,wasthathumanbeingsappearedasmachinesofthewill, withnowilloftheirown,butchargedwiththeenergyofamissionandgoaltheybelievedin.Theattitudethatifyouarenotforusyouareagainstusbecametotallyone ofcontent,asanattitudetothekingdomofChristontheonehand,tothekingdomoftheDevilontheother,andthedecisionbecamefanaticalthroughboth.Butallthis isstillEurope,ofcourse,andhencecomparedwiththefarolder,farmoreradicaltechnologyofthewillinAsiastillalmostdilettantism.Atleastiftheinnerforce whichispractisedbythetrainerstherecanbecomparedwiththeEuropeanwill,andaboveallifevenjustacoupleofwordsaretrueinthereportswhichhavebeen circulatingforagesaboutinconceivableintensificationofinnerforceinIndia,whichhassolittleenergy.EveninIndiaonlytheformeryogiscomeintoquestion,notthe charlatansandfakirsofnowadays,whoarepartlyrawepigones,partlytouristindustrythereisnowayofcheckingpasteffects,ofcourse.Thepurelyideologicalrole oftheyogiisclear:ashisfirstdutyhehadtosetanexampleofreposehehadtomakehigherknowledgeequallyuncontrollablyexclusive.Butapartfromthisa subjectivelygenuinetranceofthemostdisciplinedkindexistshere,inaformwhichisstillinaccessibletoEuropeansdespitetheJesuitspiritualexercises(cf.Ruben, GeschichtederindischenPhilosophie,1954,p.210).Theintentionandthemethodicalseriousnessoftheformeryogisarecertainlytrue,howeverunverifiableand undiscussiblefortheenlightenedEuropeanthetraditionalhairraisingeffectsmaybe.Afterall,thetechniqueofyogafashionsabeliefinwillpowerwhichthinksitcan moverealmountains,notjustmountainsofdifficultiesthusforagesithasformedthecentreofutopianideforce.Andtheintentionherebecomestotally monomaniacal,itisobsessedwiththemostextremeutopiaofthewill:thatofmaterialinterventionthroughpureresolve.Controlofbreathingbecamethemainpathof thesespiritualexercises:forinmanasinnature,prana,breath,isregardedastheprimemoverordivinewindoflife.Controlofbreathinginthebodyisnowtocancel theexternalrhythmoftime,dependenceonthecourseofthestarstheyogifeelsthathehasbecomethebreathoftheworlditselfinthesmallworldofhisbody. Abstractionfromthebodyisaidedbydisciplinedmuscularcontractions,thestylesorfiguresofposturetherearetenofthem.TheLightofHathaYogateachesthat theyincreasingly

Page677 destroyoldageanddeath,inthedoublesensethattheygrantperfecthealth,butaboveallthattheyplacetheinitiatesinthepossessionofthedeathlesselementwhich ishiddenwithinthemselves(cf.alsoZimmer,IndischeSphren,1932,p.III).Whatremainsconstantlystrangehereistheexternaltechnicity,i.e.thechangefromself controltothecontrolofthings,withwhichsuchconcentratedwillpowerproceedsinwhatitclaimstodo.Toit,everyphysicallyerectedandorderedbarrier,indeed everynaturalpowerseemsreducedtosomethingpowerless,helplessandinsignificant.Admittedlybymeansofamythicalalliancewithmagicwhichisaddedtothewill, initssuperhumanintensification:theyogiattainsrapturouspowerofthekindthatKrishnaascribestohimselfintheBhagavadGita:asVibhutiortheattributeof becomingagod.Theinitiateofsecretworldforcesisthusnotmerelycontemplative,withsenseorgansofthesoulorlotusflowerswhichmediatecommunionwitha spiritworld,asanIndianizingtheosophytrimmeditintoastereotypeforEurope.Butbeyondsocalledclairvoyancepreciselytheoldmagicaltechnologywastobe keptalive,withaconcentrationwhichcommandstheworldforcesandcomprehends,andtherebybreaksthrough,theirorder.Theyogiisnownolongertheir underling,concentrationofcontrolledbreathing,rightintothecentreofthebreathoftheworld,wastomarkthepointfromwhichtheworldcanbegoverned,and hencecogovernedandturnedround.ThisisIndiantechnologyinBrahmatoIndianconsciousness,towhichalldeterminationandallconceptsoflawareforeign,the Anankeorconformitytothelawofnaturedidnotseemuninterruptedanyway,leastofallsuperiortothecoherentwill.Manyhairraisingthingswerereported concerningtheeffectsofthispowerattainablebyyogis:concerningsecondsight,telepathyandevenlevitation.Concerningtheremovaloftheirbodytoanydistant placetheychose,outsidethedimensionoftime,inamomentconcerningspringairsurroundingtheyogisoftheHimalayas,inthemiddleofthesnowregionconcerning thelingeringforceofcursesandblessings.TodecidehowmuchofthisisexoticnurserytaleandhowmucharemarkablydevelopedforcewhichEuropeanmeditation neverattainedorsoughttoattain,neithertheotherwisesoreliableauthoritiesofEuropeanexperiencearesufficient(especiallyiftheyhardenintonegativedogmatisma priori)norinfacttheexistingevidence.Evenourknowledgeoftheactualcomplicationsoftrainedwillpowerisnotsufficientpossiblyitstillstandsonthe electrotechnicalleveloftheGreeks,whoseknowledgeofthewholeofelectricitywasconfinedtorubbedamberandwhoknewnothingaboutthedynamo.Infact, somethingsimilartothatsignifiedbytheelectron

Page678 andamberintheearlyhistoryofelectricitycouldintheutopianlineofextensionbesignifiedbyanelectron,discoveredinIndia,ofthevolitionalsubjectinthe historyofthetechnologyofthewillwhichliesbeforeus.Itistrue,ofcourse,thatnopoweroftheIndianmindhassofarmasteredthebulletofasingleEnglishinfantry rifleIndianmagicworksonlyasaprivateorpeacefulcommodity.Nevertheless,thisverythingcouldlieinitsnature,andalsoallmagicpresupposestheold environmentinwhichandforwhichithasbeendeveloped,inwhichitiseffective.HowevermonstrousthedemandswhichIndiantraditionmakesoncommonsense, andhowevermuchusemerefantasymaymakeoftheworldofMayaorillusionintowhichmostIndianphilosophyhasvolatilizedeverythingthatisempirically,or mechanicallygiven.Butthiscanactasatemporarymeasuremerelyinordertoprovidespaceformentalenergyingeneral,thecourageofaspaceinwhichtooperate andtheimplementeddoctrineofyoga,aboveallthatofPatajali,paradoxicallyseekstoextractamaterialforcefromitscontemptformatteritself.Whereasthesame subjectivesystemtowhichthisforceisascribedisonlyregardedasspiritualinmechanicallymaterialisticEuropeandthusremainsunmechanized.Inshort,thegoalin thetempleofawakeningmaybeofthemostadventurouskind,butitisanadventurousnessoftechnologicalpower,notofspiritualselfcultivation,asintheotherwise somateriallyactiveEurope.Itisthegoalofomnipotenceinthefantasticsensethateverywishedforandimaginedeventcanberealizedbyvirtueofthetelepathyofthe trainedwillandbyvirtueoftheconceitwhichbelievesitisabletoblowawayorremovetheveilofMayawheneveritwantsto.EvenBuddha,whohasaverydifferent blossomingofthelotusfloweratheart,speaksofthemagicalwishasonewhichisallowedandofthetechniqueoffulfillingit:If,youmonks,amonkshouldwish:If onlyIcouldmanagetoexperiencethedisplayofpowerinavariedway:tobecomemanywhenIamonlyone,forexample,andhavingbecomemanytobeoneagain ortobecomevisibleandinvisiblealsotofloatthroughwalls,ramparts,androcksasifthroughtheairortosurfaceandsubmergeonearthasifinwateralsotowalk onwaterwithoutsinkingasifonearthoralsotoflythroughtheairsittingdownlikethebirdwithitswingsalsoforexampletofeelandtouchthismoonandthissun, whicharesohuge,sopowerful,withmyhand,andforexampletohavemybodyinmypowerevenasfarastheworldsofBrahma:ifheshouldwishthat,youmonks, thenheonlyhastopractiseperfectvirtue,tosecuredeeppeaceofmind,nottoresistcontemplation,andtobealoverofemptyhermitages(Neumann,Die

Page679 RedenGotamoBuddhosI,p.71f.).Sothisishowfargrotesquelymagicalwishfultechnologyofthewill,evenifonlyoneenumeratedbyBuddha,extendsintoa doctrinewhoseonlywishisinfacttoforgetallwishes.Butsuchfaithinwillpowerrarelyoccurredeveninselfhypnotic,subjectivelymagicalWesternregions,andthen alwaysonlysporadically,aswithindividualmiraclemenlikeApolloniusofTyana,neverasareligioussystem.Judaism,Christianity,andIslamare,atleastintheir orthodoxform,hostiletomagic,theytoleratenoshamans,notevenyogisthusmagicaltechnologyofthewillortechnologyofthesubjectwasalsoprevented.Mystic contemplationintendedonlytheconstraintofheaven,nottheconstraintofmatter,andalsoEuropeansubjectivityonlyreachedduringrareanddisintegratedfitsthe beginningsofthestateofawarenesswhichisthenormalconditionfortheyogi.ThustheonlytechnologyofthesubjectwhichcouldcomparewiththeIndianinquality referredinWesternregionstotheproductionofbriefecstasy.Andduringtheecstasyitreferredtointendedskimming,nottointendedovercomingoftheworld.Two morestrangedisciplinesarerelevantherethough,oneJewish,oneChristiandevelopedselfhypnosis,bothincontemptoforthodoxantimagic.FromtheJerusalemof thefirstcenturyA.D.anartofenteringintoparadiseisrecorded,andinconnectionwiththefamousvisionofEzekiel(Ezek.I,1521)itwascalledMaase Markaba,WorkoftheWheels.ThiswasthesecretdoctrineofthehabitationofGodandthetechniqueoffinding,indeedofformingtheentrancestoitbymeansofa disciplinedchangeofconsciousness.JochanaanbenSakkai,theheadofthePharisees,issaidtohaveconcernedhimselfwithsuchaWorkoftheWagon,inthe secondcenturythissocalledartwasregardedassodangerousthatitwasonlymentionedreluctantly,andlateritwastotallydisreputable.AChristianequivalenttothis istobefoundintheByzantinemysticismofthefourteenthcentury,intheconscioustechniqueofenlightenmentpractisedbytheHesychastsonMountAthos.They soughtakindofreligiouslovecharm,aphiltrewhichartificiallyevokesanecstasyoflightinmanandcausesJesustoappearwithinit.Justasheappearedtohis disciplesonMountTabor,surroundedwithlight,transfigured.ThetechniqueoftheHesychaststouchedonthetechniqueofyogathroughthemethodofcontemplating thenavel,henceoftotalselfconcentration,buttheforcewhichwastherebytobeexaltedwasnotinfactthatofanychangeoftheworld,butexclusivelythatofan intensifiedheavenforcing.TheHesychastswerethestrangestofallstrangesaints,namelysyntheticallyselfmanufacturedonesatanyrate,theByzantinemystic Kabasilas,as

Page680 ifremindedofPrometheus,calledthoseinthegripofthephiltrerobbersofthekingdomofheaven.ZoandPhos,lifeandlightarethebasiccharacteristicsofChrist sincethereisnocelestiallifewithouttheappearanceofbothinman,buteveryChristianistopartakeofsuchalife,ateachableintensificationoftheenergiesoflonging ledtotheartificialmanufactureofvision.Thustechnologyofthesubjectherebrokeintothesupposedsupernaturalworld,andenforcedtheunenforceableperse:divine gracebutitalsoopenedinanoddlymechanizedfashionastrange,stillthoroughlymythicizedfloodgateinman.Behinditlatentphysicalenergyisdammedupinmany ofthecasescitedabove.Onburstingthrough,itchangestheknownstateofconsciousnessandthepreviousworldofconsciousnessconstructedonit,whereitdoes notasthepracticeofyogaintendsseektochangepartsoftheexternalworlditself.Byvirtueofakindofenergywhichisaleapaheadofalltheothers,and thereforeneitherqualitativelymeasurablenortransformableintoothers,butfantasizesinsteadthatitisevenexpertattelepathy. Somethinginthisallegedforceisbothdecayedandalwaysnew,andthusitneverbecomesestablished.Itissurroundedbyendlesscloudygossip,butontheother handitseemsasifafermentingelementweresuperannuatedheresotospeak.Itishightimetoputthingsrightinthissimultaneouslysuperstitiousandstrangeutopian field,toconsideraseriousnesswhichhasbeendistortedinthematter.Foratleastahundredyearsexpectationhasbeenrifethatwearestandingonthethresholdof greatpsychodynamicdiscoveries.AccordingtowhichonlyalittleeffortisneededtoattainhighlychargedwillpowereveninEurope,thatwhichiscalledincolloquial language,preciselywithregardtopeopleofthiskind,rousingorevenelectrifying.JustasthissortofthinghasinanycasebeenthewishandinfactthewillinAmerica sincepioneeringdays,manifestingitselfinthousandsofencouragementsordilettantesuggestions.InAmericapioneeringgavegroundsforsuchthings,thentheformer notionofmakewayforefficiency,aswellasacoursewithouthistoricalinhibitionsandties.Successandfailurethusseemedinahealthysuperstitionasitwere leftuptoselfpersuasion,andthereforetotheattainablepowertopersuadeothers,indeedthecourseoftheworldtherearenolimitationsinwhatyoucandothink youcan.TheAmericanbestsellersalreadymentionedwithregardtowishfulimagesinthemirror(cf.Vol.I,p.349ff.)arefullofthiskindofthingacheapyogism againstdespondencyanddoubt,butallthesame,asnowfirstemerges,apledgeofveryold,neverproperlyformulatedhope.Onceyoulearnafewsimplesecrets,

Page681 youwillbeamazedtofindhowideasbeginfairlypouringintoyourbrain:allAmericabelievesorbelievedinapsychicmagnetandintheartofchargingit.Thisincludes sentenceslikethese(theydonotlosethehiddenstorehouseofenergyintranslation):Awish,conceivedanduttered,bringswhatiswishedforcloser,namelyin proportiontothestrengthofthewishandtheincreasingnumbersofthosewhowish.Or:Everyimaginationisaninvisiblereality,andthelonger,themoreintensivelyit isretainedthemoreitwillbeconvertedintothatformwhichwecanperceivewithourexternalsenses.Accordingtothenatureofourdaydreamswepileupgoldor explosivesinourdestiny.Or:Wemustclingtothethoughtofhappinessandofhealthwitheveryfibreofourbeing,weekbyweek,monthbymonth,yearbyyear dreamupourownimage,freeofeveryevil,untilthisdreamhasbecomeafixedidea,secondnaturetous,andintervenesindestiny:fromcastlesintheairarisethe palacesofthisearth.PrenticeMulford,aCalifornianjournalistofconcentration,wrotethesesentences,asvestedrightssotospeak,indeedasnativeideasof Americanism.Theyaretakenfromhiswork:Yourforcesandhowtousethem,1887,averitableinvestmentofwillinthings,ofthingsinwill.Atechnicalcollegeof willpowerisdemanded,atheologicallaboratoryaswell,withdepartmentsasfollows:TheslaveryoffearTheReligionofdressPositiveandnegativethought ImmortalityinthefleshThedoctorwithinThechurchofsilentdemand.ItisasinglecapitalistLord'sPrayerand.thatofapantheisticengineeraswell:ifhismachine goesmoreslowly,mancaststhewillofhisprayerlikeatransmissionbeltaroundtheoriginaldynamoofGod.OrasitcanonlyreallybeexpressedinAmericanGreek: ThemanfeelssynchronizedwiththerhythmofLife.InthiswaytheutopiaofapsychodynamicssurfacesinAmerica,againandagainwiththehopeofsecuringin practiceadailyexperiencedforcefactor.Thusultimatelyacertain,namelytotallywildkindofwillmagicwasnotlackingeveninthemodernWest,thoughwithout technologyandsystem.AsinAmerica,itwasnotlackinginEuropeeither,althoughwithlessbusinesssenseandmoreinterestinanewlyredeemedspiritsotospeakit isneverthelessarelatedintention.Andhereithascontactswiththeendofnaturalism,withasoonusedormisused,butnotyetirrationalreactionaryrecoursetothe soul.TheneoRomanticMaeterlinckthuswrote,attheturnofthecenturywhenmechanismwassubsiding,ofanenormousreceptacleofpowerwhichliesonthe summitsofourconsciousness,ofpsychicenergyasanunexpectedcentralpropertyofmatteratitshighestlevel.Andthepoet,whenhecalledthispowerthe transitionoftheworld

Page682 tothemotionsofhappiness,inanessaywiththecharacteristictitleTheolivebranch,thepoetfoundhimselfwiththissecessionistoptimismofhis,asfarasorbits ofwillpowerareconcerned,infarreachingphilosophicalcompanyatthattime,insuchvariousandyetsuchspontaneitylovingcompanyasthatofbothJamesand Bergson.James,onthestrengthofthepracticeofyogaamongprimitivepeoples,arrivedattheassertionthatthewill,insofarasitwasconcentrated,hadnolimits. Bergsonproclaimedpsychicenergytobetheraisingcounterforcetomechanicaldeclineandsleepitguaranteed,atthehumanextreme,thestruggleagainststifling habit,astheconstantlythreateningsubsidenceoflife,anditusedthebrainandindeedallphysicaldeterminismsinthesamesovereignmannerasavirtuosouseshis instrument.Finally,asfarastheoftenfeltvitalthrustofapersonisconcerned,asarawforceasitwere,whichiseverywherefeltandnowhereexplored,letusrecall oneofthefewinventoriesofthisphenomenonitself.ItcomesfromSimmel,animpressionistofphilosophy,forwhomtheabundanceoflifeadmittedlyremained formal,butwhoturnedtoimpressionsfromtheabovementionedareainathoroughlynotationalway.Simmel'simpressionisticinventory,concerningvitalthrustas subjectiveenergy,runs:Iamconvincednaturallywithoutthepossibilityofanyproofthatthehumanindividualdoesnotyetendsotospeakwhereoursensesof sightandtouchrevealhislimitsbutinsteadthatbeyondthemtherestillliesthatsphere,whetheritisconceivedassubstantialorasakindofradiation,whoseextent defieseveryhypothesisandwhichisjustasmuchapartofhischaracterasthevisibleandpalpablenatureofthebody.Itisrelatedtotheseinthesamewayasthe infraredandtheultravioletrays,whichwecannotseebutwhoseeffectivenessisneverthelessundeniable,arerelatedtothecoloursofthespectrumAsextremely importantforallrealcommunitylifeasthiscomponentofindividualexistenceappearstometobethemysteriousphenomenonofprestige,theantipathiesand sympathiesbetweenpeoplewhichcannotberationalizedatall,thefrequentfeelingofbeingensnaredasitwerebythemereexistenceofaperson,andmuchelsewhich isoftendecisiveevenineventswhichhavebecomehistoricalmaybetracedbacktothiscomponent,thisspherestillclearlydefiestraditionandreconstructionmore thanthequalitiesofcharacteraccessibletothefivesensesandthereforepossessingalinguisticformulation.Atanyratethissphereisprobablyconnectedwiththelatter qualities,togetherwithwhichitformsthetotalityofman,linkedinsomewaywhichstilladmittedlydefiesallconjectureatthemoment,sothatsometimesaglimmerof thisexpandedregionof

Page683 beingtouchesusfromthatwhichsurvivesofahumanbeing,hisspeech,hisactions,thedescriptionofhisappearance(FragmenteundAufstze,1923,p.174f.). Simmelseestheconnectionofthisatmospherewiththevisiblecharacteraboveallinthesignificantportraitbutpreciselythelesscontemplativereferencetoaforce fieldisnotlacking,towhatJamesandBergsonmeantbytechnologicalspontaneity.Andfinally,thoughinatotallyabstract,wildlyindeterministwaywhichbecame objectlessoutofsheersubjectivepathos,ananarchosyndicalistlikeSorel,inemulationofBergson,completelyexaggeratedthewill.Itappearsasagiganticmuscleof mouldedpower:forceindividualistedanslesmassessoulevesreversesthecourseofhistorywhichisinherentlyalwayssinkingaccumulationd'exploitsheroiques alwaysbreaksthroughwhatisdeterminedageneralstrikeistheelectrotechnicsofthisspontaneitythewillknowsnobounds.Thisisputschist,inthisabstractly pureexaggeration,andcouldinfactbecomefascist,asactuallyopposingthecourseofhistory.Butitstillcontainsthiselementofrealitythatthesubjectivefactor, thoughonlyalliedwiththeobjectivetendency,hasthestrengthtocounteractfateandtoacceleratethehesitantlyPossibleofagoodkind.Thusanelementofyogawill, sotospeak,alsoundoubtedlysmouldersinourwesternworlditappearsintheadventurousconsequencesoftheformerpioneeringwillinAmerica,anditappearsin Europeantermsinthemoreorlessvaguenotationsofthewill,ordecisionismswhichsosoondegeneratedintofascism.Atechniquecomparabletothatofyogais certainlyneverdeveloped,despiteLoyola'sExercitiaspiritualia,andeventhesepaynoattentiontothesourceoftheireffects.Insteadthepartlyreflectedmodesof spontaneityinEuroperevealasimilaritytotheIndianonesinthemostdubiouspoint:theyallmoveinanobjectivelyundeterminedfieldorthinktheyareabletomove withinit.TheirsupposedindeterminismisrelatedtoIndianacosmism,atleasttothesuperstitionthattheexternalworld,insubstantialanddispersableastheveilof Maya,isnotinsuperabletoanenergeticimagination.Thisisthepricewhichhashadtobepaiduptillnowforeveryapproximationtothehiddenstorehouseof energyandthereisultimatelyonlyasingleexceptiontothis.ItliestypicallyenoughinthespringtimeoftheRenaissance,asdaringasitwasnatureseeking,andthe exceptioniscalledParacelsus.Allthemodernutopiasofthewillcitedaboveseemlikediminutionsoftheintentions,howeverforgotten,ofParacelsusanyway,asthe strategistofconcentrationinthehumanmicrocosm.Andheistheonlyoneinwhoseworkthecontactwithapresupposednaturalsubjectisalsonotundevelopedthe contactwhichoccursatbestmythologicallyinthe

Page684 practiceofyoga,asthetranscendentalprocessofbecomingKrishna,astheattainmentofthedivineVibhuti,whereasthecontactwithaworldlynaturalsubjectis lacking.EveninParacelsusofcoursethepathosofvelleityinmanhimselfisimportantatfirstandoftheimaginationwhichitreleases.InthebooksParamirumand Paragranumheconjuresuptheconjurationasfollows:Youshouldknowthattheeffectofthewillisamajorfactorinmedicine.Itfollowsfromthisthatoneimage conjuresuptheother,notfromstrengthofcharacterorthelike,throughvirginwax,buttheimaginationovercomesits(theimage's)ownconstellationsothatitbecomes ameanstocompleteitsheaven,thatis,thewillofitsman.Justasacarvertakesapieceofwoodandcarvesoutofitwhathehasinmind,sotheimaginationdoesthe samewithastralmatter.Allhumanimaginingthuscomesfromtheheart:theheartisthesuninthemicrocosm.Andfromthesmallsunofthemicrocosmimagining radiatesintothesunofthegreatworld,intheheartofthemacrocosmthusimaginatiomicrocosmiisaseedwhichbecomesmaterial.Ifwehumanbeingssawitsnature inatruelight,thennothingwouldbeimpossibleforusonearth,theceremonies,circlemaking,furs,sealsandsoonaresheermonkeytricksincomparison,and seduction.Imaginatioisconfirmedandcompletedbythefaiththatitwilltrulyhappen,foreverydoubtbreakstheworkfaithmustconfirmtheimagination,forfaith resolvesthewill(Werke,Huser,I,p.334,375II,p.307,513).Buteveninthesubjectsuchfaithisnotsolackingincontactasinisolatedtechnologiesofthewilland theirwillarmedonlywithitself.InsteadthecontactgroundoftheinteriorinwhichthewillislocatediscalledthearcheusinParacelsus,i.e.thesubjectofnatureinman asitwere.Archeusistheworkingimageaccordingtowhichorganicmattercombinesduringprocreation,itdwellsintheseed,thenlaterpermeates,animatesand preservesthebodybuteverywillandeveryimaginationislocatedinthearcheus,onlyhasitspowerinharmonywithitandfurthermoreonlyinharmonywiththe generalcosmicnaturalforce,whichParacelsuscallsvulcanus.InthisdoublecontactParacelsuslimitsandfoundstheimagination,withregardtoitsintention,and therebyridsitofitslaterabstractcrazedcharacter,andalsoitslonelyquixotry.Howeverandthisisdecisiveforthepowerwithwhichthesubjectofnaturalmagic issharpenedandemphasizedhereParacelsusdidnotallowanytechnologicalwork,whethermedicalorchemical,tosucceedwithouttheparticipationofthelever tothearcheusvulcanus.ItwasindicatedabovethattheEuropeanrejectionofyogaenergyisthesame,intermsofitsmethod,asiftheGreeks,onthebasisoftheir knowledgeoftheelectrical

Page685 propertiesofamber,hadrejectedthepossibilityofadynamo.Thismetaphor,elucidatedwithParacelsus,hasinfactanotherwhollyliteralmeaning:thereisindeedan analogyofundevelopedsubjectiveenergywiththesimpleGreekelectron,ofthesubjectiveenergydevelopedinthefuturewiththedynamo.Atanyrate,thetechnique ofyogaalreadyseemstoknowwhatmaybecalled,highlycomparatively,theLeydenjarortheelectrostaticgeneratorofthislevel(thoughbynomeansanyinductors orcathodes)butEurope,bylookingexclusivelyatthemerelyexternalfactorsofnature,hasblockeditselfofffromasolidandsustainedpursuitofParacelsus' intentions.Thoughwhatistermedvitalthrustandenergyofthewillonlydevelopedwiththeorganicpsychologicalconditionofmatter,andthuscannotbemeasured andtreatedatthelevelofmechanicalenergiesatall,exceptinsubordinateidleanalogiesthereisnoequivalentofheatforwillpower.Also,psychicenergyisableto movemountainsatbestfiguratively,andevenhereonlywiththemostexaggeratedmetaphor:amagneticcurrentisabletorotatetheplaneofpolarizationoflight,but themostconcentratedwillisunabletopickupapencilfromthefloor.Andpreciselythephysicsofapparenttelepathy,ofinducedelectricity,deliveredthemaxim throughFaraday,itsdiscoverer:electricalactionatadistance(i.e.ordinaryinductiveaction)neveroccurredexceptthroughtheinfluenceoftheinterveningmatter,and evenmorepertinently:Ifwesucceededinmovingevenjustabladeofstrawwiththeforceofourwill,ourconceptionoftheuniversewouldhavetobechanged. InterventionofthewillintheworldwithouttheexternalmachinerywhichthepracticeofyogaprofessestoexerciseandwhichParacelsusintendscertainlypresupposes nointerveningmatter,andallthiskindofthingisincompatiblemorethaneverwiththeworldofmechanismorwiththeworldconceivedinpurelymechanicalterms. Thereisneverthelessatechnologicallyutopianapproachtotheproblemofalegitimatekindhere,onewhich,withinanolongermechanisticallycroppedmatter,isnot afraidtoannouncewillandimaginationasfactorsofnaturesuigeneris.Thisalwaysstimulatedthehopethattheleverwasinmanbymeansofwhichtheworldcanbe technologicallyliftedontoitshinges.Thatthereisadormantpotentialinhumanmatterwhichdoesnotknowitsownstrength,whichoccursinathousandirregular experiencesbutnotinasingleadequatetheory.Thereisafutureinallthis,alegitimateproblemofthefuture,andthereisindeedanenormousreceptacleofpower whichliesonthesummitofourconsciousnesspeopletravelthroughitontheirownaccount,ononedifferentfromthatoftheBecome.Withtheobjectivesensewhich

Page686 Paracelsushimselfteachesagainstexaggerations,asamagicrealist,butstillasarealist:spontaneityextendsexactlyasfarastherealityallowsittofromwhosestrength itstems,andtowardswhoseprocessitiscorrelativelydirected.Andthisrealityisofcoursefurtheradvancedthanthatofmechanicswhichonlyrepresentsthepartofit whichisturnedawayfromman,indeedonewhichisoftenstillartificiallyisolatedandreifiedinthissuperficiality.Man'spossiblefieldofactioninnatureisdefinitely moreextensive,moreunenclosedanditisabletobethiswherebythemainthemereturnsbyvirtueofthatpossiblesubjectofnaturewhichgivesbirthtoand dynamizesitselfinutopiantermsnotmerelysubjectively,butalsoobjectively. Coproductivityofapossiblenaturalsubjectorconcretetechnologyofalliance Eventheexternalforcesdonotalwaysexistasunequivocallyasitseems.Oftentheywerejustanameforthatwhichcannotbeexplained,aflashynameaswell,which concealedignorance.Opium,forexample,issoporificbecauseitcontainsavisdormitivavitalforcealsobelongsinthisseries.Whatistobeexplainedisthusturned intotheexplanationitself,andanalyticalworkstopsatamereword,quicklyinventedandturnedintoacapacity.Andthereissomethingelsebehindthis,something preservedinthelinguisticform:thebeliefinspirits.Themorespecificaforceappears(likethesoporificforceofopiumor,asinajokebyMrike,thatofscarlet fever,thewickedfairyBriscarlatina),thecloseritistoanimisticideas.Thatiswhyphysicssoughtmoreandmoretoleveltheindividuallydesignatedforcesingeneral mechanicalterms,alongthelinesofpressureandthrust.Chemicalaffinityistherealforcebywhichtheatomssticktogetherinthemolecule,cohesiontheforceby whichthemoleculessticktogether,anditsopposite,ingases,isthencalledexpansiveforce.ButasearlyasahundredyearsagoDavyandBerzeliustriedtoexplain chemicalaffinityfurtherbymeansofelectricalattractionorrepulsion,anexplanationwhichonlyfounderedonthechemicalcombinationofatomsofthesamekind, namelyofcarbonatoms(intochainsandrings)electronresearchworkingonthebasisofquantumtheoryisonthepointoftracingthesocalledforceofchemical affinityuninterruptedlybacktosubatomicprocesses.Thegeneraltheoryofrelativityultimatelyseekstodismisseventhesocalledforceofgravityasaseparateform ofenergy,indeedasenergy

Page687 itself,andexplainsitbythemathematicalstructureofafourdimensionalcontinuum.Thefactthatabodyisattractedheremeanssimplythatitdescribestheshortestline incurvedspace,ageodesicline.Spaceisparticularlycurvedinthevicinityoflargemasses,henceabodyinthisspacesimulatesparabolasorellipses.Buttheyonly appearassuchtotheEuclideanwayofthinking,andmaketheassumptionofaforceofgravitynecessaryonlyinaplanespace.Thetendencyinphysicsistodefineall manifestationsofforceaslocalirregularitiesinametric,nonEuclidean,curvedcontinuum.Clearlyatleastthespecificmultiplicityofforcestherebydisappears,justas theirsuperandsubordinationdisappearedlongago.TheprophecyofNewtonhimselfinhisOpticksisthusfulfilled:TotellusthateverySpeciesofThingsis endow'dwithanoccultSpecifickQualitybywhichitactsandproducesmanifestEffects,istotellusnothing:ButtoderivetwoorthreegeneralPrinciplesofMotion fromPhenomena,andafterwardstotellushowthePropertiesandActionsofallcorporealThingsfollowfromthosemanifestPrinciples,wouldbeaverygreatstepin Philosophy,thoughtheCausesofthosePrincipleswerenotyetdiscover'd.Andyet:thespecificforces,insofarastheycharacterizetheunexchangeableeffectiveform ofagroupofmanifestations,arenotyetboughtupbythisgeneralizingquantificationnoteventhenotoriousvisdormitivaofopiumisboughtupbyit.For quantificationmakesallcatsgrey,itignoresthevariousmodesinwhichgeneralnaturalforcestillappearsandhasitseffects.Itallowsamechanicalmonotonyto triumphoverthealwaysqualitativestagesofdevelopment,atheoremoftheidentity(notjusttheconservation)ofenergyoveritsalwaysstillfermentingcore(inquitude poussante,accordingtoLeibniz)anditsevermorehighlyqualifiedobjectivizations(entelechies,accordingtoAristotle).Theveryreductionofthevariousforce dominantstoasinglebasicforceofnaturecannotmerelybeonewhichanalyzeseverythingmechanisticallytodeath.Norcanitmerelybeoneinthesenseofthe electromagnetictheoryoflight,normerelyoneinthesenseoftracingallphenomenabacktoasimpleuniversalfieldlaw.Butcharge,energynode,field,eventhe peculiarconceptionofenergylevels(inatomicstructure,expressedbywholequantumnumbers),allthesenewtermsofefficacityandseedarepredominantlyabstract ideasinsteadofmediations.Despitetheirnotmerelyquantitativebuthighermathematicalabstraction,theyarequantifications,keptisolated,ofanaturanaturata,not penetrationsintotheproducingelementofanaturanaturans,atleastconceivedasanagent.Butphysics,preciselyasadialecticalscience,remainsrelatedtoanucleus offorcelikenaturanaturans,indeedtoa

Page688 coherence,inthetendencytomanifestitself.Allthisissealedtomechanismtherealproblemoftheagentwhichoperatestheturnoveranddialecticalswitchofnatural phenomenaisanimplicationwhichalsoexistsquantitativelybutcannotbequantitativelypursued.Itispartofmechanisticstoconfineitselftobeginningswhicharekept isolated,anditisallthemoreapartofittoforgettheoriginalrelationofproductionitselfinfaceoftheproductanditsrelations.Butthatwhichobjectivelycorresponds totechnologicalworldchangemustbefoundedforconcretetechnologyinanobjectiveproductiontendencyoftheworld,justas,mutatismutandis,itisfoundedfor concreterevolutionintheobjectiveproductiontendencyofhumanhistory.Coproductivityofnatureisrequired,thatwhichParacelsushimselfhadinmindwhenhis naturealreadyappearedtohimasfriendlyorcapableofbeingbefriendedinautopianway,inwardlyfullofremedies,fullofprescriptionsandonebigchemist'sshop. acosmosinwhichmanopensup,justasthemicrocosmofmancausestheworldtocometoitssenses. Bybeingusedcooperatively,therootofthingsseemedtangible.Theexperimentismediatorbetweenhumanandnonhuman,anditwouldlikeifpossibletogoso deepthatitteststhecurrentinthenonhumanitself.Sodeepinfactthatitteststheaccesstothehearthonwhichexternalthingshavebeencookedandonwhichthey shouldcontinuetobecooked,inalliancewiththenaturalsubjectandthenaturaltendency.Allcorn,saidMeisterEckhart(Sermon29),allcornsuggestswheat,all metalsuggestsgold,allbirthsuggestshumanbeingsdevelopmentalhistoryitself,fromAristotletoHegel,containstheobjectivityofthissuggestion,incontrasttostatic mechanics.Anditwasnoaccidentthattheactivityofthissuggestionatthehearth,naturalisticshapinganddeveloping,wasthoughtoutatthemomentwhenthe methodicalconceptofgenerationwastransformedbyFichteintotheuniversaloneofanactivedeed(withpriorityofdoingoverbeing),andbySchellingeveninto thatofanitselfstillshapelessoriginalproductivity(withRenaissanceofthenaturanaturans).Thusonlyanindifferentpartialviewregardsnatureasaproduct, speculativephysicsrecognizesitassomethingproductiveandastendency.Schellingmakesthefollowingcontributionheretotallyincomprehensiblefromthepointof viewofmechanics,andevenfromthatofcontemplativescience:Weknownatureonlyasactive,forwecannotphilosophizeaboutanyobjectwhichcannotbe activated.Philosophizingaboutnaturemeansliftingitoutofthedeadmechanisminwhichitseemsimprisoned,animatingitwithfreedomasitwereandinitiatingitsown freedevelopmentin

Page690 otherwords,itmeansbreakingfreefromthecommonviewwhichseesinnatureonlywhathappensseesatmostactionasafact,nottheactionitselfwithin action(WerkeI,3,p.13).Whereasthereforeintheusualviewtheoriginalproductivityofnaturedisappearsinfaceoftheproduct,inthephilosophicallyconcrete viewtheproductmustdisappearinthefaceofproductivity.SchellingandHegelofcoursecausethehistoryofthemanifestationofnaturetolandinexistingman,infact attheconversionpointofthehistoricalbeginning,andHegelevenmoresothanSchelling,whoatleaststillseesinthevariedandintricatemonogramsofobjectsan undecipheredmeaning,onewhichhasnotyetproperlybrightenedinthehumanmind.InHegel,nature,abacchanaliangodwhodoesnotrestrainandcompose himself,isalreadythoroughlyrestrained,composedandcancelledoutinexistinghistory,insuchawaythatnosubstantialtracesremainwithinitwhatever.Thistotally antiquarianexplanationofnaturalproductivityanditsproductsintermsofthepastandBecomenessisclearlydifferentfromtheapproachtotherootofnatureintended elsewhereinSchellingandHegelandapproachingthisroothasnoproductivesenseitselfifithaswithered.Butinrealityithasneitherwitherednorishumanhistoryin itscorporeality,backgroundandaboveallinitstechnology,obligedtonatureonlyasonethatispast.Onthecontrary:finallymanifestednatureliesjustthesameas finallymanifestedhistoryinthehorizonofthefuture,andthemediationcategoriesofconcretetechnologywhichcanwellbeexpectedinthefuturealsoruntowardsthis horizonalone.Themoreatechnologyofallianceinparticularweretobecomepossibleinsteadofthesuperficialone,atechnologyofalliancemediatedwiththeco productivityofnature,themorecertainlythecreativeforcesofafrozennaturewillbereleasedagain.Natureisnobygone,butthebuildingsitewhichhasnotyetbeen clearedatall,thebuildingmaterialwhichdoesnotyetadequatelyexistatallforthehumanhousewhichdoesnotyetadequatelyexistatall.Theabilityofthe problematicnaturalsubjecttohelptocreatethishouseisinfacttheobjectiveutopiancorrelateofthehumaneutopianimagination,aconcreteimagination.Thereforeit iscertainthatthehumanhousenotonlystandsinhistoryandonthefoundationofhumanactivity,italsostandsaboveallonthefoundationofamediatednaturalsubject andonthebuildingsiteofnature.Aborderlineconceptforthelatterisnotthebeginningofhumanhistorywherenature(whichhasconstantlybeenpresentduring history,surroundingit)switchesintothesiteoftheregnumhominis,butintotheproperone,andrisesinanunalienatedway,asmediatedgood.

Page691 Technologywithoutviolationeconomiccrisisandtechnologicalaccident Privatepropertyalienatesnotonlytheindividualityofhumanbeings,butalsothatofthings. Marx,HolyFamily Itisstillnotpossibleanywherefortheforceoffirenottohavetobeguarded.Steam,ignitedgas,electriccurrent,theyareoutwitted,chained,securedinthewaythey work,greatslynessisincorporated.Contactwiththenucleusofoperatingforces,asattemptedintheParacelsianapproach,appearstotallyeccentricfromthepointof viewofthepresenttechnologist.Butitisjustaseasilyapparentfromthepresentstateoftechnologythatitispreciselythiseccentricitywhichitlacksinordertobeless artificial.Thisartificialityismorethanandsomethingdifferentfromthehumannestwhichiscalledahouse,orevenmovingonwheels,althoughthistoooccursinno livingbeing.Allthiskindofthingstillhasahold,justasourhandshaveaholdwhentheyareplayingthepianoinsteadofgatheringfoodorstranglingenemies.Evende organizedtechnologicalexistencedoesnotyetneedtobeanartificialone,namelynotwhen,andthisismostdecisive,itoccursinasociallymediated,inanotinhuman societyandparticipatesinthismediation.Theartificialitymeanthereisbasedinsteadonthepredominantabstractnessofbourgeois,andabovealloflatebourgeois existence,anabstractness(unmediatednesswithhumanbeingsandnature)towhichthetechnologyofcunningalsobelongs,alongsidethesoprogressiveunleashingof theforcesofproductionitbroughtabout.Andthusbourgeoistechnology,forallitstriumphs,appearsbothaspoorlymanagedandpoorlyrelatedtheindustrial revolutionisconcretelyrelatedneithertohumannortonaturalmaterial.Toitbelongsthemiserywhichitinflictedonpeople,rightatthebeginningandoverandover again.Leisurelycraftsbecameunremunerative,lifeintheEnglishfactorieswashellish,workontheconveyorbelthasbecomecleaner,butnotmoreenjoyable.Hence, fromtheabstractprofitdrive,comestheuglificationwhichmachinesandmechanicalworkhaveinflictedontheworld.Capitalismplusmachinegoodsbroughtaboutthe destructionoftheoldtowns,ofthenaturallybeautifulhousesandtheirfurniture,oftheimaginativesilhouetteofeverythingorganicallyconstructed.Itwasreplaced aroundthemiddleofthelastcenturybyanadvancearchitecture

Page692 formation,ofadditionalreleaseandnewformationinmaterial.ThusKant'saestheticcriterion,mutatismutandis,moreorlessalsoholdsgoodforthetechnological genius,whereveritendeavourstoadvancebeyondthemeretechnologyofcunning,asafutureconcretegenius.ThisisnotcontrovertedbythefactthatKantregardsa subjectinnature(naturanaturans)assomethingwhichcanonlybeaddedtonatureinthemind,likeanimmanentItechnologyofnature'itself,asKantsays.Eventhe preponderancewhichthemereNewtonianmechanismofnaturepossessesinKantcannotpreventintheCritiqueofJudgementthehoweverreflexiveor hypotheticalinterpretationwhichisabletorefertoanaturanaturans,indeednaturasupernaturans.Certainly,asubjectofnature(thenotmerelysecularizedancient Isis)remainsproblematicaslongasnoconcretemediationbyman,astheyoungestsonofnature,hassucceededwithit.Yetthepossibilityofthisremainsopenandis mappedoutintheobject,notjustinourabilitytointerpretit,inaninterpretingabilitywhichwouldnotevenbepossibleasaproblematiconewithoutthepenetrating influenceofnaturalmaterial.Tosumup,therefore,leavingasideallspeculation:thereisthepredisposition,therealpossibilityofasubjectofnature,byseizureitis broughtintoFaust'srelationtofire,whichonlyovercomesnatureinordertomediateitwiththebestthatislatentwithinitinourbestinterests. Iffireisonlycontrolledandguarded,thenitremainsalien.Theseparatetrackonwhichitmovesalongisthenadownrightdangerousone,evenifitsadditionalforce weretobebettermanagedinsocialtermsthanitisnow.Inthesocietywhichiscurrentlystillcontinuingthereisdefinitelynothingdiscernibleoftherelatedspiritwho hasturnedhiscountenancetouspreciselyinthefire.Thereisaspecificanxietyoftheengineerthathehasadvancedtoofar,toounsecured,hedoesnotknowwhat forcesheisdealingwith.Andfromsuchnonmediationstemsnotleastthemostobviouseffectofomittedcontent:thetechnologicalaccident.Thisaboveallindicates howthecontentofnaturalforces,whichisstillsolittlemediatedwithus,cannotbeabstractedawaywithoutgreatharm.Infact,inallaccidentswhichhappentohuman beings,amongoneanotherandintheirrelationtonature,astrangelycommonfactorwhichismostinstructiveemergesatthesametime:thetechnologicalaccidentisnot whollyunrelatedtotheeconomiccrisis,noristheeconomiccrisiswhollyunrelatedtothetechnologicalaccident.Certainly,thedifferencesbetweenthetwoaremore apparent,andinplacesevengreaterthanthisrelationship,andthecomparisonthereforesoundsparadoxical.Thetechnologicalaccidentappearsasacoincidental crossingofregularmotions,astheiroutward,unforeseenpoint

Page694 ofintersectiontheeconomiccrisis,however,developstotallyuncoincidentallywithinthemodeofproductionandexchangeofthecapitalisteconomyitself,asoneofits steadilyhardeningcontradictions.Nevertheless,bothcatastropheshaveadeepseatedcorrespondencetooneanother,forbothstemultimatelyfromapoorly mediated,abstractrelationshipofhumanbeingstothematerialsubstratumoftheirbehaviour.Therearesomesafeguardsagainstthetechnologicalaccident,theyare moreprudentandalsorathermoreknowledgeablethanthehelplessnesswithwhichthebourgeoisiefaceseconomiccrises,andthetechnologicalsafeguardsalso increasetosomeextentwithimprovedtestingofmaterials,sounding,andmeteorologybutnaturehasnotthereforebecomegoodfriendswithitscaningmaster,and diminishedriskdoesnotsavethebourgeoistechnologicalrelationshiptonaturefromabstractness.Evenwartechnology,althoughitfranklyrationalizestheaccident(of others),asahighlyconscioustechnologyofcatastrophestothedisadvantageoftheenemy,isabstract,merelycanalizing.Theatombombisofcoursetheimperishable gloryofAmericanChristianity,theradianceofitsexplosionhasbeencomparedwiththelightsurroundingGrnewald'sChristontheIsenheimAltar,buttheanxietyof theengineer,apartfromthepoliticalone,remainsheremorethanever.Eventhesyntheticallymanufacturedcatastrophedoesnotgetanyclosertonature,whosestellar blastfurnacesitimitates,withextremecunning.Thusbourgeoistechnologyhaschanceformationeverywhereinitshorizon,chanceformationfromtheblind, uncontrolled,unmediatedencounteroftwomerelyexternalnecessities.Andthischanceisnotjustthereverseofexternalnecessity,itshowsinthelatteratthesame timethatmanisnotonlycentrallylittlemediatedwithnaturalforces,butthatthecauseofnatureitselfisstillunmediatedwithitself.Thustechnologicalcatastrophealso implieseverytimethemenacingNothing,asdefinitiveunmediatednessinallcasesofdestructionthischaosgivesasampleofwhatitcando.Thiswasalreadyevident above,inthefoundation(cf.Vol.I,p.310):NordoesthedialecticalusefulnessoftheNothingconcealthecompletelyantihistoricalpreappearancewhichthe Nothinghasasdownrightdestruction,asadenofmurderersrepeatedlyopeningupinhistory.Theunderlyingtechnologicalunmediatednessisnotdiminishedevenby thehoweverastonishingcaseofasuperficialcongruence.Wherebybourgeoisabstractcalculation,whichhasbeensopowerfullydevelopedasamathematical physicalone,findsacorrespondingstretchinnatureitself,namelythemechanicalone.Asthetheorypracticeofmodernindustryproves,thereisaportionofconcrete abstractnessasitwereinphysical

Page695 naturethisisalsowhycalculatorythinkingwillremaininforcetechnologicallylongafterthedestructionofitsbourgeoisbasis.Butthepurelymechanicalhasitslawitself onlyasoneabovesheercontingencies,itisahistorical,stereotypedandwithoutcontentlikechaositself,whosebecomereificationorcrustitdescribesquiteclearlyby meansofmechanistics.Thuseventhispartialcongruencewithanunreleasednature,withanaturewithoutacountermovetotheNothing,doesnothelpabstract technologyoutofitsabstractness.Unmediatednesswithitsmaterialremainslargelycommontobourgeoiseconomyandbourgeoistechnologyinthepostbourgeois worldchangeswillthereforeappearintechnologyalongtheselines.Certainlybourgeoistechnology,byvirtueofitselectiveaffinitywithnaturalmechanisms,is considerablymoresoundthanthecapitalistabstracteconomicsystem,evennonEuclideanactsofboldnessarenotdeniedtoit,theystandoutremarkably,aswehave seen.However,crisisandaccidentareaninsurmountablebarriertobothabstractnessesforbotharecontemplative,bothareidealistic,botharecharacterizedbythe genuinelyidealisticindifferenceofformtocontent.Notjustincriseseither,butalsointhetechnologicalcatastropheeverywhereherethepriceispaidforthelackof mediationofthebourgeoishomofaberwiththesubstanceofhisworks,andallthemoresowiththeunfoundproductivity,withthetendencyandlatencyinthenatural matteritself.Andonlywhenthesubjectofhistory:workingman,hasunderstoodhimselftobetheproducerofhistoryandhasconsequentlycancelledoutfatein history,canhealsoexaminethehearthofproductioninthenaturalworld.Marxdefinedhistoricalmatterastherelationofhumanbeingstohumanbeingsandtonature wherethisrelation,asinbourgeoissociety,isthoroughlyandperdefinitionemcalculiabstract,thenaturalmatterwhichcollaboratesinthisrelationstillcannotbeoneof concreteblessingeither.Marxismoftechnology,onceithasbeenwellthoughtout,isnophilanthropyformaltreatedmetals,butrathertheendofthenaiveapplicationof thestandpointoftheexploiterandanimaltamertonature.Theconnection,detecteddespitealldifferences,ofthebourgeoisattitudeofhumanbeingstowardshuman beingswiththattowardsnaturedoesnotyetremovethetechnologicalalienationfromnature,butratheritsclearconscience.ItisnoaccidentthatNorthAmerica,which wasbornpurelyoutofcapitalismandhasneverexperiencedanythingelse,hasnorelationshiptonatureatall,notevenanaestheticallymediatedone.Thecurrentof natureasafriend,technologyasthedeliveryandmediationofthecreationsslumberinginthewombofnature,thisbelongstothemostconcreteaspectofconcrete utopia.Butevenjustthebeginningof

Page696 thisconcretionpresupposesinterhumanconcretizing,i.e.socialrevolutionuntilthisoccurstherewillnotevenbeanysteps,letaloneadoor,tothepossiblealliancewith nature. Chainedgiant,veiledsphinx,technologicalfreedom Itisthuspointlesstoexpectacertaingoodfrominventingwhichstandsonitsown.Itisnotalwaysbetterthanthesocietywhichpositsandusesit,evenifitcontains muchmorethatcanbeadoptedthanthissociety.Jubilationatgreattechnologicalprogressisalwaysfutileiftheclassandtheconditionoftheclassforwhichthe miraclesarehappeningarenottakenintoaccounttoo.Intheendtherewasgiganticwartechnology,andpreciselywhenitfunctionedincapitalisttermswithoutan accidentitwasasingleenormousaccident.InsteadofoneburningTroytherewerethousandsthesocialcrisisofcapitalturnedofitsownaccordintothegreatestofall accidents,intothesocialoneofwar.Thusverygreatretrogressionofsocietycancorrespondtoprogressinthecontrolofnature,andeventhecontrolofnature thenlooksthatway.Assuchitisamanifestationofaviolentsocietyanywaytheimage:ironslaveistakenfromthoseoffleshandblood.Andthetechnological relationshiptonaturerepeatsinadifferentwaythebourgeoissocialonetothemisunderstoodtendenciesandcontentsinitsownoperation:inbothcasestheactivity nevergetsbeyondthemereexploitationofopportunitiesinbothcasesthereisnocommunicationwiththematterofoccurrence.Thoughhistoryandsociety neverthelessstillrepresentwhatismadebyhumanbeings,butnaturefurtherrepresentswhatisunmadebyman,whatislargelyunaffectedbymetabolismwithhim.The greaterthegapis,thelessamerelyabstractrelationiscapableofbridgingit.Violationandunmediatednessthusremaintechnologicallyaffiliatedinbourgeoissociety everyinventionisdeterminedandlimitedbythis.Thusitbecomesevidentagainandagainthatourtechnologyuptonowstandsinnaturelikeanarmyofoccupationin enemyterritory,anditknowsnothingoftheinteriorofthecountry,thefactofthematteristranscendenttoit.Astrikingdoubleaspectofthisisprovidedbytwofigures onathoroughlyhonestmonument,onthatofthechemistBunseninHeidelberg:achainedgiantonhisleft,theoverpoweredforceofnatureaveiledwomanonhis right,thesphinxofnature.Butifnaturewasnotveiled,thenthegiantwouldnotbechainedthechainsandveilarethereforeallegorieshereofthesamefacts,

Page697 andtheyarenowheremorecertainlycorrelativetooneanotherthaninthesocietyofthoroughabstractness.Asfarasthelatterisconcernedwithrespecttotheessence ofnature,aseverybodyknowsithasbecomeincomparablygreatersinceBunsen,Helmholtz,Einstein,andHeisenbergthisistheothersideoftheotherwiseso blossomingandboldnewphysics.Therelativizationofsocialconnectionsandofthepreviousindustrialcalculationisreflectedinthedecayofallandeveryconcrete relationtonaturewhatsoever.Ontheonehand,subjectiveidealismthusgainsground,Berkeleyinphysics,aboveallinEngland,whereithasneverdiedout.Onthe otherhand,thatofnature,evenconceivablerealityisostensiblyextinguished,notmerelyvisualrealitytheunmediatednesswithnaturanaturansmakesitselfintoa methodicalpointofhonourandabsoluteatallevents.Thesearethereflexesofadisintegratingsociety,ofitscrisisandofitsownchaoticnaturetheyappearintheway itdividesitsphysicsinhalf.Inthewayitisolatesitfarfromeverymicrocosmmacrocosmrelationshipandespeciallyfarfromthedialecticsofnature,fromthephysical subjectobjectrelationship.ButneoBerkeleyismhasbecomethefurthestthingofalltoefficacityandseed,withinterpretationswhichcontainnostatementofthe philosophyofnatureatallbutsimplyasociologicalone,sothattheagnosticismandalsothechaoticworldofjeansandEddington,ofMachandRussellbelongtolate capitalistideology,nottothephilosophyofnature.Thustotalalienationfromthecontentofnaturedoublymakestechnologyintoatrick,doublystressestherelation betweeneternallyveilednatureandeternallychainedgiant.Deorganization,asthetransitionoftechnologyintoregionsofnatureevermoreremotefromhumanbeings, hasfurtherreinforcedtheabstractnessoftechnology.Andwithit,inanevermoreprecariousway,itshomelessnessapartfromthesocialbasis,radiationmachinesnow alsolackaphysicallyfamiliarbasis.If,therefore,deorganizationitselfistoobtainthedesiredadditionalforcesconcretelyfromtheworld,thenthissurplusmustnot onlyextendintothegraphicbutintothenonsuperficial,consequentlyagainandagain:inmediationwithanolongermythicalnaturanaturans.Thesocialpolitical freedomwhichtakesthesocietalcausesinhandthuscontinuesinanaturalpoliticalway.Afterall,thismediationisthetechnologicalandnaturalphilosophical counterpartofwhatEngelscalls,intherelationofhumanbeingstohumanbeings,theleapoutoftherealmofnecessityintothatoffreedom.Engelsthoroughlystresses theparallelbetweenmerelyexternalsocialandphysicalnecessity:Thesociallyeffectiveforcesoperatejustliketheforcesofnature:blindly,violently,destructively,as longaswedonotrecognizethemanddonot

Page698 reckonwiththem.Butoncewehaverecognizedthem,comprehendedtheiractivity,theirdirections,andtheireffects,itmerelyrestswithustosubjectthemmoreand moretoourwillandtoachieveouraimsbymeansofthem(AntiDhring,Dietz,1948,p.346).Equallytheblindcatastrophecontainingnecessityinthesocialand physicalareaisbrokeninbothcasesbymediationwiththeforcesofproduction.Intheformercase,byhumanbeingsbecomingmastersoftheirownsocialization,i.e. mediatedwiththemselvesastheproducingsubjectofhistoryinthelattercase,byincreasingmediationtakingplacewiththepreviouslyobscureproductiveand conditionalbasisofthelawsofnature.AndEngelsvigorouslystressesthatbothareas,andthereforealsobothactsofmediationwiththemandinthem,canbe separatedfromoneanotheratbestintheimagination,butnotinreality:existenceinsocialfreedomandthatinharmonywiththerecognizedlawsofnatureare connected.Toavoidtheissueinaputschist,i.e.abstractwayisnosolutionineithercaseeveninthefiercestcountermoveandmovetooverhaultheBecome, changingtheworldlivesoffobjectbasedtendency.Evenchemistry,howeversynthetic,orradiationtechnology,howeverboldlyextended,is,insofarasitisconcrete, alliedwithasyntheticallyextendingelementaposterioriintheworld,mustandwillbeso.Thesyntheticallyextendingelementaposterioriisinthedialecticallegalityof natureitself,beyonditsBecome.Withthemerelysuperficiallylegalgraspwhichhasbeendevelopedbybourgeoisnaturalscienceanditstechnologynaturalnecessityis ofcoursenotyetcentrallygraspedandmediatedquoderatdemonstrandum.Thisitselfexternalnecessityisstillblindandinthisrespectstillevermoreclassifiedwith theconceptoffateofprimitivepeoplesandinmyths,namelywiththeMoiraofdestiny,thanwiththattrulyrecognizednecessity,whichisthusbroughttofreedom, wherebyconcretetechnologycanhaveitsconceptanditscontinuingcreationinnature.OnlywhenTycheandMoira,chanceanddestinynolongerformthe unsurmountedfactorsofamerelyexternalnaturalnecessity,onlyinthisprecisepresenceintheforceofnaturewouldtechnologyhavesurmounteditscatastrophicside anditsabstractness.Anunparalleledhookupisintendedhere,arealinstallationofhumanbeings(assoonastheyhavebeensociallymediatedwiththemselves)into nature(assoonastechnologyhasbeenmediatedwithnature).Transformationandselftransformationofthingsintogoods,naturanaturansandsupernaturansinstead ofnaturadominata:thisisthereforewhattheoutlinesofabetterworldsuggestasfarasconcretetechnologyisconcerned.Evenassumingtheearthhadaheartofgold, thisheartwasstillbynomeansfoundto

Page699 besuchandwillonlyacquireitskindnesswhenitfinallyalsobeatsintheworksoftechnology.

38BUILDINGSWHICHDEPICTABETTERWORLD,ARCHITECTURALUTOPIAS
Abuildingmustbeuseful,durableandbeautifulatthesametime. Vitruvius GoingthroughStPeter'schurchtheknightbeganthebeautifulpassagethroughimmortality.Heenteredthemagicchurchwiththeawarenessthat,likethe cosmicstructure,itexpandsandwithdrawsmoreandmorethelongeroneisinit.Atlasttheystoodbythehighaltaranditshundredlampshowquietit was!Abovethemthecelestialvaultofthedome,restingonfourinnertowers,aroundthemavaultedcityinwhichchurchesstood.Theyenteredthe Pantheonthereaholy,simple,freecosmicstructurecurvedaroundthemwithitssoaringcelestialarches,anodeumofthemusicofthespheres,aworld withintheworld. JeanPaul,Titan Sincearchitectureisnothingotherthanareturnofsculpturetotheinorganic,thegeometricalregularitywhichisonlydiscardedatthehigherlevelsmust alsostillmaintainitsrightswithinit. Schelling,PhilosophyofArt UrbsJerusalembeata/Dictapacisvisio/Quaeconstruiturincoelis/Vivisexlapidibus.* Earlymedievalhymn I.FiguresofAncientArchitecture Glancethroughthewindow Wedonothavetosetourfootdownimmediatelyeverywhere.Howbeautifulasketchedstaircaselooks,drawninsmall.Aspecialappealofplansandelevationshas alwaysbeennoted.Mostofitgoesintothefinished *BlessedcityofJerusalem/Calledthevisionofpeace/Whichisconstructedinthesky/Fromlivingstones.

Page700 house,andyetthecreationonpaper,sodelicatelytraced,wasdifferent.Sketchedinteriorsseemsimilarlyfresh,occasionallyalsodeceptive,asevenrealroomsdo providedtheyareseenthroughshopwindowsoraredividedoffbyabarrier.Whowouldnotwanttorestinthesenoblyswellingarmchairs,beneaththecongenially placedlamp,intheeveningroom.Ifonlyitspeacewasours,thewholeroomspeaksofhappiness.Butthishappinessliesinthemereglancefromoutside,occupants couldonlydisturbit.Soheretootheappealingplanliveson,thoughonewhichhasbecomecorporealastrikingfreshnessofdesignstilllivesonintheunenteredroom. Thisfreshnessbecomestotallyalluringinthedreamhouseoftheyoungcouple,whichtheysavourinthedrawing,engrossedinpossiblehappiness.Themodelprovides somethingsimilar,thenowtotallyembodieddesignonareducedscale.Forthemodeltoo,thehouseasachild,promisesabeautywhichisnotalwaystobefound afterwards,intherealbuilding.Thereiseverywhereasenseofanoutsethere,seemingmorebeautifulthanmuchthathasgrownupafterwardsanditspurpose.The designretainsthedreamofthehousetheglancethroughthewindowframesit,eventhemodelstandsthereasifinatelephoto.Aprotectivelayerisatwork,whichis transparentofcoursebutdoesnotyetallowustohelpourselvesortostepinside.Thatiswhyeverythinglookssomuchbetterbehindglass,coexistingmoreeasily. DreamsonthePompeianwall Evenwithcrayonandpaintitwaspossibletobuildinathrillingwayatanytime.Thatwhichispainteddoesnotcollapse,nohouseonthewallcomestooexpensiveor istoobold.Pompeianpaintingisthusthemostfamousinthisvein,itisnothingbutaholidaycityathome.Aperspectiveview,vedutasrunriot,fragilelybeautiful, impossiblebuildingshapesareconjuredontothewall.Thosethatarenottobefoundonearth,andthatcouldnotevenstandupparticularlyonwalldecorationsofthe second,andthenagainofthefourthPompeianstyle.AvillainBoscorealedisplayssidebysideaviewofpaintedgardens,oddlyforeshortenedpillaredhalls,groupsof housesfullofnooksandcranniesinthebackground.Perspectivesoverlapinacheekyandenchantedway,partsofbuildingsthatlieatthefrontareplacedattheback andviceversa,charmingbalustrades,solitaryelevatedcircularlittletemplesmockthestaticrule.Despitethevulgarcoloursthelifeonthewallsisextremelygraceful, people

Page701 couldonlyfloatthroughthesehouses.ThePompeianplayfulnesshasneverbeenconsideredinitsutopianaspectbefore,althoughthelatterevenappearsindetails,ina whollytangibleway:namelyintheanticipationoflaterstyles.Onlytheimpracticableelementwasnoted,andVitruviusalreadyreproachedthispaintedarchitectureon accountofit.Butpreciselythisunsoundtrivialityallowedthepaintertoproduceeffectswhichwerenotyetdueatallinasoundway.Thustheprofusionofhouses crookedlypiledupinthedecorationofBoscorealedisplaysaGothicaspect.Evenmoreundoubtedly,Baroquemotifsappear:hereinasweepingrowofpillars,there inbrokenorrearinggables,thereagaininbosquetsandthelikewhichtheRococoperiodwasabletocopylater,withoutbreakingitsstyleonthisaccount.Ancient architecturewasnotfamiliarwiththisbizarrephenomenonatall,orittouchedonitonlyverylate,ontheSyrianbordersoftheempire,inBaalbekorPetra.Thecircular templeinBaalbekdisplaysthecurvedentablatureinPompeiandrawings,therockfaadeofPetrathetruncatedgablecorners,withaturbanshapedrotundain between.ButthiskindofthingonlysporadicallyreachedRomeandthenlongafterthedestructionofPompeii,inHadrianicbuildings.Andeveninthelattertherewas onlyanoccasionalsuggestionofwhatthecentralcountrytownhadsovividlyexecutedonthewall.OnlythelateItalianandGermanBaroqueproducesthesplitgables andcurvedportalswhichPompeianmasterwhitewasherseffortlesslyputup.Thesemastercraftsmenveryoftenusedpatternsfromscenepaintingofthetime,andthis originexplainsboththeshakyandtheboldelement.Delicatehallsseemasiftheyhaveflowninoutofcolouredair,andthusbringdreamplaywiththem. FestivedecorationsandBaroquestagesets Withcrayonandpaintthingswerelaterbuiltinamuchmoreboisterousway.Namelywhereitwasaquestionofformingagreatmask,anopenillusion.Thisisthecase withthefestival,andthenonthestagebothusePompeiangames.Tobeginwiththefestivalandwiththemannerofcelebratingit,itsintentioninanycaseistoforgetall everydayroutine,itcanneverbeoriginalenough.Thefestiveelementisinsatiablysettledinthebroad,playfulorglitteringrealmofitspleasure.Theorgydistinguishes manfromanimals,moreclearlythanreasonmandoesnotstopwhenhehasenough.ThemostbrilliantageforcelebratingfestivalswasatthecloseoftheMiddleAges andintheBaroqueperiodatthat

Page702 timetherulingclassknewmoreaboutostentatiousdisplaythaneverbefore.Enormouswealth,thecapitalofmerchantsandprinces,flowedtogetheratafewpoints oftentastelessbutneverwearypowersofenjoymentandsplendourwereabletoinvestthemselvesinexuberance.Thearchitectjoinedforceswiththematredeplaisir crayonandpaint,managementandallegoryfurnishedthefestivalwitheveryconstructibledreammagicitneeded.WhatwaspaintedonthewallinPompeii,intheway ofbuildings,andalsomythicalscenes,herestoodonthetableorexaltedthebanquetinghallandtheguests,whohadbecomesetpiecesofthedecor,withinit.Ataball ofthebishopofSensaround1400therewaswinemadeofglass,womendisguisedastheirownrivalsandfinallyasnudeswhichwerecalledclearevening.Froma banquetgivenbytheDukeofLillein1454whichwastoannounceacrusadeagainsttheTurksforthereconquestofConstantinople,thefollowingtabledecorationhas comedowntous:amannedandriggedmerchantship,ameadowwithtrees,rocks,aspringandtheimageofSaintAndrew,thecastleofLusignanwithMelusinethe fairy,awindmillwithashootingmatch,awoodwithmobilewildanimals,achurchwithanorganandsingerswho,alternatingwithmusicianswhosatinapie, entertainedtheguestswithreligiousmusic.Asifthisremoteworldwasnotenough,unitedonthetable,mobilepicturesandstatuesappearedallaroundthecentre piece,furnishingwarlikewishfulsituationsandthoseofvictory.AttheclimaxofthefeastSainteEgliseherselfrodein,sittinginatower,onthebackofanelephantled byaTurkishgiant.ThisisaGargantuaworldofthefestival,andalsoawealthofbarbariclongingforthewondrousandwonderful,forCastelMerveil,drawnfromlate romancesofchivalryandusedforshow,transformedintoaspectacle.Forthisreasonthedirectorofsuchprincelyrevelshadtobeanexpertatcreatingmorethanthe landofthePhaeacians,hecasttheroomtogetherwiththeguestsintoasupernaturallymonstrousrealm.CasanovastillrecordsfromtheRococoperiod,fromaworld whichwasinotherrespectsnolongerexpertatfortissimo,giganticenchantmentsfromthelateMiddleAgesandtheBaroqueperiod.Herecordsthemofthe spectacularfairyplaysofKarlEugenvonWrttemberg,adespotwhomasteredevenbetterthanmostotherpettyprincesinGermanythealchemyofmakinggoldout ofthesweatofhissubjects,afantastwhoknewhowtomakehiscourt,despiteVersailles,themostbrilliantinEurope.Thesefestivalslasteduninterruptedlyfortwo weeks,thecapacityforenjoymentofaheartycountryweddingwascombinedwiththegiftsandworksofartofchivalrous

Page703 courtesy.TheDukeledhisgueststhroughathousandfootlong,brightlylithothouse,heledthemthroughorangeandlemongroves,pastthirtylakesandfountains.In thecastlecourtyardstoodthetable,cloudsdescended,cloudsparted,thesummitofMountOlympusbecamevisible,withitsgods,framedbygoldenpillars,toone sidetheseatsofthefourelements,andItalianariasrangfromMountOlympus,sirenmusicwithoutanydanger.AhiddenmachinesetVenuswithsixteengodsoflove ontothedecoratedtabletheladyyielded,thecavalierssmiled,andattheendofthefestivalthewholeconsumableuniversewasservedonthewoman'sskin,onthe man'spleasure.NeverweremorebrilliantfestivalscelebratedthanintheBaroqueperiod,thattheatricalage,anditsdistantechointheRococoperiodneverwerethey embodiedwithsuchrefinedextravaganceatatimeofdepartingbutallthemoredecorativefeudalpower.TheFrenchSecondEmpireobtaineditsalreadyrotten highlightsfromthissource,andeventodayallsplendourfromNewYorkicerevuesinMadisonSquaretothecoronationinLondonloanspectacularfairyplays oftheBaroqueperiodinatorturedfashion.Butthenontorturedelementislacking,andthepleasureindecoration,howeverpeculiaritwas,oftheageofMakarthad nothingatallincommonwithgenuineexuberance.Thebanquetsoftheformermerelychewedoverancientlustreagainandagainandfraudulentlycopiedit,whereas theBaroquefestivalhadrepresentedwiththelavishvividnessofitsownageancientthemesandthemesofitsownwithfurthersuperelevatedreflection.Fancydress ballsandsleighparties,pleasurehuntsandequestriancontestsequallyembodiedthatBaroquestylewhichseeksmarvelsinarchitecture,unprecedentedamazementin scenepainting.ButthefinalfestivedreamofBaroquesocietywastobecarriedofftoIndia,tothecourtoftheGreatMogul.EvenGreekmythology,whichwasused fordisguiseorallusion,layinthelatitudeofDelhi.Festivearchitecturepositedtropicalcoloursandcontoursthroughoutinordertobeathomeinitadlibitum. Itisonlyastepfromthisremotenesstothecolourfulstageitselfatthattime.Totheworldontheboardswhichisappropriatetoalavishplot.Andhencetotheposed sceneonwhichtheportrayedfestivityisframed,andwherebysomethingelsewassorichlytoprosper.Baroquestagesetsfarsurpassedthepreparationsforafestival indissipationbeyondthefamiliaranditsfieldofvision.GiuseppeGalliBibiena(16961757)wasthegeniusoftheoperaticscene,ofthatenchantedallthemoreby meansofopticaltricks.Hencetheideaofintroducingtheperspectiveofthecharacteron

Page704 thestageoranimaginaryperspective,aperspectivefromagreatlateraldistance,insteadofthesimpleperspectiveofthespectator.GalliBibienaremovedthevisual pointlyingintheaxisofthetheatre,turnedtheflatswhichhadpreviouslystoodatrightanglestothespectator,placedthemdiagonallywiththewishfuleffectthatthe perspective,incontrasttotheRenaissancestage,pointedcompletelytowardswhatwasoblique,displaced,andfullofpresentiment.Thisbecametheframeofthe dramasabouthighmattersofstate,abovealloftheJesuitopera,whichwashighlyfantastic.Aworldbeneaththemagicwandaroseinthestageandbackstagearea: angelsanddemonsstretchedtheirwings,magiciansproducedseasofflameandfloodsthroughwhichinnocencestrodeallthemoretouchinglyorallthemore victoriously,Elijahascendedintoheaveninafierychariot,andintheendthepracticeofhellandtheradianceofheavenwereconstructedasstrikinglyasifpeoplereally weretransportedtoanotherplace.Butthearchitecthadtoshapethespaceinwhichtheincredibleappearedcredibleandthespectacularfairyplayanattainable condition.Thebackdropswhichhavesurvived(cf.JosefGregor'sportfolioMonumentsoftheTheatre)showstaircases,banquetinghalls,subterraneanvaults, magnificentchurchesinanalmostunfathomablewealthofdrawing,overlappingandofbackgrounds.Classicalororientalbuildings,belovedbythecontemporary Baroquenovel,wereputupinastrikingmanner,andpotentiatedagainintheirlegendarysplendour:Nero'sgoldenhouse,thepalaceoftheGreatMogul,sugarsweet pleasurefullofempurpledheavenonearth,anditwasreflectedincrystallinewaters.Thiswas,inthelocusminorisresistentiae:theatre,thepowerofthiselegant, nottosayetherealbombast.Initsillusoryarchitecture,though,theillusiondidnotservetocopyhistoricalstyles,asinthescenepaintingofthenineteenthcentury,buta styleofitsown,theBaroque,continuedtoexperimentinautopianfashionwithinit.InfacttheBaroque,asmannerismhadalreadydonebeforeit,soughtitsreflection soeagerlyitselfthatrealarchitecturewasabletogotoschoolinthetheatricalkindandlearntthesorceryofmultiplyingitselfevenmoredaringly.Hencealsothefinal intensificationoftheatricalarchitecture:therealthatmergesintothepainted,thepaintedthatmergesintothereal.AsinthecaseofTiepolowhenhedoublesasitwere inpaintingthebanquetinghallofthePalazzoLabiainVenice:withfakewindowsandarcades,withillusoryguestsatthetable,withthebanquetofCleopatrainthewide openwall.Thisillusionworkedveryconvincinglyhighoverhead,inthepaintedceilingsoftheBaroque,combinedwithdomeandlantern.Wallandceilingarehere supposedto

Page705 alsoprovedsoeasy:thesameGiuseppeGalliienawhopaintedhisfantasticstagebuilttheoperahouseinBayreuth,themostbeautifulItaliantheatreintheworld.He builttheoperahouseinDresdenandconnecteditwiththeZwinger,*anotherGalliBibienabuilttheJesuitchurchinMannheim,sheerfestiveperformancesinstone. Thebuildingsstandthereinasensorysupersensoryway,andthebeautifulwhichherecelebratesconsummationwiththesacreddoesnotrestitself,butsweepsand soars. Wishfularchitectureinthefairytale Butpeoplealwaysmanagedtodescribehousesalmostmorecolourfullythantoprovidethem.Fictitiousbuildingthenappears,ofthekindconjuredupinthefairytale. ThustherearealsoPompeiangameswithwords,theythensetoffentirelyintothewideblueoreventurquoisegreenyonder.TheGermanfairytale,whichrevealsso muchthattheheartdesires,containstheforbiddenroomofthedreamhouseatanyrateandpicturesitnamelessly.Butcompletedreamcastlesandalsodreamcities arefoundintheArabianNights,wherethearchitecturalmodelsforthedreamthatextendsthemweremoreabundantanywaythaninthenorthatthattime.Andit's betterinthedream,thehousesarehereendowedwithabeautywhichcannotbefoundelsewhere:Withinthemaredaysandnightswhichdonotseemasiftheyareto berankedwiththislife.Thefairytale:TheTaleofJanshah(TheArabianNights),fromwhichthissentencecomes,describesthejewelledcastleofTakni,far,far awayinthehiddenworld:WhenJanshahawokehesawsomethingglitterinthedistanceasifitwasaflashoflightning,anditfilledthefirmamentwithitsflashing.But hemarvelledatwhatthislightcouldmean,withoutsuspectingthatitwasthecastleforwhichhewassearching.Soheclimbeddownfromthemountainandwent towardsthelightthatradiatedfromTakni,thecastleofjewels.NowitwasstillajourneyoftwomonthsawayfromKarmus,thehillonwhichhehadlanded,andthe foundationsofthecastleofTakniwerebuiltofredrubiesanditswallsofyellowgold.Anditalsohadathousandtowerswhichwerebuiltofpreciousmetalsand studdedandsprinkledwithpreciousstonesfromtheseaofdarkness,andthatiswhyitwascalledthecastleofjewels,Takni.Inadditiontothisthereareinanimatebut totally *OneofthefinestBaroquepalacesinGermany,builtbyA.D.Pppelmannbetween1711and1722.

Page707 preservedstatues,asinthefairytaleofthestrangecityofbrass,situatedinthedesertbetweenEgyptandMorocco,andfilledwithcorpsesandtreasures:Whenthe emirMusasawthis,hestoodstillandpraisedAllah,theSupremeBeing,honouredhimandcontemplatedthebeautyofthepalace,theweightofitsconstructionand themagnificentperfectionofitsdistribution.Everythingjudgedorannouncedorevenbraggedaboutinthiswayliesinthewishfullinewhichfinallyleadstothepalace ofAladdin,totheconvictionofthebeholdersthatnothingcouldbebuilttocomparewithitinthewholeworld.AndhowevermuchhalfpreservedGreekandRoman citiesinthedesertwhichhadformedaroundthemcontributedtotheorientalfairytaleofcastlesandcities,itisstillclearlyalwaysthearchitectureofitsownepoch whichiscompletedbythiskindofliteraryFataMorgana.Itisinstructiveherethatthefictionaledificesofallagestakeasubstantialpartoftheirlustrefromtheminiature orornamentalworldofexistingarchitectureforthesesmallformsinherentlygavemoreconcentratedexpressioneventotheartisticaspirationoftheirstyle.Apieceof Persianchasedworkornamentallysurpassesthegatewayofamosque,andamonstrance,atabernacle,abaldachinabovethefigureonapillarareevenmoreGothic thanacathedral.Thustheminiature,whichcontainedasitwerethemosqueorcathedralseenasremote,smallandsharponthehorizon,providedspecialmaterial preciselyfortheformationofliteraryessence.TheinfluenceoftheornamentalworldisrecognizableintheArabianNightsbytheunrestraineduseofgoldandprecious stones,ofivorylatticesandstainedglasswindows.Thiskindofthingbecomesevenclearerinthedreambuildingsofmedievalepicpoetry,inthesecularonesandall themoresointheconsecratedones.Namelywheneverfairytaleimagesofalegendarykindaresprinkledintothisepicpoetry.ThetempleoftheGrailinWolfram's Titurelappearsasonebigreliquary,chasedlikethelatterandyetashugeasacathedral,sumptuous,indeedesotericeveninitsmaterials.Itswallsandroofsaregold andenamel,thewindowsarecrystalandberyl,moltenblueglassispouredintothegoldenrooftiles,emeraldsformthekeystones,andthebossonthetowerisa carbunclewhichilluminatestheforestpathsatnightandguidesthosewhohavelosttheirway.Thewholedescriptionishyperbolic,andyetitpresentsproper architecture:thatofthecastleintheairofGothicdesign,driventoitsultimateGothicconclusion.Andonceagainofcourseahistoricalcontactisnotlackinghere,as withthecastlesofjewelsandcitiesofbrassintheorientalfairytale,acontactwhichforitspartgivesamagicformtothestyleoftheperiod.IfArabiandreambuildings continuedtobeinfluenced

Page708 byclassicalruins,andperhapsalsothedilapidatedcastlesfromtheearlyArabianageofchivalrybeforeMohammed,allthepalaceutopiasoftheMiddleAges adoptedtheimperialcastleinByzantium.Itsmagnificencebecamealegend,andsproutedintoamiracleamongtheFranconiannations,sincethetimeofCharlemagne. ButevenwithByzantiumfictitiousarchitecture,sincethetimeoftheCrusades,wasgovernedbyorientalromanticism.Andthiswasultimatelythecaseforanimportant reason,forthesamereasonwhichcausedthemosthighlyimaginativestagesetstoblossomwithatouchofBaghdad.ForByzantiumseizedtheimaginationofthe architecturalfairytalesostronglysimplybecauseitwassoclosetotheArabianNightsbeautyofthebuildingsoftheOrientinitspoweranddignity.Andevento moderneyes,nothingseemstohaverisensodirectlyfromtheorientalfairytale,indeedevenfromtheGermanone,asMoorisharchitecture.Ifarchitectureasawhole wascalledfrozenmusic,thenMoorisharchitectureinterruptsthisimage:itseemsmuchmorelikeembodiedfairytalewhichiswhythiswholeworld,downtothe catchphrase,appearstobemagicaldowntotheEuropeans.Thusitisevidentthatarchitectureinthefairytalealmostcontinuallyturnsintothatfairytaleinarchitectureas whichMoorisharchitectureactsandexists.AboveallintheEuropeanviewofit,inthatOpensesamewishwhichconceivedallfantasticbeautyfromCastleGrailto Armida'smagicgardeninanorientallyenchantedlight.Thissortofthingextends,thoughwithafortissimowhichdoesnotreallysuitthefairytaleandtheAlhambra,to thecastlesoftheexoticBaroquenovel,allthewaybacktoIbrahimBassa,totheGreatMogul.Thenagain,somuchlater,theKronenburginArnim'shighlyRomantic novelTheGuardiansoftheCrownmasqueradesonEuropeansoilasaMoorishinspiredglassstructure.Thefictitiousbuildingneverthelessremainsinthelineofthe architecturalstyleexistingatthetime,butextendsthislineinautopianway,onoccasionincorporatinglegendaryarchitecturalimages,almostalwaysinthedirectionof theworldofdomes,ofthepillaredcourtyard,andofbluegoldornaments.SotooinHoffmann'sfairytaleTheGoldenPotLindhorst'sazureroom,withthegolden palmtrees,passessmoothlyfromtheEmpirestyleintotheEasternstyle.Apathwhichistheclosesttothearchitecturalfairytaleparticularlyinthenorthernmists.At anyrate,almostallbuildingsaremagicallycolouredinthefairytale,whereupontheythenlookliketheFataMorganawhereitisathome.

Page709 Wishfularchitectureinpainting Somuchforfictionalhouses,butthereisnowtheimportantnewadditionofpaintedones.Theydidnotservemerelytofillinthebackground,morefrequentlyand authenticallytheyalsosoughttobewishfulbuildingintheirturn.Thereisadistinctseriesinwhichthearchitecturalpicturegainsaneverthelessstrangelifeofitsown, withaspecialconcentratedexpression.Thisgoesbackalongway,muchfurtherthanlandscapepaintingthePompeianmuralsbelonghereagain,andpainted townscapesalreadyseemlateGothic.AfterwardsthearchitecturaldistantviewsinthepreBaroqueofthefifteenthcenturybegin,thehallsandstreetsinRaphael's SchoolofAthensopenout,DrerandAltdorfersetthetoneforarchitecturedepictedforitsownsake.Altdorfer'sdetachedRenaissancevillaintheBathof Susannagazesintothecountrysideasanindividualsubject,withhighlyexaggeratedloggias.Architecturalpicturesbecameparticularlynumerousinthenorthfromthe middleofthefifteenthcenturyfromMemlingon,theyallcontainpropheticanticipationsofthearchitecturalstyletocome.Altdorfer,alreadylivinginthebreakthrough oftheRenaissance,apainterandarchitectaswell,givesinhispictures,overdoingthearchitecturalstylethathadarisen,apermanentlystrangeportrayaloftheItalian GermanRenaissanceasithadneverbeenbuiltsofarnorth.Afterwardstherefollowsthehalfnaturalistic,halffantasticpaintingofbuildingsinDutchmannerismofthe seventeenthcentury,withVredemandeVriesandothers.Theirportrayals,nowsimplycalledarchitecturalpictures,withthebuildingassolesubjectandpeopleat bestasaccessories,turnAltdorfer'sRenaissancevillaalmostintoapeepshowveduta,butalsointoaparticularlyclosedBaroquegloriaitisasiftherewerenothingin theworldbutthispaintedpalacecourtyard,thiscastleyard,thislateGothicimaginarychurch(cf.Jantzen,TheDutchArchitecturalPicture,1910).Particularly interestinghere,becauseofitsspacemakingcharacteralsowellsuitedtoaphilosophicalstudy,isasuccessfularchitecturalpicturebyHendrikArts,repeatedbyPeter Neefsandthenfrequentlyafterthat.Thishallchurch,*paintedintrebleperspectiveandcorrespondinglycoordinatedspatialstyle,admittedlyanticipatesnofuture architecture,buthasaRomanticattitudetothelateGothicstyle,inthemiddleoftheseventeenthcentury,insuchawayhoweverthatthespaceseemsto *Achurchwithnaveandaislesofthesameheight.

Page710 disappearevenmorethanitdidthenintoanglesanddepths.SuchchurchpaintingsarereminiscentofHegel'spostfestumdescriptionandyetfestivedescriptionof Colognecathedral:Itsmajesticandgracefulqualitytheslenderproportions,theirelongatedquality,sothatitdoesnotsomuchriseasflyupwardsThisisnota questionofusefulnesshere,ofenjoymentandpleasure,ofsatisfiedneed,butofabroadcloakedstrollingaroundin,hallswhichdonotcareasitwerewhetherpeople usethem,forwhateverpurposeitmaybethisisahighforest,aspiritual,ornateone(WerkeXVII,p.553f.).Paintedarchitectureassuchisofcourseonlya colouredshadowcastbytherealkind,butitcanalsoproduce,inthesenseindicatedabove,variationsonathemewhichfurtherdevelopthisthemeineasilycoexisting forms.Soeasilycoexisting,paintedarchitecturemayappearterriblyunsoundinseveralcases,staticallyunelaboratedanduntenablebutthestaticallyhabitableisnot thepurposeofthesethoroughlyindividualstructures.Furthermore,evenseenpurelyintermsofpainting,asubjectwhichisitselfalreadyartcannotleadtosuch fundamentallyincreasingrevelationsassubjectslikethenude,theportrait,andthehistoricalsceneorlandscapebutinsteadthearchitecturalpictureprovidesinits significantexamplespreciselyclarifications,ifnotelaborationssuigenerisinadifferentmaterial,inpaintingtechnique,whichcancontinueinaparticularlyrelatedway theverymorningcharmsofthearchitect'ssketch.Thearchitecturalpicturecannotbeconfusedherewithillusionisticallyintendedmuralpainting,likethatofTiepoloits purposeisnottheBaroqueandlateBaroquemixtureofpaintedandrealarchitecture.Itspurposeisrathertheimaginationofanidealarchitecturewhichiscertainlynot yettobefoundonearthornotinsuchapronouncedfashion.JakobBurckhardtwasthefirsttodrawattentiontothevaluepossessedbyarchitecturalpicturesforthe recognitionofthearchitecturalwishfulimaginationofanage.Likewise,themoredistinctlythearchitecturalstyleofanagechanges,themorestronglyitfermentsina utopianwayinitspaintedarchitectures.Andequally,themorematurelyanarchitecturalstylehasalreadydeveloped,themorebrilliantlythisphenomenoncanbe doubledinthearchitecturalpicture,asiftherewasapaintedentelechyofstyle.AsevidenceofthislatterprocessPaoloVeronese'sbiblicalbanquetpicturesare unsurpassable,likethemostfamousofall:FeastinthehouseofLevi.Thepaintedpillaredhalltogetherwiththetownscapebehindithasheretranslatedallthelustre ofRenaissancesocietyintoitselfaVeniceofPaolo'stimehasbeendoubledandrebuiltoffireandharmonyofcolour.Andasfarasthewishfullineinarchitectural picturesasawholeisconcerned,itdoesofcoursefollowthatofarchitecture

Page711 inthefairytale,namelywithregardtothefairylikequalityandeventhepeculiarexoticismwhichthearchitecturalpicturealsolendstothebuildingsofitsownageandof itsowncountry.Butthewishfulbuildinginthearchitecturalpicturepreciselyasashapedworkofartsuigenerisisrelatedmuchmoresharplythanthewishful buildinginthefairytaletoarchitecturethatcanbeopticallystrolledthrough,referringtoitconcretely,indeedpaintingitonthewall. Paintingonthewallultimatelymeanscondensingarchitecturalforms.Moreover,intotypesofbuildingwhichcutacrossallstylesasforexamplethehouse,thepleasure seat,thehightower,thetemple.Letusselecttwoofthesealwaysalsoarchetypalformsofbuildinghereinthearchitecturalpicture:towerandtemple.Thepainted imagesofthesetwoareallthemorevividastheysimultaneouslytouchonveryold,legendarypreimagesofarchitecture.ThetwoexamplesofthisareBrueghel's archetype:theTowerofBabel,andthen,inaverydifferentage,beneathaverydifferentsky,theAssisifrescoesfromtheschoolofGiotto,whichconverselypicturea kindofcivitasDeiwiththearchetype:Solomon'stemple.Brueghelpresentedtheoldest,bitterestofallarchitecturalfantasiesintheTowerofBabel.Hepaintedthis Prometheanstructureintwoversions,bothtimes,correspondingtotheBaroque,withaperceptibleechoofastageaspect.IntheRotterdampictureakindof colosseumrisesunfinishedinfifteenstoreys,betweenahilltownandtheseatheheightsofthebuildingaresurroundedbyclouds.TheViennapicture,retainingthe curveofanamphitheatre,witharches,windows,gatesandbalconiesontheilluminatedlefthand,almostalreadydevelopedside,addsavastrockylandscapeasa foundationforthebuilding,andportraysthehubrisinotherwaystoowithgreaterseverity:asafestrongholdisourLucifer.*Therebelliousstructureitself(Genesis II,19),aseverybodyknows,onlyappearedasafragment,thoughasafragmentwhichrepresentstheworkofPrometheusandIcarusintheBible.Thestory,whichis Yahwistic,hasthesameauthorasthetaleofparadiseitwasprobablyalsooriginallyconnectedwiththetaleofthelostparadise.Buttheentrepreneurialideologyof earlycapitalismandthevariedideologyofthemanufacturingperiodnowsupervened:thebuildingthatreachesuptoheavencertainlylayclosetotheheartoftheageof Faust,withitsrecedingsenseofsin.FollowingParacelsus,BaroquetheosophyalsorestoredtheconnectionofthetowerbuildingmotifwiththatoftheFall,and furthermoreafactwhichisimportantforwishful *AreferencetotheLutherhymn:Ein'festeBurgistunserGott

Page712 buildingbynomeanswithclearcondemnation.Sothat,asinBrueghel'spicture,therewastheopportunityofportrayingthesafestrongholdofLucifernotjustasa fragmentbutasanunfortunatelythwartedmonumentofanaspirationtocreatelikeGod.Anaspirationwhich,asJakobBhmeteachesatthesametime,admittedlyhas anarrogantoutcome,butalsoagreatgoalandonewhichdoesnotevenneedtoremainafragment.ThearroganceitselfiscondemnedbyBhme,butnotthedrive withinittowardslightandtheheights:Whenthey(theluciferianspirits)roseinsharpinflammatoryrevolt,theyactedagainstNaturalRightasGodtheirFatheracted, andthiswasasourceagainstthewholeGodhead.Fortheyinflamedthebodyandgavebirthtoahighlytriumphantson,hard,rough,darkandcold,burningwith bitterness,andfierySothattheinflamedbridenowstoodlikeaproudbeastandnowthoughtshewasaboveGod,therewasnothingtoequalherThey(the luciferianspirits)nolongerwantedtheoldorder,buttheywantedtobehigherthanthewholeGodheadandthoughttheywantedtohavetheirdominionoverthewhole Godhead,overeverykingdom(Aurora:Ontheoriginofsin).Butinfirethereisthelightor:manrebornbecomesLucifer'sheirbymasteringthewrathofGod,anda miraculousstructureoffreewillemergesfromhim,whocontrolstheworldinsteadoftheoutcastLucifer.Thebuildingofthetowerisalsopurifiedinthisway,indeed throughthesoulspiritofChristinplaceofLuciferitturnsintothehouseoftheworldwithheavenastheattainedproperty:Thewholeofmatterwastobeapleasure houseforspiritualbodies,andeverythingwastoariseanddevelopinaccordancewiththepleasureoftheirspiritsothattheyshouldnevereverhavedispleasureinany figure,buttheirsoulspiritwastobeinthemidstofallformation(Aurora:Onthesoulspirit).Thussubjectivemysticismhereattackedandadoptedtheoldrebelmotif, skybluemotif,intheprincelyabsolutismoftheChristianmanhimself,indialecticalambivalencebetweenLuciferandChrist,betweenthehousethatreachestoheaven andtheAscensionofChrist.Andthebuildingofthetowerhalfsymbolizedtheinfernaljudgepointingupwards,andhalfaJacob'sladderofdefiancethisisprecisely thecaseinBrueghel'spicture,withthearchitectasarivalofGod,andunmistakablewishfulbuilding.ThetentsofJacobdonotstandonthissidethough,andtheleap fromBrueghel'sdefianttowertotheotherarchitecturalarchetypecitedabove:Solomon'stemple,operativeinthedevoutAssisifrescoes,seemsalargeone. Nevertheless,bothareunitedbyaspiritualwishfulexcessorthearchitectureofblackmagicontheonehand,andofwhitemagicontheother.The

Page713 AssisifrescoesfromtheschoolofGiottoarelikewiseexcessive,fullofparadoxicalarchitecture,theypaintcivitasDeiinaheavyorglisteningstatunascendi.Theone picture:Jesusreturntohisparents'(inthelowerchurch)showsbuildingsinwhichtheupwarddriveisloadedfullofwall.Behindelongatedfiguresthererisesthe tower,castleandchapelGothicofastrangeJerusalem,onecomposedbothofpressureandtheotherworld.Akindofbaptistryisformedinaparticularly oppressivesublimeway,atthesameheightastheenormouscitytowers,ittowersbetweenthem,colossal,againstthesky.Theotherpicture:Dreamofthepalace(in theupperchurch)isalreadypointedbyitssubjecttowardsavisionwhichdidnotwanttorankamongthearchitecturalhabitsofthisworld.TheLordshowsSaint Francisthetreasurehouseofthechampionsofreligion,itisfilledwithweaponsandshields,illuminatedbyalightinwhichthebuildingdoesnotmerelyliebutwhich,as thestormylightoftheDayofJudgment,isinherentinit,radiatesfromit.Thewallismenacinglydark,onlywithinitgleampillarsandwindows,ofunearthlywhitein fact,thearchetypeofSolomon'stemplepressestothefore.ItwasregardedbytheChristianworldasthecanonicalarchetypeperse,astheabsolutecounterparttothe TowerofBabel.AndsinceitsdimensionsstatedintheBiblealsoseemedtogiveahinttotheimagination,thetemplewasfiguredoutoverandoveragainin RomanesqueandGothicterms,andeveninclassicaltermsaswellanarchitecturalprototypefromJerusalemandwithaveryspecialvitality.Itsnewlocation,or rather:itshighestequivalentwouldofcourseonlybeinaHeavenlyJerusalem.Thisurbsvivisexlapidibus,asanearlymedievalhymncallsit,wasitselfneverpainted though,asifitstoodbeforeone'sveryeyes.Theseremotestpinnaclesappearalmostexclusivelyonglasswindows,asinthelateexampleofStMartininTroyes,a medievaltown,introducedintothemagicsquareandtheotherworld,withthelightoftheLambonhigh.Greatpicturesdeniedthemselvestheportrayalofthissupreme ChristianarchitecturalarchetypeeventhatontheGentaltarbyvanEyckshowsaHeavenlyJerusalemonlyonthehorizon.Theimaginationofarchitecturalpainting heredroppedanchorinadvance,itleftittothearchitecturalsymbol,thatis,asisnowtobeshown,totheformsofutopiawithinarchitectureitself,Gothicarchitecture inthiscase,atleasttosignifyanurbsvivisexlapidibus.

Page714 Thechurchmasons'guildsorarchitecturalutopiainactualconstruction Paintingandwritingcanpreparethehouse,andoverplayittoo.Onlytheeffortofbuilding,theactualconstructiveeffort,causesustobeinventiveinadurableway.Ce qu'iln'estpasformn'existepas,*andnotjustBeingbutalsotheutopiansubstancegrowswithformation,ifitisashapingone.Thisisallthemoreunencumberedas thedreaminthecaseofmajoractualconstruction,insteadofvanishinginthefaceoftechnology,usesitforitsadvancement.Theintentionoftheoldchurchmasons' guildsalsobecomesimportantforthis,whichagainmeanstheimageofthebuildingwhichguidedthemasaperfectimageintheworkitself.TheGothicchurchmasons' guildsworked,astheEgyptianonesdidlongbefore,accordingtocertainsecretrules.Ofcourse,asfarasthecanonicalessenceinthechurchmasons'guildsis concerned,wemustdistinguishbetweentheirsecretivenessandthesecretstheyactuallybelievedin.Undoubtedlyalotofmeretricksordodgeswerealsokept concealedthustheylookedstrangewithoutbeingso.Likewisemuchofthiskindofcode,andofmeretrademark,istobefoundintheprofessionalmasonicsymbols, andalsointhesocalledbasicfigureusedbythemasons'guilds.Themasonicsymbolsweregrantedtoindividualjourneymenand,alongsideanyothermeaningthey mayhavehad,servedtosignawork.Thebasicfigureontheotherhand,alsocalledthejustbasisofstonemasonry,servedamongotherthingsasamodeltoresolve inpracticetosomeextentproportionswhicharoseandwereincommensurableatthattime,suchasthosewhichledtotheirrationalnumbers2or3.Theseratios alreadyappearedinthediagonalbisectionofaregulartriangleorinboringacubeatananglealongitsbodydiagonal(theedgeandbodydiagonalofacubehavethe ratio1:3)butsuchirrationalitieswereasealedbookeventothetheoreticalmathematicsoftheMiddleAges,whichwasstagnantanyway.Thusthejustbasisof stonemasonry,alongsideotherthingswhichitsignifiedaswell,overcamethiswithacertainprofessionalpracticality.Whichconsequently,inadescriptionhedgedby clauses,wastoremainatradesecretandinthisrespectbynomeanscontainedrulesofacanonicalarchitecturalperfection.ThelateMiddleAgesevenimparteda gooddealofpracticalmasonicmathematicsinprintasintheBchleinvonderFialenGerechtigkeit,acollectionofmechanicalformulae.Butofcourse:apartfromthis keptorbetrayedtradesecrettheGothicmasonicguildsexplicitly *Whathasnotbeenformeddoesnotexist.

Page715 propagatedothertraditionsaswell,thoseofathoroughlynonmechanicalkind.InthecaseofsuchbuildingsSemper'stheory,whichwasreallysalutaryinitsday,isnot correctthatrawmaterials,technology,andfunctionarethesolebasicdeterminantsofactualconstruction.Thisrestrictionwasjustifiedwithregardtothesenselessly affixedornamentationsofVictorianandotherkitsch,butitbecomessenselessitselfassoonasitisappliedwholesaletoancientarchitecture.Atthattimeadifferent artisticaspirationwasatworkfromthatofsocalledfunctionalart,andbecauseitwasanartisticaspirationitdisplayedthemostimportantdeterminantapartfromraw materials,technology,andfunction:thatoftheimagination.Hereitwasthatofcanonicalarchitecturalperfection,withregardtoasupposedsymbolicmodel.Thismodel guidedpreciselytheactualconstructionofthework,notjust,likethearchetype,itsdreamandplananterem,anditgavetheruletotherulesofthemasterbuilders themselves.Hencethegreatarchitecturalartisticaspirationineachcasewasthesameasthesymbolicintentionineachcase,whichwastraditionallyoperativeinthe ideologyoftheancientbuildingtrade.Butthisintentionsoughtwithsetsquareandcompassesdepictivelytoapproachthedimensionsofastructureofexistencein generalimaginedasexemplary.Unfortunatelythematerialwhichhascometolightsofarisnotyetsufficientforustorecognizethegoalimagesofthemasons'guilds, apartfromthegeneraloutline,indetailaswell.Inanycasethesubjecthasbeenignoredsincetheinvasionofarthistorybypositivism,whereasontheotherhandart historiansfromtheRomanticperiod,likeStieglitzandaboveallSchnaase,whowerestillincontactwiththesubject,didnotgetmuchbeyondestablishingandproviding aframeworkforthesubject.Romanticism,andparticularlymysticizingfreemasonrybeforeit,alsosupplantedthegenuinesymbolicintentionsofancientarchitecture withfalseones,fromthespiritoftheirownageanditsideologyaswiththeGothictowerspointingheavenwards,whichinreality,thereandthen,wererathersymbols ofbourgeoisprideandofarrogancethanoflongingforheaven.Nevertheless,theexistinggenuinesymbolicintentioninthemasons'guildsissettledneitherbythe understatementofpositivismnorbysentimentaladditionsfromtheRomanticagethegenuinearchitecturalsymbolisitselfmanifestedtoounmistakablyintheactual constructionsofitsrespectiveartisticformforthat.Equallythereisaneverwhollybrokenrecollectioninthemasons'guildsofthatsacredtraditioninwhichnotevena path,letaloneatemple,hadbeenlaidoutwithoutmythicalritesandsimilarstandardmeasures.ThedruidicalstonepillarsandthesteppedTowerofBabel,the Egyptian

Page716 pyramidandthehumanlybalancedGreektemple,theRomaquadrataandeventheSlavoniccircularmarketplacealwaysobeyed,fromthestandpointoftheir respectivesymbolsinthesuperstructure,differentclassificationsfromthoseofrawmaterials,technology,andimmediatefunctionandtheGothiccathedralwasno exceptiontotheseclassifications.EvenmoreunmistakableintheGothicsymbolismofthemasons'guildsistheaftereffectofdualisticgnosticmythologyofnumbersand figures,whichhadbeenkeptaliveintheMediterraneancountries,particularlyinProvence,andspreadnorthfromthere.Christlikearchitecturediffersherefromthe heathenastralkindonlyinthetotallydifferentcontentofitsmythicalclassification,notintheclassificationitself.AspecialimageofclassificationisfoundinGreek architectureofcourse,namelyapurelyhumaneone,onewithcorporealhumanproportions,notwithastralorChristianotherworldlyones.Thiskindofclassification arosefromasocietywithoutapriesthoodandmakesGreekarchitectureintothaturbanehumanstyleamongarchitectures,whichthenthroughrelatedreplacements orconquestsofmythlargelybecameaworldofproportionskepthumaneinthemodernage.ButaroundtheGreekbuilturbanumthererunsthecreditedformulaof allthemasons'guildsandtheirarchitecturalutopia:theattemptedimitatioofacosmicorconverselyChristlikebuilding,theonemostperfectlyconceivedforthe purposeofarapport.Theimitationecessarilyprecededthelongedforrapport,andthusitcreatedinitsmostradicalexpressionsthecrystalsymmetryoftheEgyptian pyramidorconverselythehieraticallyorderedvitalityoftheGothiccathedral. Beautifulbuildingthusalsointendedtodomorethanhaveanexternallypleasingeffect.Unfortunately,aswasstressedabove,nothingissufficientlyclearindetailasyet abouttheruleswhichundoubtedlyexistedatonetime.Andunfortunatelyagain,onlythefreemasonshavemadeanincessantallusiontothissomethingmore,a dubiousandlargelyfalsifiedone.Nevertheless,theircivilizeddelusionalmummerymustbetakenintoaccounthere,fortheredefinitelymustbesomethingdiscarded fromthemasons'guildsinit.Aseveryoneknows,masonrybothusestheemblemsofthebuildingtradeandaboveallfantasizesitshistorythroughouttheentirehistory ofarchitecture.Itishighlyimprobablethatthisbourgeoisaristocraticallianceitself,especiallywithitshocuspocus,emergedfrompracticalmasonry.Butitiseven moreimprobablethatthefundamentalfrivoloususeitmakesofarchitecturalmetaphorswaspurelyitsowninvention.TheSalvationArmydidnotemergefromthe militaryeither,yetwithoutthemilitaryitslieutenantsandmajorswouldnotexisteventhehallelujahgirlwho

Page717 isasergeantpresupposesasergeantsomewhereelse.Anditisreasonabletoassumethatthedeisticbrothersoftolerancetooksomeoftheirplagiarizedarchitectural metaphorsfromthechurchmasons'guildswherebyatleastacloudedaccess,notmerelyfautedemieux,mayopenuptothelatter.Thebackconnectionwiththe masons'guildswasperhapssuppliedbyRosicrucianism,whichmaywellgobacktothelateMiddleAgesandfromwhichthefreemasonsbranchedoffatthebeginning oftheeighteenthcentury.IntheRosicrucianComeniuswefindagainforthefirsttimearecollectionofthecuttingofthestonetojustproportions.Theninthe freemasons,inthemidstofallothermystagogy,socalledancestorsofmasonryarelistedlikewisewithconspicuousreferencetothechurchmasons'guildswhichinthe eighteenthcenturyhaddisappearedfromviewlongago.Theseancestorsweresupposedtobe:MosesandtheEgyptianpriestarchitectstheChaldaeansand magiciansontheEuphratesandTigrisHiram,thebuilderofSolomon'stempletheRomanpriestkingNumaPompilius,firstPontifex,andhiscollegiafabrorum.These werejoinedbyErwinvonSteinbach,thebuilderofStrassburgcathedral,andaroundhimthewholeSolomonictraditionofthemedievalbasisofstonemasonry. Piouslegendswerealsoadded,liketheByzantineonethatthegroundplanoftheHagiaSophiahadbeenconveyedtoitsbuilderbythearchangelRasielinadream. Fromwhichtherefore,byvirtueoftheharmonyofthischurchwiththedivinegroundplanofheavenandofearth,themagicalsignificanceofitspillarpositionsand proportionsoriginatesandensuesindetail.Moreover,connectionswiththeOrderoftheKnightsTemplararenotlackinginfreemasonryeither,andwithitschurches whichweredecoratedwithundoubtedlygnosticcabbalisticemblems.ButthepeakofperfectionforthefreemasonswaspreciselytheabovementionedSolomon's temple:thishighestsymbolofallforthechurchmasons'guilds.Theconstitutionalbookofthefirstfreemasonscallsthetemplethefinestworkofmasonryonearth, fromthebeginninguptilltoday,forthereasonthatHiram's,thebuilder's,architecturestoodunderthespecialprotectionandguidanceofheavenandthenobleand wisecounteditanhonourtobetheassistantsoftheastutemastercraftsmenandartisans.Actuallyeventhehyperboleofthefinestworkonearthdidnotgrowonthe soiloffreemasonrybutisonlyuseddecorativelyinititwasatworkinrealtermsthroughouttheentirehistoryofChristianarchitecture.ThegroundplanofSolomon's templeinfluencedthefirstChristianbasilicasalmostathousandyearsafteritsdestruction,andthemedievalchurchmasons'guildssawitasthesacredmodel. Freemasonrydidnotfailto

Page718 pointoutatleastonepieceofauthenticatedevidenceofthissuccession,onewhichismerelymentionedasabarefactinthehistoryofart.Onadoorwaywithapointed archinWiirzburgcathedraltherearenamelytwopillarsdecoratedwithstrangeplinthsandcapitals,onitscopingstoneonebearstheinscriptionJachin'(i.e.Heshall establish),theotherBoaz(i.e.Inhimisstrength),andthesewerethenamesofthetwopillarsbeforetheentrancetoSolomon'stemple,perhapsevenstemming fromanearlymountaincultandhencesuncult(2.Chron.14,2).TheWrzburgplinthsandcapitalscorrespondtothechainsandpomegranatesoftheoriginal,and alsotothebiblicalstatement:Anduponthetopofthepillarswaslilywork:sowastheworkofthepillarsfinished(1Kings7,22).*Themagicaltraditionofthiswork issooldthatevenJosephus(Antiqu.Jud.I,2)claimedthepillarswerefoundedbyEnochthemasons'guildofWrzburgcathedralcertainlyappliedthesymbolic supportsfromthiscabbalisticantiquitytoitsownbuildingandthusdenotedthewholechurchinfactasaSolomon'stempleinChrist.Thepathoswithwhich freemasonrydistinguishesSolomon'sedificepointsinanycasepreciselytotheHermeticpathosoftheChristianmasons'guilds,andincidentallyalsooftheIslamic imitatio.InitsutopiancompletionthetemplewasinfactregardedbyallarchitecturalstyleswhosereligionorreligiousastutenesswasbasedontheBibleastherevered imageoftheperfectplanoftheirownarchitecture.Indeed,acollectionofsolemnarchitecturaldreamswhichisitselfalmostperfectwouldbethatofthereconstructions whichwerebestowedonSolomon'stemplerightuptothenineteenthcenturyjustasthesupposedimitatioofthetemplealsoextendsfromthemosqueofOmartothe Escorial(whichrisesasanedificeonthegrillofStLawrenceasitsgroundplan,butinaccordancewiththereconstructionofthetemplebytwoSpanishJesuits). Ofcourseforallthisthefreemasons,inthekitschoftheirtheoryoftheconsonanceorconcordanceofeveryarchitecturefromthetimeofAdamon,pouredatotally absurduniformityovertheentirehistoryofarchitecture.TheGothicmasons'guildsdidnotfeelinspiredinthesenseoftheEgyptianpriestarchitectsorthe ChaldaeansontheEuphratesandTigrisatalltheyweregnosticChristiandualistic,notcosmicpansophiclikeRosicrucianismsincetheRenaissance.Pow,pow, holdon,holdontothediscordofthecosmos,thisprayerfromthedualistic *TheGermantranslationoftheBibleBlochisquotingfromheregiveswieRosen,likeroses,whichtheAuthorizedVersiongivesaslilywork.Thisissignificantin thecontextoftheRosicrucianismandFreemasonryBlochisdiscussinghere.

Page719 GnosispreciselycharacterizestheexodusideologyinwhichChristianarchitecture,culminatingintheGothic,arose.Butinfact,iffreemasonryismentionedhereallthe same,thisoccursdespiteitssillyocculthistoricalmisrepresentationforthesakeofitsrecollection,notimprobableinplaces,ofancientarchitecturalmetaphors.What mattersistherevelationofactualarchitecturalsymbolsthereandthen,theunderstandingofancientarchitecturefromthestandpointofgoalimagesofitsactual constructionwhichwereundoubtedlyeffective.Andhoweverunimportanttheinventionofapedigreebythefreemasonsmaybeassuch,whatstillremainsimportantis thefactthatitcouldnothaveoccurredeitheriftraditionhadnotcontinuedtomaintain,bothstubbornlyandsignificantly,thecontactofthemasons'guildswithacertain spatialmythology,butalsospatialutopia.Thereisanancientconsecrationofthehouse,andoneintendedobjectively,oneinwhichthetraditionalprecision,indeed pedantryinlayingoutamagicalpointofcontactcannotbedenied.Thecheapenedallegoryoffreemasonryandthewayinwhichitwaspossibleprobablyonlyisolated theelementinsacredarchitecturewhichhelpedtoformandoverformedatalltimes:mathesisofamagicspace,thepatternofthetabernacle(Exodus25,9).Asa veryoldsuperstructure,veryslowlyrevolutionizingitself,standardlysupplyingvariousfoundations,thoughwithchanginggoalrelationsofthestandard.Structureslike thePantheon,theBabyloniansteppedpyramid,theHagiaSophia,theCheopspyramid,andStrasbourgcathedralbynomeansaroseoutsidetheideologyofastrict worldoffaithandhope,onedeterminingtheworkitselfinanimitativefashion.InthecaseoftheBabyloniansteppedpyramidtheastralmythicalcharacterhaslong beenestablished,inthecaseoftheGothiccathedralitsarchitecturalutopiamustfirstbegaugedfromthelogosmythicalcharacter.Buteverywhere,intheentiresacred masons'guild,theartisticaspirationisanaspirationtocorrespond,anactuallyconstructedcongruencewiththeutopianizedspaceimaginedasmostperfectineach case.Anditcanbesaidthatasastonedancemovementinkeepingwiththedimensionsofthisspace,orasasheerbuiltdancingmaskofthiskind,sacredarchitecture wasultimatelyborn.Indeed,eventheGreekedificewasultimatelybornassuchanimitatio,despiteitsnevertrancendentsacredcharacter.Andhencedespiteits bodysculpturesustainedinalltempleproportions,whosedivinaproportio,astheRenaissancesaidlater,standsoutinsuchanoblyanimatedwayfromEgyptian crystal,insuchaquietlyharmoniouswayfromGothicvitality.Thereisimitatioeveninthiswellbalancedlevelheadedness,thismoderatecoastalshipping,whichdoes notexaggeratetodeath,aroundthenatural

Page720 bodilydimension,preciselythatspecificimitatiowhichinsteadofthecrystalofthepyramid,insteadofthelaterforestprofusionofthecathedralresortstotheperfect bodilyfigureasitsarchitecturalsymbol.AsoneinwhoseyouthfulandalsoabstractHumanumtheEgyptianfinalclarityandtheGothicfinalprofusionarestilloralready unitedinacertaincorrective.Butthearchitecturalutopiaofcompletionwasnolessinvolvedinthebuildinghere,howevermuchmoresubdueditmayappearthanthat oftheEgyptianandafterwardsoftheGothicarchitecturalsymbol.Andalthough,aswillbeshown,onlyEgyptrealizedthepossibilityoftotalgeometrization,only Gothicthepossibilityoftotalvitalizationasanarchitecturalexperiment.SothatmostotherarchitecturesoftheworldthencontainwithinthemtheEgyptiangeometrical elementandtheGothicvitalisticelementagainandagainaswishfulalternatives,asguidingimagesofthefinalarchitecturalexpressionindifferentpercentages,andalso withaperpetualstruggle,withoneabstractlysettledonlyinGreeceitself,andthenperhapsalsointheearlyRenaissance.Thisisthesenseinwhichwecanspeakof geometricorvitalisticornamentationevenintheartoftheStoneAge,andthus,withpowerfulanachronism,ofthatwhichlaterreacheditsfullcompositioninEgyptian orinGothicterms.AndwhyRomanesquearchitecture,vialateRomanmediation,canalsostillEgyptianize,i.e.geometrize,justastheBaroqueincorporatesre functionedGothic.Likewise,EgyptandGothicremaintheonlyradicalarchitecturalsymbols,andatthesametimethoseoftheradicaldifferenceinthecontentoftheir intendedarchitecturalperfection.ThereforetherulesoftheGothicandlongbeforethatoftheEgyptianstonemasons'guildsthereandthencertainlyalreadycontainan elementofthatutopiaofcompletionwhichprospectivelyfulfilsthesymbolicintentionsonbothsides.Equally,however,bothsymbolsarebynomeansfreefloatingor objectless,buttheydenote,likeallgenuinesymbols,realpossibilitiesintheworld,answeringcounterpartsfromitsaestheticlatency.TheEgyptianarchitecturalsymbol is,aswillnowbeseeninmoredetail,thatofthecrystalofdeath,theGothicthatofthetreeoflifeor,expressedintermsofmedievalideology:ofCorpusChristi.Thisis thebreadthofvariationofsculpturalarchitecturalutopias,especiallyofthosewhoseparticularsapalsorisesandfallsinthereligioussuperstructuresoftheirsociety.In thearchitecturalwillofMemphisstoodthereandthentheutopiaofanaspirationtobecomeandabeinglikestone,ofatransformationintocrystal.Inthearchitectural willofAmiensandReims,ofStrasbourg,CologneandRegensburgsproutedthereandthentheutopiaofanaspirationtobecomeandabeinglikeresurrection,ofa transformationintothetreeofthe

Page721 higherlife.Greekantiquityisthebeautifulgeneralhumanstrokeofluckandthehappinessofanowhereoutsizedbalancebetweenlevelheadedlifeandlevelheaded geometry.Thusitalonehasahumanereference,thoughabstractlyhumane,andlikebeautifulbutnotexactlyboisterousyouthfulnessisastandardanterem.Butonly EgyptandGothicareconsistentlycomposedrightthrough,overrigidityontheonehand,overprofusionontheother.Thus,asfarasextremearchitectureis concerned,theimitatiocitedaboveofacosmicorconverselyChristlikespaceculminatesandalternateshere,asthespaceconceivedasmostperfectineachcase,for thepurposeofanarchitecturalrapport. Egyptorthecrystalofdeathutopia,Gothicorthetreeoflifeutopia Itisimpossibletobuildtolastwithlivingmatter.Thewallofleaves,theroofofblossomingbranches,howsoontheyareyellow,thewinterdestroysthem.Lifeistoo frailforbuilding:whereaswhatisdeadliveshere,becauseitlasts.Thewall,althoughitcracksitself,mustatleastsurpassthebriefhumanlifespan.Theobligationto resorttodeadmatterorthatwhichhasbecomedeadholdsforeverybuilding,evenforthewoodenone,evenforthatwhich,despitetheuseofstone,isstillorganically blossoming.Butitisonethingtohavetoresorttononlivingmatter,andanothertoavoideverysemblanceoflifeintheworkitselfaswell.Thishappenedinitsmost extremeforminEgypt,onthislargescaleofrigidity.Insofarasorganicmotifsstilloccur,likelotusandpapyrusinthecapital,andthesnakeinthesunsign,theyare reducedtotheseverestoutline,unblossoming,asifpressed.Thisseveritycorrespondstotheabsolutelydespoticsocialsystem,withdignityandceremonialthroughand throughwhichiswhyalmostonlyportrayalsoffolkscenesremainaliveinEgyptianart.Butthepositionofrestinhighsculpturewasachievedassituationlesslyas possible,asstereometricallyaspossible.Thestatuesofkingsandaristocratsstrive,despitealltheresemblancewhichwasemployedonthefeaturesformagicalreasons topromotethepersonalsurvivalofthepersonportrayed,towardsblockunity,theyareonewiththestone.Theyaredrawnintoregularbodies,everymovementis reducedtoastandstill,toastance,oftenevenspellboundintoasquattingcubemotionlessnessistheirglory.TheGreekstatuerecallsanddenotesalivingbody,the Egyptianonerepresentsadeadbodywhichiswaitingtobe

Page722 inspiritedbymagicpowerintoitsdeath,intoalivingdeath.Thecompletionofsuchsculpturemustlieatthepointwherenoorganicbodywhatsoeverdisturbsitany morebutwhereitistotallyhidden,thatis,asHegelsays,inthecrystalinwhichadeadmandwells:i.e.inthepyramid.ButEgyptianartculminatesinthelatter,which wasanexpressionoftheunificationofthekingdom,ofthecentralcultoftheking,notjustasceremonialartbutrelatedtothisastheartofrigidityanddeathper se.Nopossiblerecollectionandreproductionoforganicmotifswhatsoeverclingstoitssmoothjointed,emptywalls,toitscrystalform.Butatthesametimesomething newisaddedwiththisformwhichfarsurpassesthemerewilltowardsrigidityandseverity.Thepyramids,presentingtheirtriangletothebeholderonallsides,are almostobtrusivelysignificantstructures.Theirimmediatepracticalpurpose:theburialchamberwithunassumingentrances,couldalsohavebeenfulfilled,inkeepingwith themegalithicgravesoftheStoneAgeforexample,intheformofbankedupmoundsofearthorevenincubicform.Insteadofwhichtheconspicuoustriangle emerged,existinginsuchpurityonlyhere,andsince,intheMiddleKingdom,itdescendsinsizerightdowntominiaturepyramids,itcanscarcelyhavebeenchosenin ordertoplaceaparticularlyhighroofoverthedeadPharaoh.Alongwiththesquare,thesmallscale,andtriangularspiritlevel,smallstonepyramidswereputintothe graveofthedeadmanintheNewKingdom,andtheyaresupposed,asapyramidtextsays,tohelpthedeadmantoseethesunwhenitrisesandwhenitsets.Itis absolutelycertainthatthepyramidsweresupposedtobecosmicallydepictiveasedificestoo,justlikethesacredbuildingsofallastralreligions,fromtheCelticstone circles,thecromlechs,totheBabyloniansteppedtowers.TheBabyloniansteppedtoweralsosoughttobeadepictionofheaven,ofthemountainofheaven,asitrises initssevenplanetarylevels.SuchsteppedpyramidsalsoexistedinEgypt,indeedpyramidbuildingingeneralfirstbeganwiththesixfoldtowerofSakkara.Butfromthe fourthdynastyon,thetriangletriumphs,intheCheopspyramidalmostreachingtheheightofStrasbourgcathedral,thefourfoldprofiledtriangleoverthesquare,the mountainofheaveninaregularizedshape.Astillnotyetextinguished,thoughstillnotyetclarifiedlightdawnedwiththemeasurementswhichtheEnglishastronomer PiazziSmythtookattheCheopspyramid.AccordingtotheseitwascertainlythepurposeoftheGreatPyramidtorevealinitsproportionsthoseofthethenknown universeandtobeinconformitywiththem.Doorangles,axialdirections,andverticallinesseemeduniformlyalignedwiththepositionsofthestars,theheightofthe pyramidstandsinaharmonious

Page723 ratiototheassumedcircumferenceoftheearth,andtheinclinationofthewallscorrespondstotheangleofAlphaDraconis,thePoleStaratthattime,andsoon(cf. Smyth,OntheReputedMetrologicalSystemoftheGreatPyramid,1864,andOurInheritanceintheGreatPyramid,1880,p.380squ.).Manythingshavesincebeen correctedinthemeasurementsmadebySmyth,hisastronomicalconnectionshavebeentotallyrejectedbyEgyptologistslikeLudwigBorchardt,andbyhistorianslike EduardMeyer,andconsequentlyenormouslyexaggeratedbydilettantes(cf.Ntling,TheCosmicNumbersoftheCheopsPyramid,1921,andwithan anthroposophicalpointofviewBindel,TheEgyptianPyramids,1932.).Butdespitetheprovisionalofficialverdict,despitethedilettanteoccultsubstitute,the pyramidretainsitscosmomorphicdirectionanddepictiveness,itstandssilentlyandasacrystalremotefromlifeintheastralmythwhicheventhoughinsomany differentformsgovernedthehierarchiesofthewholeancientOrient.ForallhiscustomaryHellenisticromanticismofEgypt,Plutarchwasstilldrawingonexisting andwellunderstoodtraditionswhenhesays(DeIsietOsiri,cap.56):ThustheEgyptiansconceivedthenatureoftheuniverseintheimageofthemostbeautiful triangle.Thepyramidcondensedheaventoacentralpoint,anapex,fromwhichinorganicreposeradiatesequilaterallydowntothegroundthetempleofKarnak displaysthesameorderedreposeonitsstarryceiling,itsdownwardleadingwallsandpillars,anditsfloor,whoseplantdecorationrepresentsthefloodedlandofthe Nile.Thepillars,whosedimensionsandquantitiesareaccordednotjusttechnologicalconstructionbutsupposedsymbolicsignificance,thetemplewallswhose paintingsandreliefsrepresenttheimpressionsofheavenonearth,havebecomeasitweretheexoteric,empiricallyconstructedsidesofthepyramidwherebyeventhe outsideofthewallsstandsatanangle.AndthisisnotjustbecausetheembankmentsontheNilefurnishedthemodelforthisslope(therearemanysloping embankmentsandescarpmentsontheearth,butonlyafewpyramids),butbecausehere,asontheEuphrates,thewallpreservedtheangleofthepyramids.The fanaticalgeometrizationofallEgyptianartexpressesitsarchitecturalutopia:thecrystalofdeathasforeseenperfection,cosmomorphicallyreproduced. Itisverydifferentwherestoneisnegated,andthehardedgeisbroken.ThelifewhichconceivesandchangesitselfinChristiantermsseeksnorigidity.Butjustthe opposite,itseekstobeeternalthusGothicdecorationbecamepreciselythemostexcitedandlavishofall,neitherastraightnoracurvedlineispreservedinit. Blossominginthethirteenthcentury,with

Page724 agreatwealthofdetails,whichstemsfromtheincipientliberationfromthefeudalorder,andwithadirectupwardsurgeofallstructuralmembersintotheair,which stemsfromtheliberationofthewealthycitiesfromtheclericalorder,theGothicstyleisanurbanemysticalstructureandthusdifferentfromtheRomanesquestyle,this thoroughlyfeudalstrongholdofGod,inahighlygleaming,highlydynamicway.Sincetheorganicmovementcontinuestranscendently,itfoamsandtriumphsallthe more,withChristlikeunrest.Plants,thebodiesofanimals,evenmonsters,areeffortlesslyaccommodatedinGothicdecoration,notpressed,notstylizedasreliefs.The outsideandinsideoftheGothiccathedralcouldthereforebecomparedadnauseamtoaforest.Branchesareindeedfoundtobeincorporatedwithtotalelectiveaffinity intotheorganicstonestructure,andthebuildingendsatthetopwithafinial.Thepillarsshootupwards,theircapitalsaresimplynodalformationsinthismovement,the ceilingisonesinglecollisionoftheseunfinishedverticalities,thewallispiercedwiththeimmenselyhigh,legendnarratingbloodgoldwindowsdevoutorgiasticlight shinesinfromanotherdaythanthatofnature.Longingfortheinwardandfortheabove,whichisliketheinward,becomesthemeasureofallthingsarchitectural.This Gothicsoaringtendencyorganizesallarchitecturalproportions:Nowthecravingpicturepanelshavespacewithinit,networkandinterlacementoftheincredibleartof stonemasonryproliferatesincrocketsandcapitals,interspersestheglowingwindowswithtraceryandroseavaultingarises,notavault,andavastdynamicpathos, thrustingupwardsinallparts,inthenave,andalsointothedepthsofthechancelsinandrepentance,gleamingdevilishbeautyandtherealmofthegentle,thecurved, thecalmsoulmeetinthesevastfiguredcathedralsontheveryclosestterms,makethemintothepetrifiedtrendoftheperfect,theundergoneChristian adventure(GeistderUtopie,1923,p.33f.).Itisablendofexcitement,asexperiencedbynopreviousart,andanexcessiveornamentationwhichdoesnotcalmthe excitementbutdoesjusticetoit.ThisthereforeisthecontrasttothegentlyorganicregularityoftheGreeks,tothemeasuredgrowthoftheIoniccolumnandthe harmonybetweenitandtheweightofthearchitrave,butaboveallitisthedecisivecontrasttothestrictlyinorganiccrystalutopiaofEgypt.InEgyptornamentation, especiallytheblossoming,organickind,isananomaly,inGothicitisthearchitecturalsymbolismofbuoyancyandjubilationitself.Thefewinorganicsymmetriesofthe Gothicstylearenomatchforthisorganicallytranscendentprofusion:thediminutivesubdivisionsofthesamepointedarchesandpinnacles,thefrequentlydivided, subsumed,evengeometrizedelement

Page725 whichisfoundontheoutside.IfthecapofthetowerofStrasbourgcathedralformsatriangle,anacuteangledtriangle,thenitformsitbynomeansinageometrically pureway,butcarvedout,perforated,withspiralsonthesides,andthefinialstandsontopofitthistriangleistherefore,assuchablossomingone,atwarwiththe pyramidandevenasatriangleananticrystal.ThusGothicdisplaysatotallydifferentimitatiotothecosmomorphic,andultimatelyalwaysastralmythicaloneit displays,withadynamismwhichunderothersymbols,withamandatetointoxicate,wasonlyattainedagainbytheBaroque,theextremeantithesistotheEgyptian graniterepose,itdisplaysradicallyorganicorder.Andthisinturndeterminedalmostalldetailsofthechurchbuildingsymbolicallyinthedirectionofresurrectionandof life,insuchawaythattheveryplantornamentationhasamysticalreference,toawondrousgardenoftheMotherofGod,inthespiritofthetranscendentbotanywhich developedinthelateMiddleAges.Ofcourse,justasthebuildingcontainsgeometricalregularitiesofaninorganickind,triangles,circles,italsodisplayssome cosmologicalreferences:thewheelwindowcorrespondedtothezodiac,inotherversionstotheastrologicalwheelofFortuna,andthechandeliertotheplanetary spheresstackedontopofoneanother.Butthechandelierwithitslightsstackedontopofoneanotherintheshapeofaringcorrespondedmuchmoregenuinelytoan imitatiooftheroseofheaven,andinthearrangementofthepillars,windows,ofthewholespacesetinmotion,everyreproductionofworldstaticscametoanend. Everywhereproportionsandconfigurationstriumphintheendwhichareparadoxicaltothoseoftheworld:ThegroundplancorrespondstothebodyofChrist stretchedoutonthecross,withthealtarashisheadthefinialsymbolizesthemysticallarynxwhichgivesbirthtotheSonastheWordbyutteringhimtheglass windowscorrespondtothepreciousstonesinthewallsoftheheavenlyJerusalem(cf.JosefSauer,TheSymbolismoftheChurchbuilding,1924).Howeverlargethe amountofsymbolicallyunrelatedorsymbolicallyexchangedpartsofthebuildingmayhavebecomeduringthelongperiodofactualconstructionandthefrequent changeofplan:thesupremecanonremainedamagicalChristlikeness,intypoetinfiguraecclesiaeetcorporisDomini,*accordingtoAugustine'sGothicallyfulfilled demand.TheproportionsoftheGothiccathedralarethedisproportionsoftheChristologicalordertothecosmiconethisisthetruththereandtheninthejustbasisof stonemasonry.AnexodusfromEgyptinarchitectureisreallyintendedhere,animitation *intheshapeandfigureofthechurchandthebodyoftheLord.

Page726 oftheresurrectionfromthegrave,withthestonerolledaway(Mark16,4).SoifEgyptwasthecrystalofdeathasforeseenperfection,Gothicisassignedinutopian termsjustasdecisivelytoresurrectionandtolife.Itsarchitecturalsymbolisthusnecessarilytheexpulsionofdeath,antideath,isthetreeoflifeasforeseenperfection, reproducedinaChristlikeway.IfEgyptianartcontainswithinittheaspirationtobecomelikestone,thenGothicartsimplycontainstheaspirationtobecomelikethe treeoflife,likethevineofChristandbothstylesofarchitectureasuniquestylesradicallycametoanendinthisimitatiooftheirs.Historically,allstyleswhich developedinadditiontothesecontainvariationsofthesetwoorders:thatofseverityandthatofprofusion,butonlyinEgyptandGothicweretheyradicallyprocessed outandrelatedsopowerfullyanddivergentlytotheirreligiousbasisofstonemasonry.Thesearethedecisivecharactersofthearchitecturalformspyramidandcathedral themselvestheybothremainastheattemptedconstructionofthedepictivenessofaperfectspace:ontheonehandofsilentdeathwithcrystal,ontheotherofthe organicexcelsiorwithtreeoflifeandcommunity. Furtherandindividualexamplesofguidingspaceinancientarchitecture Sooldistheproblemofwhatbuildingshouldultimatelyadhereto.Forbuildingnotonlysatisfiestheneedforsomewheretoliveandsoon,itcertainlydoesnotseekto bemerelypleasinginotherrespectseither.Neitherinthezealousnorinthehandicraftsenseofthisword,inthealltoogluttonoussense.Howcloselyarchitectureis connectedwiththerespectivesocialconditions,withthepowerthatistobedisplayed,withinfluence.Andhowimmanentlybuildingassuchisnotmerelyaparticularly superstructural,butapictorial,andhenceobjectiveart.Assuch,however,itadheres,likeallpictorialart,tothevisibleworld,absorbsit,reshapesitinan experimentalsubstantialway.Butwherearethevisible,i.e.naturalisticformswhichabuildercouldfindtouseasamodelinthesamewayasapainterorsculptor? Thereareagreatmanygapshereofcourse,thearchitectonlyfindsdetailstouseasamodel,scarcelyhoweverthepeculiarwholeinwhichtheyareused:thehouse. Ofcourse,evenforitslayoutarchitecturemaylearnsomethingfromanegg,ahoneycomb,anest.Organicexampleshavebeenusedfromtimeimmemorialfor ornamentation,acanthus,lotus,shell,thepillarisatrunk,thedomemaybemodelledonthecave,theinteriorofthecathedralontheforest.Thearchitraverestsontop asaslabofrock(theLionGateinMycenaestill

Page727 showsthisorigin),ingeneralthedistributionofforceandweight,thebasicbusinessofstatics,isofcoursesubjecttonaturalisticlaws.Thebuilderhasalwaysbeenhalf anengineer,indeedintonoart,apartfrommusic,dosomanymathematicalandphysicalrelationshipsenterfromoutside,evenintoitsfoundationsnotjustintoits details,andinnoarthavetheybeensogreatlyrespected,forthesakeofstaticsandofharmony.Certainlytherefore,allthisistrue:andyetthehouseitself,this completeandunifiedelementofhiswork,hadtobeinventedordiscoveredbythearchitectinaccordancewithguidingimageswhichdonotlieinwhatisimmediately givenintheoutsideworld,atleastnotinitsfixedimmediacy.Music,whichofcourselikewisepossessesverymarkedmathematicalphysicalfoundations,butfarless immediatemodelsoftheworldthanarchitecture,onceimaginedinthissituationaharmonyofthespheres.Anditdidso,instructivelyenough,notwithoutanancient orientalinfluence,thatis,fromthesamecosmicstandpointwhich,aswehaveseen,alsoorderedBabylonianandEgyptianarchitecturefromthepointofviewofa cosmicscale.Theastronomicalharmonictheoryadmittedlyhinderedratherthanpromotedthedevelopmentofmusic,incontrasttothefaithinacosmicscalein architecture.Thisfaithinascalebroughtthisart,asonethatwasobjectivefromthestart,thewholeheathenhalfofitsrealm.Itgaveit,asanobjectiveartbutone whichcouldnotbefoundintheimmediatelygivenoutsideworldandwhichremovedtheveryhomelessnessofman,acosmichouse,afootholdandaspecificimageof perfection.AndifEgyptisthemostradicalapproximationtoit,thenastralgeometricalandinorganiccrystalelementshavecertainlycontinuedtoinfluencearchitecture longbeyondthattime.Theirinfluencehereisonbothasmallandalargescale,inthenobledesireandsearchforpureformsaswellasintheclarifiedorderwhichis onlypartiallydescribedbythetermclassical.Asfarasthemostbeautifulindividualformsareconcerned,theyareofcoursealwaysintroducedfromthelifefromwhich theymaybetaken,butalsothenpreferablygeometrized.Thustheeggitself,althoughitiscertainlyadetail,providesastaticmodel,whichcanbetraceddowntothe modernstreamline.Thusinclassicaltimesthewavyandevenserpentinelinewasgeometrizedasthemostperfectlybeautiful:theserpentineline,byitswavingand windingatthesametimedifferentways,leadstheeyeinapleasingmanneralongthecontinuityofitsvariety.asthepainterandaestheticianHogarthhaddecreedinhis famousAnalysisofBeauty,1753,andinwhichLessing'stheoryofartfollowedhim.Thusintheepigonicclassicismofthenineteenthcenturythegoldensectionwas characterizedbyparticularlyclear

Page728 withthezodiacandthesevenplanets,withtheinfluenceofthepositionofthestarsontheearth.AndahundredyearsafterVitruviusthereoccurredinRoman architecturebotharenewedcontactwiththecosmometriclegacyofEtruriaandanoverdueimportationoftheHeliosmyth,whenabuilderfromDamascuserectedthe PantheoninRome,thisdomecaveandcelestialdomeatoneandthesametime.Thisiswhy,asnowhereelseinaclassicaledifice,thevisiblecanonicalhouseofthe worldbelievedinbythepagansisdiscernibleinthislateexample.FortheverycurvewhichappearedinthePantheonisnotthecomfortableorpredictableonewhich hadalreadygivenformtotheGreektreasurehouses,theRomanstorerooms,andeventheinstallationsofwellsandfountainsinsteaditismagicallydesignedandthis givesitspecialantiquity.ThusthesphairosofthePantheonappearedlongbeforeintheancienttemplesofthepenates,inthecircularaltar,inthecircularformandeven inthedomedroofofthetempleofVesta.EquallytheeggshapeoftheRomancircus,andeventhecurveoftheColosseumwerenotwithoutconnectionswithnatural mythsafterall,largescaleRomanarchitectureasawhole,farmorethanGreek,preservedcontactwithancientguidingformsofachthonicUraniankind,inshortwith acanonicalbuildingoftheearthandcosmos.Withoutthisconsiderationofsocialmediations,andhenceinthiscaseoftherespectivereligiousideology,andparticularly utopia,thebasicarchitecturalstylescannotbeunderstoodanymorethantheycanwithoutathoroughknowledgeoftheirsocialfoundations.Eventhegoldenhouseof Nero,thismodelforsomanylaterwondrouspalaces,hadaccordingtothedescriptionofSuetoniusaceilingperforatedasifwithstarsandanebonycircleinthe middleofitwhichconstantlyrotated,dayandnight,liketheuniverse.ConnectionsalsorunfromtheColosseumtotheheavycylinderoftheCastleofStAngelo, connectionswhichwereonlyunderstoodandsoughtagainunderHadrian.SothePantheonhadtoreflecttheuniverseallthemore,withitsdomeandstarryrosettes, withsevenplanetarynichesandtheeyeofthesunlookinginfromaboveDioCassiusopenlycalledthebuildingasimileofheaven.TheStoicastrologicalcosmos, thoughnolongerthehighlystereometriconeoftheEgyptianpyramidsandtemples,isitsarchitecturalobject.Itisstillfullofundisturbed,paganlyperfectheaven,thus withouttheprotestwhichoccurredsoonafterwardsofthemythoftheLogosagainsttheastralmyth,ofChristagainstthecosmocrators(Eph.6,12).Andtheworld domeofthePantheonisonlyapparentlyrepeatedinthatofthemosqueforliketheChristianitythatarose,Islam,whichisbasedontheBible,alsobelievedthatthe essence

Page730 ofthisworldpassesaway,ithasaDayofJudgmentaswell,anotherorderatbottom.ThePantheonisthereforenot,asSpengler'sinterpretationwouldhaveit,thefirst mosqueonEuropeansoil,butthelastpureastralstructure.ThemosqueofOmarinJerusalem,theHagiaSophia,thepalacechapelofCharlemagneinAachengivethe centralstructureandthedomeaverydifferentmeaning:theyfollownoworldcircle,butratheraharbouringintheinwardultramundaneGod.Thesameharbouring whichtheconstantcircularformoftheapsealsoretainedlater,whenthedomevanishedintheChristianworld,anapsewhichencloseswithChristagainsttheworld. Worldperfection,ontheotherhand,wasthearchitecturalcorrelatewhichastralmythicarchitectureusedasitsmodel,amodelemployedinallitssopowerfullyvaried forms.Asnolongersoworldlike,asChristlikeinintention,theseverityofByzantiumisthefirstultimatelytodetachitselffromtheseverityofEgypt. Becausefromnowonahouseoftheothersideisintended,thebuildingemulatesit.Thisbuildingisnolongerpagan,ithasestablisheditselfattheexittothisexisting world.Andthemuchacclaimedentrancetothesameworld,withwhichtheBiblebegins,wasonlyapparentlycontrastedwiththisemphatichouseofexit.TheBible praisesitsGodpreciselyasaworldmakerandaboveallasonewhoisverysatisfiedwithhisworkasitis.Thisimageoftheworldbuilderisnotoriginallyfromthe Biblehowever,itisitselfstillpagan,thatistosay,itgrewonadifferentsoilfromtheJudaeoChristianone.Itisnotevenfoundeverywhereinthepaganlegendsofthe creationneithertheGreeknortheNorsenortheBabylonianmythologyofthegodsportraystheSupremeBeingasaworldsculptor.Thelatterisnamelychiefly EgyptianandstemsfromMemphis,fromtheartisticcentreofEgyptianreligion.Thesculptorsworkshops,whichwereregardedassacred,werethere,thesupreme godofEgypt:Ptahpresidedoverthemasatutelarygodthere,andhispriesthoodruledthereasthemostpowerfulintheOldKingdomtheprototypeoftheworld creator,whowasverydifferentfromtheGodofExodus,Yahweh,isinfactthesculptorgodofMemphis:Ptah.Suchanartistgodasworldsculptorisonlyfoundin Egypt(cf.onPtahasdemiurge:Breasted,HistoryofEgypt),andonlyfromthePtahconceptinYahwehdidemulationoftheworldarchitectandapparentemulationof hiscosmicworkalsoariseinabiblicalChristianintention.ThePriestlyCodeofthefifthcentury,whichconstitutesthefirstchapterofthebiblicalGenesis,retainedon thispointthestoryofthecreationfromtheYahwistsoftheeighthcentury,justasthelatterretainedthecosmogonyfromMemphis.

Page731 Babylon,whichusuallyexertedsomuchinfluenceonbiblicalmyth,definitelyonlyintroducedGodasanorganizerintotheBible,thoughadmittedlyasonewhonow reinforcedthecreatorPtahinYahwehmorethanever.TheBabylonianimperialgodMardukjoinedtheworldfounderPtahasafounderofanorder,theexcellent cosmicregentjoinedtheexcellentcosmicfounder,alreadycompletingeverythingflawlesslyfromtheveryentranceandbeginningoftheworld,withtheseparationof thewatersofheavenandearth,withthedevelopmentoftheearth.Onlynowwastheentranceoftheworld,preciselyitsallegedperfection,whichdidnotseemtoneed anyhouseontheotherside,noranyExodusfromthatwhichexists,alsopositedintheBible.OnlynowinthebiblicalstoryoftheCreationdidthemudoftheNile modelledbyPtahbecomethewatersofthedeep,starswerepositedwhichgoverntheseasons,separatingandorderingdeterminantsofarulingregionalkindentered theworkofPtah,thesequenceofthedaysoftheCreation.Inshort,thefamiliarbiblicalworkofCreationarose,withtheworldarchitectfromEgypt,theorganizer fromBabylon,aworkwhoselegendaryexcellenceadmittedlyintroducedasemblanceofcosmomorphyevenintononpaganarchitecture.Butthisexcellenceisonly mentionedonceintheBible(Genesis1,31),andtheworkofartoftheworlditself,thatcompletedbythesupremeGod,stemspreciselyfromtheoppositelandinthe Bible:fromEgyptBabylon.ForevenYahwehasGodoftheExodusfromEgyptstandsasanalienmeasuretotheexistingworld,hisCanaanisnotthecosmos.Allthe morehostile,nottosayrebelliousistheattitudeoftheGodofIsaiahtothefinishedcosmos,abovealltothatwithwhichtheJewsarefavouredonearth,whopromises anewheavenandanewearthsothatthepreviousones,i.e.thoseofGenesis,arenolongerremembered(Isaiah65,17).Andonlytothishouseoftheotherside,the CanaanwhichtheExoduswassupposedtohaveinfrontofit,wasnonpaganarchitecture,asantiEgyptparexcellence,assigned.Eventheancientandhence cosmotheologicalarchitecturalimagesinAmos,intheBookofJob,andinsomeofthePsalmsarenomatchforthisExodusconception,theyarealreadysurpassed thereandthenbyanotherhope,anothergroundplan.ThoughAmos9,6says:Itishethatbuildethhisstoriesintheheaven,andhathfoundedhistroopintheearth the104thPsalmpraisesheavenasacarpet,theearthasapanelledfloor,andJob38,46presentsYahwehasdrawingaguidelineforthefoundingoftheearth,plants thefeetoftheearthintofoundations,laysacornerstoneforit.ThelayoutoftheTabernacleislikewisehandeddownwithacertainanalogytoworldperfection:the HolyofHoliescorrespondedtoheaven,

Page732 theoutersanctuarytotheearth,thecourtyardtotheocean,thesevenarmedcandlesticktothesevenlightsofheaven.EvenSolomon'stempleinthecontinual numericaldetailsofitsproportionsandpartsrecallsthesacredgeometrywhichisfamiliarfromthesteppedtempleandpyramidandwhichstillrecursintheastral mythicstarryremnantsoftheheavenlyJerusalem.ButallthismeansaslittleasthezodiacintheGothicwheelwindowortheapparentsimilarityoftheByzantinedome tothatofheaventhealienelementisstillsubjugated,thepalaceofPtahisconvertedintothechurchoftheexodus.Eventhegnosticemanationoflight,whichstreams intothelater,Gothicarchitecturalsymbol,iscruciallydifferentfromthereflectionoftheuniverse,andhencefromthePantheoninanyformsinceitcomesinChristian gnosisfromthesecondaeon,fromtheaeonofafutureworld.Thusonthewholethismuchiscertain:thearchitecturaldreamofabetterworldhasasitsriverbedand mouth,asfarasthehistoryofreligionisconcerned,sunworshipinEgyptianterms,exodusinbiblicalprophetictermspreciselyoutoftheEgyptoftheformer world.ThiscannotbeexpressedmoreclearlywithinthisideologythanitwasinMaimonides,inapassageonarchitecturefullofhistoricallyimmanent,andhence relevantideologyofthematter.MaimonidescommentsonthelegendthatAbrahamchosethewesternsideforhissanctuaryonMountMoria,andheconcludesas follows:Thereasonforthisisthatthefaithwhichprevailedintheworldatthattimewassunworship,thatthesunwasveneratedasagodandthereforeallpeople undoubtedlyturnedtowardstheeast.ThatiswhyAbrahamonMountMoria,namelyattheplacewherehissanctuarywas,turnedtowardsthewest,sothatheturned hisbackonthesun(FhrerderUnschlssigenIII,Meiner,1924,p.275).ThisisacorrectionmadebyantiEgypt,antiBabylonoftheeastpointinwhich,evenfor Columbus,theworldwascreatedandtheearthlyparadisewassupposedtolie.Butaboveallinwhichastralmythwasfounded,i.e.themythwhichultimatelyregarded theguidingspaceofarchitectureascosmicgeometrical.WhereaswithinthebiblicalChristianarchitecturalideology,chieflyinitsarchitecturalsymbolism,thatdirection oftheworldhadtoberejectedwheretheexternalsunrises,butthatdirectionincreasinglychosenwhereitdiesandsetstogetherwiththeexistingworldorder.From AugustinethroughouttheMiddleAgesandaboveallintheGothicperiod,churcharchitectureisthereforecelebratedasadepictionofthatotherarchitecturewhich soughttobeartheinscriptionnotofcentredorderbutfederativefreedom,hereconceivedasfreedomofthechildrenofGod.TheGothicstylelayradically

Page733 inthisdirection,thisattemptatanewworldstructurecarvedoutofrockandstonelikeahumancommunity.Itsarchitecturalimageofhopewasthewateroflife,the treeoflife,ofwhichthefinalchapteroftheBookofRevelationspoketomedievalpeople.Thiswasthentobethenewheaven,butalsothenewearth,inthe anticipatinganteroomaswhichthecathedralwasconceived.Withthehugemovingverticallineofthetowerandthepillars,withthepaintedlightfromwindowpanes intheinterior,throughwhichaverydifferentworld,aChristianworldwastoemergeformedievalbelievers.Somuch,ultimately,fortheaspirationtobecomelikestone orconverselylikethetreeoflifeintheradicalfullycomposedaspectofancientarchitecture.Theproblemissimplyhowtheguidingspacescrystalortreecanstill function,havetofunction,afterthedeductionoftheirreligiousideology,aswellasafteranarchitecturetotallynullifiedbylatecapitalism.Theyalwaysrepresent alternatives,alternativeswhichnowalmostwithoutreligiousideologywereabstractlyappeasedinGreekclassicism.Butthepointistoovercometheminconcrete unityinaclaritywhichdoesnotdestroytheprofusion,inacrystalorderwhichdoesnotexcludethefreedomoflivingornamentationbutmakesititscontent. II.BuildingonHollowSpace Newhousesandrealclarity Surgicaltongsfordeliveringbabiesmustbesmooth,butsugartongscertainlymustnot. ErnstBloch,SpiritofUtopia,1918 Thesedayshousesinmanyplaceslookasiftheyarereadytoleave.Althoughtheyareunadornedorforthisveryreason,theyexpressdeparture.Ontheinsidethey arebrightandbarelikesickrooms,ontheoutsidetheyseemlikeboxesonmovablerods,butalsolikeships.Theyhaveaflatdeck,portholes,agangway,adeckrail, theyhaveawhiteandsouthernglow,asshipstheyhaveamindtodisappear.Infact,thesensitivityofwesternarchitecturegoessofarthatitsensedHitler'swarquitea longtimeinadvance,inaroundaboutway,andpreparedforit.Buteventheshipform,whichwaspurelydecorative,doesnotappearrealenoughto

Page734 themotifofescapeofmostpeopletodayinthecapitalistworldofwar.Forsometimehouseshavebeenprojectedinitwithoutwindows,artificiallylitandventilated, steelthroughandthrough,thesumtotalisanarmourplatedhouse.Ingeneralthereisanincrease,whereasmodernarchitecturewhenitfirstarosewasfundamentally orientatedtowardstheoutdoors,towardssunlightandpubliclife,thereisanincreaseintheneedtoliveinsealedsecurity,atleastinhousingspace.Theessential featurewithwhichthenewarchitecturebeganwasopenness:itbrokethedarkstonecaves,itopenedupfieldsofvisionthroughlightglasswalls,butthiswilltowards anadjustmentwiththeoutsideworldwasundoubtedlypremature.Thedeinternalizationturnedintohollowness,thesouthernpleasureintheoutsideworlddidnot,at thepresentsightofthecapitalistoutsideworld,turnintohappiness.Fornothinggoodhappenshereinthestreet,inthesuntheopendoor,thetremendouslyopened windowsarethreateningintheageofgrowingfascism,thehousepreferstobecomeafortressagain,ifnotacatacomb.Thebroadwindowfullofnothingbutoutside worldneedsanoutdoorsfullofattractivestrangers,notfullofNazistheglassdoorrightdowntothefloorreallyrequiressunshinetopeerandbreakin,notthe gestapo.AlsohardlyunconnectedwiththetrenchesoftheFirstWorldWar,butaboveallwiththeadmittedlyfutileMaginotlinesoftheSecond,wasthedevelopment oftheplanforanundergroundcityasoneofsecurity.Thusinsteadoftheskyscraper,projectedearthscrapersbeckon,shiningbadger'ssetts,arescuingcellarcity. Upinthelight,though,thelessrealbutdecorativeescapeplanofaflyingcityappeared,utopianizedinStuttgart,alsoinParis:thehousesriseinsphericalshapeona mast,ortheyhangasveritableballoonsonwirecablesinthelattercasethefloatingbuildingsseemparticularlydetachedandkeentodepart.Buteventheseplayful formsmerelyshowthathousesascavesontheonehand,onstiltsontheother,mustbedreamedagain. Butwhatifaleapintobrightnessisneverthelesstobedemonstratedonsuchabasis?Whichwasinfactattemptedintermsofstructuralengineering,butnowwiththe affirmeduncomfortabledesirefornothingbutwindowsandequallystrippedclearhousesandappliances.Ofcourse,thiskindofthingclaimedtobeapurgingofthe mustinessofthepreviouscenturyanditsunspeakabledecoration.Butthelongeritwenton,thecleareritbecamethatitalsoremainedatthestageofthismereomission andwithinthelatebourgeoisvacuumhadtoremainthere.Thelongeritwenton,themoreclearlythemottoemergesasaninscriptionover

Page735 theBauhausandthatwhichisconnectedwithit:Hurrah,we'verunoutofideas.Wherealifestyleisasdegenerateasthelatebourgeoisone,amerearchitectural reformcanonlymanagetobenolongerdisguisedlybutdeliberatelysoulless.Thisistheeffectassoonasnothirdelementbetweenplushandsteelchair,betweenpost officesinRenaissancestyleandeggboxes,seizestheimaginationanymore.Theeffectisallthemorechillingwhenithasnothingquietcorneredaboutitbutonlythe kitschoflighthoweverclean,namelyvacuumcleanitmayindisputablyhaveintendedtobewhenitstartedout.AdolfLoosinEuropeandFrankLloydWrightin Americadrewthefirstlinesinnegationoftheepigonictumour.Wrightadmittedlyalsowithhatredofthecity,onewhichwaspartlyanarchisticandpartlyhealthy, dividingupthemurderoussupercitiesintohometowns,intoaBroadacreCitywithtentimesasmuchspaceforeverybodyastheyareusedtohaving.Conversely though,LeCorbusierpraisedahighriseurbanhousingmachine,heepitomizestogetherwithGropiusandalsolessercreatorsoftheNewObjectivity*thatpartofthe artofengineeringwhichclaimstobesoprogressiveandwhichsorapidlystagnates,sorapidlyendsuponthescrapheap.Thatiswhyforoveragenerationthis phenomenonofsteelfurniture,concretecubes,andflatroofshasstoodthereahistorically,ultramodernandboring,ostensiblyboldandreallytrivial,fullofhatred towardstheallegedflourishofeveryornamentationandyetmoreschematicallyentrenchedthananystylisticcopyinthenastynineteenthcenturyeverwas.Untilitthen endedeveninFranceinthepropositionofsuchaneminentarchitectinconcreteasPerret:Ornamentationalwaysconcealsastructuraldefect.Awouldbeclassicism, whichisalmostRomantic,isevidenthere,partlyduetothegeometricalforms,partlyduetotheideathatthecitizen'sfirstdutyistokeepquiet,andpartlydueto abstracthumanity.LeCorbusier'sprogrammeLaVilleradieuseeverywhereseeksakindofGreekParis(Leslmentsurbanistiquesconstitutifsdelaville),he illustratesbymeansoftheAcropolisakindofuniversallyhumanspirit(lemarbredestemplesportelavoixhumaine).ButGreecehasherebecomeanabstractionas neverbefore,justlikethetrehumainwhichisnotfurtherdifferentiated,andtowhichthestructuralelementsaresupposedtoreferinapurelyfunctionalway.Even thetownplanning *NeueSachlichkeit,theartisticmovementaround1925which,incontrasttoExpressionism,soughttorepresentobjectivereality. Theurbanisticconstitutiveelementsofthecity. Themarbleofthetemplescarriesthehumanvoice.

Page736 ofthesestalwartfunctionalistsisprivate,abstractbecauseofsheertrehumaintherealpeopleinthesehousesandtownsbecomestandardizedtermitesor,withina housingmachine,foreignbodies,stillalltooorganiconessoremoteisallthisfromrealpeople,fromhome,contentment,homeland.Thisisandmustbetheresultas longasanarchitecturedoesnotconcernitselfwiththegroundwhichisnotlevel.Aslongasthepurityconsistsofomissionsandunimaginativeness,theserenity consistsofaheadinthesandpolicy,ifnotofdeception,andthesilversun,whichseekstosparkleeverywherehere,isachromiumplatedmisery.Everywherehere thereisarchitectureassurface,asaneternallyfunctionalonewherebyeveninitsgreatesttransparencyitrevealsnocontent,nobuddingandnoornamentforming blossomingofacontent.Thoughthisabstractnesscombinesexcellentlywithglass,andcouldbecuriouslyfashionedinit,avacuumcutinairandlight,neocosmically outofthevoid.ThusBrunoTaut,adiscipleofScheerbart,sketchedahouseofheaven(cf.TheCityCrown,1919),thegroundplanconsistsofseventriangles,the walls,theceiling,theflooraremadeofglass,thelightingmakesthehouseintoacolourfulstar.PreciselyinemulationofthepancosmistPaulScheerbart,whohadfirst universalizedglassarchitecture,thewholeearthwasultimatelytobeconvertedintocrystal.AndasanexampleofthenewtransparencyTautquotedthelinesfrom Claudel'sTheTidingsbroughttoMary:Intothewavesofdivinelightthebuilderraiseswithcalculatedwisdom/thestoneskeletonlikeafilter/Andgivesthewhole edificethewaterofapearl.NumerologyalongwiththemostmodernmaterialsalsofoundaplaceinTaut'sprogrammes,withtheastralelementultimatelyabove colourfulnessthustheadventureofanEgyptcomposedofthevoidarosehere,aroseinvain.AlongsideitagainragedaGothiccomposedofthevoid,withraysand pencilsofrayswithoutcontentshootinguplikeunbridledrockets.Purefunctionalformandexuberancewithoutanycontactarethusdualisticbutalsocomplementone another,sothatthemechanicalstylechillsandrelieves,buttheimaginationbecomesallthemorehomelessanddecaysmorethanever.Whereasinancientarchitecture theverythreeprinciplescitedbyVitruvius:theutilitasandthefirmitas,whichwereneverlacking,permeatedthemselveswiththevenustasorimaginationandthus ornamentedthestructurethroughout,indetailandasawhole.Butindisintegrationfunctionalformandimaginationnolongercombineeither,notevenwhenthelatter, asintheworkofmanyExpressionistpaintersaspainters,notarchitectswasamonstrousandoftensignificantone.Contactwithmorethanthesurrounding bourgeoisvoidorsemivoidwas

Page737 ofcoursecertainlysought,itwasmostlycalledonewiththelawsoftheuniversehalfintermsofengineeringtechnology,halfwithoutanyproperrhymeorreason:but howeverinterestingtheresultsinpaintingandalsosculpturemayhavebeen,aTautandScheerbartapproachinarchitectureremainedfruitless.Preciselybecausethe latter,farmorethantheotherpictorialarts,isandremainsasocialcreation,itcannotblossomatallinthehollowspaceoflatecapitalism.Onlythebeginningsof anothersocietywillmakegenuinearchitecturepossibleagain,onebothconstructivelyandornamentallypermeatedonthebasisofitsownartisticaspiration.The abstractengineeringstyleneverbecomesqualitativeonanyaccount,despitethecatchphraseswhichitsliteratipinonit,despitethebogusfreshnessofmodernitywith whichpolisheddeathisadministeredlikethegleamofmorning.Thetechnologyoftoday,itselfstillsoveryabstract,doesnotleadusoutofthehollowspaceevenasan aestheticallycultivatedtechnology,asanartisticsubstituteonthecontrary,thishollowspacepermeatesthesocalledartofengineering,justasthelatternecessarily increasesitthroughitsownemptiness.Theonlysignificantthingaboutitisthetrendtowardsdepartureinthesecontemporaryphenomenaoftheirownaccord,the houseasshipinfact.Ofcourse,furtherfactorsofsuddenchangearepreparingthemselvesheretoo,tothesameextentastheblossomingnewrelationstomanand natureinanewsocietyarematureandclearenoughalsotofindexpressioninarchitecturalgroundplansandornaments.Fullofheritage,withouthistoricism,especially asnowgoeswithoutsayingwithouttheinfamousstylisticcopies,thegnarledromanticismoftheGrnderzeit.IncontrasttotheExtremeBoxandkitsch,what countsissimplythepurificationofallsurvivingsources,thecultivationandriverbedpreparationofallrisingsourcesintosculpturalabundance.Thisisprecededbythe radicaldifferentiationofarchitecturefromthemachine.Andeventherelativelymostinterestingaspectoftodayoryesterday:theutopiaoftheglassstructure,needs formsworthyoftransparency.Itneedsformationswhichretainmanasaquestionandcrystalasananswerstilltobemediated,stilltobeerected.Thebuilderwillthen perhapsgivehisworkthewaterofapearl,butfinallyalsoalost,lesstransparentcipher:sculpturalabundanceinnuceornamentation.

Page738 Townplans,idealtownsandrealclarityagain:permeationofcrystalwithprofusion Combinedwithothers,housesnolongerlookasiftheyarereadytoleave.Thegoodbuilderneedsgroups,squares,atown,anditshouldnolongerneedtodisappear, itshouldbeplannedforthelongterm.Thisisahopeoftomorrow,andwherethemorningisalreadybreaking,oftoday,butitisasoldasarchitectureitself,remains inscribedinitandselfevident.Townplanningisthereforebynomeansconfinedtomoderntimes,infactalthoughitfrequentlyoccursinthelatter,evenbeforethelast century,itisalsooddlythwartedinthem.Forbourgeoissocietyisofcourseacalculatingoneforthesakeofprofit,butonaccountofitsanarchiceconomyalsoa disorderedone,oneofeconomicchance.Thatiswhypreciselytheindustrialtownsandtheresidentialareasofthelastcentury,whichweowetothemagnaminityof buildingspeculation,arethoughtlessnessandplanlessnessperse.Theonlyuniformthingaboutthemistheirdreariness,thestonegorge,thebleaklineofstreetsintothe void,thekitschoftheirownmiserablestyleorstolenflashystyletheremaininglayout,however!isanarchicliketheprofiteeringwhichunderliesit.Whereasprecisely thesocalledevolvedtownsoftheprecapitalistperiod,owingtotheirmoreregulatedmodeofproduction,bynomeansaroseatrandom.Cleartownplanshavecome downtousfromantiquity,evenfromthetimebeforeAlexander,therapidfounderoftownsfromtheNiletotheHimalayas.Deliberateprovisionherecharacterized architectsfromthestart,evenamazinglyclosetosocialconstruction.AristotlethusmentionsanarchitectHippodamos,inmemorableduplicationofarchitecturaland politicalplanning:Hippodamos,thesonofEuryphon,fromMiletus,whoinventedthedivision(diairesis)oftownsandcutthroughthePiraeuswasatthesametime thefirstmanwho,withoutbeingapracticalstatesman,undertooktosaysomethingaboutthebestpoliticalconstitution(PoliticsII,chapter8).Sooldthereforeis contactbetweenarchitecturalandpoliticalplanningingeneral:thesaidHippodamoshadlikewiseplannedadiairesisonpoliticalfoundationsintopurposesofworship, publicbenefit,andprivateproperty,andhadalmostsociallyunderpinnedhisbuildingplan.Furthermore,theextravaganceofplanningwasnotlackingwhichhadalways beenapartofmegalomaniaandwhichreckonedwithitsfrenzyofbuilding,butinfactitwasamaniawithaplanandmethod.Alexanderandhismasterbuilder Dinokratesdreamedofcarvingouttheentirefoothillsof

Page739 Athosintoacolossuswhichcouldbecolonizedinitslefthandthemountainstatuewastocarryatown,initsrightabowlwhichcollectsalltheriversofthemountains andpoursthemintotheseaasaclassicalNiagara.Thisisanurbanfantasywhichcannotbematchedevenindeliberation,notjustinextravagance,byanyconstructive Baroquefantasyofaneofeudalkind.Townplans,althoughofahalfgeomantic,thenastrologicalorder,existedwhenAugustuscausedRometobetransformedfrom brickintomarble,andwhenConstantinereconstructedByzantiumintoaroyalcapital.AndnotleasttheMiddleAges,claimedbyRomanticismanditsrehashtobeso particularlyinstinctive,isrichintownplanningsuigeneris.Withpreciseforethoughttheearlymedievalsettlementwascentredonthecastlecolonialtownsinsouthern FranceandeasternGermanyevenshowaregularlyrepeatedplanning.Thoughitremainstrue,foralltheindividualisticcontingencywhichthenexplodedinthe architecturalanarchyofthenineteenthcentury,thatonlycapitalistcalculation,thisothersideofthecommercialsociety,causedefficienturbanutopiastoemergein particularlylargenumbers.Thisisinpatheticconstructivecontrasttothesameeconomicanarchytowhichthiscalculation,asanabstractlawabovechance,itself belongs.AboveallbeforetheFrenchRevolution,whenthemassofindividualsmallandmiddlemanagerswasnotyetemancipated,whenthemanufacturingperiod positedageneralbureaucracywhichregulatedeverything,theanticipatedlayoutwassuccessful,thechessboard,thering,inshortaliteralurbanmathematicsof planningandnewfoundation.Howeverwildlythecartouchemayhavebulgedoutontheindividualbuilding,howeverboldlythegroupofbuildingswasorientated towardsawindingveduta:likethegroundplanofindividualBaroquebuildings,thegrouplayoutplannedbythisurbanmathematicswasalsostrictlysymmetrical.The gardenofVersaillesandDescartesreignedhere,notGalliBibienaonlytheRococoremovedthissymmetry.ThechessboardlayoutofaBaroquenewfoundationlike Mannheim,ofwhichGoethe,whootherwisedespisedtheBaroque,couldsayinHermannandDorotheathatitwasacheerfulandfriendlybuilding,standsinan almostnoncontemporaneous,almostclassicalcontrasttotheorganicallyexcessivestyleofBaroquearchitecture.Thisisthesametensionasthatintherefined discussionsofBaroquesocietyitself:whatitfoundmostinterestingofallwerehumanpassions,andonlyonethingcouldcompetewiththis:theinterestinmathematics. Thusevensiegeengineersandbuildersofpalacesandchurcheswenttogether:manyofthemosteminentBaroquearchitects,Hildebrandt,BalthasarNeumann, Welsch,Eosander,camefromthefield

Page740 allcontactwiththeGothictownscape,withtheangularityanddeepcosyprofusionofoldGermantowns.Theattachmentnolongerprovidedbycapitalistsocietywas tobereplacedorevennewlymodelledbyurbangeometry.Thelatternowbecametheutopiaofallmodernbourgeoisurbanconstructionasmayimmediatelybecome apparentevenindividuallyfromsomeofitsmostsignificantexamples.Theycontainasawholethecontrasttotheeconomyofchance,andinsuchawaythatthey increasealongwithitsanarchy,buttheyalsoincreasinglycontaintheapologeticendorsementofitsalienationandsoullessness.Theycontaininthemostfelicitouscases, i.e.inthebareprogrammeoutsidetheuncoveringrealization,theproblemofanurbancrystalbehindwhichconcreteorder(theorderforwhat)isofcourserepressed orstillconcealed. Sowhatwasdefinitelysoughtwastogivedisorderlylifetheframeworkofaclearerlife.Theearliestdesignofthiskindarosein1505,itstemsfromFraGiocondo:the dreamcityisround,inthemiddleliesacircularspacewithdomedbuildings,fromwhichthestreetsradiate.In1593Scamozzi,thebuilderoftheprocurators'officesin StMark'sSquare,projectedaregularurbanpolygonwithcorrespondinggates,equalhalvesandquarters(PalmanuovanearUdinewasafterwardslaidoutinthis way).WithVasariilGiovane,1598,thecittidealebecomesacombinationofrectangularandradiallayout:themainsquarewithdirectionalbuildingliesinthemiddle, eightradialstreetsopenoutfromit,withgatewaysastheirgoals,andfurtherstreetsarearrangedinarectangularnetwork.Piranesi(17201778),whohasbeenvalued forfartoolongmerelyasanetcherofRomanruins,usedearlyclassicismtofurnishanidealcity,notjustinitslayoutbutalsointhefeaturesofitshousesand ornamentalfigures,withthatsymmetrywhichwasincreasinglylackinginbourgeoissociety.SovietRussianarchitectureevenincorporatedcertainelementsand municipalarchitecturalutopiasofPiranesi(penseurdansledomainedelarchitecture*theSovietarchitectSidorovcalledhim),particularlyarchedhallsandthelayout ofsquares,theconstructionoftowersandproportionsofheight.Probablytheoddestdesigneroffuturesettlementsevertooccurinthehistoryofutopianarchitectureis theFrenchrevolutionaryarchitectLedoux,amanwhohasonlybeenfullyappreciatedtoday(cf.Kauffmann,FromLedouxtoLeCorbusier,1933)hedoesnotmake classicismasimposingastheEmpirestyledid,buthemakesitallthemorevaried.Ledoux(17361806)designedtheidealtownofChaux,andwithregardfromthe *Thinkerinthedomainofarchitecture.

Page742 firsttoacommuneorganizedaccordingtooccupations.Thustheformationofbuildingsisdispersedintosmallergroupsandconcentratedatthesametimethemodern pavilionsystemappears.Insteadoftheformationofacitycentreandanendlessperiphery,Ledouxplansgreenspaceseverywherewithworkcentresandwithinthem aneloquentarchitectureexpressingitsuse.Theidealtowncontainsvarioustypesofbuildingcorrespondingtotheoccupationoftheinhabitant(houseofthe woodcutter,fieldwatchman,merchantandsoon)itevencontainsahouseofpassions(akindoftempleofsexualemancipation),ahousetothegloryofwomen, andahouseofharmony.Butwiththegeometryandstereometryofthesehousesalimitisinfactsettotherelativedispersalagainabovethisdispersalstandsthe characteristicutopiaoforderofallmoderntownplans.ThegeometricalallegorywhichLedouxbestowsonhisbuildingspointstothiskindofutopiaoforder,in geometricaltermsleadingtheway,inEgyptiantermsleadingastray.ThusdespitethepavilionsystemamilitarygeometryreminiscentofCampanella'scityprevails,and evenastrologicalallusionsarenotlacking.Thewoodcutterlivesbeneathapyramidalroof,thefieldwatchmaninasphericalhousedepictingtheearth,andtheville naissanteasawholeissurroundedbyanellipsecorrespondingtotheorbitsoftheplanets.ThepathosofattachmenttherebyalsoultimatelysurfacesinLedoux'ideal townandsurprisingly,anticipatorilyinthemidstoftheFrenchRevolution.LedouxcalledthebuildertherivalofGodthisisasplendidselfconfidenceinhuman creationbuttheworldwhichheseekstoforminsuchaPrometheanwayfitssnuglyintotheorderofacosmoswhichisseenascomplete,moreoverasgeometrically complete.JustasPiranesicombinedclassicalmotifswithhisidealurbangeometry,LedouxdidthesamewithMasonicEgyptianizingmotifs:theircontentisadmittedly utopiancollectivism,butevenhereitislocatedinthebodyofacrystalline,alltoocrystallineurbanutopia.Thechimingwiththecosmoswhicharchedoverthe humanearchitecturalpurposeanditsexpressioneveninTaut,andinLeCorbusier,thissecularizedastralmyth,whichwastoucheduponnotonlyinplatitudesbut alsointheidolatryofasuperficialframework,accordinglydemonstratesitseffectivenessintheurbanutopiasoftheentiremodernera.Itseffectivenessonmathematical groundsincapitalistcalculation,andonsentimentalgroundsinthefeelingofcontrasttothegrowingeconomicandculturalanarchy.Hencetheattractiontocrystalas themostobviouscontrastingseverity,andhence,alongsideestimatingandcalculation,thepowerofgeometrywhichatleastseemstobedivestedoftherampanthuman muddle.Mostrecentlythough,this

Page743 hasbeenjoinedbyaparticularlydefamiliarizedmotif,initselftheonlyoriginalandalsosignificantlyeffectivemotifinutopiantermsoftheartofengineeringas architecture.Orratheroftheartofengineeringwhichisresponsibleforthedemiseofarchitectureasarealartandfromwhichitmustariseagainonthethresholdofa moreconcretesociety.Whatismeanthereisthenewconnectionoftheoldutopiaofcrystallizationwiththedesiretodeorganize.Thiskindofthingisprecisely connectedwiththeabstracttechnologyitselfwithwhichthenewarchitectureissocloselyinvolved,andalsogivestothecrystallineurbanutopiadeorganizationsui generis,onefamiliarfromborderingtechnologicalfields.Thus,correspondingtothemachinewhichnolongerresembleshumanbeingstherearethehousewithoutan aura,thetownscapeofaffirmedlifelessnessandremotenessfromman,ofpencilsofraysassuchorotherimitationsofprojectivegeometry.Functionalistarchitecture reflectsanddoublestheicecoldautomaticworldofthecommercialsocietyanyway,ofitsalienation,ofitshumanbeingssubjecttothedivisionoflabour,ofitsabstract technology.Infact,justastechnologymaypossiblypenetrateintothenonEuclideanrealm,soarchitecturalspace,insofarasitpromotesabstractcompositions, particularlyinglassstructures,displaystheunmistakableambitiontoportrayanimaginaryspaceintheempiricalone.Expressionismexperimentedwiththeproblemof producingspatialfiguresbymeansofrotatingoroscillatingbodies,whichfiguresnolongerhaveanythingincommonwithperspectivevisualspaceanyhowanabstract architecturewhichaspirestobesupercubic,asitwere,occasionallyseekssimilarlyremoteorderedpatterns,whichdonotappearorganicallyorevenmesocosmically anymore.Ofcourse,thespaceofthesesolidsofrevolutionremainsjustasEuclideanaseveryother,andthereisalongwaytogoinarchitecture,evenintermsof symbolicsuggestion,asregardssocalledanEuclideanpangeometry(cf.Panofsky,VortrgederBibliothekWarburg,1927,p.330).Allthatremainsimportantisthat thecrystallineelementpredominatesinalltownplanssincetheRenaissance,includingthoseoftheotherwisesoorganicallymagnificentBaroque,seekscosmic contacts,butalsoseekssomeboldexamplesofextraorganicremoteness,although,asintechnology,stillwithoutanymaterialcontact,despiteallchimingwiththe cosmos.AtthosepointsofcoursewhereExpressionismdidnotmerelycast,asitsooftendid,excessesofpuresubjectivityintotheemptyair,italsoexperimented withtheproblemofanobjectbasedexpression,whichwasatthesametimeprofoundlyappropriatetothehumansubject,inhighlyabstractedformsofwork,inan egocrystalforest.

Page744 Morecompletelyandmorelegitimately,i.e.linkedwithastillrisingbourgeoissociety,mannerismintheBaroqueandagainstit(Correggio,Tintoretto,ElGreco,but alsoevenMichelangelo)notonlyplacedthehighestsubjectivityofmoodandexpressivevaluealongsidetheharshestboldnessofstatuarymodelling,butdroveitinto thelatter.Andtodaytherearises,ashaslongbeenripefordiscussion,thevastarchitecturalproblemofaGothicincrystal,asiftheentirecrystalcharacterinspatial art,insteadofultimatelyleadingmerelyintoanEgyptianclarityofdeath,weremalgrluiaparticularlysharplycrystallizingHumanum.Theresult,orrather:theproblem oftheresultthereforeremainsthis:Howcanhumanprofusioninclarityberebuilt?Howcantheorderofanarchitecturalcrystalbepermeatedwiththetruetreeoflife, withhumaneornamentation?AsynthesisbetweenthearchitecturalutopiasofEgyptontheonehandandGothicontheotherisimpossible,itwouldbeasillyepigonic fantasy,yetthereisanoriginalthirdelement,whichhasneverappearedbefore,beyondrigidityandexuberance,bothinthesocialstructureandinarchitecture.Afterall, thestrengthofMarxismliespreciselyinthefactthatitpositsordertotheendthatroomshouldbemadeforhumanprofusionthecontentsalternativelyarisinginall earlierabstractsocialutopias:subjectivefreedom(More)orconstructedorder(Campanella)areinMarxismnotsynthesized,butratherproductivelymediatedand thuscancelledandraisedintoathirdelement:theconstructedrealmoffreedomitself.Evenwithrespecttotheorderedpatternsofnature,Marxismisfarremovedfrom subjectlessundialecticaldepictiveness,andhencefromanychimingwiththecosmostheconcretetendencyisinsteadahumanizationofnature.Thusthespatialartof aclasslesssocietywillhardlyremainabstractcrystalline,asacontrasttoeconomicanarchy(whichwillhavedisappearedanyway).Evenintheoldtownplans,in Piranesi,inLedoux,aspatialpremonitionoccasionallyappears,atotallynewthoughclassicallyencapsulatedone,whichleavestheabstractordesertedcrystalformfar behindit.Nonformalisticglasssculptureandglassarchitecturelikewiseoccasionallyextends,asnotedabove,intounfamiliararchitecturalform,spatialformthis pressesforwardwithinit,strangecurvesandstereometriespressforwardwithinit,inanostensiblycosmicbutinrealityhumanexpression.Ahumanformofanticipation beginshereinthemidstofcrystal,perhapsbymeansofit,butrightthroughititbeginswithextroversiontothecosmos,butbendingitbackintothelineamentofa homeland.Architectureasawholeisandremainsanattempttoproduceahumanhomeland,fromthesedateresidentialpurposetothemanifestationofamore beautifulworldin

Page745 proportionandornamentation.AccordingtoHegel'strueandnotmerelyidealisticdefinition,architectureseesitasitstasktoworkinorganicnatureintosuchashape thatitbecomesalliedtothemindasanartisticallyvalidoutsideworld.Themind,inotherwords:thehumansubject,whichisitselfstillinsearchofthatwhichcanbe calledalliedtoit,thisphenomenonalwaysdevelopsinvarioussocietiesdifferentangles,arches,domes,towersofanearthconcentratedtowardsman.Thearchitectural utopiaisthusthebeginningandtheendofageographicalutopiaitself,ofallthissearchingforpreciousstonesinthedruseoftheearth,ofthedreamsofanearthly paradise.GreatarchitecturesoughttostandasawholelikeaconstructedArcadiaandmoreandifitbroughtsomethinglamentable,tragicmysterieswithit,asinthe Gothicperiod,thenthiswasonlyinordertocontributeittothedifficultharmony.Thewealthwasenormous,drawnfromafewbasicelements,thealternativewas enormousbetweenapillaredhallinKarnakandSainteChapelleinParis,betweenourimageofhomelandinstoneontheonehand,instrutframesandaninfluxoflight ontheother.Butaprotectivesphere,ahomelandbuiltinadvance:thisiswhattheoutlinesofabetterworldsuggestasfarasitsactualconstructioninarchitectureis concerned.Theaestheticformemergeshere,asanencompassingone,sothatallotherpictorialformshaveroomandclassificationwithinit:thepaintingsonthewall, thesculptureintheniche.Theencompassingelementfurnishesahomelandortouchesonit:allgreatbuildingsweresuigenerisbuiltintotheutopia,theanticipationofa spaceadequatetoman.AndthethuserectedHumanum,transposedtostrictlysignificantspatialform,isasataskbothmigrationfromtheorganicandhumaneinto crystal,andaboveallpermeationofthecrystallinewiththebuoyancydevelopedwithinit,Humanumandprofusion.Whentheconditionsfortheorderoffreedomare nolongerpartial,thepathfinallybecomesopenagaintowardstheunityofphysicalconstructionandorganicornamentation,towardsthegiftofornamentation.It becomesopeninrealityforthefirsttime,withoutEgyptontheonehand,Gothicontheother,i.e.thatwhichisthusdescribedascrystalortreeoflife,havingtobe alternatedoverandoveragain,mixedorenviedinisolation.Thecrystalistheframework,indeedthehorizonofrepose,buttheornamentationofthehumantreeoflife istheonlyrealcontentofthisencompassingreposeandclarity.Thebetterworld,whichthegrandarchitecturalstyleexpressesanddepictsinananticipatoryfashion, thusconsistsveryunmythically,astherealtaskvivisexlapidibus,ofthestonesoflife.

Page746

39ELDORADOANDEDEN,THEGEOGRAPHICALUTOPIAS
Thewaytheearthisnow, Theearthneednotremain. Tospuritagain Search,tillyouknow.Brecht Itseemssonaturaltomantocrossthelimitsofspacewithhisimagination,tosenseasomethingbeyondthehorizonwheretheseameetsthesky,that evenintheagewhentheearthwasstillregardedasaflatdiscoronewhichwasonlyslightlyconcaveonthesurface,peoplecouldbeledtobelievethat beyondthecordonformedbytheHomericoceantherewasanotherdwellingformankind,anotheroecumene,justliketheLokalokaofIndianmytharing ofmountainswhichissupposedtoliebeyondtheseventhsea. A.v.Humboldt FortheLordthyGodbringeththeeintoagoodland,alandofbrooksofwater,offountainsanddepthsthatspringoutofvalleysandhillsAlandof wheat,andbarley,andvines,andfigtrees,andpomegranatesalandofoilolive,andhoneyDeuteronomy8,7f. Thefirstlights Itiseasytowishwewerefarawayfromabadplace.Buttheroadoutofitislessobvious,itmustfirstbelaid.Thelevelterrainwhichstretchesawayonallsidesisjust asdifficultfortherightpathasthemountainousterrainwhichblocksitoffexternally.Thatiswhyweloseourway,oneofthebitterestsituationsandastrangeoneat that.Itliesintheextensionofwantingwhichlacksorasyetlacksability,ofthebudwhichneverproperlyburstsintobloom.Themanwhohaslosthiswaystands betweenthepermanentwishandtheimpermanentorelusivepath.Butthedangerinwhichthetravellerisplacedbylosinghisway,thedangerofdeath,isalsothetoll hepaysfortheNew.Itispaidwhereveranythingnewissparkedoutofthedarkness,themarchthereisdecidedlyawayfromthecomfortofourbed.Security becomesallthemorenegligible,themorethefamiliarspanofsensoryperceptiondecreases.Buthowsignificantthefirstlightisthen,howreassuringbeyondall previousmeasure.Thedesert

Page747 hasnotswallowedusupthingswehaveneverseenbefore,whichonthewrongpathhadfrightenedus,becomedownrightenjoyableontherightpath,theonemade right.Theinstinctivedesiresforlootandformarvelshereastonishinglyoftenmergedorwenthandinhand.TheearthinthedistancebecomesIndian,itrisesfantastically beyondthehabitualworld.Thesailreleasesusfromthemainland,andmakesthehighseasnavigable.Thingsarenotonlytobeinventedbutalsodiscovered,an extremelysubstantialdreamnowsendsmenouttothisend. Inventinganddiscoveringcharacteristicofgeographicalhope Ifthingsarenotonlytobeinventedbutalsodiscovered,whatistheleapbetweenthetwo?Itconsistsinthefactthattheonechangesthingsandintervenesinthem, whereastheothermerelyseemstofindthemandtoshowthem.Theshipthatarrivesonacompletelyforeignshoredefinitelyhasnotformedit.Consequentlyitseems asiftheseriesofactualplansforconstruction,medical,social,andtechnological,isinterruptedhere.Ingeographicalterms,theinventorisonlyfoundasaliar,atmost intheamiablefigureofMnchhausen,butnotasthemakerofsomethingthathasneverbeenbefore.PerhapsinthelongrunMnchhausencametobelievehehadseen thecountrieshesetsfootin,byrepeatingthestoriesoverandoveragaintheythemselvesdidnotseehim.Theyarenotimprovedbythedreamswhichareattachedto them,theydonotcontainthequestionablecharacter,butalsooneworthquestioning,oftheabstractfairytaleofanidealstate.Discovering,ontheotherhand,doesnot seemtocontainanydreamatallanymore,unlessitisonewhichisimmediatelycorrectedbythesocalledfactsbutthediscovereradoptsapurelycontemplative attitude.Inventionistheactwherebysomethingnewismade(glass,porcelain,gunpowder)discoveryistheactwherebysomethingnewisfound(America,Uranus), whichisonlynewforthesubjectarrivingonthescene.Ofcoursetheinventormostlypresupposesthediscoverer,buthedoesnotremaincontemplativelikethelatter, whomwealsocallanexplorer.ThisisalsowhythewordexplorerhasequallybeenappliedtothosewhocrossAfricaortraveltotheNorthPoleandtotheorists (naturalscientists,evenGoethescholars),*whoareresponsibleorseemtoberesponsiblefortakingthingsastheyare.Sodiscoveringalsoseemstobe *TheGermanwordForscheremployedbyBlochintheseinstancescanmeanbothexplorerandresearcher.

Page748 methodicallysynonymouswithuncovering,withremovingthecover,andbeneaththiscovertherethenliethefindingsforthemappingoutofanallegedlyfixedbeing.A strenuouscounterexampletotheinventororhomofaberhasfinallyevenbeensuppliedbyphenomenologylaSchelerandinfactbecauseofthepurelyaccepting elementinthisphenomenologyinfavouroftheexplorerordiscoverer,astheepitomeofthehomocontemplativus.Herethedifferencebetweeninventorand discovererisfranklystatedtobeonebetweenmodernandmedievaldisposition,furtherstill:anattemptismadetoexplainitbyaprocessasremotefrominventingor discoveringasthatofelection.WhenthemodernhomofaberelectsaMemberofParliamentorPresident,itisonlythevotesofthemajoritythatmakethemsothey arecreated,electingishereproducing.WhereaswhentheGermankingwaselectedbyamajorityoffreemen,andthenoftheElectors,hewasnotcreatedatleast accordingtothefictionandalsotheideology,butheismerelyfoundoutandrevealedasanalreadyexistingsecretkingelectingisherediscovering.Andthisis alsotheway,mutatismutandis,thephenomenologistasdiscovererwantstokeepthings:essentialobjectsareviewedsinglyandthuspresentedtothemindtheonly activeelementhereistheselectionwhichemphasizesparts,sides,factorsofoverallobjectiverealityforattentionornotasthecasemaybe.Thisisastrange epistemology,anutterlyreactionaryone,directedagainstchangingtheworld,butonewhichunderlinesthedifferencebetweeninventionanddiscovery,orfinding, throughitshatredofallactsofinterventionandnewformation.Thediscovererthereforeappearsinactiveallalongtheline,heseemsascontemplativeashedoes conservative,incontrasttotheinventor.Andthereisalsoundoubtedlyasharpnessofcontrastintheaveragebourgeoisconsciousnessassoonasitthinksaboutthe dispositionofanEdison,say,oraboutthedispositionofatravellertotheNorthPole.Despitethefactthat,asmentionedabove,theinventormostlypresupposesthe discoverer,indeedthataninventingwhichisignorantofexistingcircumstancesandlawsbeforeitoverturnsthemwillremainfruitlessoratbestwillonlyreachitsgoalby chance,andthennottheoneintended.Despitetheinstructiveambivalencewhichisalreadypresentinlinguisticusage,whenitrecognizesnotonlyageographical discoverer,thatis,adiscovererofsomethingthathaslongexisted,butalsoadiscovererofartificialindigoorofSalvarsan.*Alsodespitethatexistencewhich,asit belongstoaworldcapableofchangeandbynomeansstatic,veryoften *Arsenicalcompoundforthetreatmentofsyphilis.

Page749 preventsitsdiscovererfromremainingapassiveworldeye.Nevertheless,adifferencebetweeninventionanddiscovery,indeedbetweenthehomofaberasultimate worlddestroyerandthehomocontemplativusasultimateworldrevealer,wastransformedintoanabsoluterift.Thustoreturntothemosttypicalmanifestationof thediscoverergeographicalutopiacertainlyseemsatfirstsightasifitwasnothomogeneouswiththemedical,social,andtechnologicalutopias. Butthisisanillusion,becausediscoveringdefinitelywantsandisabletochangethings.Eventheobsessionwithprofit,thecuriosityaboutunknowndistantlandsdrive usoffintotherealmoftheunfamiliar.Evenonagentlejoumey,agleamappearsandluresuson,agleamwhichcertainlydidnotlieonthefamiliarroadorismerelyfor inspection.Allpreviousvaluesinlifearechangedbydiscovery,atleastforthetraveller,andthenforthegrouporthecountrywhichsendshimout.Theearliestchanges towardsabetterlifeoccurred,evenfortheconsumers,notonlythroughtheinventionsathomebutthroughtheirexchangeoverincrediblylongdistances,andtherefore throughroutesdiscoveredforworldtrade.TheshellsofatypeofsnailwhichisonlyfoundontheMediterraneanturnupinrocktombsofaround8000B.C.near NrdlingencowrieshellsfromtheIndianOceaningravesofaround1000B.C.ontheBalticcoastofGermany.TheHallstattculture,whichflourishedinthe Salzkammergutbetween1500and500B.C.,obtainedbothnorthernamberandAfricanivoryinexchangeforsaltandcombinedbothonpiecesofjewellery.The earliestdiscovererwasprobablythetrader,andthereforenotacontemplativetypePhoenicianmerchantsventuredoutthefurthest.Alldiscoverycontainsasitsfirst,if notitsonlystimulustheeliminationofintermediatetradewhichmakeseverythingdearer,andthereforefindingadirectrouteforoneself,aswellasfindingtotallynew commodities.WhenColumbussailedforIndia,heevenhadarealEdeninmind.Itisnotsurprising,fromthispointofview,thatdiscoveriesbroughtdreamswiththem justasstronglyaschanges.Thoughthegoalappearsassomethingwhichalreadyactuallyexists,anditscontent:gold,silver,tin,amber,ivoryandsoon,eventhe fabulousthingsitexpects,theallsurpassingmarvelofdistantlands,onlyhastobefetched.Butdoesnothealth,themedicalgoalcontent,alsoseemtobeaburied existingpossessionwhichmerelyhastoberestored?Doesnotthehappyislandstandfixedonthehorizoneveninsocialutopiasbynomeansonlyasafictionbut(at leastinolderutopias)asanexistingremotelandofhappinesswhichcanevenbediscoveredathomeatanymoment,assoonastheobstaclesareclearedaway?Did noteven

Page750 technologicaldreamshavetheirchambersoftheedificeofnatureinwhoseexistencetheybelievedandwhichwereonlywaitingtobeentered?Didnotsuchanintense experimentalsystemasalchemyhaveanexistingandmerelyhiddengoldenessenceinmind,whichonlyhadtobeconductedoutofitsprisonoflead?Inallthese instancesakindofwaitingexistenceisintended,anditdefinesthetypeoftheolderutopia,asnotedabove,withoutittherebyceasingtobeautopia.Eventhemore modernutopia,forallitsrejectionofwhatisessentiallyalreadyrealandthuspreordered,doesnotoperateinavacuumbutwhollyinaspacefulloftherealPossible. Concretetechnologicalutopiainparticularis,asnotedabove,notparthenogeneticbutseekstodelivernatureofcreationswhichlieaspossibilitiesinherwomb.Thus discovery,eveninitsgeographicalform,isnowheredirectlyopposedtoinvention,afamiliarutopianstructurerunsthroughthemboth.Infact,justasanalreadyfixed andontologicalpositingofperfectionishardlyconsistentwithutopianconsciousness(suchapositingismythological,notutopian),adiscoveringfactormustjustas certainlybeatworkineveryutopiaifitdoesnotwanttobeachimerainanother,abstractfashion,afactorwhichismediatedwiththeobjectivelydiscoverableandnot merelytheproducible.Theelementthatisthusdiscoverableis,inconcreteutopia,admittedlynotaburiedexistenceoraremoteexistenceinthesensethatevenwithout themanwhoarrivesonthesceneitisactuallyalreadyrealityandfullycomplete.Butratherthediscoverableelementineveryconcreteutopiaconcernsafuture existence:oneofthelegitimatetendency,oneofthelatentgoalcontentinobjectiverealpossibility.Andthegeographicalutopiaswereeminentlythoseofthenewroad, thenewcommoditiesandgoods,especiallyofsuchanextremedreamcontentasthefindingandunlockingofanEden.Inthisrespecteveryotherutopianintentionis evenindebtedtothatofthegeographicaldiscoveriesforeachofthemhasatthecentreofitspositivehopesthetopos:landofgold,landofhappiness.Itallowseachof themtobecalledanembarkationforCythera,anexpeditiontoEutopia,anexperimentoftheNewWorldwhollygeographically,whollywiththewillofColumbus' ship.Evenifdiscoveringdoesoutweighinventinganddevelopinginthegeographicalutopias,oratanyrateoutweighsthemfarmorethaninthesocialand technological,andalsoarchitecturalutopias,andthereforeinthosevoyagesofdiscoverywheremanfirstleadsacountryoutofarealpossibleconditionintoanactual one.Butthen:ifthegeographicalutopiashaveamoremodestappearance,thatofdiscoveringwhatalreadyexists,itispreciselythiswhich,insteadofbeingmodest, hasaquitespeciallydaringreason.Itis

Page751 thesameonewhichunitesmedicalutopias,inthisrespect,withgeographicalones,i.e.healthasamerelyburiedpossessionintheformerwithEldoradoEdenasa merelyhiddenremoteoneinthelatter.Itturnsoutintheendthattheallegedexistenceofthesetwogoalcontentsevenindicatesquiteextremelyutopianintentionsin bothfields.Simplytowanttofindlosthealth,simplytowanttoreachhiddencountries,theseonlyseemamodestutopianambition.Forpreciselybehindthismodesty, behindthatoftheobstaclesordistanceswhicharemerelyclearedaway,abasicutopiaisatworkwhichismuchtoofantastictomanifestitselfasopenlyasthesocial ortechnologicalutopias.Itisnamelyasfollows!Thebasisofthemedicalwishfuldreamcontainstheabolitionofdeath,thebasisofthegeographicalonecontains nothingless,namelythefindingofmagicalcentralgoodsliketheGoldenFleece,indeedthefindingoftheearthlyparadiseitself.Itwasstillsupposedtoexist somewhere,goldandblessingspouredfromitontothecountriesaroundit,andthusthebasicmaterialpurposeofthevoyageofdiscoverywasveryoften,immediately andquitetonishinglyinflatedtothehighestdegree.Substructureandsuperstructurearealsosoindistinguishablycrossconnectedherethatitisimpossibletoknow whereEldoradoendsandEdenbeginsorviceversa.ColumbusatanyratefirmlybelievedthattheislandshehaddiscoveredwerethoseoftheHesperidesandthat EdenlayhiddenbeyondthecountryaroundthemouthoftheOrinoco.Andthissurpassingbasicgoal,onceitwasbelievedtohavebeenattained,gavesuchtotally differentvaluestotheworldthatitwasfundamentallywrenchedoutofitsoldstatus.ColumbusevenspeaksoftheNewHeavenandtheNewEarthwhichhadbeen attainedbyhimexpeditionwassecession,anexodusoutoftheoldintothenew,notjustanextensionofthemothercountryorthestationarysupplementofan unknowntotheknown.Apartfromeconomicmotivesandinherentinthem,ofwhichmorewillbesaidlater,therewasafantasticsuperstructureofparadiseonearth here,whichforitspartactivatedpeopleandwasanythingbutcontemplative.Otherwiseitwouldhavebeenimpossibleforthediscoverer,andparticularlyColumbus,to havebeenvirtuallysubstitutedasawitnessandemblemforarsinveniendi.Inalchemicalworksoftheseventeenthcentury,Columbusisthemasterwhosailedout beyondthePillarsofHerculestothegoldenGardensoftheHesperides.Hestandsforthealchemicaljourney,forthemaguswhoseeksparadiseinthecurseofthe earth.Evenintheeighteenthcentury,goldenAmericaappearsunderthisaspectonalchemicaltitlepages,asmuchinventionasdiscovery.Andevenwhollyoutside thesefantasticdelusionsorfantasies,thePillarsofHercules,with

Page752 theplusultra,providedBaconwithametaphor,theyevenformedthefrontispieceofhisbookNovumOrganumasthepillarswhichweresailedbeyond.Likewise, discoveringisitselfactivelyutopian,itnotonlyliftsitsobjectoutofourignorancebutwherenecessaryalsooutofthetwilightofitsownunmediatednessand unexposure.Thespecificallygeographicaldiscovereriscontemplativeonlyinsofarashegivesupactionatthefinalpoint,assoonashethinkshehasfoundit.Inthe accomplishmentofgeographicalutopias,actionisreplacedbyaphenomenonwhichhaspreviouslybeenlackinginalltheothers,namelyarrival.WhenColumbus thoughthehadsetfootinIndia,ontheverysidewhereitseemedtohimtoheclosesttotheearthlyparadise,theutopianactiveintentionveeredroundaccordingly,it seemedonthethresholdoffulfilment.Thisdoesnotpreventthemostpowerfulimageofdistantlandshoveringinthemindatthebeginningofthejourneyaswellas duringit,animagewhichreachedintoactivitymoreforcefullythananyother.Whereverajourneytotheearthlyparadiseprovidedthemostexpectantlystimulating illusionandidea,withMarcoPoloandespeciallywithColumbus,discoveryisacentrallyutopianventure.Thatisalsowhytheagesofdiscovery,fromAlexanderto Columbus,madesuchahomogeneouscontributiontothesocialutopiasitgoesfarbeyondthefableofinvestiture.Allinallthen:thebusinessofhumanhopes possessesitsownhorizoninthehorizonofthegreatvoyagesofdiscoverytheearthhasindeedbecomefairlyfamiliar,buttheEldoradowhichJasonandColumbus hadinmindisyettobefound. Fairytalesagain,theGoldenFleeceandtheGrail Itisnotsurprisingthatheretoothefieryowlismuchonthewing.Lunaticstalkofalandattheotherendoftheworldandwishthemselvesfabulouslyintoit.Veryold imageslikethisoftencirculateinthesamedelusion,theythenalwaysseemasiftheycamefromforeignparts.Thesurroundingsofthelunaticarethennotonlymoved bysuperstitionbutcarriedawayoveralongdistance.Flowingwateriscrazilymovedbyahandwhichdidnotgrowhere,thereisthenorthernstormhopper,thedog ofthesouthwithitsmotionlesshead.ButareallyhealthyoldBavarianfolksuperstitionmakeseventheechounfamiliarandmagical:itwasregardedasaspecial,andas itwereparticularlyclevertypeofrockwhichcatchesthesoundandimitatesit.Thisrockandrelatedthingsarenowatworkfardownintheravines,strikingly reminiscentofthemarvelsoftheold

Page753 sailors'yarns.Thesetooshowhorrorandtemptationtogether,abovealltheyshowknowledgeoftreasureswhichareonlytobefoundindistantlands.Thesefairytales includethebirdRoc,Polyphemusanddragonlikeserpents,Krakensasbigasanisland,countlesslandandseamarvels.Buttheyalsoincludethevalleyofdiamonds, whicharepickedupbySinbadtheSailor,thereisawonderfulforestonWakWak,themosteasterlymagicisland,wheresupernaturalgirlsadornedwithallcharms growoutofbigflowers.Theearthherealwayshasitssummeronlyindistantlands,thebestfruitsarecookedupthere.Thenauticalyarnpavesthefantasticwayto themandisitselfthemostfantasticofallfairytalesanenormousfairgroundbooth,withnothingbuttheSouthSeasinside.Nowherehasthefairytalemingledsoeasily withcreditedreportsasintravelsketchesandimagesofdistantlandsgeographyistheregionwhereabsolutelyeverythingwasregardedaspossible.Thusthereisnot merelyaconnectiontranscendingtimeandspacebetweenSinbad,OdysseusandHerzogErnst,themanwhoallegedlytravelledthroughAsia.Thereisalsoone betweenOdysseusandtheworldfairytalestobefoundingreatgeographerslikePlinyandPomponiusMela,inencyclopaedistslikeIsidoreofSevilleorBeauvais.A fakelikeSirJohnMandeville'sfictitiousjourneyroundtheworld,around1355,strengtheneditsclaimstocredibilitynotleastbyanumberofwellestablishedfabulous stories(especiallyaboutIndiaandChina),whichtheknightclaimstohaveseenandexperiencedforhimself.Sincetheworldhasfewblankareastoshowanymore, thegeographicalfairytaleisleftwiththeundergroundrealm:thetreasurecave,ortherealmcompletelyaboveground:outerspace.Thefamiliarrealmmovesinthat direction:thusJulesVernedreamedasaboythattheislandofTeydeaunearNantes,onwhichhisparents'housestood,hadbeenwashedawaybythewavesandthat hecouldsailonitfaroutacrossalltheoceansoftheworld,withsailsbetweenthetrees.InthecolportagesofKurtLasswitz,whichfollowedthoseofJulesVerne,the foreignpartssosorelymissedevencomefloatingalongininterplanetaryguise.AsintheColumbusstoryabouttheotherside:Ontwoplanets(Martianslandatthe NorthPole,cancelgravitationatwill)asintheastrophysicalreport:Stardew.TheplantfromNeptune'smoon.ThediscoveryoftheIndoChinesespiceislandsalso oncehadaplantinmind,althoughaconsiderablymoreprofitableone,whichdidnotgrowinone'sowncountry,indeedallgeographicaldreamsofdistantlandscircled aroundthetreasurewhichislackinginthefamiliarworld. Asnotedabove,peoplebelievedtheywouldfindstrange,usefulthings

Page754 evenathome.Butonlybecausetheirowncountrywasstilleerieitselfithadalotofblankareas.There,ravinesormountains,anddesertedhouseswerenotonly hauntedbythedeadandothervisitorsfrombeyondthegrave,butthewishingpursesandwishingdice,thebreedingpenniesandluckyshillingswerealsotobefound there.OneofthemostcharmingfairytalesbyMusus(TheTreasurehunter)isdevotedtothemandrakewhichissaidtoopenalllocksitgrowsinthemost inaccessiblespotsdeepintheforest.Buttheconjuringbookswerewishingpursesandmandrakesinlitteris,theytoowerehiddensomewhereinforgottenvaultsor, whichamountstothesamethinghere,broughtoverfromorientalmonasteries,fromalongwayoff.Theprefacetooneofthemostfamousofthesebooks,theLiber secretus,fromthethirteenthcentury,readsasifitbroughtapieceoforientalFaustintoone'sownhome:ThisisthebookbywhichonecanseeGodinthislife. Thisisthebookbywhichonecanseehellandpurgatorywithoutdeath.Thisisthebookbywhicheverycreaturecanbesubjectedexceptthenineordersofangels. Thisisthebookbywhichallsciencecanbelearned(cf.Thorndike,AHistoryofMagicandExperimentalScience,1928,II,p.285).ThesocalledGodgiven writingsareofasimilarorder,asafictionwhichsetthousandsofseekersinmotionandlegitimatedseveralhallucinatingluckyfindersintheeyesoftheirbelievers.As wasfinallythecasewiththefounderoftheMormonsect,thediscovererofhermeticallywrittengoldplatesfromCanaaninahillnearNewYork.Lateantiquity alreadyprovidedthesymbolsforprovendelusorycolonialproduce:adocumentfallsfromtheskyoriswasheduponthecoastasflotsamandjetsamorisfoundinthe coffinofadistinguishedfigure,thatofCleopatraorCyrusforinstance.Typicalinsuchdocumentsisthewarningnottogivethemtotheignorantanduninitiated,butalso typicalisthebeliefthattheheavenlypowerswhichsentthebookfromafantasticdistanceleadtheworthiestpersontofindit.Andthehidingplaceathomethus becomesthesame,initschthonicsubterraneanform,asexoticremotenessanddistanceareinUranianform.Butofcourse,despitewishingpursesandfallingor immuredGodgivenwritings,thetwomostglitteringwishfulpossessionswhichnowappear:theGoldenFleeceandtheGrail,wereconceivedsolelyintermsof exoticism.Theyoccursolelyasthesedistanttreasuresinfairytaleandlegend,asthemostfamousofall,andapartoftheirfameispreciselythelonganddifficultjourney tofindthem,thecalltogoinsearchofthisparagonofallmarvellousthings.Infact,sincethevoyageoftheArgonauts,averyoldfable,thebeliefbecomestypicalthat thebestthing

Page755 ofthiskindisnotonlyaverylongwayaway,butitsexoticwishfuldreamtreasureitselfawaitsdiscovererswhohavecomefromalongwayoff.TheGoldenFleece hangsinColchis,aremotespotonGreeksoil,theChristianGrailisevenhiddeninsucharemovedSomewherethattheonlypersonwhowillfinditistheonewhomthe Grailitselfleadstoitshidingplace.TheFleeceandtheGrailareaccordinglyhighsymbolsofthesun,nolongerchthonicsubterraneanones.TheFleeceisadmittedly guardedbyacreaturefromtheunderworld,thedragon,yetithangsvisiblybeneaththesky,onanoaktree.TheGrailisadmittedlyalwaysveiledandsurroundedby theheaviesttaboos,yetitfloatsfreelyintheairitselflikethestars,anEldoradoasachaliceandfoaminginside,afragmentoflightparexcellence.Incontrasttowishing pursesandmandrakes,undergroundtreasurehuntingandimmuredmarvels,thepurelyastraloriginofthemythoftheFleeceandtheGrailalsopointstothisUranian expanse.Afterall,theFleecewasoriginallythebrilliantglowwhichsurroundstheheroandwhichgrantshimvictory.TheGrailespecially,initsastralmythicalorigin, longbeforeitsChristianinterpretation,isthesourceandmagiccauldronofdaylightitself,thesuninotherwords.Butitmustbepeeledandextractedfromtheclouds: IndrainIndianmythandThorinGermanicmythweretheheroeswhoconqueredthecauldronofthesunwiththeirlanceofthunder.Onlylaterdiditbecomethe ChristiansymbolofthebowlinwhichJosephofArimatheacaughttheSaviour'sblood,thatotherhotdrinkfromtheothersunanditisnolongerconqueringgods,not even,aswiththeFleece,thewarlikeJason,butthequietSunday'schildPercevalwhoisonhiswaytotheutopiaofthechaliceoftheGrail.Tothesameone, incidentally,whichalsoappearsinHoffmann'sfairytaleabouttheGoldenPotandtheretootherealmtowhichthemagiccauldronbelongsandwhichitpoursoutlies farawayinAtlantis.Thus,ultimately,alltreasureswhichsendpeopleoffontheirtravelsarehorizontallydistantonesanddonotlieverticallybeneaththeirfeetinthe groundathome.Theywereadmittedlythoughttoexist,yetatthesametimetheywereregardedassoremotethattheywerealsomythologicallyaccordedthevirginity ofsomethingasyetunseized,andhenceofsomethingwhichdoesnotyetexistinallitsglory.Thisissobothinfairytaleandlegendaswellasintheintentionofthe ostensiblysoverydifferentvoyagesofdiscovery.Thesetooaretreasurehunting,asweknow,buttheyhavethecharacteristicofahorizontaltreasurehunting,andthe characteristicwhichisalreadyseeninthemythswhichprecededthem:preciselythatofbeinganextraordinaryblendofEldoradoandEden,

Page756 ofsubstructureinthesuperstructureasitwere,ofsuperstructureinthesubstructure.Peopledugforthetreasureitselfnowinawesterly,nowinaneasterlydirection, untilthesphericalshapeoftheearthwasdiscoveredandmadeitamatterofindifferencewhichdirectiontheysteeredin,but:whethertheywereluredbythegolden applesoftheHesperidestothewestor,aswasmostlythecase,bythemarvelsofIndiatotheeast,thestrangeunityofgoldandFleece,goldandGrail,goldand paradisealwaysremainedoperative.Boththelegendarydreamjourneysandthosethatwereactuallycarriedoutuseditasanavigationalguide,inthehopeoflootand marvelsallatonce. IslandofthePhaeacians,thebadAtlantic,locationoftheearthlyparadise Itisnoticeablethatfearisparticularlycloselyrelatedtohappinesshere.TheGreeksplacedalmostalltheirfabledcarefreeregionsnexttoequallyterribleones. Monsterslurkinfrontoffragrantgroves,therearedangerouswatersaroundtheislandofthePhaeaciansandthatoftheBlest.Particularlyaroundthelatter:beyondthe PillarsofHerculesthereliesthenotoriousmarecoagulaturn,thecurdledsea.ThecraftyPhoeniciansmadepowerfuluseoftheterroroftheAtlantic,sothatforeign tradersweredeterredfromtravellingtotheEnglishtinmines.Theythemselvesareknownnottohavecaredaboutthecurdledsea,norevenaboutclaimsconcerninga perpetualcalm,yetthelegendoftheunnavigablewesternoceanpersistedforhundredsandthousandsofyears.Itjoinedtheotherunusuallygloomysealegendsof Greece,thoseoftheSirens,thecoilingEchidna,thehowlingScylla,andsurpassedtheseseamonsters,whichwerelocalizedinanycase,invaguenessandinvisibility. ThecraftyPhoeniciansonlyexploitedthishorrorofthewestanyway,itwasnotanewinventionmerebusinessliesfromTyrewouldnothaveremainedplausibleforso long.Instead,Puniccunningresortedtoaveryoldastralarchetypeandsuperimposeditselfonit:deathdwellsinthewest,wherethesungoesdown.Theunderworldis there,asistheheathenGolgotha,andthesungodmeetshisendthereBabylonianmythspeaksofthewestasthenocturnalseaprisonofthesun.Andaccordingtoa SyrianversionoftheHerculeslegend,Herculesdiedattheveryspotwherehehaderectedhistwopillars.Thiskindofthinginfactlivedoneveninthecaseofmyths thatwereextinct,assumedascientificdisguiseifnecessary,andfortifieditselfwithactual

Page757 observations,withgreatlyexaggeratedones.TherewerefieldsofseaweedwestoftheAzoresinfact,Columbusnoticedthem,butforPlato,Aristotleand TheophrastustheentireAtlanticbecameaseaofmud,governedbyperpetualnight.Therewasalsothefearofagiantwhirlpool,whichwassaidtohaveitsgullet somewhereoutintheoceanandwhichseemedtocausetheebbandflowofthetidesthattheGreeksandRomansfoundsouncanny.Thelegendoftheseaofmudand darknesswassotenaciousthatitevendeterredtheArabsandtheircommercialcapital,inanalmostincomprehensiblefashion,fromsailingtheAtlantic.TheGreeks andRomanswerenogreatseafarers,buttheArabscertainlyweretheterrorsoftheseadidnotusuallydeterthem,theyservedinstead,asthetaleofSinbadshows,to addspicetotheircourage,success,andrecollections.YetthesameArabswhogettoknowtheIndianOcean,andthemarginalseasofthePacificonvoyagesbyno meansconfinedtothecoast,andwhoevengotasfarasthePhilippines,didnotevenventureoutontotheAtlanticOceanasfarastheAzores,Madeira,theCanary Islands(whichwerealldiscoveredorrediscoveredintheendbythePortuguese)despitepossessingitsSpanishandMoroccancoastline.ThegreatArabgeographer Edrisidrewupaworldmaponsilveraround1150theNigerisknowntohimandtheislandofBorneo,butontheWestAfricancoasthisknowledgedoesnotextend beyondSouthMoroccoforreasonsstatedabove.AndEdrisidoesnotdispeltheGreekfablesforinstance,butheaddsnewones:thewatersoftheAtlanticgiveoffa noxiousstench,theycontainavastnumberofinvisiblereefsandalsodemonicislands.Itwassaidofoneofthem,Satanaxoibyname,thatagiantfistreachedoutofthe depthsoftheoceaneverydayanddraggeddowntheshipsforEdrisithisispartofageographyofHell,rightbesidetheIslesoftheBlest,whichwerelikewisesaidto lieinthewesternsea,andinspiteofthem.Notleast,theArabswarnedoftheplusultrainthewestthroughaverycuriousfableoftheirown:throughtheoldfableof thestatue.AmysteriousstatueissaidtostandonanislandoftheAtlantic,withitsrightarmraisedinwarning,andwrittenonthebasearethewords:Beyondmethere arenomorecountriestobeexplored.IbnKhordadbeh,geographerandgeneralpostmasterofthecaliphateinBaghdad,firsttellsofthisinscription,intheninth centuryEdrisicanonizedthefable,accordingtohimthereareevensixofthesestatues,andtheyallpointawarningfingeratthedesolateexpansebeyondthem.The fableitselfmaystemfromtheembellished,andinthiscasecarvedPillarsofHercules,whichPindarmentions,inthethirdNemeanode,wheretheyalreadybearthe inscription:Nonplusultra.Thisstrange

Page758 frontiersculpture,verymuchagainsttradition,wasalsoeventransferredtotheIndianOcean(cf.thebronzehorsemaninthetaleofthemagneticmountaininthe ArabianNights),thoughadmittedlyitonlymarkstheeasterngeographicalboundaryoftheworld,withoutanytaboobehindit.Thusthemainstationofthebronze horsemanisandremainsintheAtlantic,onlytherewastheoutstretchedarminterpretedasawarning,notasachallengeorsignpostforexample.Andalthoughthe GardensoftheHesperidesalsolieinthesameseaofdarknessaccordingtoEdrisi,thatdidnotmakethedarknessanymoreinterestingordialectical.Andthefableof thedangerousAtlanticoceanpersisteduptothetimeofColumbus,itwasoneofthestrongestobjectionstothewesternsearoutetothewonderlandofIndiaforit seemedunthinkablethatsuchdisfavourwasplacedbeforethosemarvels.TheGreeksalsofailedtomakeanyconnectionbetweenthetabooofdeterrenceandtheIsles oftheBlest,asdialecticallyelementaryasthisis,andasoftennottosay,asessentiallyasitwasestablishedpreciselyintopicsofparadise.Scheria,Homer's islandofthePhaeacians,liesuntouchedinthesameseawhereScyllahowlsnobodyreflectedthatthesamePillarsofHerculesonwhichtheNonplusultrastandswere calledthePillarsofSaturninthemostancientdaysofGreece,andwerethusnamedafterthegodoftheGoldenAge.Hencethehorrorofthewestwasnotilluminated bytheearthlyparadiseswithinit,andthetabooofthestatuedidnottemptanyArabtobreakit.ItwasinvainthattheblackdeathshipofthePhaeaciansandthe radianceofScheriabothlayinthesameplace:Trulyafightstreamedout,likesunshineormoonlight/Throughthehighdwellingoftheillustriousruler,Alcinous(Od. VII,84f.).Itwasinvainthateventheastralmythofthedyingsun,fromwhichthehorrorofthewestultimatelystemmed,containeditsownHesperideanlightapart fromthedarkness:Gilgamesh,Herculeshastenwiththesunbeyonditssetting,inordertogainimmortalityatthepointwherethesunrisesafresh.Butsuchaconnection betweentheseaofmudandtheislandoftheHesperidesonlybecamefruitfulintheChristianworld.ForonlytheChristiangeographicallegendandutopiabelievedit knewwhytheearthlyparadiseiskeptunenterable,andthefactthatitwasunenterablewasstressedgeographically.Afunctionnowappears:Edenliesbehindacordon ofterrors,thecordonfullofterrorsliesaroundEden.ThehorroroftheAtlanticwasthereforeinterpreteddifferentlybyChurchFathersthanitwasbyArabs:itwas connectedwiththecherubs'sword.AndhedidinfactpreventanyonefromenteringEden,butnotfromapproachingit.ClemensofAlexandria(StromataV)wasthe firsttolink

Page759 darknessandmassesofseaweedwiththeforbiddenentrancetotheearthlyparadise(thoughttobeonthesouthsideoftheearth).MostoftheotherChurchFathers adoptedthisonlythenwasadialecticalrelationshipintroducedintotheseaofdarkness,andaboveallanattractionwhichbrokethebarrierandthestatue. Muchelsecombinedtoproducethedreamoftherichlostland.Ofthelandbeneathahappylatitude,andtowhichlegendandhopearemutuallydirected.Itisnotjust aquestionoffetchingaGoldenFleecefromitwiththeremainderbeingleftbehindasimmaterial,asabarbarousshore.Thegoalisratheracompletehappyislandor alandofhappinessinabsoluto,withoutanyunwantedremainder.Inoneoftheseutopianaccountstheusuallysodistantlandofwineorlandofmilkandhoneyhas evenmaterializedastonishinglycloseathand:intheaccountofCanaan.ThePromisedLandishererepresentedasthoroughlydefinedandpresentingeographical terms,itwaitsbeyondthedesertinassured,ifunexploredsplendour.Anditseems,afterthescoutshadbroughtthegrapebackwiththem,likeasecondearthly paradiseafterthefirstonethatwaslost.InfactfortheChildrenofIsraelinthosedaysitwasthefirstoneitself:forthedetailedmythoftheGardenofEden,atthe beginningofhistory,onlyreachedthematallinCanaanitself,fromBabyloniansources.ThusCanaantangiblyappearsontheearth,notornotyetastheGardenof Eden,butasthespotwhereoneisclosertoheaventhanusual.Andaconnectionwasalsodevelopedtherewhichwasaddedtotherealmofhappiness:theconnection ofEden,thegeographicalwishfulrealmofhappiness,withawishfulageinwhichitisattained.ThiswastheMessianicconnection:onlyattheendofhistorydoes Canaanappearcomplete,withMountZioninthemiddletimeitselfisthepossibleshiptoparadiseregained.Ofcourse,happinesswasalreadythereinthebeginning, fortheGreeksintheformoftheGoldenAge,intheBibleastheoriginalsinlessstateinEden.Butbotharelost,andthereforeareonlyapproachingagainfromthe future,aboveallintheveryspiritofMessianismwhichisnottobefoundamongtheGreeks,andisonlyanepisodewiththeRomans(asintheprophecyofthedivine childinVirgil),butintheBibleisendowedwithtotalpowerovertime.Andthisbiblicalwishfulageflowsoutintothewishfuldreamofanabsolutekind:attheendof timetheearthlyparadiseisopenagain.ItappearsagainandcanbeenteredbecausethenewJerusalemdescendstoearth(Revelation21,2),yetonlyattheendof time.Meanwhileofcoursethefirstparadise,theactualGardenofEden,hasremainedtotallyintactonearth,andalthoughentryisforbidden,

Page760 thesearchforitslocation,andthesojourninitsexternalsurroundingsareChristianandpermitted.Thisbeliefthattheearthlyparadisestillexistssomewhere,thatits vicinityandneighbourhoodcanbeenteredwithoutbreakingthedivinecommandment,wasalwaysactiveinthemedievalexpeditions.AndGenesisitselfwasregarded astheguide,sinceitnamesriverswhichdonotcircleinParadiseforinstancebutissuefromitintopartsoftherestoftheearthwhichareactuallynamed.Thesearethe Pison,theGihon,whichflowsaroundEthiopia,theHidekel,whichflowsoutsideAssyria,andthentheEuphrates(Genesis2,1114):forthelegendaryutopian geographyoftheMiddleAges,allthesewatersstillhadtobringtheblessingsofparadisewiththemsomewhereandspreadthemoverfallenCreation.Inotherways too,Edenwasseenasthearchetypeofamagicgarden,whichinexorablyspreadsafragranceandradianceacrossitsboundaries.TheAlexanderoftheFrenchand GermanromancesofAlexandertheGreatstoodbeforethewallofthisgardeninIndia,smeltitsfragrantscents,glimpseditsradiancethroughfleetingopenings,and stroveinvaintoconquerEden.Theeffectoftheseromances(beginningwiththeimaginarybiographyofAlexanderbyPseudoKallisthenesaround200A.D.)can neverbeoverestimatedAlexander,India,Paradise,thesethreehugeconceptsfirmlyshoredeachotherup.Andthemedievalencyclopaedias:theSpeculumnaturale, doctrinale,historialeofVincentdeBeauvais,theImagomundiofPierred'Ailly,whichdecisivelyinfluencedColumbus,allthesebookskepttheconvictionalivethat therewasstillanenclaveofunfallennatureonearth.TheChurchhadleftthequestionofdeterminingthelocationofthisenclaveopen,andhadlikewisegivenafreerein toreveriesorspeculationsaboutitscontent.Theonlythingthatwasgenerallyagreedwasthattheearthlyparadiselayintheeast,inaccordancewithGenesis2,8: AndtheLordGodplantedagardeneastwardinEden.EventhefirstsentenceoftheBible:Inthebeginning(bereschith)Godcreatedtheheavenandtheearthwas usedasevidenceoftheeasternlocationofParadiseforthewordbereschithwastakentobeabletomeannotmerelyinthebeginningbutalsointheOrient. SpeculationwasdividedastowhetherthisEastwastobesoughtinthenorthernorsouthernhemisphereallthatwascertaininbothcaseswasaconnectionwith Canaan,withJerusalemasthefixingpoint.AndthispointofconnectiongivenintheBibleevendislodgedtheclassicaltradition,accordingtowhichtheIslesoftheBlest layintheAtlanticinsteadrather,thewesterntradition,togetherwiththedialecticalfearoftheAtlantic,wasblendedwithaneasternJerusalem,particularlyafterthe discoveryofthesphericalshapeofthe

Page761 earth,andthussubsumedundertheeasternutopia.ThefamousmappamundiinHerefordCathedral,drawnupattheendofthethirteenthcentury,showstheearthly paradiseonthemeridianofJerusalemDante,whoassumedthesphericalshapeoftheearth,eventransferredittotheantipodesofJerusalem,totheSouthSeas.This fittedinwellwithclassicalspeculationsaboutalargecounterearthinthesouthAristotlehadtaughtit(Metereolog.II,5),theRomangeographerPomponiusMela spokeofanalterorbisbeyondtheoceanwhichseparatesnorthandsouth,andCicero(SomniumScipionis,cap.6)likewisecountstwohabitablezones(cinguli),of whichthestillunknownsouthernonemustconcealinnumerablemarvels.ForAristotle(asforEdrisi)thesouthernpartoftheearthwasadmittedlyuninhabited,although itconsistedofdryland,whereasAlbertusMagnus,exactlylikeCicero,positsathoroughlypopulatedlargesoutherncontinent.Dantehimselfhowever,whointhe DivineComedywithitscaptivatingArcadiandescriptionoftheearthlyparadisehadkeptalivethelongingforitlikenootherpoetbeforehim,overandaboveevery romanceofAlexander,Danteassumed,despitetheantipodesofJerusalem,aterrainhabitabilisbelowtheequator,themondosenzagente.Andbecausehe transferredtheearthlyparadisetothetopoftheMontePurgatorio,theexactlatitudeandlongitude(neartheantipodesofJerusalem)hadalsobecomeworthlessfor thoseexpeditionswhichmerelyendeavouredtoreachtheenvironsofthenobilissimilocitotiusterrae.ForinDantethereisnolandinthesouthernhemisphereapart fromMountPurgatory,onlywaterthelandhashiddenatthebottomoftheseaforfearofLucifer,whofellfromheavenhere(Inf.34,l.122f.).ThentheDivine Comedy(thedetailsofwhich,accordingtotheintentionofthepoet,aspiredtotruthaswellastobeauty)teachesthateventhesurroundingsoftheearthlyparadise havebecometaboo.Theyareonlyaccessibletothedead,nottotheliving,infact,astheuniqueOdysseusepisodeshows(Inf.26,l.136ff.),onlytothosewhoarenot destinedforHellorevenforHeaven,butpreciselyforPurgatorythemountainisoutofboundsfortherestofthedead.Andtheearthlyparadiseitself(Purg.28),on thetopofMountPurgatory,isforDante,whoalmostinvariablyfollowsThomasAquinas,noplaceofresidenceevenforthesoulsofthedeparteditismerelyaplace forpassingthrough.InThomasAquinas,theearthlyparadisebelongstothestatusviatoris,nottothestatusrecipientispromeritis,andisthereforenotsomewhere tostay,itdoesnotrankamongthereceptaculasalutis.YetitisneverthelessdescribedinDanteontheanalogyoftheIslandoftheBlest,aneternalmorninginthe southernforest,andsituatedonthe

Page762 earth,asthesubtropicurnofearthlybliss.Thusitwasthatthepowerofpoetrystillpopulatedtheterrainhabitabilisofitstheoryinthemosthumaneway:howoften mustColumbus,beforehesetoutonhisvoyagestoEldoradoEden,haveconnectedthelinesfromDanteaboutthismorningradiancewithhisownimagomundi.And Dante'stheoreticalrestrictionoftheearthlyparadisetothetopofamountaininaccessibletoalllivingbeingsdidnotdispelthegeneralbeliefinacontinentallocationof theearthlyparadise,northehopethatlivingbeingscouldreachitsvicinity.Onthispoint,however,thelegendofAlexanderhadamorepowerfulinfluence,anditdid notpointtoapostmortalislandbuttoapopulouscontinentinthesouthernsea.ItpointedtoIndia,itpointedtotheoverlandroute,andlatertothesearoutetothe earthlyparadiseinAsia.ThatiswhytherewasnomajorriverinAsiawhichhadnotbeenconnectedwithoneofthebiblicalstreamsofParadisesuchastheGanges, suchas,inMarcoPolo,theOxus.TheoverlandrouteandthesearoutetotheearthlyparadisewerethuschieflyorientatedtowardsIndia,tothetropicallymysterious land,fullofmarvelsofanotherexistencecomparedwiththeEuropeanNearEasternworld.TheancientworldandthentheChurchFathersplacedtheirFortunateIsles essentiallyintheAtlantic,theMiddleAgesessentiallyaddedthesetootoIndiaorallowedIndia,thegeographicalutopianspaceparexcellence,toextendasfaras them.Andintheendthevoyagewestitself,owingtothesphericalshapeoftheearth,wasnotinconsistentwiththesoutheasterlylocation:exorientelux,inthe ChristianMiddleAgestheearthlyparadisewasexplainedbymeansofIndia,throughalltheoceansofseaweed. VoyageofStBrendan,thekingdomofPresterJohnAmerican,Asiaticparadise Itremainedthereevenwhentheshipsteeredawestwardcourse.AswasnaturalinthecaseofIrishandNormanseafarersnoeasternoceanlayontheirdoorstep. Moreover,theIsleoftheBlestcontinuedtohaveaneffect,thewhollyAtlanticandnotyetIndianone.YetformedievallegenditisstillviewedinanIndianfight,the Greekonealonewasnotmysteriousenough.ThecontradictionbetweentheGreektradition,whichlocatedthelandoftheblessedinthewest,andthebiblicalone whichsoughtitintheeast,admittedlydidnotbreakoutyetintheseearlydays,despiteallthefluctuations,butthestillsoAtlanticIsleoftheBlestalreadyhad

Page763 anequallyorientallookaboutit.Oneoftheliveliestmedievallegendsoftheseasteersexclusivelytowardsthisisland:thevoyageofStBrendan.Thevoyagerhimself, StBrendan,ishistoricallydocumented,hewasabbotofanIrishmonasteryandlivedinthesixthcentury.Itwastheageofseahermits,thatis,ofmonkswhofledto lonelyislands(astheEgyptianmonksfledintothedesert),toleadalifeofcontemplationthere.TheFaroesandShetlandIslandswerediscoveredinthisway,andsome realexperiencesmayunderlieBrendan'slegendaryvoyagetoo.ButtheutopianlongingforthegoldenSomewhereofanenclaveofhappinesswhichescapedtheFall featuresfarmorelavishlyinitanditslegend.ThelegendoftheNavigatioStBrendanidatesintheexistingversionfromtheeleventhcentury,butitismucholder,onthat occasionitwasrevisedfromasermonoftheninthcentury,wasrecordedinmanymoreversions,wastranslatedintoalmostallEuropeanlanguages,andkeptthe awarenessofanislandofparadisealiveforcenturies(cf.Babcock,LegendaryIslandsoftheAtlantic,1922.,p.34ff.).Thecontentresemblesanepicreligious adventureBrendanhearsthevoiceofanangelinthenight:Godhasgivenyouwhatyouarelookingfor,eventhePromisedLand.Hemansaboat,sailswestwards fromIrelandforfifteendays,findsapalacewithsumptuousfoodandinvisiblehosts,sailsonforsevenmonthsinanunspecifieddirection,andfindsanislandwith countlessherdsofsheep.Whenthecrewattempttoroastasheeponthefire,theislandsinksitwasthebackofanenormouswhale,andthefirehadinterruptedits rest.Afterahostoffreshadventures,fullofpoisonousfishandfirebreathingseaserpents,fiendishbirdsandevenentrancestoHell,Brendanreachesanoldisland hermitfaroutintheAtlanticwhoknowsthewaytothePromisedIsle.HereapredecessorofBrendan'salsoturnsup,Meruoc,whohadmadethevoyagetothe PromisedLandalongtimebeforeheconcealedhimselfsothoroughlythathecanliveinthefirsthomeofAdamandEve,i.e.intheearthlyparadise,despitethe curse.Afurthersignoftheapproachingparadiseistheinsulauvarum,thewineislandofBacchus,onwhichthesailorsspendfortydays,toloadtheirshipwithgrapesin theend.Brendanreachestheislandthatwaspromisedtohim,saintslivetherewhohavebeenexpectinghim,hewakesamysteriousgiantinthecaveofsleep:the earthlyparadise,behindthedarkseaoftheAtlantic,hasbeenopenedup.AftersevenyearsBrendanandhiscrewofmonksreturnviatheOrkades,bringingtheir accountofthePromisedLandofSaints,thisvinegrowingIndiainthewestorrightthroughthewest.SomuchforthemostfamousseayarnoftheChristianMiddle Agesandonewhichwascompletelybelieved,in

Page764 1852,I,p.410)thatthisconstantchangingofthelocationofsuchanuntraceableislandwasconnectedwiththeprogressinnavigationproducedbytradeinthe Mediterranean.Atthesametime,though,therewasalsothetaboosurroundingthelostparadiseandwhichonlymakesitpossibleforthesainttoenteritinSt Brendan'slegenditself.StBrendan'sislethusbecamenotmerelyacartographicallywanderingislandbutonewhichwasinherentlyindeterminable,andwhichisonly glimpsedinthedistanceallthetime.ThisbeliefwaspartlysupportedbyanobservationontheCanaryIslands:fromtimetotimepeoplethereimaginedtheysawa mountainouscountryonthehorizontowardsthesouthwestwithoutitseverhavingbeenreached.AsHumboldtindicates,Viera,thehistorianoftheCanaryIslands, impartedlengthydetailsaboutalltheattemptswhichhadbeenmadefrom1487to1759tolandontheimaginaryisland.Themiragewasalsoseenatvariouspoints furthertothenorth,evenontheAzoresColumbusknewthereportsaboutit,almostfortyyearsbeforehisvoyage,asheindicatesinhisdiaryfor1492.Fromthe momentitwasfirstobserved,thephenomenonwasinterpretedasStBrendan'sislethefactthatitwasunattainabledidnotdestroythebeliefinitbutratherseemedto confirmit.And,inamoredetailedway,thereisacounterparttothisinChinaasproofthatthevanishingIsleoftheBlest,thislandofhappinessorlandoftheGrail reservedsolelyforhimwhoisworthyofit,representsifnotarovingfablethenanarchetypedistributedovertimeandspace.TheChinesegographiemoraliseknows ofFortunateIslesinthegulfofPechiliseenfromadistance,theyresemblecloudswhentheyareapproached,theshipisdrivenawaybythewindiftheyare reachedallthesame,theysinkintotheseabutthesailors,notcalledupontomakealanding,aresicklywhentheycomeback.ThesupposedIslandofStBrendan wasnotregardedasprofoundlyasthisbythefifteenthcentury,butthedistantimageremainedcharacteristicofit,asdidthefairytaleofamagiclandappearingoverthe horizonagainandagain.Thefairytalepersisted,whilepeople'seyeshadlongbeenwanderingtowardstheeast,thedecidedlybiblicalsiteoftheearthlyparadise. Towardstheactualdirectionoftheeasttoo,notmerelyaswithStBrendanintermsoftheorientaltoneandmagicalcontent,towardsAsia,fromwhichtheThree WiseMencame.AndwherethatrepresentedbyStBrendan'sislandwasnotsupposedtobealonelyislebutaccordingtotheequallypersistentlegenda completeworldstatefullofwellbeing.StBrendan'spromisedlandthussawitslustretransferredtotheAsiancontinent,tothehugekingdomnowtobeconsidered, whichwasunattainableinavery

Page766 differentway,theSaturnandChristkingdomofthesocalledPresterJohn. Inanycaseitwasnotimportantforeithermerchantsorknightstoretiretoalonelyisland.Theywereinsearchofrichesandbroadprofitableland,neitherofwhichlay inNiflheimbutonthewaytotheHolySepulchreandbeyond.ButFranconianpowerwasdangerouslythreatenedthereafewdecadesafterthecaptureofJerusalem,a secondcrusadehadfailed,andathirdwasuneasilyanduncertainlybeingprepared.Thisatmospheresawthearrivalofthreemysteriouslettersaround1165,they allegedlycamefromAsia,fromapowerfulChristianruler.HemodestlycalledhimselfPresbyterJohn,butpraisedinanarrogantandbraggingtonethepowerand marvelsofhisstate,thegreatestontheearth.Accordingtotheletters,hiskingdomextendedeastwardstotherisingofthesun,westwardstotheTowerofBabel.A tremendousallythusseemedtoariseagainsttheSaracens,thegiftfromheavenofasecondfrontintheeast.TheletterswereaddressedtoPopeAlexanderIII,to EmperorFrederickBarbarossa,andtotheByzantineEmperorManuelthetwoemperorsseemtohavemistrustedthemessage,thePoperatherlessso,becausehe answeredit,evenifitwasratherlate.HesenthispersonalphysicianPhilip,whohadagoodknowledgeoftheOrient,asaspecialenvoytoPresterJohn,thelordof India,thelordofakingdomwhich,asthemessagesaid,enclosedtheearthlyparadisealegationwassentofftoaphantom.Thetextofthepapalreplyhassurvived, datedVenice,the27thSeptember1177,twelveyearsafterreceivingtheIndianmessagefromwhichdelayitisclearthatthePope'sinitiallyslightfaithinthepriestking hadgrownalongwiththeSaracenthreatitself.Forthepeople,PresterJohnwasacertaintylongbeforethishisletterwaswidelycirculatedinvariouscopies,itwas translatedintoFrench,German,andevenHebrew,andEuropebowedbeforethenewhopeofAsia.Thepapalreplywasaddressed:CarissimoinChristofilioillustri etmagnificoIndorumregi,sacerdotumsanctissimo*thoughPhilip,thebearer,wasnotevenabletoreportthatthemarvellouskingdomwasnowheretobefound,for heneverreturnedtoRome,theexpeditionwaslostwithouttrace.Hencetheletteroftheallegedpriestkingwaskeptthoroughlytopical,asfarasitscontentswere concerneditspeculatednotonlywiththemilitaryinterestofathirdcrusade,asnotedabove,butalsowiththefablesandwishfulimagesoftheEastthatweregoing round,andthuswiththeactualgeographicalutopiaoftheMiddleAges.IfthelegendofStBrendanhadclungtotheIsleoftheBlest,inawesterndirection,thenew messageclungtothelegendofAlexander *DearestbrotherinChrist,illustriousandmagnificentKingoftheIndians,mostblessedpriest.

Page767 andtotheorthodoxeasternorientationoftheearthlyparadise,whichhadprevailedintheHighMiddleAges.Theforgedlettercontainednothingthatwasnotalready familiarfromclassical,oriental,andmedievalimagesofIndia,butitcombinedtheminacompleteandseductiveway.India:thiswasaverybroadconceptintheMiddle Ages,itextended(asitalreadydidinPliny)asfarasthegulfofTonking,andevenembracedEastAfricawithAbyssiniaforatime,MarcoPoloalsocallsaPersian princeKingofIndia.ButIndiaalsoproveditsworthallthemoreasahighlymysteriousconcept,asthehomeofuntoldgeographicalmarvelsthebanalseemedtohave beenremovedfromnatureitselfthere,andeveryescapewheelfromtheclockofnature.Theimpossible,ofagrotesqueandutopiankind,seemedtobetherealthere, asinthemedievaltapestrieswhentheyportraymagicforestswiththeunicorn.TherewerethoughttobemountainsbeyondtheIndus,andtheywerealsotransferred there,theirstoneswereemeralds,andtheirdustwasmusktreesboregreenbirdsastheirfruit,humanheadswhichcriedandlaughedgrewonothers.Inthetwelfth centuryamanuscriptwascirculating,attributedtoStJerome,aboutpreciousstones,theirhealingpropertiesandothermarvellousqualities,andthisbook characteristicallybeginswiththedescriptionofavoyagetoIndia,throughtheRedSea(whoseperilousnessherereplacestheterrorsoftheAtlantic),tothefantastic realmawholeyear'sjourneyaway.Tothehomeofthecarbuncle,ofthegoldmountainsguardedbygryphons,ofthegreatmaneatingantwhichdigsforgoldatnight, ofthetreeswhichgrowinthesea,andofcopperrain(cf.Thorndike,AHistoryofMagicandExperimentalScience,II,1929,p.238ff.).Themainsourceoffablesof Indiawasagainandagain,asmentionedabove,thetranslationsandrevisionswhichtheclassicalromanceofAlexanderbyPseudoKallisthenesunderwentinthe MiddleAgesanditsdetailsbynomeansreferredtoBuddhaandasceticism,asintherenaissanceofinterestinIndiainthenineteenthcentury,butonthecontraryto themonstrositiesandecstasiesofthequantumofworldandgodsinwhichHindulegendabounds.AllthishadjoinedthelegendofAlexander,anabsolutelyexorbitant oneatthattime,outsidethehabitualgrooveoftheworld.TheletterofthepriestkinghimselffoundsupposedsupportintheNativitasetvictoriaAlexandriMagniof PresbyterLeo,around950,aboveallinanallegedletterfromAlexandertoAristotle(cf.KleineTextezumAlexanderroman,editedbyPfister,1910,p.21ff.).where themiraculouswayoflifeofRamaeverywherebecomestheeverydaylifeoftheMacedonian.LeorecordedAlexander'sjourneythroughtheair,hisjourneytothe depthsofthesea,andtraditionswerehandeddownoftheprophetictreesofIndia,atreeofthemoon

Page768 thatspokeGreek,anotherofthesunthatspokeanIndianlanguagesuchfantasiesweregroupedaroundtheking'sorientalcampaign.Manyofthemarealso echoedintheletterofthepriestking,arerepeated,acompletedreamarsenalofgeographicalfairytalesandexceptionstoeverydaylife.Peoplearenamedinitwho conjureup,saddle,andbridleaerialdragons,andrideoffonthemintothedistancethepraisesaresungofmarvellousstoneswhichheatuporcooldownasrequired andilluminateallobjectswithinaradiusoffivemilesatnight,stoneswhichconvertunconsecratedwaterintomilkorwine,stoneswhichgatherfisharoundthem,tame wildanimals,kindleenormousconflagrations,extinguishenormousconflagrations.ButPresterJohn'sletter(thetextofthecopyaddressedtoEmperorManuelisthe onethatsurvives)addstotallyincomprehensiblemarvellousbeingsofitsown,heighteningthenonsenseandthetemptation:I,PresbyterJohn,thelordoflords,surpass allotherswalkingbeneaththeheavensinvirtue,wealthandpower.SeventytwokingspaytributetoUsOurmagnificenceholdsswayinthethreeIndias,andOur landsextendasfarasthefurtherIndia,wherethebodyoftheholyapostleThomasliesOurlandisthehomeanddwellingplaceofelephants,dromedaries,camels, oftheMetacollinarum(!),Cametemnus(!),Tinserete(!),ofpanthers,forestasses,whiteandredlions,ofwhitebears,whiteMerules,cicadas,silentgryphons,of tigers,Lamias,hyenas,wildhorses,wildasses,wildoxenandwildmen,ofhornedandoneeyedmen,ofmenwitheyesatthefrontandbackoftheirheads,of centaurs,fauns,satyrs,pygmies,aswellasgiantsfortycubitshigh,Cyclopsandwomenofasimilarnature,andofthebirdcalledthePhoenix(Oppert,Der PriesterknigJohannesinGeschichteundSage,1864,p.36ff.).Thustheentirestockofmarvelsinmedievalbestiariesandbooksofpreciousstoneshasbeenlocated inthekingdomofPresterJohninIndia,eventhewhitebearsofthehighnorth,whichpeoplehadonlyheardaboutinEuropeintheeleventhcenturythewhiteelephant, ontheotherhand,whichisactuallyfoundinIndia,ismissing.Equallyboastfulandunrealisthedescriptionoftheimperialpalace:Itsfoundationsandwallsaremadeof preciousstones,andthebest,purestgoldservesascement.Itsskyorroofconsistsoftheclearestsapphires,mixedhereandtherewithgemsofdazzlingtopazThirty thousandpeopledineattheEmperor'stableeveryday,thetableismadeofemeralds,supportedbyfourpillarsofamethystOutsidethepalacethereisadoorof crystalframedwithgold,thisportalliestowardstheeast,isahundredandthirtycubitshighandopensandclosesbyitselfwheneverOurExcellencyrepairstothe palace.Intheprofusionofthese

Page769 threeletters.ThenewsoftheMoslemdefeatfilteredthroughtothewest,thehistorianOttovonFreisingheardofitfromaSyrianbishopin1145,andeveninthisfirst accounttheNestorianTurkishprincewasturnedintoadescendantoftheThreeWiseMen,intoStGeorgewhodefeatedIslam.Thiswasjoinedbyhazyideasabout Mongoliantheocracy,passedonbytravellingmerchantsthusthemilitarygeographicalutopiaofPresterJohnfinallydevelopedatthesametimethatitsprototype,the radiantExpectedOne,wasalreadydead.Thisisthenowtransparentexternalcauseofthislegenditself,thepurposivefactualcause,whichproducedthe conspicuousmystificationoftheletters,admittedlyappearsconsiderablymoreobscure.Theirauthoriscompletelyunknown,thesocialmissionbehindtheforgery, assumingtherewasoneatall,canhardlybeguessedatwithplausiblereasons.AFrenchhistorian,delaRoncire(ThediscoveryofAfricaintheMiddleAges,1929), admittedlydeclaresthattheletterisaforgeryperpetratedbyBishopChristianofMainzbetween1165and1177,inwhichthelegendofAlexandertheGreatwas usedbutalltheevidenceforthishypothesisislacking.Almostaslittleisknownaboutthepurposeofthemystification,despiteaveryinterestinginterpretationby Olschkiintermsofapoliticalutopia(DerBriefdesPresbytersJohannes,Hist.Zeitschrift,Vol.144,[1931],p.1).Accordingtothis,thegarbofgeographicalfable wasonlypadding,excitingandaccessible,itwasonlyastimulusandarecommendation.Therewasapoliticalpurposebehindit:thetormentedEuropeofFrederick Barbarossawastobepresentedwithanidealportraitoftheoppositekind,apictureofthesecureandpeacefullifeofnumerousnationsunderatheocraticgovernment whichprovidesandmaintainsbothmaterialandmoralwelfare.Hencetheprofusionofhumanetouchesbesidestheswaggeringones:theabolitionofprivateproperty, therealmwithoutdiscordandwar,thetolerancetowardsthenumerousnonChristianswithintherealmunderaChristianpriest(withthecharacteristicomissionofthe Moslems).Hencethesimpletitleofpresbyterfortheheadofsuchavaststate(inconnectionwithattacksagainsttheidolizationoftheByzantineemperorship).Inits exoticatmosphere,PresterJohn'sletterwouldthereforebeasimilarrusetoMontesquieu'sPersianletters,forexample(whichwereadmittedlyaddressedbyfictitious PersiansfromtheWesttotheEast)butthesubstanceofitsideascouldpossiblycomefromthedirectionofBernardofClairvauxandthereformedorderofhis Cistercians.Agoodmanythingssupportthisinterpretation,itwouldgivepointandrelieftoanotherwiseincomprehensibleaplombthoughitisnotclearwhatkindofa utopianvaluetolerance

Page771 VascodaGamasetsailforit,roundedtheCapeofGoodHope,anddiscoveredonhisvoyagenotthePresbyterofcourse,buttherealEastIndies.Atthesametime, though,thelegendofPresterJohnfaded,toomanyfailureshadoccurred,aboveallthefeudaltheologicalmakeupofthethingbecamealientotheincipient bourgeoisie.Ridiculeanddisbeliefincreased,asinDonQuixote,wherethelandofPresterJohn,whichneitherPtolemydescribednorMarcoPoloseteyeson,is classedandequatedwiththenonsenseinthetalesofchivalry.Alsothewesterndirection,whichhadneverwhollybeenforgottensinceStBrendananyway,increasingly appealedtoreasonandnotjustfantasysincetheblockingoftheeasternroutebytheTurks.Asynthesisrecommendeditself,facilitatedbythesphericalshapeofthe earth,betweentheHesperideandirectionandtheeasternparadise.Columbusthusunitedthewesterndreamhandeddownbyclassicaltraditionwiththeeasterndream fromthetimeofthecrusades.TheAtlanticalonenowleadstotherisingofthesunagain,totheplacewhereIndiareallyoughttobegin,andwhichColumbusstill thoroughlybelievedtobetheremainingpieceofparadiseonearth. ColumbusattheOrinocodeltadomeoftheearth Manyacoasthasalsobeendiscoveredbychance,oftenwithoutanyconsequences.Acrewwhichlandedorratherwasstrandedafterbeingdrivenoffcourserarely founditswayback.EvenwhentheGreenlanderEricsonreachedtheAmericancoastaroundwoo,withoutintendingto,thisremainedepisodic.Thiscoastwas discoveredeleventimesbeforeColumbus,onceevenfromEasternAsia,butbecausethiswasalljustamatterofchance,nothingcameofit.Therehadtobea mandateandplanbehindthevoyage,thenewlandhadtobeagoal.Ofcourse,thegoalwasnotalwaysasfarawayorevenasextravagantasthatofColumbus,the boldesttravelleranddreamerinone.ThePhoeniciansexclusivelysoughtmarkets,notmarvels,andPytheassailedroundBritainasanexplorer,notasafairytalehero. TheCarthaginianHanno,whosailedroundthewestcoastofAfricaabout525B.C.asfarasSenegal,andevenasfarastheGulfofGuineatothesocalledmountain ofthegodsinwhatistodaytheCarneroons,wrotehisextantreportasanarmyofficer,notasamystic.Magellanonlyhadelpassoinmind,thepassagethrough AmericaintothePacificOcean,thewholecontinentfromnorthtosouthwasprobedatthattimetofindit.Anddespitehisfiercedoggedness,despitetherisk

Page773 ofthefirstcircumnavigationoftheworldwhichheaccomplished,Magellanwasalsomoreofanadventurerthanadreamerhedidnotneedtoovershoothisgoalin ordertohitit.Andanyway,iftheTurkshadnotobstructedtheoverlandroutestoIndia,iftheSpanishfeudalandluxuryeconomyhadnotneededgoldinorderto improveitsconstantbalanceoftradedeficit,aboveallwiththeOrient,iftheimpoverishedhidalgos,wholatersoquicklyturnedintothewhitegodsofmurder,hadnot desiredtoseeinEdenprimarilytheEldoradowhichwouldmakethemrichovernight,thenthewholesearchforparadisewouldnothavehadasingleshipatits disposal,andColumbuswouldnotonlyhavebeenregardedbyhisopponentsasJeandelalune,buthewouldhaveremainedsohistorically.Allofthisistrue,andyet itdidnotdispelanobsessioneveninthecaseofMagellanwhichstemsevenmorestronglyfromtheromanceofchivalrythanfromthemuchlaterentrepreneurial initiativefirstdevelopedbytheDutchandEnglish.Thisobsessionmadethereactiontoscepticismreallyfanatical,totheshipownersfirstofall,andthennotjustin thecaseofColumbus,butinthatofMagellanaswelltothecaptainsoftheescortshipsandtheirowncrew.AssurelyasevenahomoreligiosuslikeColumbus wouldneverhavebeenabletofindashiptosetsailforhisEdenwithoutaneconomicmissionbehindhim,thismissioncouldneverhavebeenfulfilledwithoutthe travellersmysticalobsessionwithhisgoal.Infact,bothEldoradoinEdenandEdeninEldoradouniquelycoincidedhere,asneitherbeforenorsinceandColumbus, beingtheutopianreligiousdreamerthathewas,suppliedthecourageforColumbustheadmiral.ThewindwhichdrovehiscaravelsthroughtheterrorsoftheAtlantic intowhathebelievedwasEdendidnotmerelyblowtowardsutopias,theysuckedittowardsthem.Thepremonitionsinantiquityofanothercontinentwouldhave remainedliteraryfantasyastheyhadpreviouslydoneforsolongwithoutaneweconomicmotive,butalsowithoutEdenasastimulus.ColumbuspraisedSeneca's allusionthatonedaythegirdleoftheoceanwouldbreakandThulewouldnolongerbetheoutermostpartoftheearth,andPlutarch'ssuggestionthatthemoon,ifit wasamirroroftheearth,stillindicatedanundiscoveredcontinentinitsdarkpatchesbuteventhesereports,strengthenedintheirauthoritybytheRenaissance,would nothaveenabledthehorroroftheAtlantictobeovercome,norencouragedthevoyageintothedreadedvoid.Thebeliefintheearthlyparadise,andthisalone,finally spurredonthemanofactiontoriskthewesternvoyagewithfullawarenessandplanning,andfinallyfulfilledSeneca'sprophecy.Andthematerialinterest,thatoffeudal colonization,didnotclashwiththe

Page774 underlyingideaherethelatter,stretchingfromSenecatoDante,ratherprovidedtheinterestwithboldnessofimagination.Butthefactmustalsobetakenintoaccount thattheRenaissanceinwhichColumbuslivedwasnotonlytheagewhichrediscoveredantiquitybutalso,likeeveryturningpointinsociety,anewculminationof chiliasm.ThelatterwasevenafarmoregenuinefulfilmentoftheRenaissancethantherebirthofantiquityAdventisthepoliticalreligiouslightsurroundingthesovaried excitementfromRienzotoPetrarch,fromMiinzertoGrnewald,evenDrer,andisthemaritimeaurasurroundingColumbus.Thehorizonoftheearthwas immeasurablybroadenedbythevoyagesofdiscovery,butitwasalsosupposedtoberaisedclosertoheaven,withtheapproachtotheeasternorsolarpointof Creation,tobediscoveredclosertoit.Asisobvious,theadmiralthusexhibitedveryforciblywhatthepositivistMachlatercalled,postfestum,theproliferationof imaginativelifeonlyhetookitmuchfurther.Columbusbelievedmorefirmlythananyoneintheearthlyparadise,atthephysicallyandmetaphysicallyhighestpointof theearththiswasthecoastofhisAtlantic. Thisalonesuppliedthestrengthtobreakthespellofthenotoriouswesternocean.Columbusdidfindmassesofseaweed,butnotthedarkness,norwasthereany warningstatue.Birdsplayedacuriousrole,however:theadmiralchangedhisinitialwesterlycoursetowardsthesouthwestbecauseaflockofparrotsflewinthat directioninorder,asheassumed,tosleepinthebushesonanearbypieceofland.Never,saidHumboldt,hasaflightofbirdshadmoremomentousconsequencesfor onthepreviouscourse,thelatitudeoftheCanaryIslands,theadmiralwouldhavereachedFlorida.Insteadofthebewilderingnetworkofislands,hewouldimmediately havetouchedthebroadbreastofthecontinent,andthenorthwouldhavebeencolonizedbySpaniards.Asweknow,rightuptohisdeathColumbusbelievedthathe hadreachedIndia,heattemptedtocommunicatewiththenativesinathoroughlyorientalfashionthroughanArabianinterpreterhehadbroughtwithhim,andjustthree yearsbeforehisdeathhewrotethatfromCuba,astretchofmainlandwhereIndiabegins,itwaspossibletogettoSpainwithouttouchinganyoceans.Andyetwiththis mistakeofhisthemandoubledtheworksofCreation,withamistakewhichispreciselyconnectedwiththebeliefintheearthlyparadise.ForColumbusthenewworld wastheoldestofall,thislaywellpreservedintheinteriorofEasternAsia,andonapproachingitthespringofthefirstCreationhadtodawnagain,withoutanyofthe messwhichtherestoftheworldhasbeeninsincetheFall.Hencenobodywasmoreexpectant

Page775 thanColumbusoffindingsignsandmarvels,hehallucinatedthesongofnightingalesintheforestsofHaiti,astransfiguredasourforebearsmusthavehearditandasit willonlyreturnfortheBlessedoneday,hesensedtheairofParadiseinthevicinityofthemouthoftheOrinoco,andParadiseitselfbeyondtheOrinocodelta.Allthis inthemidstofthemostexactobservation,withmasterlyorientationbymeansoftheastrolabe,establishinganequatorialcurrentandalsocuriousconnectionsbetween thedegreeoflongitudeandtheclimate.ButthefamousletterfromHaitiofOctober1498totheSpanishmonarchscontainsthefollowingpassageabouttheOrinoco (cf.C.Jane,SelectedDocuments,IllustratingtheFourVoyagesofColumbus,II,1933,p.7f.):IsaythatifthisriverdoesnotcomefromParadisethenitcomesfrom adistant,hithertounknownlandinthesouth.ButIammuchmoreconvincedthattheearthlyparadiseliesthere,andIcitetheproofsandauthoritieswhichIhavestated above.TheseproofsreferredtothefactthatColumbusbelievedhehadreachedtheoriginalpointintheeastwherethefirstsunriseoccurredaftertheCreation.Butat thesametimethispointmarkedthepeakoftheearth,theapexterrae,relatedtoamysticalconcept,theapexmentis,atwhich,intheopinionofthescholastics,the unfallenpartofthehumansoulcomesintocontactwithGodonhigh.ColumbusdidindeedwritetotheSpanishmonarchsoftheglobecomingtoapeakatthepointhe hadreachedintheeast,andthatitwasconsequentlyclosertoheaven,forthiselevationconsistsonlyinthatmostexcellentpartoftheearth,fromwhichthefirstrayof lightemergedatthemomentofCreation,namelyfromthefirstpointintheeast.Theearthlyparadiseliestherefromwhichthegreatriversflowdown,nomountainswith sheerandruggedslopes,butanelevationontheglobe(elcolmopezndelapera),*towardswhichevenatagreatdistancethesurfaceoftheoceansgradually rises.Humboldtcommentsonthis(KritischeUntersuchungenII,1852,p.44,note):ItispossiblethatColumbuswantedtoalludetoasystematicideaoftheArabian geographers,toapassageinAbulfedawherehesaysthatthelandofLanka(Ceylon),wherethedomeoftheearthorArynistobefound,issituatedattheequator midwaybetweenthewesternandeasternboundaryoftheearth.Butapartfromtheanalogyofthemysticalsummitoftheearthwiththemysticalapexmentis,the actualOlympusimageofParadiseisalsofarolder,ithasitsorigin(forColumbusalegitimateone)intheBibleitself.TheGardenofEdenhadbeensoughtbythe YahwistintheupperreachesofthetworiversEuphrates *Thetoporstalkofthepear.

Page776 andHidekel(Tigris),thatisonthemountainheightswhichformthenorthernboundaryofMesopotamia(cf.Gunkel,SchpfungundChaos,1895,p.112).Weknow fromthelegendoftheFloodanditsMountAraratthatthesemountainswereconsideredtobethehighestintheworldrecollectionsofitappearinIsaiah14,14,andin Ezekiel28,13ff.:thegardenofGodisonewiththemountofthecongregation,withtheholymountainofGod.InDantetoo,Paradiseappearsasthemountainof Godhighabovetheearthlyrealm,anditisnotjusttheBiblewhichbearswitnesstoitbutthemountaincultinalltheUranianreligionsoftheearth,aboveallandhighest ofallitselfinBabylon,withtheveryancientimageofthemountainofthegods.Arabiangeographybroughttheimageofthemountainofthegods,thisholy phantasmagorictoweringstructureresemblinganAlpofthegods,backtoearthagain,toadomeoftheearth,whollyinthestyleofMoorisharchitecture,but Columbusrestoreditsbiblicalradiance,thesplendourofEden.ThusthisdomeoftheearthbecameforColumbustheindiciodelparasoterrenal,andhencehe transferreditfromtheCeylonofArabiangeographytotheOrinocodeltasupposedlyintheneighbourhoodofCeylon,orratherbeyondit,totheunenterable realmhehadreached,wheretheearthasEdenmergesintotheazurevaultofthesky.Theadmiral'slettertoFerdinandandIsabellathusclosesquiteopenlywitha theologicalallusiontothecountrieswhichIhaverecentlydiscoveredandwhichIamconvincedinmyheartaretheearthlyparadise(enquetengoassentadoenel nimaquealleselparasoterrenal).Indeed,theadmiralastonishinglygoesevenfurther,asforexampleinalettertoDoaJuanadelaTorre,likewisefromthethird voyagetheexaggerationinthisletterbecomesapocalyptic.Theletteristheproductofamomentinwhichdejectionandexaltationarestrangelymixed:Ihaveserved withaservicewhichhasneverbeenheardoforseenbefore.OftheNewHeavenandtheNewEarthwhichourLordcreated,asStJohnwritesintheBookof Revelation,afterHehadspokenofitthroughthemouthofIsaiah,Hemademetheheraldandshowedmehowtoproceed.Moreover,withthisoutrageoustrump cardortriumphColumbusovercompensatedfortheincreasinghostilityshowntohimincourtcircles,whichwasgrowingevermoredangerous.Fortheopponentsof ColumbusfelttheiroriginalscepticismconfirmedwhennothingcameofthegreatvoyagetoIndiaandChinabutthediscoveryofafewislandsandanunknownraceof savagesthatsortofthingdidnotcoverthecostsofthevoyage.SothisispresumablyanotherreasonforthecolossalexaggerationoftheNewHeavenandtheNew Earth,whichistheologicallyuntenabletooforthesemarvelsappear,preciselyaccordingtotheRevelationofStJohn,not

Page777 atthepeakofadiscovery,butabovetheabyssoftheendoftheworld.AprimaryandconstantaccompanyingfactorinColumbusis,however,thebeliefinanEden thatcanbefound,andthatultimatelyhasbeenfounditnowlayinaChristianrealm.Andfromthericheswhichitwouldinevitablybringinthefuture,fromthegold bearingriverofPisonwhichemergesintothesurroundingsofParadise,afinalcrusadewastobeequippediftheadmiralhadhisway,andtheearthlyJerusalem conquered.AfterwhichEdenandCanaan,thetreeoflifeandMountZionwouldhaveallbeensituatedtogetheronthesummitofChristianity.ThefactthatEdenthen lateronlyturnedouttobetheAntilles,thatnowhitegodsbutcriminalslikeCortezandPizarrothenpenetratedintothecontinentbeyond,thattheearthlyparadiseasa wholeisnotafactbutaproblemofhopeandalatency:thisdoesnotrobtheintentionpursuedbyColumbusofitsstrengthanddignity. SouthlandandtheutopiaofThule Asimplerdreamofnavigationappearsinamorecorporealform,thesouthernone.Likemigratorybirds,comingfromthecoldercountries,itisdirectedtowardsthe sun.Theeasttoowasalwayssimultaneouslyconceivedintermsofthemostfavourablelatitude,asmuchmiddaysun,muchsummer.Andthefurthersouthitwas,the moreunexpectedlyItalian,Arabianlustreseemedtoincrease.Theclimatictormentofthetropicswaswellknownofcourse,butitdidnothaveadeterrenteffect becauseitwasmitigatedbydistanceorthebriefastonishedvisit.Itwasnotknown,however,thatthecoldincreasesagaininthesouthernhemispheretoo.Butthis remainedundiscoveredatleastuntilMagellanhadpenetratedsouthintothevicinityofthestormilyicyCapeHorn.Nevertheless,theinclinationtowardsincreasing warmthandlight,whichissodeeplyingrainedinhumannature,persisted,thatinclinationtowardsaprofaneEdensotospeak,requiringnofaith.Andnoteventhe drivingmagicaladditivewaswhollylacking:theseatofthesourceoflifeingeneralwaspresumedtolieinthesouth,whichknowstheearlyspringearlierandfrom whichthesummerapproaches.ThedirectioninwhichanofficerofColumbushimself,PoncedeLen,soughtthismythicalsourceoflifeisinstructiveinthisrespect. Namelynotattheeasternpointofanearthlyparadise,butinthetropicsassuch,rightwherehewasandaRedIndianlegendwasenoughforhimtoexpectthewaters ofeternalyouthinFlorida.As

Page778 closelyasthisspringislinkedbytraditionwiththevicinityofEden,andhence,sincethelegendofAlexander,withIndia,itisjustassurelythetropicalelement,andnot theconsecratedoneofthatIndia,thatledtohopesoffindingthewateroflifeinthatparticularspot.Thereputationwhichthiswaterenjoyed,soverydifferentasitwas fromholywater,wasalsothereforecorporeallyprofane,appropriatetothelongingforthesouth.ItflowedthroughthegallantconceptionsoftheMiddleAgesandthe Renaissance,whollyinthehalcyonsenseofsouthernhope.Itranthroughthejardinsdeplaisanceofmedievalgraphicartandliterature,itisevenrevealedinTitian's relatedallegory,veryunjustlycalledHeavenlyandearthlylove,wherenotanangelbutCupidstirsthetropicalwater,egrediensdelocovoluptatis,astheChurch saidofthisvigorous,nonChristianbaptism.SothismythicalelementalsostreamedintotheTerraaustralis,farbelowtheequator,attheantipodesofcold.Thesemi officialmedievaldoctrineoftheterrainhabitabilis,southoftheequator,admittedlystoodinthewayoftheTerraaustralisitself.ButsinceAlbertusMagnushadalready attackedtheauthorityofAristotleandEdrisisoforcefullyonthispoint,sincehedeniedthatthesouthernhalfoftheearthwaswhollycoveredwithwater,atthesame timehetheoreticallymadespaceforthefantasyofthesoutherncontinent.AndMarcoPolofinallywentalongwithitinpractice,whenhethoughthewouldbeableto locatetheTerraaustralis.Java,Sumatra,thelushSundaislandswereassumedtolieoffthecoastofthecontinent,theIndianOceanwaspresentedasaninlandsea, withitsrichestcoastinthesouth.PerhapsMalayanandChineselegendsalsocontributedtothislocation,recollectionsoftheprehistoricalGondwanalandaSodom andGomorrhaofthetropicswhich,destroyedbyfire,sankintheareaoftheIndianOcean.Atanyrate,theancientarchetypenowassumedspecificshapethrough thislocationbeyondtherichestislandsintheworldpeoplesawthefeetofthegiantandguessedtherest.Thedisappointmentthough,longafterMarcoPolo,was great,butthedreamoftheTerraaustralishadalsostronglyfadedinthemeantime.Australia,onwhichDutchmenfirstsetfootin1606,andtheextentofwhichwas fairlywellestablishedbyCookin1770,turnedouttobethemostmodestofcontinents,acomplexofdeserts.Thewateroflifeandtheclimaxofasunkingdomfrom theothersidevanished,Gondwanalandsankonceagain.Yetaseparategeographicalutopiaoncestoodinthisimageofthesouth,onewitharadicalCimbricand Teutonicmigrationasitwere.Andultimatelysouthlandisthehottertiaryperiod,autopianreminderofthemigratorybirdandeventhedinosaurinmanincontrastto thewinter

Page779 land.Thesoutherlydirection,andwhatwasexpectedinpursuingit,isthuschargedwithaprofusionoflifewhichwasnotafraidofbecomingmonstrous.Thatiswhy imaginaryutopianvoyagestothesouthlandneverlostthisinnateorgiasticcharacter:Foigny'sTheAustralianlandexperienced,of1676,portraystheinhabitantsof thesoutherncontinentashermaphroditesRtifdelaBretonne'sAustraliadiscoveredbyaflyingmanhastheintentionofsuperimposinganorgiasticRococoontoa tropicalSodom,withunknownsinslocatedintheunknown.Theutopiaofthesoutherncontinentitself,luxuriantasitis,isempiricallythemostunfounded,butitretained thearchetypeofanimalparadise. Ontheotherhand,theoppositeinclinationtowardsthenorthseemsalmostcorporeallyincomprehensible.Whereasthesouthwindtemptsandpromisesus,thecold anddarknessaremenacing,ourfirstreactionistofleefromthem.Theroutetothenorththereforeseemsalmostparadoxical,thereisnoCimbricandTeutonic migrationonit.ForthesamereasonthattheicymountainsoftheAlps,thispieceofGreenlandbetweentheDanubeandthePo,werethelasttobevisited,oreven loved.Andyethumancivilizationmigratedmoreandmoreupfromthesouthtowardsthenorth.ItscoursegoesfromtheNileandEuphratestoAthensandRome,to France,Germany,England,andRussia.Civilizationnotonlymovesfromeasttowest,butfarmoreregularlyfromsouthtonorth,andthestrugglewiththeharshclimate hadthesamehardeningeffectasthatwiththeIceAgeinprimevaldays.ThereisnotemptationtoinvadethisregionasintheCimbricandTeutonicmigration,butit happens,acreativeexpansion,onewhichhasstillnotcometoanenditsnextactshouldbetheriseofSiberia.Andaboveall,despitethedarknessandcoldthenorth doesnotlackapeculiarattractioneconomicallythiswasbasedontheinterestinrawmaterials(tin,furs,amberandmore),butitalsopersistedforreasonsofmanya contrastingideologyoutsidethebusinesssphere.DistinctsignsofthisarealreadyevidentinTacitus,hegivesthefirstsentimentalpictureofthenorth.Forhis Germanianotonlyidealizesaprimitivepeople,italsoshowsasmallcounterpartofthatfreezingyearningforthesun,itshowsconsternationinthefaceofthehuge chillyforests,andtheharshsky.ButaveritableThuleisevokedmuchlateroninGermanliterature,intheSturmundDrangrevoltagainsttheunnaturalnessofaneo feudallyromanizingsystemofrules.Insteadofthesculptureofthesouth,thewildApollosoughtstormclouds,flyingmoonlight,andbroodingovercastexpanses.This satisfiedtheenthusiasmfornorthernregionswhichwasarousedbyOssian,anditischaracteristicthataforgery

Page780 whichwasitselfsentimentalcouldtriggeritoff.NotthepoetMacpherson,butthemaskoftheoldskaldOssian,anotherPresterJohnasitwere,actedonnorthern Europeatthattime,actedlikeamessage.Andnotjustlikeoneoutofnorthernliteraturebyanymeans,butlikeoneoutoftheworldofFingal'sCaveandtheHebrides themselves,intowhichthefictitiouspoetledtheway.Itwasaworldofsoftandatthesametimeenormousheroes,anatureconsistingsolelyofreeds,rocks,moors, lakesandwinds,anelegiacallyrememberedandwaningone,yetsurroundedbythatsunsetglow,thosestormsandpassingcloudswhichcanonlyoccuronthe northernheaths,closetothesea,whichbringthemessage:Thule.HerderexperiencedtheOssianutopiainawaywhichwascanonicalforhisage,namelyfromon boardshipandfromtheperspectiveofthesea,fromacoastalperspective:Floatingbetweentheabyssandthesky,dailysurroundedbythesameendlesselements andjusttakingnotenowandthenofanewdistantcoast,anewcloud,anidealregionoftheworldnowwiththesongsanddeedsoftheancientskaldsinmyhand, mysoulcompletelyfilledwiththem,intheplaceswheretheyoccurred,nowatadistancepassingthecoastswhereFingal'sdeedsoccurredandOssian'ssongs chantedmelancholy,beneaththeseverycurrentsofair,intheworldofsilence(ExtractfromcorrespondenceaboutOssian,1773).Theessencesoughtafterinthis wayreachesdownintotheGothicnovel,whereithasbeenpreservedinitsmostpopularformitreachesup(asSpenglerdiscoveredinthetruestsentenceheever wrote)intothedeepmidnightsoverwhoseapproachFaustkeepsvigilathisdesk,andintowhichthecoloursofRembrandtandthestrainsofBeethovenfadeaway. Buttheessenceitselfreachesbeyondtheseculturalspheresinawaythatisstillthoroughlyobjectbased,preciselyintothecloudyworldofthenorthbywhoselightitis illuminated,intotheutopianrealmofthisworldasaparadisewithoutazephyr.Thustherewasandisarealgeographicalutopiaevenhereitdoesnotmerelydwellona globusintellectualis,itclingstorealfixedpointsofthenorthernoceans,toFingal'sCave,theHebrides,Iceland,andfromthereitconstructsNiflheim.Toroamover theheath,withthestormywindwhistlinginyourearsbearingtheghostsofyourfathersinsteamingmistsinthedimlightofthemoonthisaffinityfromWerther's Sufferings,theattractionofthenorththusequallyranksalongsidethatofthesouth,infactitsurpassesitbyvirtueofitsovercastcharacter.Themoresoasthisvery overcastelementornorthernmagicneverlackedastrangeaddedingredient,onefromaverydifferentdirection,namelyfromthatoftheeastagain,fromtheutopiaof IndiaandtheOrient.Itiscertainlynottheopulence,but

Page781 thegreatfairytaletone,theelementofmysterylackinginthepurelysouthernutopia,thatallowsarealpointofutopiancontactbetweentheOrientandtheterritoryof Ossian.Therealconnections:ancienttrading,orientalandnorthernornaments,ChristianityintheEdda,thesearenotsoimportantinthepresentcase,althoughthey obviouslyalsohaveaneffectontheactualutopiaofThule.Moreimportantisthefactthattheobjectiveatmosphericelementsfromwhicheverydaydreamdevelops wereabletomigratefromtheorientallocalitywithsuchelectiveaffinityintothenorthernone.Thisaccountsfortheunmistakablecorrespondencebetweentheworldof veilsandtheworldofmists,betweenthebiblicalandthehighlywintryChristmaslandscape,betweentheApocalypseandthefrontierlikecrypticmannerinwhichthe Eddapresentsitstwilightofthegods.MountOlympuscannotbeimaginedatallbeyondtheMediterraneanworld,butsmokingMountSinaiaccordswellwiththe north,asdoesthecloudandthepillaroffire.HenceMacphersonalsotakeshislanguageinequalmeasurefromthePsalms,Milton'sbiblicaltoneandtheextantGaelic songs.AndthusfromthefrontiersituationthatiscalledmysterythisveiledelementintheOrientisaddedtotheovercastatmosphereinthenorth:ultimaThuleaccords inaveryparticularwaywiththefinalfrontier,withtheendoftheworld.TheovercastatmosphereofThuletherebysimultaneouslydisclosesitselfinitsfrontiersense itself:itis,asHerdersays,anoutletoftheworldintosublimity.Thecorporeallysoincomprehensibleinclinationtowardsthenorththusbecomesclear:theattractions ofthesouthandofthenorthaffectdifferentsidesofhumannature,itsMidsummerDayinthecaseoftheformer,itsChristmasinthatofthelatter.Tothesoutha profusionoflifeutopianizesitselfgeographically,whichcertainlyknowsdeathbutemphasizesneitheritnorthecountermoveagainstittothenorthamagicofdeath utopianizesitselfgeographically,whichcontainswithinitacompletedestructionoftheworld,butalsoseekstoovercomeit,withaparadoxicalhomeland.Thuleisthe geographicallydialecticalutopiaofaworldwhichisendingandperishing,butwiththeconstantlyinterwovencontrastingimagesofthestormynightandthecastle.Thule inthenorthernoceanisthemysticismofbadweather,withtheopenfireinitsmidst.WithHerderandOssiantherestirredtheharp,thegloomyone,/Shroudedinthe greyofdawn,/Wherethesunrisesresounding,/Fromwaveswhoseheadsareblue.Thusthiskindofgeographicalutopiaalsoremainedinthehighnorth,itwasnot madegroundlessbywhatwasdiscoveredtoexist.

Page782 BetterabodesonotherstarshicRhodus Thereisalsothelureofanotherseaapartfromthehorizontalone,namelytheverticaloneaboveus.Airspacewasadmittedlyinaccessibleforlongenough,butthenit istransparent,itdoesnothideitsBeyond.Itparticularlydoesnothideitatnight,countlesstinysparklingcoaststhenemerge.Andanageoldwishaimsatsailingthese coastsandlandingonthem.UptillnowthiswishhasundoubtedlybeenevenmoreextravagantthanthatofColumbuswas,althoughitislessmythical.Atanyrateit touchesontheancientarchetypeaccordingtowhichthestarsaretheseatofbettercharacters.WhatdrawspeopleuptothisAbovedoesnotevennecessarily presupposeinhabitantsofcourse,inthesecularizedformithasassumed.Thelureofouterspaceissatisfiedinonerespectwiththefactthatmanisabletoimagine himselfasavisitoronthesedistantheavenlybodiesandthathewillfind,ifnotsomethingmoreperfect,thenatleastsomethingextremelypeculiarupthere.The imaginarytravellerdoesnotevenneedtobecarriedawayforthis,apartfromtakinghisbodyandhissenseorgansuptherewithhimintactintosuchtotallychanged circumstances.Alltherest,insofarasitdoesnotrefertoinhabitantsoreventotheirperfection,butsimplytoextremepeculiarity,isnotevenhypothetical,butitistrue, thisiswherethemostoutlandishforeignpartsreallybegin.Theskyonthemoonbecomesblack,thestarsshinefiercelyinthedaytime,thesunbeatsdowninadazzling bombardment,unmitigatedbyanyveilofair.Awallofblackestshadowstandsimmediatelynexttothelightthere,allinasilentwildernessthevastglobeoftheearth risesabovetheringsofcraters,withlargecitiesaspointsoflight.Onthesmallerasteroidsourbodywouldweighalmostnothingatall,andonejumpwouldbeenough totakeusintoouterspaceonlargedenseheavenlybodies,however,ourbodywouldliechainedbygravity,itwouldbelikegranite.ThenthedayonpaleSaturn,with thecountlessbodiesthatmakeuptheringaboveus,thentheviewfromoneofthemoonsofJupitertowardstheplanet,whichhalforentirelyfillsthesky.Thereisall thisandmuchmorethatisstillinconceivable,virginterritoryataninaccessible,imaginarydistance.Andthemostoutrageousthingsofalloccuronthemyriadsoffixed starsthemselves,ontheseexplosiveblossomsandlightsofcosmicdevelopment.Thepeculiaristhusonepartoftheastronomicallure,itcontinuestheobsessionwith thecuriouswhichtheBaroqueperiodhadforalienzones.Inthis,theskyisasheerphysicalwonderlandorterra

Page783 secretaoutsidetheearth,preciselybecauseitisaterrainhabitabilis.Butofcoursetheotherpartofthelure,thepartinwhichtheskystillhasalastingeffectastheseat oftransfiguredcharacters,positshabitabilityinsteadofmerepeculiarity,andinfactaddsthemeaning:Mars,youhaveabettertimeofit.Thisinhabitedandalsobetter elementwasatfirstsoughtonthemoon,asitwasbyKepler.Keplerregardedthecratersseenthroughthetelescope,whichhadjustbeeninvented,ashugecitieswith circularramparts.Then,whentheairlessandwaterlesssatellitewasfoundtoadmitnoneoftheformsoflifeatleast,Marswaschosenasweknow,anditscanals surpassedthecityramparts,evenintheirassumedtechnologicalperfection.Thesimilarity,whichsoquicklybecamepopularandwasindeedrelative,ofconditionsof lifeonMarswiththoseonearthcertainlyencouragedtheassumptionthattheplanetwasaterrahabitabilis.Addedtothisthereistheoldersolidificationofthesurface ofMars,incomparisonwiththeearth,inkeepingwiththesmallersizeoftheplanet.Accordinglyitspossiblecivilizationcouldverywellhaveastartofseveralmillion yearsovertheearth,providedthatlengthoftimeisroughlyequalbyandlargetolengthofdevelopment.ThemajorityoftheseMartianfantasiesarecorrespondingly moreonesofcivilizationthanculturalandevenmessianiconesthustheydidnotsomuchtaketheplaceofIndiaasthatofAmericaintheplanetaryheavens.The neighbouringearthofMarsreflectsintheimagesoftheanalogousimaginativepowerswhicharebroughttobearonitvirtuallythepositionandalsothestatusofthe utopiasofAmericaprevailingontheearthatthetime.ThatiswhythenumerouslegendarygeographiesofMarsarealsomuchmoreeasilyaccompaniedbyan elementoftrivialitythantheolderonesconcerningheavenlyearths.Andamongtheseolderones,afterKepler'simaginaryandutopianmigration,thatofKantstandsout inparticularfromhisprecriticalperiod,asitgoeswithoutsaying.InthespeculativeappendixtohisNaturalHistoryandTheoryoftheHeavens,Kantalsowantedto openupfarmoreremoteplanetsforanadvancedworld.Accordingtohim,thetrulyblissfulregionsarenottobefound,likeMarsandEarth,atamediumdistance fromthesun,butonlyatthefurthestremoveoftheouterplanets.JupiterandSaturnaresingledoutinthisway:thedecreasingdensityofmatterinboth,andthe remotenessofthesun,seemedtothephilosophertobethefoundationsofapurerworldsotospeak.Anidolatryofthenorthisunmistakablehere,withJupiterand SaturninplaceofTacitusGermaniaasitwere.EvenavariationontheutopiaofThuleisdiscernibletosomeextent:notinthedirectionofOssian,notatall,butinthe directionofanarctically,

Page784 superarcticallytransposedStoicphilosophy.AgenuinelyKantianaversiontosoftnessandzephyrs,tosensualglow,thesubtropical,andtheundutifulthusmigratesto itsplanetarySuperKnigsberg.AndKantventurestheanalogy:thattheperfectionofthespiritworld,aswellasthematerialone,growsandadvancesintheplanets, fromMercuryallthewaytoSaturnorperhapsevenbeyondit(ifthereareotherplanets)inapropersuccession,accordingtotheproportionoftheirdistancesfromthe sun(Werke,Hartenstein,I,p.338).TheprecriticalKanthereimaginedatotallyextravagantcounterparttoNewton'sformulaofthedecreaseingravityasthe distanceissquaredthatis,withthedecreaseingravitationalattractiontheattractionofpurityissupposedtogrow,inaccordancewiththeimaginedcontrastbetween gravityandspirituallight.Thesethenaresomeofthewaysinwhichanorbishabitabilispopulatedthemagicofthestarryskytechnologicallyoralsoinmoralwish fulfilment.Thedepthsoftheheavensweretherebyinducedtomodifyanelementoftheearthlyparadise,thoughadmittedlyonewhichwasanilluminatedearthagain andagain,onewhichhadbeenraisedtoitsmasterlevelasitwere.Kanthimselflaterexpressedthisreferencebacktomanandearthveryconvincinglyandyetwithout lossofgenuineheight,inhisDreamsofaSpiritSeer:WhenwetalkoftheheavensastheabodeoftheBlessed,thenthecommonnotionlikestoplaceithigh overheadintheimmensityofspace.Butwedonotconsiderthefactthatourearth,viewedfromtheseregions,alsoappearsasoneofthestarsinthesky,andthatthe inhabitantsofotherworldscouldpointtouswithjustasgoodreasonandsay:Lookupthere,thatistheabodeofeternaljoysandaheavenlyresidencewhichis preparedtoreceiveusoneday.Foryousee,astrangedelusionalwayscausesthehighflighttakenbyhopetobelinkedwiththeconceptofrising,withoutconsidering thefactthat,howeverhighwehaverisen,westillhavetosinkagaininorderlikewisetogainafirmfootholdinanotherworld(Werke,Hartenstein,II,p.340).Behind allofthisliesthebelief,bynomeanssinkingitself,thattheearthitselfcancontainwithinitthebetterexistenceonotherstars,ifthereisoneorwillbeone.Sothatthe sidereal,inautopiansense,doesadmittedlyhaveitslureorasymbolupabove,butmustbesoughtandcanbepursuedherebelow,amonghumanbeings.Inthe secrecyofthefirmamentoftheearth',asParacelsussayswithaparadoxicalcombinationorcrosscombinationoffirmamentwithearth.Ifthereareinhabitantson otherstars,thentechnologicallyatleasttheypossessnoconsiderablygreaterperfectionfornosocalledMartiangianthaslandedonearthasyet.Theworldwhichthe earthmightgainthrough

Page785 contactwithotherhypotheticallyinhabitedplanetshasbeenpurelyleftuptohumanbeingsandtheirrocketpropulsion.Thedistantsparklingpointsoflightdidindeed firstmakehumanbeingslookupatthesky,thestarstuddedheavenssupplytheprototypeofpeace,sublimity,andserenity,yetontheearththisimageisalsoatask andagoalhicRhodus,hicsalta,hereisthedome,risehere. TheCopernicanconnection,Baader'scentralearth Butwhatifthedomewereonlytostandverymuchapart?Ifitissohiddenawayinacornerthatitsselfimportanceisallinvain?Columbusstillregardedtheearthas thecentreoftheworld,agenerationlateritwasdethronedfromitbyCopernicus.Wherebymantoo,andnotjusthissceneofaction,movedoutofthecentreofthe world.Itbecomesimmaterial,almostabsurdbycosmicstandards,howhighlythegrainofsandsublimatesandexaltsitself.Thedomegrowsonaplanetwhichis distinguishedbynothinginastronomicalterms,andthisrevolvesaroundafixedstarofnomorethanmediumsize.Butatfirstthisdebasementdidnotyethavethe totaldimensionthatitacquiredlateronandwhichithasrecentlyrelinquishedagain.TheprefacetoCopernicuswork,whichheadmittedlydidnotwritehimself,had recommendedtheheliocentricsystemonlytopromoteanimprovedmethodofcarryingoutastronomicalcalculations.Itwasenoughfortheproposedhypothesessi calculumobservationibuscongruenternexhibeant.*ThisreservationwasmadeatthetimeinordertosoftentheclashwiththeBible,itismisinterpretedtoday,butasa statementofconscientiousphysicsitremainshighlyremarkablelongbeforeEinsteinandespeciallyMach.Fortheastronomicaladvantageoftheheliocentrictheory overthegeocentriconeisinfactitsarithmeticalsimplicity.ItmadenolessthanelevenmotionsinthePtolemaicsystemsuperfluous,Keplersuppliedtheenchantingly clearrulesoforbit,andNewtonprovidedafoundationforthewholethingbyformulatingthelawsofgravity.Thesystemmerelypresupposedastationaryspacein whichabsolutemotionandabsolutetranslationalvelocityreallyoccur,andareclearlydeterminableandmeasurable.Thoughitisnowpreciselythispremisewhichhas beendropped:forinnowaycanthemotionofabodybeprovedagainstanemptystationaryspaceorevenagainstastationaryetherfilling *ifthecalculationsprovetobeinagreementwiththeobservations.

Page786 thatspace.Inotherwords,accordingtotheelementaryprincipleofrelativity:whentwoobserversaremovingatuniformbutdifferentspeeds,eachofthetwocanclaim withexactlythesamejustificationthatrelativetotheemptyspaceheisatrest,andthereisnomethodofmeasurementinphysicstosettlethematterinfavourofoneor theother.Appliedtothesolarsystem,thechoiceofthebodyconceivedtobeatrestandthatconceivedtobeinmotionislikewiseopenasregardsthekineticrelation thingsonlychangehereintherespective,specificcausalrelation.Thispurelyphysicalrealizationmustthusonnoaccountbeconfusedwithabsolutelyfalse epistemologicalconclusionsofaverydifferentorigin,namelywithphysicalidealismandfictionalism,butthisisexactlywhyitcannotberejectedasfictionalistinits purelyphysicaldetectioneither.Becausethereforewiththediscardingofanemptystationaryspacenomotionoccursagainstit,butmerelyarelativemotionofbodies againstoneanother,anditsdetectionisdependentonthechoiceofthebodyassumedtobeatrest:providingthecomplexityofthecalculationsinvolveddoesnotmake thisappearimpractical,theearthcouldstillbeassumedtobefixed,andthesuntobeinmotion.Thereisofcourseallthelessreasonforthisaspreciselythecausal explanationfromthemassofthesunallowsanexplanationofgravitationalmotion,andconsequentlypointstothesunasthephysicalcentrethusitstandsintheright physicalspotfromamethodologicalpointofviewaswell.ThetheoryofCopernicusstillremainsmostdepictivelyvalidevenwhentherelativityofmotionpermitsno absolutedetectionofmotionandrestatall.Butnowtosomethingelsewhichhasnothingatalltodowithphysics,namelyconcerningtheproblemofthesituationofthe earthasthearenaofhumanhistory:isastronomysimplyallthereisandthetotalmatteritself?Sincetheearthasasatelliteandthesunasastationarypointofreference areafteralldeterminedrelativetooneanother,istherenootherpointofreferenceabsoluteasbefore?Suchthatman'searthwouldstillremaininthemiddleof thingsorcentral,inadifferentcontexttotheastronomicaloneandinviewoftherolewhichtheearthplaysnotjustincelestialmechanicsalone.Indeeditissignificant thatanothersuchpointofreferencehasneverceasedtoexist,despitetheclockworkmechanismreinterpretedbyCopernicus.Nordoesitbyanymeanslieoutside science,itonlyliesoutsidetheoldmechanicswhichhasbeenmadetotalandwhichisinanycaseuntenableasthistotality.Consequently,anothersystemofreference tothatofthemechanicallytotalone,oneofhumanimportance,hasbynomeansremovedourplanetfromthemiddleofthings,inthisrelation.Inotherwords,since therelativity

Page787 ofmotionstandsbeyonddoubt,ahumaneandanolderChristiansystemofreference,whileitadmittedlydoesnothavetherighttointerferewithastronomical calculationsandtheirheliocentricsimplification,doeshoweverhaveitsownmethodologicalrighttoholdthisearthfastforthecontextofhumaneimportanceandto rearrangetheworldaroundtheeventsthatoccurandcanoccurontheearth.ThisandthisaloneremainshereasthehumaneelementfromthePtolemaicstraininthe BibleandalsoinAugustine:withthecivitasDeiwhichfightsitsutopianwaythroughandoutintotheopenontheearth,notonthesun.Thebiblicalorderclaimstobe freeofrelativity,sinceitisnotdealingwithmechanicalproblemsofmotion,butwithproblemsofstatus.Anditneedsnoemptystationaryspaceorstationaryetherto determinethem,butsolelytheinvariantofautopianHumanum.Thustheearthisherethecentreinthesenseofthecentralmeaningaroundwhichtheworldrevolves. Theearthisthenbynomeanspredominantlyregardedastheprovincesonthecontrary,forthepatriotsofhumanecivilizationitbecomesatthesametimethecapitalof theuniverse. Itisonlybecomingthiscapitalforthemofcourse,itisonlyripeningintoit.Nobodyinrecenttimeshasgivensuchasanctimoniousexpression,butonewhichisnot merelylimitedtothatasweshallsee,tothiskindofcentralearthasFranzBaader.Baader'sgeocentrichopemeanstheearthtingedwithChrist,atingingwhichbegins inmanandprogressesfromheretohisarenaandtherestofnature.TheworldisaccordinglynotapantheisticstatueofGod,oreventheabsurdityofaninfinitestatue, buttheearthisratheramodestcaveinwhichthegodwasborn.HisworkFoundationofEthicsthroughPhysics,1813,namelythroughatransformedphysics formulatesthisasfollows:ForreallymanoughttobetheopenpointinCreationinanevenhighersensethanthesunis,andifhethereforebecomessuchapointagain, ifthehigherlifefreelyandunrestrainedlydawnsinhimagain,thenitiseasytounderstandhoweverylowernaturewhichstepsintothesphereofilluminationand influenceofthisreopenedsunnybeingwillalsoimmediatelydiscloseitsownpreviouslysealedlife,andhowman,likethatOrpheusinthefable,willthereforespread harmonyandblessingsaroundhimeveninthelowerformsofnatureandatleastinhisindividualspherewillanticipate,asitwere,thatnaturalstate(asnatural transformation),whosegeneralestablishmentisapodicticallydemandedbyethicsintheideaofthehighestgood(WerkeV,p.32f.).Thisisthebasictonethe problemofahumanizedrelationtonature,evenifdistortedwithatendency

Page788 towardsmysticism,isunmistakable.Andfromthispointofviewthedisparagementoftheearthonlyseemscorrectifmeasurednumericallyandaccordingtosize,but bynomeansifmeasuredaccordingtoweight(inthesenseofhumaneimportance).Thus:Theearthstandsadegreefurtheroutsideordeeperthantherestofthe heavenlybodies,andthereforebeneaththeseAndyetthisearthholdsthemostexquisitethingsinCreationhiddenandburiedwithinit,whichiswhyitisaptly comparedwiththemustardseedintheGospelwhich,althoughitisthesmallestamongtheseeds,willstillspreaditsgrowthacrosstheentireskyTheearthisinthe materialorderofthingswhatmanisinthehigherorderofthings,andjustasmanisuniqueintheuniverse,thereisonlyoneearth.Both,manandearth,arethesecret workshop,placeoflearningandofreorganizationofthecentralbeingsandtheirsensibilityTheuniquenessoftheearthanditsdestinyinthesystemoftheworldis mostcloselyassociated,andnotmerelyfromthetemporalpointofview,withtheuniquenessofmanandhisdestiny.Thusthemodernnonconceptualideaofthe heavensasacountless,uniform,andhencesuperfluousrepetitionofthesamesolarsystemsandsoonalsofallsbackintothenothingnessfromwhichitarose(Werke IX,p.282,XIV,p.44,III,p.317).TheStoicsonceexplainedtheirdivisionofthephilosophicalsciencesintothreepartsasfollows:logicwasthefence,physicsthe garden,andethicsthefruit.FortheChristianBaader,thisfruitisapocalypticandthusthegardenisnotphysicsassuch,buttheearthonwhichParadisealreadyexisted once,asasignofwhatitcanbe.Thus:Evenifthisageismerelythewinterofeternity,manisstillable,likeajudiciousgardener,toproduceeveninthemidstofthis icywinteratleastafewindividualblossomsofeternity,eveniftheyareonlyfleetingandquicklycloseagain:herebymodellingthatparadisialstateofnatureoutside himself,ifhealreadymodelleditmorepermanentlywithinhimself(WerkeII,p.121).TheisleofStBrendanandtheParadiseofColumbuslaywhollyor predominantlyinanotherworldbeyondknownspace,butnotinanotherworldbeyondtimeasithasdevelopedsofar:Baaderaddedtotheolddreamsthetrulybiblical oneofaplusultraoftime.Baaderwasofcourseabsolutelytieddowntomythologyhimself,indeedoverflowingwithit,hisearthoflightinthecentreofthingsisalso alwaysonethathasbeenrestored,onethatusedtobegoodbuttheNovumEdenisnotabsentfromtheworkoftheexpectantgeosopher,astheresultofaprocess. Hisearthalchemy,apartfrombeingexpertinappealingtotheoriginalstateofthings,wasexpertinfermentation,insilvergleamsofafuturemetal,andalsoina vigorousfeelingoffreedom,preciselyofthesortthatwas

Page789 knownnottoexistinthemythicalParadise.Thefollowingstatementcorrespondstothis:Itisabasicprejudiceofhumanbeingstobelievethatwhattheycallafuture worldisathingcreatedandcompletedforman,whichexistswithouthimlikeareadybuilthousewhichmanonlyneedstoenter,whereasinsteadthatworldisa buildingofwhichheishimselfthearchitect,andwhichonlyarisesthroughhim(WerkeVII,p.18).Theearthofthecentreisthereforenotonlytobefoundatthe locationsofAthens,Jerusalem,andMountZion.Instead,thecentrestandsinaworldwhichisonlyjustbecoming,althoughinaworldlaidoutandobtainableonthe earth.Thereferencepointofimportance,thethoroughlynonastronomicalone,isthusjoinedbythemostviolentlyutopianoneofablissthatishome.Initssecularized formitiscalledheavenonearth,apocalypticallyitwascalledearth(withnothingbutJerusalem)inheaven.Inbothhopestheworldactuallyrevolvesaroundtheearth, evenifitrevolvesaroundonewhichisstillbecoming,aroundaplaceofpregnancyandbirthofmoreanddifferentlight.Likewise,innumbersandsizethisBethlehemis oneofthesmallestamongthetownsofJudaea,butinweightofvalueitsurpassestheuniverse.AllthemillionsoflightyearsareshorterthanGoethe'slife,andthespace theytraverseisempty,buttheearthistheutopianessenceoftheuniverse.Theperiodofhumanhistoryonitisjustasmuchthefullgoldenperiodasthespace fashionedbytheearthisthegoldenspaceoftheuniverse,i.e.theoneamassedonitssubstance.HicRhodus,hicsalta,hereisthedome,risehere:thusthisportraysat thisendnotmerelyloveandcommitmenttotheUtopicumofanearthlyparadise,butanawarenessofthesubstanceoftheearthlyarena,anawarenesswhichbyno meansseesitselfdevaluedbytheastronomical,merelyastronomicalinfinityonallsides.Apartfromitssizetheuniverseiscertainlyfullofmeaningsandciphers,fullof farmoretenableonesthanthefiguresofthezodiacwereforexample,whichwereimaginedbyancientastronomy.Butiftheseciphersthoseofinorganicnatureasa wholehaveameaning,thenitrefers,quameaning,justascertainlytotheaffairsandsemanticcontentsoftheinhabitedearth.Inthesilentreticenceoftheworld extraterramthismeaningisnotexpressibleatall,itremainsfrozenrenunciationunvoicedwithinit.Autopiancentralearth,however,maycontainandconcentrateit withaStMark'sSquarewhichnowlooksevenmoreessentialthantheentireinflationofmerelyastronomicalinfinitywithanAcropolisforwhichitsthoroughlyrebuilt spacesufficestoformwithinitapreappearanceofthemosthumanespace.

Page790 Geographicallineofextensioninsobrietythefundoftheearth,mediatedwithwork Itlooksasifalmostalldistantcoastshavebeendiscovered.Fewhabitablelandsarestillunentered,andtheBlueFlower*hasnotbeenfound.Thusnothing,oralmost nothinghassurvivedofthegeographicaldreaminitsoldform.Nevertheless,theearthhasnotbeenfullylearntnor,inspatiotemporalterms,fullyexperienced.Itisso onlyinitsgivenbreadth,notinthegiventaskofitsdepthdirection,itsdiscoverablelineofextension.Thislinerunsthroughthemediation,throughtheinteraction betweenmanandearth,throughthisstillabsolutelyunclosedtransaction.Itrunsthrougheconomicgeography,throughthepolitical,technological,andculturalkind,yet preciselythroughtheearthspaceandearthobjectitself,itrunsthrougheconomics,politics,andtechnologynotjustaspurelysocialprocesses.Buttheearthitselfalso playsapartinthemetabolicexchangebetweenmanandnature,inaninteractionwithanequallypowerfulandchangeableshareofnature.Climateandexistingraw materialsobjectivelydeterminedtheparticularhumanworldthataroseandthishumanworldneverlayonthemoon,neverpurelyinthemind.Itlayontheearth,which suppliedthephysicalpossibilitiesforhumanworkandwasitselfchangedbythisworkforthisveryreason,intoanagrarian,andfinallyintoanurbanandindustrial landscape.Thusapartfromafewvastdeserts,highmountains,primevalforests,andforthetimebeingalsotheAntarctic,almostallareasoftheearth'ssurfacecame withintheradiusofhumanaction,werechangedbythestateofsocietyandaccordingtothestateofsociety,haveafreshsayinit,inshort,theyhavebecomeearthina lineofextensionwhichisjustasvariedasitisunfinished.Mostsplendidly,Sovietsocietygaveitsnaturalsciencesandtechnologythetaskofrebuildingnature.Herethe businessofclearingwhichbeganwiththefirstfarmersculminatesinawaywhichwaspreviouslyinconceivableplants,rivers,andtheclimatefindthemselveschanged, eventhetundraistransformedintocornfields.TheSovietUnionisherebyhelpingenormouslytoshapethefeaturesofthecultivatedlandofwhichtheearthiscapable andinwhichithasbeenexpandingsinceitwasfirstcultivated.Ininhabitedregions,geographywithoutandbeforemandoesnotexistanymore,butthisisprecisely whythisverygeographycontinuestobehistoricallycomprehensiveasbothanarenaandaframework.Justasthemechanical *TheunattainedRomanticidealinNovalis'novelHeinrichvonOfterdingen.

Page791 world(theworldofworktransformerstoservehumanadvantage)representsakindofunnaturalphysics:soinalmostthesamewaythemetabolicinterchangebetween manandearthcreatesakindofsupernaturalizedgeography.Withthedifferencethattechnologyfarmoreeasilypassesintotherealmofcunningandoverpowering,can befarmorecontactlesslyandabstractlycalculatedthantheauthenticlandscapeproductofhumanwork.Thiscanofcoursealsolookartificialenough,ina technologicalcontext,butearthnaturecollaboratesevenintheindustriallandscapemorevisibly,andpossiblymoreinhibitivelythanelectricalnatureinthedynamo.The earthstillremainsthearenaandframeworkevenforsuchanextensiverebuilding,andapowerfulandvisiblepartofthematerialcontentaswell.Sothisispreciselywhy thereisaconcreteutopiaofthefutureconditionoftheearth(comparedwithancientgeography)ineverygeographyofimprovement,autopiawhichhasitsfrontier idealinthedreamsoftheearthlyparadiseanidealnotdevaluedbyfantasyandmythology.ThisutopianfundfiveswithoutmythicalwrappingintheToturn(itself alwaysonlyalatentone)ofpoliticalculturalgeography,afterphysicalgeographyhasbeentraversedandisadequatelyknown.TherearestilllotsofchildreninGaia, andshechangeswiththemjustasthelanguageofgeographicalnatureisnotyetanextinctone,andthefaceoftheearthisnotyetahippocraticonewhichcanonlybe acceptedasthepast.Withandthroughthechangesmadebyhumanbeings,thePleistoceneandHoloceneepoch,andtheQuaternaryperiodofourplanetcanstillbe followedbytheQuinternaryperiod,withabetterattainedfundofwhattheearth,nogeologicalantiquarium,stillpotentiallycontains.Theearthasawhole,initslatency, istheunfinishedsettingofasceneinaplaywhichhasbynomeansbeenwrittenasyetinourprevioushistory. Ifthechangesarebadofcourse,thenthelandaffectedbythemmerelylooksviolated.Thisisparticularlyapparentinthehideousstreetsandsuburbswhicharea legacyofthenineteenthcentury.Theystandoutasscabsandsoresonthelandscape,orrather:thelatteristotallydestroyed.Andhealth,cleanair,light,thecasual greenofthetreesalongwithititisalmostoddtofindallthisstillintheopencountryside.Thecapitalistagebuilttheendlessstreets,theprofithouses,allthespooksso fleetinglyconjuredupthatitisastonishingtofindtheyarestillthereinthemorning.UnlessitisasthefaadeofHell,fading,shrivellingup,notbuiltonthegoodearth andbelongingtoit.Iftheearthitselfisincluded,asasocalledgreenbeltorinthedispersalsofthegardencity,thenthispastorallooksasifeventhetreeswerefakes. Theartificialdesertwhichinterruptsthelandscapeastheurbanformofthenineteenthcenturyisstrongerthanthenature

Page792 addedinacalculatedway,whichhereservesonlyasacompensationtheemptinessandreification,theabstractnessandcadaverousnessarestronger.Butthisisnotto saythattheopposite:thegood,thenonabstractchange,canboastofappearingasifitweremerelyembeddedinexistingnatureasifitwereindigenous,intheso nearlyprovincial,soeasilyreactionarysenseoftheword.Asifrebuildingoftheplanetearthdidnotremaintheutopianwatchword,insteadofsuchhesitant indigenousness.Wemustpushofffromitinstead,wemustdefinitelytaketotheships,notjustwiththeancientenergyofthevoyagesofdiscovery,butalsowiththe intentiontowardsthegeographicalfineofextension,towardstheultravioletareaofthespectrum.Thegeographicalfineofextensionthoroughlyemergesfromartificiality asmuchasitdoesfromindigenousnessforitsgoalremainstheworldmediatedwithmanandinclinedtowardshisgoals.Animagesecularizedrespectivelyfromthe pagan,thenChristiannotionsoftheearthlyparadiseistheideallandscapebutthisalwaysappearedasanaturebothchangedandcorrected,anddeliveredintoa friendlinessofitsown.Thusitalwaystoweredintothesocial,technologicalandarchitecturalutopias,evenwhentheforcesofproductionweresufficientlydeveloped nottoneedanydreamfieldswithathousandfoldfruit.Thustheideallandscape,notasfieldsbutasearthlygarden,surroundedthediversepleasuresanddreamsofa lifebeyondwork,fromtheArcadiaofantiquitytothegentleorillustriouspastoraloftheBaroque.Andalthoughinmanyplacesonlysubjectivefantasymayhavehada handinthiskindofsuperearth,itremainsconspicuousthatitwaspreciselythemostmeticulousrealism,thatofHomer,whichfurnishedandwasabletofurnishthe mostradiantmodelofanideallandscape:inthedescriptionoftheislandofCalypso.Fromwhichitfollowsfromthisangletoo,incontrasttoabstractnessoutside natureandtofalseindigenousness:inallimprovementsofaconcretelypossiblekindthereisarealismsuigenerisatwork,andthishasitssourceinnoneotherthan geographicallyobjectivematerial,thatisobjectivelyutopian,objectivelylatent.Thefundofobjectbasedpossibilitywhichisherecalledtheearthassuresthatthe geographicallineofextensioncanbetheroadtoawhollynewcountry,althoughlocatedintheworld.Theintentiontowardssuchanideallandscape,hencethereal geographicalutopia,isadmittedlyamostextremeone,asnotedabove,yettheconsequenceofanonutopiainthisareaseemsnolessextremeanddreadfuleither.For ifthelineofextensiontowardsthehumanizableearthistakenawaycompletely,theneveryhumaninstallationintotheworldultimatelyremainsfutile.Anabstract idealisticisolationofhumanworksonandintheearth,

Page793 anihilisticlackofcontactthenfollowinescapablyfromtheabsenceofthegeographicallyobjectivelineofextension.Ashighasthislineultimatelypresumestoaspireto borderlineideals,liketheearthlyparadiseofColumbus,itsnegationleadsjustasterriblyintototalisolationofhumangoalsonearth,intheworld,andbeyondthisit leadsintothevoid.Aboveallinthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,aboundlesscentrifugalsenseoftheuniverse,withouttheweightinessofearthinit, predominantlygeneratedasenseofforlornness.Thehumandevaluationcalledcapitalismwasthusideologicallystrengthenedbythequantitativedevaluationofthe humanarenaingeneral,whichissimplytermedtheoceanoftheworld.ThisisseenmostclearlyinSchopenhauer,concerningtheallegedpaltrinessofthelittleearth:In infinitespacecountlessshiningspheres,aroundeachofwhichaboutadozensmallerilluminatedonesrevolve,which,thoughhotinside,arecoveredwithacold congealedcrust,onwhichalayerofmouldhasproducedlivinganddiscerningbeings:thisistheempiricaltruth,reality,theworld(Werke,Grisebach,II,p.9).The optimismofCopernicaninfinityinGiordanoBrunoandinSpinozastillhadroomforman,preciselyinhiseroicofuroreintheonecase,andinhisamordei(sive naturae)intellectualisintheotherthenihilismofthedecliningbourgeoisie,however,bymakinglifeonearthintoadeadend,causesthehumanegeographical dimensiontobecompletelydevaluedintheastronomicalone,withoutcontaininganypointofreferenceofitsown.Andthisthereforeremains,throughthemistrustof theHumanumintheworld,theextremeconsequenceofthechosengeographicaldeadend.Incontrasttotheconsequenceofthechosenlineofextension,which,ifit allowsaglimpseintodistantearthlyshores,intendsreceptionandhomelandthere.Thatthereisthusonthisearthsimultaneouslythespaceforanewoneandthatnot onlytimebutalsospacecontainsitsutopiawithinit:thisiswhattheoutlinesofabetterworldsuggestasfarasageographicalEldoradoEdenisconcerned.Thebodies andhouses,electricpowerstationsandStMark'schurchesultimatelyalsobelongtoearthlymatteranditsorganizationtheyareembracedbythewholeoftheearth andpenetratewiththeirownutopiaintothegeographicalone.Aboveallthearchitecturalspatialutopiaisassuchalsooneoftheearthandthewishfullandscapes whichartreveals,ifnotthroughbuildingsthenthroughthewindowsofpaintingorliterature,evenaswishfullandscapesareneverthelessstillsimplylandscapes. EldoradoEdenthereforecomprehensivelyembracestheotheroutlinedutopiaseventhebroadlytranscendentelement,thehouseoftheotherside,stillhadaplacein thehorizonoftheearth.Indeedevenwherethe

Page794 beliefprevailedthattheearth,inconjunctionwiththerestofinorganicnature,occupiesaplaceinwhichitdoesnotbelong,thisveryplaceremains,evenafterthe rejectionandremovalofthefalsewaysitwasfilled:asthespatialpossibilityofanewheavenandanewearth.Theintentiontowardstheearthlyparadisethusfocussed onagoldenspacewhichcouldstillbeexpectedintheoutflowingworld,atthedeltaoftheworld.

40WISHFULLANDSCAPEPORTRAYEDINPAINTING,OPERA,LITERATURE
Paintingissurfacinginanotherplace. FranzMarc Thewriterswhomwecalleternallyorabsolutelygoodandwhoinspireuspossessacommonandhighlysignificanthallmark:theytakeacertainpathand alsocalluponyoutofollowthem,andyoufeel,notwithyourintellect,butwithyourwholebeing,thattheyhaveagoalThebestamongthemare realisticandshowlifeasitis,butsinceeverylineispermeatedwiththeawarenessofthegoal,asifwithsap,apartfromlifeasitisyoualsofeellifeasit hastobe,andthiscaptivatesyou. AntonChekhov Beautyislifeasinallrealityitoughttobe,untilithastobe. Chernyshevsky Videturpoetasaneresipsasnonutaliaeartes,quasihistrio,narrare,sedvelutalterdeuscondere.* JuliusCaesarScaliger Themovedhand Itleadsnowhereatallmerelytofeelinabeautifulway.Thisremainsinside,hasnowayoutofitself,isnotcommunicated.Butequallytheinnervoiceispresupposed whereverthereisartisticform.Aselfmustbebehindthepaintthatisapplied,ahandwhichappliesit.Afeelingpassesthroughthemovedhand,adaptsitselftowhatis painted.Justasontheotherhandcreativetalentonlyprovesitselftobesuchthroughthefact *Poetryisclearlyseenasaspecialthingnotlikeotherarts,suchashistory,narration,butasifanotherGodcreatedit.

Page795 thatitisdisposedtowardsformsfromthestart,andfindsnothingatallwithinitselfwhichdoesnotinsistonitsfullyshapedplace.Thusthecraftisnotaddedtothe creativeinnervoiceassomethingdifferent,evenalien,butistheinnervoicethatgirdsandpreparesitself.If,onthewaybetweentheselfthatiscapableofsomething andthecraftofwhichitiscapable,somethinggetslost,thenitwasnotworthmuch.Theinnervoice,assoonasithassomethingtosay,alwaysspeaksoutward expressionthentheybothspeakofoneanother.Apictureisthereforealsoheard,notmerelyseen,itnarrateswhatweseeinit.Andfirstofallinafriendlyway,what iscolourfulassuchhasacheerfuleffect. Flowerandcarpet Thehandbeginsdelicatelyandneatlyhere,setsout.Whatthepencildrawsmustbeclear,whatthebrushfillsin,colourful.Lightmustbeabletoshinethrough,whatis fineparticularlyteachesandbetraysability.Paintingisthereforebestlearntwithflowerandglass,everygoodpicturehasaglimmerofflowerpaintinginit.And,alliedto this,ithasacarpetinit,thisflowerbedfullofbalancedcolours.Onlybeyondthispure,masteredfinenessandthroughitdothingsemergeinpaintedform.Theyare nowrebornandformedoutofcolour,flowerandcarpetemergeasthings,firstofallasstilllife.Inthisthetableclothbecomestransparenttoitself,asdoestheplate,the fruit,themeat.Suchthingscanneverdoenough,throughthecontinuingbuildupofcolour,tobelikelinen,tobeporcelain,juicy.Nosilkwehavetouchedisassmooth andshiningasthatwhichisskilfullypainted,nosteelmoremasculine,moreglitteringthanthatwhichhaspassedthroughblue.Likewise,anotherwiseoftendiffuse element,asinthecarpet,isheldclosetogetherbyacontinuousharmonyofcolour.Nothingdisturbsandisdisturbed,everythingactsthereandthen,isalliedand affiliatedtoitself,becausebornofcolourasawhole.Thelatteristheoriginaldoughhere,anditreducesthatcreatedbyitineachcase,nomatterhowdifferentitisin reallife,toacommondenominatorofcolour.Thenuancesofapronsandcupsarebasedonthesameunderlyingwhite,thelobsterandtheroseonred.Thestilllifeis trainedbytheflower,becomesabouquetwhichpresentsitself.Itgoeswithoutsayingthatititself,likeeverythinginit,isofsmalldimensions.

Page796 Stilllifecomposedofhumanbeings Itmaybeafeatureofnearnessingeneralthatitisnarrowandgivesthatimpression.Asmallsurfacecontracts,makesapleasantlycomprehensiblecircle.Itpaintsan existencewhichcaneasilybecomemustyinreallife,butisstrangelywarmwhenpresentedasapainting.Tamecomfortplaysaparthere,whichisusefullycontent,but alsopleasureinthesecurecircleandwithinit.Thisisaboveallthecasewherethecircleisgainedbyourowneffortsandlifewithinitisnotcrampedbutsecuredand enclosed,andthusexhibitspeacefulwarmth.AsintheDutchinteriorpicture,everythingbecomesaparlourhere,eventhestreet,astoveisalwaysburning,even outsideinthespring.Vermeer,Metsu,PieterdeHoochportrayedsuchcosyliving,ahomesweethomestillwithoutanymustiness.Thewifereadsaletterorconfers withthecook,themotherpeelsapplesorwatchesoverherchildinacourtyard.Theoldladywalksdownthestreetalongahighwall,overlookedbygabledroofson theotherside,nothingelsehappens,sunbeamspourthroughthesmallsilentscene.Andintheactualinteriorthesilencebecomesentirelythatexpressedbycooing dovesinanoldenclosedcourtyarditisstructuredbylightfallinginatvariousangles.Amugofbeer(Amsterdam)showstheobliquelylitchamberinwhichawoman, withinfinitecalm,ispouringoutherbeertotherighttheviewleadsthroughtheopendoorintothelivingroomfloodedwithlightandthroughitswindowframeoutinto theopenair.Thelightfallinginatthreedifferentanglesopensthenarrownessandhomelinesswithoutenlargingittheroomisprimaryinallpicturescomparedwiththe figures,butitenclosesthem,isonlythereforitsnearness.Theobjectsofbourgeoiscomfortcalmlyrevealthemselves,thebrasslampshadeonthewall,theredtiles, thebrownarmchair.Everywherethereisanorderlywayoflifeperse,atidinessofthehouseandacheerfulnessofmind.Eventhevanishinglinesaredelimiting,even theviewthroughthewindowsdoesnotextendbeyondahundredortwohundredmetresinHooch.Ajunkshopofhappinessappears,andithastheeffecthereofa treasurechamber.NothingbutdomesticeverydaylifeispaintedintheDutchgenrepicture,butforallitsnearnessitisalsopresentedinjustthesamewayasasailor mayseeitfromadistancewhenhethinksofhome:asthesmall,sharppaintingwhichbearshomesicknesswithinit.Correspondingtothisontheotherhandisthefact thatthereareveryoftenmapsoftheworldhangingonthewallinthesepictures,withtheoceanlookingin,which

Page797 ofcoursefirstdispensesallthisdomesticcomfortbyvirtueofDutchworldtrade.PieterdeHoochalsopaintedfashionableroomsinwhichladiesdance,dine,andplay musicwithcavaliers.Thecolourinthearchesandpillaredfireplacesbecomeslesswarminthese,itisbluishandgrey,theredofthecostumesishard.Buteveninthe courtpicturesthereisstillLilliput,anelfinmannerwhichprotectsandisitselfprotected.Illness,wildness,loudness,disruptivenesscanneitherbeseeninthecharming formatnordoesitseemasifcareitselfcouldevervisitit.Roomsandwindowslookingoutontothestreetarepaintedasiftherewerenodisruptionintheworld.The grandfatherclockstrikesnothingbuttheeveninghour,nothingismorethanmancancopewith,nothingisinahurry. EmbarkationforCythera Soplacidisthisnearness,butitisafeatureofdistancetoberestlesslycloaked.Tobindthesearchingglancetoitself,toattractpeoplepreciselyinsofarasitisveiled. Thefeelingistheneroticlonging,whenpaintedthislongingisdeparture,romanticjourneythuseveryportrayaloferoticdistancealreadyexpressesseduction.A fundamentalpictureofthiskindisWatteau'sEmbarquementpourCythreevenitstitleisclearlyutopian.Youngmenandladiesarewaitingforthebarquewhichwill bringthemtotheislandoflove.ThewayofpassingthetimeinthosedayswasthereasonwhyWatteau'spicture,thatofanexcellentbutnotexactlyfirstratepainter,is abletogivesuchasensuallystrikingdelineationofwishfullandscape.EventhroughpreciouseroticdiminutiontheRococoperiodgivesinsteadaconcentrating,atleast isolatingimpression.Watteaupaintedhispicturethreetimesthefirstversionisbasedonamerestageimpression,thepastoralplayTroisCousines(whichlingeredin thememoryrightdowntoOffenbach'sLaPrichole).Thearrangementofthefiguresisstillwoodeninthefirstversion,thefeelingstillconventional,thetimeofdaystill uncertain,theairnotyetchargedwithexpectation.Onthefaceofit,thethemeofthesecondandthirdversionalsoseemsconventional,inotherwordsitstemsfromthe eraofthesecretsofthedeergardenandboudoir,onetreatedandcoinedthousandsoftimes.Inthisrespectitsbasisismerelythelecherousnessofthecourtlifeof thosedaysandaninterchangeableentertainmentwhichwasoftenmorelikeeroticizedboredom.Buthowextraordinarilythepicturehasputthingsrightinthemeantime, howclearlyanarchetypeoftheromanticjourney

Page798 lead,inwhichtheylie.ButCytheramakesitseemasiftherewerenothingintheworldapartfromtheshiningandtheoutlineofwoman. PerspectiveandlargehorizoninvanEyck,Leonardo,Rembrandt Thatdistancewhichleavestheviewopenisnothidinganything,butisrepresentationallyricher.Evenwherethepaintedprospectishazy,nothingiscircumscribedbuta measureisgivenpreciselyforexpanse.Assoonasthethisworldbegantobecomeinfiniteinsteadofthenextworld,thewishfullandscapeofopendistanceappearedin thepicture.Itgazesbluegreenthroughwindowsandarches,throughopenedgrottostheexpansiveviewfromthemountainbegins.Whatwaspreviouslyonlyfitfor thecathedral:tobedepthofthethirddimension,nowbecomespictorialspace:theworldasnave.Depthcannowalsobebroughtintothepictureplane,bythelatter appearingasasectionthroughtheconeofvisionthusitisasiftheobserverislookingthroughawindow,thepictureplaneitselfislikeanopenwindow.Thepoint wheretheperspectivelinesmeetliesatinfinitythelinesrunninginthemiddlepartcontinueevenbeyondthehorizon,somethingnewsurroundsthefigures:acentrifugal space.Thisexpanse,wishfulexpansethusbecomesclearevenasearlyastheendoftheMiddleAges:intheParisMadonnaofJanvanEyck.Theperspectiveservesa firstveduta,framedbyarchitecture:thelandscapeitselfappearsasawindowspaceofthehouse.Andforthefirsttimetheruleofthevanishingpointisconsciously observedinvanEyck'spicture,thetranslationofobjectsseenindepthontoaflatsurfacebegins.BetweentheMadonnaandthefigureofherdonator*theprospect extendsthroughthreearchesofasplendidlydecoratedhall,andthusadistantlandcrammedwithtreasuresopensup,interruptedandenclosedbypillars.Inmasterly detail,withallthespatialutopianemotionsengagedofwhichthelooseningofanasitwerehorizontalabyssiscapable.Acitybecomesvisible,gablesandtowers,a cathedral,abroadsquarewithsteps,acrowdedbridge,ariverfurrowedbytinyboats,inthemiddleofwhich,onanislandwhichissmallerthanachild'sfingernail, risesapalacesurroundedbytreeswithnumerouslittlebelltowers.Beyondallthisaworldofgreenhillsrunstowardsthehorizon,onwhichsnowymountainsdimly glow,andlastofallthereliesthenonfrontierofaskyfadingaway *ThefigureofthedonatorisChancellorRolin.TheLouvrepictureisknownasTheMadonnaofChancellorRolininEnglish.ItwaspaintedbyvanEyckaround 1425.

Page800 intheclouds.Itisaperfectdreamland,althoughinthelineofextensionofmultilayeredreality.ThisisnotBrugesorMaastrichtorLyon,orwhateverothercityscapes ofthetimepeoplehavecomeupwithonthecontrary,theperspectivedisplaysaGothicidealcitywithoutwalls,intheapseofinfinity.Soontherewasalsoroomfor thevedutaofnature,inPierodellaFrancesca,withthenewvalueofthehorizonintheRenaissancebutLeonardodaVinciprovidedthefull,openoriginalforthe dreamvalueofperspective.DistancewithmysteriouscolourcreatesinLeonardoaspaceinwhichsculptureends,onlyfightisdivided,intoalmostunknownobjects. TheVirginoftheRocksdisplayscavernousdarkness,Gothicallyjaggededgesandridges,butthegrottobreaksup,andtheeyewanderswithouttransitionintoa secludedrivervalley.ThefiguresinhisStAnne,TheVirginandtheInfantChristwithaLambarestrictlyarrangedintoapyramid,butthelandscapebehindthem turnsintoawildlybrokenmountainmassif,itishalfhaze,halfsolid,anindeterminableotherworldofclearlylaidoutobjects.Thisdistantcharactercompletely penetratestheportraitoftheMonaLisaherselfthroughthedreamofthebackground,corporealityisadmittedlygainedforthefigureintheforeground,yetatthesame timealsolostagain.ForMonaLisaherselfrepeatstheformofthelandscapeintheripplingofhergown,thedreamheavinessofthebackgroundinhereyelids,the congealed,uncanny,paradoxicallyopaqueetherinhersmile.Thelandscapeishereasimportantasthefigure,isarelated,ifnotthesamehieroglyph.Inthespiritof Leonardo'sphilosophicallyexpressedconceptionoftheworld:Everyparthasatendencytobeunitedwithitswholeagaininordertoescapeimperfection.Anditis necessarytoknowthatthisverywishispreciselythequintessence,companionofnature,andmanisthemodelofthewholeworld.Thedistantlandscapeislikewise calledMonaLisaandisherafantasticallyjaggedmountainlabyrinthinthesoftestlight,withlakes,palefields,andriversbetweenit.MonaLisagazesfromthere, andshealsogazestowardsthisdistance,towardsitsoutspreadorentiremystery,inagreenishblue,smokylight. Butwhereeverythingissmokyfromthestart,howisitpossibletolookintothedistance?Thisisachievedbythedarkground,outofwhichthepictureispainted,itself defamiliarizingthings.Andbythelightinwhichtheystanditselfcoming,andbeingreflected,asiffromsheerbackground.ThusRembrandt,themostpowerfulpainterof distantgleamwhichismirroredinnearness,evenleavesSaskiahalfindarkness,andthemanwiththegoldenhelmetwearsitsmetalaslightonlygathering,indeed leadingdownintothedark.ThebrilliantpatchesinRembrandt

Page801 are,purelyintermsofpaintingtechnique,neverappliedinashinyandasitwereflatway,theyarearelieftowhosegrainyelevationsthebrightcoloursimplyadheres, whilethedepressions,thegivensubstanceofnearnessasitwere,remainfilledwiththedarknessoftheprimingcoatorwithbrownvarnish.Fromthegivenelementof nightontheonehand,fromthemerelyreflectingelementoflightontheother,stemsthetruerarityandpreciousnessofthislight,itscaptivatingbrilliantgleam superimposedonnight.CorrespondingtothiswasthecomplicatedtechniqueofdarkgroundingandoverpaintingwhichRembrandtfollowedthroughouthisentire workitsfirsttriumph,whichalreadycontainsallthis,issignificantlyinapictureofthePassion,intheMunichEntombmentofChrist.Peopleandeventhingsstandin solitudeintheexpanseofdarkspace,thecolourscomesolelyfromamysteriousreflectionofinnerlightintheworldandbehindtheworld,fromaparadoxoffinallight. Thusitstemsneitherfromthesunnorfromanartificialsourceoflight,noristheexistingworld,togetherwithanysupernaturalworldwhichisbelievedtoexist,atall capableofdispensingthisnotearthly,notunearthlyfight.Thepreviousdistance,thecosmicallyopenperspectiveisobliteratedbydarkspace,itcreatesaringshaped assemblyofthefigures,itselfalmostundifferentiated.Onlyinsecularpicturesofgroupsandlandscapes,liketheNightWatchandtheRiverLandscapewithRuinsin Cassel,isthegroundcrisscrossedwithlances,acastle,andclouds,andscaffoldingwithstraightlinesstretchesoutintheNightWatch.Whereastheportraitsandthe pictureswithaChristiansubjectessentiallyshowtheundifferentiateddarknessoutside,theacosmiclonelinessinside,indeedthelateRembrandt,whonolongerpainted landscapes,frameshisworkcompletelywiththepowerfullyconcealing,sombrelysheltereddarktonewhichheremeansuniverseandinfinity.Nevertheless,eventhe darknessofthisbackgroundisstreakedwithgoldenbrown,thegroupoffiguresstandsinasfumatoperspectiveofbothblackandgold,thelightworksintothe darkness,chromatizesevenhere,penetratesfromastrangelyexistingNowhere.ThusRembrandt'sparadoxicallightisnottobefoundanywhereintheworld,butnor hasitemanated,despiteitscontinuousreflection,fromanyancientmetaphysicsofheavenlylight:itisperspectivelightofhope,deeplyleddownintonearnessand desolation,answered.Theopencosmicperspectiveisobliteratedbydarkspace,butthelightwhichbothcontrastswithitandmysteriouslybreaksthroughfrom lonelinessandblacknesspaintsthetruthofhopeorofthebrilliancewhichisnotthereatall,inthedarkgroundingsoftheexistingworld.Thisvolatileinshining,only mediatedbyreflections,

Page802 constitutestheexoticnatureofRembrandt'sillumination,theechoofafairytaledistanceinwhichtheobjectsreceptivetoitorbelongingtoitarepicturedverynear. Thisaloneisthesourceoftheglimmeringelement,butalsotheloveoftheflashinginsilk,pearls,jewels,andthegoldenhelmet.Thisaloneisthesourceofthenecessary ArabianizationinthepicturesofSaskiaandofJews:thedistanceoflightspeaksmostaudiblythroughthefairylandoftheOrientatranscendentalBaghdadglowsinthe night.Andthisaloneisultimatelythesource,inthedepths,oflightnotasanelementoftheworldnorofthesupernaturalworldbutasamysticalexpressionofBeingof thefiguresaccompanyingit.ThisismostquietlythecaseintheMunichpictureoftheResurrection,withChristrightdownatthebottomedge,palelyshining,andalso escapedfromandsuperiortothemythologicalheavenlylightwhichbreaksdownbehindthedescendingangel:anExorienteluxwhichitselfisonlybeginningtoriseand isreflectedfromthiscorpseinextremeremoteness.AllRembrandt'spictures,eventhesecularones,arecomposedfromoutofthebackground,andhiscoloursof night,incense,myrrh,goldpainttheperspective:hollowspacewithsparks. Stilllife,Cytheraandbroadperspectiveinliterature:Heinse,RomandelaRose,JeanPaul Apicturetellsusofwhatweseeinitassimultaneity.Andapoemperceivesandcanletusseewhatittellsinitssuccession.Aboveallifitallowsitselftobeguidedbya desiredtypeofpicture,bythestilllife,butthenbydeparture,bythebigwideworld.Theliteraryspeciesofstilllife,whichisofcoursenowseentotallynostalgically,is theidyll.Eventhetiniestthingishonouredinitandbecomesgood,forwherethereisnoaffluenceallthingsmustserveforthebest.AsintheworkofAndersen:tongs, kettle,andcandlearealive,theroomitselfisalittlefairytale,allthegadgetsliveinit.Theidyllrunsamodestkitchen,cultivatescarefreeconversations,containspleasant fortunesthroughout.Ofcourse,likethepaintedstilllifeofhumanbeings,itcanalsobringwithitthattamecomfortwhich,extremelyusefulforourmasters,cutsitscoat accordingtoitscloth.Alsoitisnoaccidentthattheidylliccomesfromtheoldpastoralandbucolicpoem,inwhichasatedstratumglossedovertherestrictedlifeledby thosewhohadnotchosenitforthemselves.Alifewhichevenwiththemuchvauntedsourmilkandbreadtheydidnotleadthatsatiated,thatneatly

Page803 andberibbonedbyanymeans.Andyetthelater,bourgeoisidyllalsogaveroomforthoroughlygoodthingswhichonlyfoundthemselvessodesirableinthis Biedermeierlikecircle.Ahomelyelementinfact,asifonehadreturnedtherefromfaraway,adomesticpeace,acountrygarden,withgentlybreathingcoolness.The hummingofthebeessurroundsthewithdrawnlifeintheday,thehummingoftheteakettleatnightthisissoinVoss'sLuise,andinmoderation,despitethebadluck appropriatehere,inGoldsmith'sVicarofWakefield.Distantlandsoccurhereonlyastea,thestormsoutsidethunderinthechimneyandspeciallycontributetothe AtHome,thewickedarereducedtoeccentricsandthusaddthespicetocomfort.Butincontrasttotheidyllinthespacebeyonditsconfinementtheliteraryspeciesof eroticexodus,ofCytheraappearssweeping,sweepingaway.Thesouthpresenteditselfaboveallforthis,thesoundofthelute,wine,friendsandtheirgirls,thepurple night,columnslitbytorchlight.IntheeighteenthcenturythesouthwasperceivedagainstthisbackgroundnotbyWinckelmannandhisfollowers,butratherbyWieland andhissuccessorsevenRomanticism,intheworkofE.T.A.Hoffmann,didnotchangemuchinthis.Italyishereaboveallthemelodiousanderoticland,thelonged forlandoffreeandliberatedlove,notofApollonianmarble.AsinadocumentofthelateSturmundDrang,whichisstillverystrangelyindebtedtotheRococoperiod, inHeinse'sArdinghelloandtheFortunateIsles,1787,anarchaeologicallyformedandalsohalfpornographicallyutopianformation.Attemptedorinflamedinitisa wishfuldreamoftheVersacrum,asfollows:Itwentdeeperanddeeperintolife,andthefeastbecamemoresacred,eyesglistenedwithtearsofjoyThegreatest bacchanalianstormroaredthroughthehall,likethunderingcataractsofSenegalandtheRhine,whereonenolongerknowsanythingaboutoneselfandgrandlyand omnipotentlyreturnsintoeternalgloryEverlastingspring,beautyandfertilityofseaandlandandhealthofwaterandair.Notthefirstlasciviousantiquity,but probablythefirstDionysianoneisdescribedinthisCytheranovelsothatWielandhimself,inwhoseworktheGraceswereneverwithoutasatyrbutnorwasthelatter everwithouttheGraces,rejectedHeinse'snovelaspriapismofthesoul.IntheendArdinghellofoundsanidealstateoflustontheislandsParosandNaxos,inwhich nothingbutthislustremains,nothingbutthisgoddesspenetratesintothevariousgrottosandtemples.Arcadia,sinceTheocritustheancientbucolicallylongedfor essenceofescape,isthusturnedwhollywithouthappinessinconfinementintotheeroticmagicislandsonwhichthehotnightssurroundedsheerbucolicexistence.That iswhy

Page804 Heinse'sCytheracouldalsoliveoffsomuchearlierpastoralpoems,whichhadblossomedagainanywayinItaly,intheRenaissance,andabovealloffTasso's Aminta,thefirstandatthesametimemostperfectexample,withfauns,nymphsandsatyrs,withanenchantedgroveandtheshotfromCupid'sbow,withacool templeofDianaandthechoralsongoftheshepherdsabouttheGoldenAge,asthatoffreelove.Intheancientpastoralandbucolicpoetry,howeversentimentalitwas, atleastinthatoftheRenaissance,thiswasalsothedurable,enduringwishfulessence:theGoldenAgewithclassicalfeatures,whichcontainorientalonesaswell.In suchaRenaissancetheoriginalofthefictionalCytheraislocated,justastheRenaissancedrewitsmagicgardensinturnfromSaracen,SaracenGothicrecollections,as thoseinwhichthebucolicforitspartbordersonthetropical,ontheintemperatezone.TheunveileddistanceofCytheracontainssuchintemperatenatureinthemost intimateform:aslove,andonlyinthegardenofloveblossoms,inthiswishfullandscapeoftheOrient,thattowhichalmosteverybucoliconhastendedsincethe crusadesandfromwhichitreturnsadorned.ThusitisnoaccidentthateventhatsourcebookofCythera,towhosespacetheArdinghellolikeelementmayalso belong,developedinthecontextofSaracenlovecultureanditschivalriclegacy:namelytheGothicRomandelaRose.Forthissourcebook,morepreciousthanall Rococoandfullofparadoxicallyscholasticnaturalism,onlyfullyrevealsitselfasthehistoryofthemanifestationofthelandoflove.Moreoverthiswasjoinedby allegory,initsmedievalvividness:conceptsbecomepersons,andthereforeintheircombinationadramathatwhichappearsfrostytodaywasatthetimefullof resonantcrossreferencesthroughthesensoryworldofmultiplicity,fulloflife.TheembarkationforCytherawasalsoextendednow,haditsdangersandproblems,and thusbecamethearsamandi,withquodlibetsfromallthethenexistingsciences.TheRomandelaRose,begunbyGuillaumedeLorris,completedbyJeandeMeung, fromthelatethirteenthcentury,singsthepraisesofthispathtopleasurablenatureinovertwentythousandlines.Thepoethimselfcomestothegardenoflove,Lady Idlenessopensthegateforhim,hisheartiswoundedbyAmor,BelAccueilinviteshimtotheroses.Butnowanintriguedevelops,awalliserectedaroundtheroses, Dangerandhiscompanionsguardthegates,withalamentbytheloverGuillaumedeLorriscloseshiswistfulbook.Butnow,inthesequel,Genius,thechaplainof nature,advisesanadvancewithawholearmyoflovethiscallofhismixesJupiterandGodtheFather,VenusandtheHolyVirgin,Jesusmysticismandthemost cheerfulpornographicmaterialism.Natureprescribesthelawsofhumanbehaviour,butthisissomethingwhichdoes

Page805 notliefoundedoutsideourselfintheotherworldandinchurchnorms,butinmanandthisworldofhis.Geniuspreachesagainstvirginityandsodomy,threatenswith hellallthosewhodonotheedthedictatesofnatureandoflove,promisesthefaithfullifewithoutendinanefficientMohammedanZion,irradiatedbyJesusandthe loveliestwomen.EncouragedbythewordsofGeniusandprotectedbyVenus,theplatoonofloveinvadesthegarden,ontowardsthehiddenvirgin,whoismore perfectthanthestatueofPygmalionJealousy,Shame,Fearandotherallegoriesofemotionputcountlessobstaclesintheway,butCourteousness,Frankness, Kindness,andaboveallBelAccueilagain(thesonofCourtoisie)liberatetheroseoflovefromitsfortress,andentrustittothelover.CiestleromandelaRose/o l'artd'amorsesttoteenclose*thevaginalallegoryoftheroseformsthegroundofutopianpleasureintheGothicCythera.Digressionsonthedutyofmantopropagate himselfarescatteredthroughout,togetherwithrichsatire,astronomy,nominalistphilosophyofnature,geographicalfairytales,theoriesaboutmoneyandthecirculation ofmoney,aboutclassicalheroes,abouttheoriginofsubservience,aboutcommunistutopias.Chascuneporchascuncommune/Etchascuncommunporchascune: thesocialunrestofthefourteenthcenturycastsitslightaheadofit.EspeciallyinthatpartofthepoemwhichJeandeMeungalreadywrotefortherisingbourgeoisie, withruthlessquestioning,andturningtonature.ARousseauoftheMiddleAgesspeaksoutinthemidstofthefeudalarsamandi,advocatestheoriginalstateofthings throughthemetaphorsoffreelove.SofardidCytheraextendinaworkofliterature,sofrivolouslyandsubversively,solearnedlyandwithsuchcrypticelegance Cupidattheendoftheworld. Thereisdistanceeverywherehere,butadistancestilltenderlyveiledforus.Whenitappearsforitself,itbecomesverygreatforeignness,nowdawninginitself.Itsform isthenfictionalperspective,inthesouth,andallthemoresointhenorth.Theoceanicfeelingispartofit,asoneofboundlessexpanseandasaYeswithinitflowing througheverything.Whenmistsfall,theexpanseappearsasanOssianiclandscape,asthatwhichinitsintensifiedformhasbeencalledtheutopiaofThule.Andyet whichisagainbynomeansmerelynorthern,asnotedabove,butstronglyfragrant,fullofveils,halfopendoors,orientalsmoke.JeanPaul,outsidehisidyllof permanent,nowsubterraneannowfarreachingwishfulperspectivesandchangingpanoramas,thoughheseesevenItalyinasmokylight,eventheazureskyand especially *ThisistheromanceoftheRose/wheretheartofloveisallenclosed. Everywomanincommonforeveryman/Andeverymanincommonforeverywoman.

Page806 thecuriosities,unfamiliarities,andsublimitiesoftheworldwhichareenormouslyallegorizedbyhim,displaysinalmostallhislandscapesthedoublegleamofnightand east(hereagainmediatedbytheBible).Hisdistanceisthemostunrestrictedofallthosethatarefamiliar,evenwhenitgoesintotheabyss,whispersoninit,inendless beginnings:Atowerfullofblindgatesandblindwindowsstoodinthemiddle,andthelonelyclockinitspoketoitselfandsought,withitsironrodcarriedtoandfro, tosplitapartthewaveoftimewhichrantogetheragainandagainitstruckaquartertotwelve,anddeepintheforestanechomurmuredasifinsleep.Thenthe descriptionofanobjectwhichdoesnotmurmurofHadesbutreallyroarsitout,ofthelandscapeofVesuvius:Themorningwasbreaking,andinthemidstofitsdark winterwesetoutonthejourneytothefierygorgeandsmokygate.Asifinasteamingcitythathasbeenburntdown,Ipassedclosetocavesuponcaves,closeto mountainsuponmountainsandonthetremblinggroundtowardsaneternallyworkinggunpowderfactorywithitsmagazine.FinallyIfoundthethroatofthislandoffire, alargeglowingvalleyofsteam,againwithamountainalandscapeofcraters,aworkshopoftheDayofJudgementfullofshatteredfragmentsoftheworld,of frozen,burstriversofhellanenormousmountainofthedebrisoftimebutinexhaustible,immortalasanevilspirit,andgivingbirthtotwelvemonthsofthunderfor itselfbeneaththecoldpuresky.Allofasuddenthebroadsteamrisesmoredarklyred,thethunderclapsmergemorewildly,theheavycloudofhellsmokesmore fiercelysuddenlymorningairblowsinanddragstheblazingcurtaindownthemountain.Nighthorrors,ruins,Tartarusarethewishfullandsofnegativeinfinity,as LetheofestrangementbutthedeeperPlutois,thehigherPhoebusApolloistoo,thesunoftheinfiniteFingal'sCaveoftheworld.InJeanPaul'sTitantheherohas suchadistantviewintoApollo'sday:TheAlpsstoodlinkedtogetherlikefraternalgiantsoftheprehistoricworldfarinthepastandheldouthightothesunthe glitteringshieldsoftheicebergsthegiantsworebluebeltsoftheforestsandattheirfeetlayhillsandvineyardsandbetweenthevaultsofvinesthemorning windsplayedwithcascadesaswithwaterytaffetaribbonsandontheribbonstheovercrowdedsurfaceofthelakehungdownfromthemountains,anditwas borderedbyafoliageofchestnutwoodsAlbanoturnedroundslowlyinacircleandlookedupintotheair,downintothedepths,intothesun,intotheblossoms andonalltheheightsalarmfiresofpowerfulnaturewereburning,andtheirreflectioninallthedepthsacreativeearthquakebeatlikeaheartbeneaththeearthand droveforthmountainsandoceans(Titan,

Page807 1stCycle).TheItalyinTitanwasforJeanPaulnotavisualideaorevenaconfirmedpresentasforGoethe,andevenforHeinseitremainedindistantmagic,beyond itlaycontinuinglysignificantsuccessfulnesstheintransitoryisonlyametaphor.*AndinGermany,love,moon,andspringgivetheheroofTitananalwaysgerated look,i.e.drivenintopremonitionandhope,aswhenthegardensofaprinceexalttoaterraaustralis:Butlookdown,fieryman,withyourfreshheartfullofyouth,on tothemarvellous,immensemagicLilar!Adawningsecondworld,assofttonespaintittous,anopenmorningdreamstretchesoutbeforeyouwithhightriumphal gates,withwhisperingmazes,withfortunateislesthebrightsnowofthesunkenmoonliessolelyonthegrovesandtriumphalarchesandonthesilverdustofthe springwaters,andthenightwellingfromallwatersandvalleysfloatsabovetheElysianfieldsofthecelestialrealmofshadows,inwhichtheunknownfiguresappearto earthlymemorylikelocalOtaheitishores,pastorallands,Daphneangrovesandislandsofpoplars(Titan,23rdCycle).Thisformofdistantlandscapeobeyshuman beingsandreflectstheminanenthusiasmofthestrangestofallBeingbesideoneself,namelyonecomposedofidentityautopianreceptionoccurs,throughtheciphers ofgreatnature.Thesphinxofstrangenessisclearedup,becomestolerableandsublime,inmythicalbutmanlikeimages.Morningandeveningredbecomethecolourof aperspectivewhichseekstoextendfarbeyondthecircularlineofthehorizon:Nocturnalvoicespromisetoguesstheanswertothevastriddleoftheworld,andinthe fardistancemountainpeaksareuncoveredbyflyingmistsonwhichmancanlookfarintothelongedforotherworld.Thisisarimlesscosmos,andthusitisassigned bothtochaosandtoaninfinityfilledoverandoveragain,andwhichisendlesspreciselybecauseofthisfullness. Thewishfullandscapeofperspectiveinaestheticsstatusofthematterofartaccordingtoitsdimensionofdepthandhope Thewordpointsdifferentlyfromthestartwhenitaimsveryfar.Itistaut,hasapremonitionwhichhasnowhereyetbecomesolidandenterable.Literaryexpressionhas beenrunningalongperspectivelinesforfourhundredyears,anditiswrongtounderstandthisphenomenon,whichhasdifficultyinlimitingitself,merelyasromantic.Itis evenmorewrongtowantto *Cf.Goethe'sFaust,PartII,121045.Everythingtransitory/Isonlyametaphor.

Page808 eliminatethiswishfulmovement,andthatwhichisandremainstendentious,fromart.Inaclassicalandlaterveryepigonicfashionsothatthewillinartgoestobedand thisarthaseverywherereacheditsgoal.Wherebyartwouldthereforecontainnoauthenticwishfullandscapesandwouldalsonothavetobeclassifiedrespectively accordingtothese,itsmostvehementObjects.Theessentialfeatureofthebourgeoisclassicalaestheticswhichhasariseninthiswayisnothope(andwillarousedby it),butcontemplation(andenjoymentsatisfyingthroughit).Thebeautifulheredemolishesthesubjectmatterinanillusionarywaythroughtheform,andmoreover throughtheformwhichisindifferenttothesubjectmatter,eventoatendencyofthematter.ThepureaestheticsofcontemplationbeginsinKantwiththeconceptofthe disinterestedpleasureinthemerementalimageoftheObject(nomatterwhetherthelattermateriallyexistsornot).ItbecomesmetaphysicalinSchopenhauerwhen disinterestedpleasureblossomsasanincipientreleaseofmanfromthewilltolife.Beingthenremainsterribleofcourse,butseeingisblissful,especiallyinthepure worldeyeofart.InSchopenhauer,thisartimmediatelyopensupblissinappearance,whichispreciselywhyarthaseverywherereacheditsgoalhere.Thusclassical aesthetics(andSchopenhauer'spureworldeyedefinitelybelongstoit,evenintheitselfsatisfiedreceptionofmusic)restrictsrelationswiththebeautifultopure contemplationandthebeautifulitselftoitspurifiedforms.ItrestrictstheObjectofthebeautifultoaregionwhichiswhollypurgedoftheinterestsofpresentandof futureexistence.Artisalwaysasedativehere,notanappeal,notevenacomfortingsongforthistoopresupposestherestlessnessofthewill.Theworldisalways justifiedasanaestheticphenomenonhere,andevenlyso,atthelevelofidealisticandthereforesobeautifullyroundedperfectionofform.Thedamageofmeredesire forcontemplationissoextensivethateventhegarlandofthebeautifulinHegel'sAesthetics,howevermuchitisacontentladen,historicallywovenandvariedone contrarytoformalism,hangsintheetherofcontemplativeappeasement.Indeed,acertainkindofformalismandthereforeabstractappearance(withuninterrupted,and thuschieflyantiquarianunityofthinking)isadangerwherevereventheaestheticallygraspedreality,togetherwithitsriches,isdefinitivelyinterpretedwithafew categorieswhichalmostalwaysremainthesame,reducedtoadefusedschema.Suchaconceptualtapestryofmereuniformcontemplation,appliedtoeverything,isa dangerevenformuchattemptedMarxistaesthetics,evenwherethisthinksofitselfasquiterealistic,onthebasisofanalwaysenclosedsemiconceptofreality.Evenin Lukcsanabstractappearanceofidealisticroundingstilloccasionallyoperates,afullyconstructedness

Page809 whichis,however,alienpreciselytodialecticalmaterialism.Asthedoctrineofanunfinishedworldandthereal,i.e.processivelyopenwealthofrealitypreciselyinview ofitstotality.Whichisthereforewhyartwhichismaterialintermsofcontenttogetherwithitstheorycertainlycannotavoidbeinganartwhichisnonwrapped,a perspectiveart,oneofrealinsteadofmerelyallegedprocess.Andthereforewhyartwhichismaterialintermsofcontenttogetherwithitstheorycertainlycannotavoid beinganunclosedone,butaportrayalofthetendencyandlatencyofitsObjectsoccurringinthemannerofthepreappearancedriventoanend(cf.Vol.1,p.210ff.). Becauseofthispreappearanceartisalsodefinitelynotawhole,buteverywhereonlyaperspectiveontoit,aperspectiveworkedoutintheportrayedObjects themselvesontotheimmanentperfectionoftheseObjects.HenceLessing'sstatementbythepainterinEmiliaGalotti,autopianentelecheticstatement:Artmust paintasplasticnatureifthereisoneconceivedthepicture:withoutthewastewhichthereluctantmatterinevitablymakes,withouttheruinwithwhichtimefights againstit.Artisfundamentallydefinedasrealpreappearance,asanimmanentperfectoneincontrasttoreligiousmaterial.Thispreappearancebecomes attainablepreciselythroughthefactthatartdrivesitssubjectmattertoanend,inplots,situationsandcharacters,andbringsittoastatedresolutioninsuffering, happinessandmeaning.Thestatementthusattainedisadmittedlylessthanthesubjectsotospeakononepoint,namelyfromtheangleofitsimmediatetangibility,butit isatthesametimealwaysmorethanthissubject,namelyfromtheangleofitsimmanentexecutability,ofitsconcentratedintrinsicexecution.Thiskindofthingis preciselytheoppositeofanidealisticcorrection,thoughalsotheoppositeofamerereproduction,oneapproachingafterafashionthesocalledfullnessofperfectionof therealjustasiftheworld,whichitisaquestionofchanginginallotherculturalfunctions,wereanunattainablemasterpieceforartalone.Insteaditisonlythe predispositiontothis,theobjectiverealpossibilityforthis,suchthatastrikinglypaintedforest,astrikinglydramatizedhistoricalactioncertainlysurpasstheirsubjectin substantiality,andindeedareonlystrikingasworksofartbybeingableandhavingtosurpassthesubjectinattainablepreappearance.Preappearanceitselfisthis attainableelementbyvirtueofthefactthatthejobofdrivingtoanendoccursinthedialecticallysoramifiedandopenspace,inwhicheveryObjectcanbeaesthetically portrayed.Aesthetically,i.e.inamoreimmanentlysuccessful,moremateriallygenuine,moreessentialwaythanintheimmediatelynaturaloralsoimmediatelyhistorical occurrenceofthisObject.Thusthewatchwordoftheaesthetically

Page810 attemptedpreappearanceruns:howcouldtheworldbeperfectedwithoutthisworld,asinChristianreligiouspreappearance,beingexplodedandapocalyptically disappearing.Soartdrivesworldfigures,worldlandscapes,withoutthembeingdestroyed,totheirentelecheticlimit:onlytheaestheticillusiondetachesitselffromlife, whereastheaestheticpreappearanceispreciselyonebecauseitstandsitselfinthehorizonofthereal.Butthismeanscontents,meantinautopianrealway,notthose ofanillusionisticabstractappearanceinwhichperfectedgameplayingisconsumed.Thisclassifies,asgoeswithoutsaying,thepreappearanceaccordingtothe measureandstatusofitsutopiansignificantsubjects,andnotleastitcreates,insteadoftheartisticenjoymentwhichpenetratesnothing,arelationtocognition,inthe highestformtothematterofcomprehendedhope.Indeed,thisrelationissoconspicuousandinevitablethatfinallyevenclassicalaestheticscouldnotavoiditandbegan toexpressitanywayinobjectiveidealisticterms.AswhenSchiller,intheKalliasletters,definesbeautyasfreedominappearance.Thiskindofthingbringsan Objectivesenseintoabstractappearance,eveniffreedomwithinitcouldonlybethesameasthatwhichhadelapsedintogame.AndinKant,ifnotthebeautifulthen definitelythesublimegoesbeyondtheformalisminwhichtheaesthetic,asamereAsIfofcontemplation,isusuallyheld.EventhesublimeremainsthisAsIfofcourse, withoutadesireforitsexistenceallegedlyarising,withouttheaestheticingeneralbeingconceivedaspossibledefinitenessofBeing.Nevertheless,theCritiqueof Judgementsaysnotsocompletelywithoutdesireandinterest:Thesublimeisthatwhichevenjusttobeabletoconceiveitprovesacapacityofthemindwhich surpasseseveryyardstickofthesenses,and,concerningtheobject:Thesublimeisthereforenatureinthatoneofitsmanifestationswhosecontemplationbringswithit theideaofitsinfinity(Werke,Hartenstein,V,p.258,262).Andinfinityisherenoneotherthanthatwhichbringswithitthepremonitionofourfuturefreedom wherebyinfactthesublimitiesareassignedafteralltothedesiringcapacityagain,andthusbreakthroughtheformalismofpureabstractappearance.Whattheold aestheticscalledsublimityisinfactparticularlysuitedtobreakingthroughdisinterestedpleasure.Ifanythingwascapableofmakingtheclassicalharmonizingconceptof beautyanxiousandthoughtfulaboutitself,itwasthecategoryofsublimityonwhichthebeautifuldirectlybordersfortheGreeksaswell,andespeciallyinthegreatart determinedbyreligion.Foranundeniableelementofthesublimeisterror,whichdialecticallyswitchesintoelevationandthisterrorassignedthewilltoitselfonthe subjectsidejustasmatteroffactlyasitdidthe

Page811 materialdepthontheobjectside.ThusGoethecansaythatshudderingisthebestpartofmankindthusthereisinsublimitybothanobjectivitywhichinspiresthis dramaandinfactthesameobjectivitywhichinspiresthehighestconfidence,namelythepremonitionofourfuturefreedom,ourfreedomdestinedfornotriflesnor comprisedofthem.Allthisthereforebreaksthrougheveninclassicalaesthetics,assoonasittouchesonthecategoryofsublimityor,againstthegrain,istouchedupon byit,thedisinterestedaspectandthesurfaceofpleasure.Infactevenatthelevelofamuchmoreurbaneconsternationthanthatinwhichshudderingisthebestpartof mankindtheabstractappearancebecameuntenabletherewasalwaysaninterferenceofthesubject.ThusGoethehimselfpointedlydistinguishedamongtheObjects whichproduceapoeticeffectnoneofclosedabstractappearance,butthosewhicharerepresentativeorsymbolic,insofarastheyconvergeonamaterialdepth commontothem,justasthelatter,withitsunityanduniversality,signifiesitselfinthepoeticObjects,andlaysclaimtoitself.Herethemostalienelementtointerestfree harmonismisclearlypostulated:theObjectiveperspectiveinthesignificativedirectionoftheobjectitself.Itisdemandedevenwheresublimitydoesnotfirstinterrupt theformaltapestryofindifferentlyproducedpleasure,whereemotiondoesnotfirstreachintothedepthstofeelthevastness.Wherethenearertendencyinterweavings, latencysubstancesofanageareportrayedthroughandinitspeople,situations,andthemesinaperspectiveentelecheticway.PreciselybecauseGoethetotally objectivelydemands:Inartandscienceaswellasindeedsandactionseverythingdependsontheobjectsbeingpurelyconceivedandtreatedinaccordancewiththeir nature,preciselybecauseofthisgenuineinsistenceonreality,namelyonanentelecheticallyfullone,wefindthefollowingfurtherremarkintheauthorofFaust, concerningmorethanthealreadymanifestfullnessofthereal:Probabilityistheconditionofart,butwithintherealmofprobabilitythehighestidealmustbesupplied whichdoesnototherwiseappear(EssayonthereliefofPhigalia).Andthebackgroundofperspective,thegoldgroundofartisandremainsinaccordancewiththe categoryofpreappearancearealpossiblewishfullandscapethislies,howeverdifferentitsqualitiesandhierarchies,inthewindowsofart.Itextendstothatstill immanentartwhichislitbyaworldwhichisnotyetthereandstandsinpreappearanceasaFaustheaven,i.e.asanattainedidentityoftheObjectwiththecontentof humanbuoyancy.Butevenwithinthebroadspanofthisseries,realisminartisnodescriptiveorexplanatorystocktaking,butitholdsup,inanactivatingway,amirror ofimmanentanticipation,itistendentialutopianrealism.

Page812 Allthispreventsthebeautifulfrombeingcalmlyreceivedandenjoyed.Wantingisalreadypresupposedinthereception,sothatthelattercanbeoneconcerningman. Entertainingpeopleandfeedingafire,bothcanandmustberelated.Themovedwillcouldberemovedleastofallfromshapingitself,fromtheproductionofthe beautiful.Thusevenfromthestandpointofthepathosofcreation,thatinscribedinthebourgeoisworldfromthebeginning,thedifferentlybourgeois,i.e.theformal pleasureofcontemplationwasfrustrated.Artappearedfromthisangleparticularlyasactivereworking,onewhichdefinitelyexpandedandessentiallyincreasedthe world.Thus,aswehaveseen,theFrenchrevolutionaryarchitectLedouxevencalledthebuilderarivalofGod.AndlongbeforethatthehumanistScaligertookthe wordpoetryinthebothliteralandPrometheansenseof:thepoetisfactor,indeedalterdeus.SothatScaligerhimselfdefinedthepoetassomeonewhodoes notretellwhatalreadyexistslikeanactor,butcreatesandfoundslikeanotherGod:Videturpoetasaneresipsasnonutaliaeartes,quasihistrio,narrare,sedvelut alterdeuscondere.ThisPrometheusmetaphoroftheartistranfrom1561on,theFaustperiodinwhichScaliger'spoeticsappeared,throughBaconandShaftesbury, toKlopstock,totheSturmundDrang,toHerderandtheyoungGoethe:aclassificationbasedonwillthroughoutaclassificationbasedongenius,inwhichthecourage forthecreatorspiritusappears,butnosedativeofapure,receptivecontemplativeworldeye,asinthelaterclassicaldefinition.Thusfreedominappearance,even fromtheproductionside,doesnotbecomeillusionbutobjectbasedessentiationofwhatisportrayedinthesenseofdeephumancloseness,towhichartinitsway leadsandbringstheworld.Initsway:inthestatedwayofaestheticpreappearance,wherebyessentialmaterialwhichhasnotyetemergedbutistreatedwithoutany illusionashavingemergedandexistingiscarriedsuchanimportantsteptowardsbeingbornandexisting.Soevenfromthisstandpointnoformalismexistsforwhichits autarkicalperfectionofformisthesoleperfection.Thelandscapeofhope,evenintheterrifyingvision,israthertheaestheticomega:Hegelcalledthis,inobjective idealisticfashion,infinityinthefinite,hereitiscalled,inutopianrealisticfashion,humanidentityintheother,inthedrivingalteritas.Thisisthesameasthegoaldefinition byvirtueofthesymbol,incontrasttotheallegorywhichasidentityrelationintheother,expressedbywhatisother,isapathdefinition.Artinitspathisthusjustas thoroughlyallegoricalas,withregardtothegoalgoverningthepath(withregardtounityanduniversality,whichisultimatelyonlyoneinsofarasitishumane),it remainsindebted

Page813 tothesymbolic.And,asart,itbothimmanentlyreflectsifnecessarythedistancefromwhatisrightand,withotherObjectsimmanentlydriventoanend,inapre appearancethathasbecomepositivelypossible,risksaParadiso.OnlysinceMarx,fortheattainablepart,thisisnolongerariskwhichabsolutelymustremaininpre appearance.Fortheattainablepart,thismeans,togetherwiththebuildingsitewhoseactivitybelongstothebeautifulwhichisnotmerelycontemplated. PaintersoftheresidualSunday,Seurat,Czanne,GauguinGiotto'slandoflegend Backnowtopicturesagain,andfirsttothosewhichsimplytravelintoabetterworld.Namelyintoanoutdoorsasescapefromdailytoil,inSundaypleasure.Thus Teniersplacedhispoordiceplayersandcardplayersbeneaththelindentree,broadmouthed,withtheirhappinessinabeermug.PieterBrueghelpaintedhisLandof Cockaigneexactlyasthepoorfolkalwaysdreamedittobe.AsaneternalSunday,whichisonebecausethereisnosignofanytreadmill,andnothingbeyondwhatcan bedrunk,eatenboiledorroastedistobefound.Apeasant,aknight,andascholarintheforeground,thefirsttwofullandasleep,thescholarstillwithopenmouthand eyes,expectingaroastpigeonorthepigletwhichstandsatthebackandalreadycarriesthecarvingknifewithit.Whatalongwayfromhere,whataleapinmanners, attitudeandspiritfromthesepicturesofloutstoanotherwishfulsceneofepicureanhappiness:toManet'sDjeunersurl'herbe.Andyetwhatispaintedandrelaxing asadayofenjoyment,adayofaestheticpleasure,isrelatedtothisinthemostdifferenttone,eveninthebourgeoisone,eveninthearistocraticone.Manet'swishful scenealreadyhaditsmodelinGiorgione'sConcertintheopenair,asapastoralofnakedwomen,menenjoyingmusic,andsecludednature.Manetrepeatsthe scene,thoughwithoutmusic,andcertainlywithoutVenetiangoldtoneyetheretoothegardenofEpicurusgathersandassembles.Softlight,asonlyImpressionism couldcreateit,flowsthroughthetrees,surroundsthetwocouples,thenakedwomanandtheoneundressingtobathe,thedarkmalefigures.Whatisportrayedisan extraordinarilyFrench,extraordinarilylingeringsituation,fullofinnocence,supremeease,unobtrusiveenjoymentoflife,andcarefreeseriousness.Onthewhole,through thefairscenestothebourgeoistranquillitiesinthewood,onthepromenadeoreveninanimaginedvaleofTempethere

Page814 runsthatcategorywhichcanbedescribedasthatofSundaypicturesitssubjectis:animmediateotherworldbeyondhardship.Thoughthissubjectcannolongereasily bepaintedinthenineteenthcenturyManet'sDjeunersurl'herbeformsanexceptionpreciselywithregardtoitsnaivetyandpresence.ItsunstaleSundaywould alreadyhardlybepossibleanymorewithpetitbourgeoissubjects,characteristicallyitcannotdowithoutartistsandtheirmodels. TherealbourgeoisSunday,evenasapaintedone,thuslookslessdesirableorevenlessvaried.ThenegativefoiltoManet'sDjeunersurl'herbe,inotherwords:the merrinessthathasbecomepowerless,isgiveninSeurat'spromenadepiece:UndimanchelaGrandeJatte.Thispictureisasinglemosaicofboredom,a masterpieceofthelonginglyunsuccessfulanddistancedelementinthedolcefarniente.ThepictureportraysabourgeoisSundaymorningonanislandoftheSeineinthe vicinityofParis,andinfact:itnowportraysthissolelyinascornfulway.Figuresrestintheforegroundwithvacantfaces,thegroupoftheothersformsforthemostpart woodenverticals,likepuppetsfromthetoybox,intensivelypreoccupiedwithstrollingstifflyabout.Thenthereisthepaleriver,withsailingboats,arowingregatta, pleasuresteamers,abackgroundwhichdespiteitsfunratherseemstobelongtoHadesthantothesun.Thereissheerhaplessidlenessinthepicture,initslightmattand wateryspace,intheexpressionlesswateroftheSundaySeine,astheobjectofanequallyexpressionlessbrooding.ThereistheLandofCockaigneheretoo,butsuch thatwiththeworkingworldeveryworld,indeedeveryobjectseemstofadeintowaterytepidness.Theresultisbottomlessboredom,apetitbourgeoisandinfernal utopiaofdistancefromtheSabbathintheSabbathitselfSundayprovestobemerelyatormenteddemand,nolongerabriefgiftfromthePromisedLand.Sucha bourgeoisSundayafternoonisthelandscapeofpaintedsuicidewhichdoesnotbecomeoneonlybecauseitevenlacksresolutiontowardsitself.Inshort,thiskindof dolcefarnienteis,insofarasitstillhasanyconsciousnessatall,theconsciousnessoftotalnonSundayintheresidualutopiaofSunday.ThebourgeoisSundaypicture ofthenineteenthcenturycouldnowhererecoverfromthenegativefoilportrayedinthisway,withalmostthesoleexceptionofManet'sDjeunersurl'herbe,thisecho oftheRenaissancepreservedasanaristocraticbohemia.Afterall,thenegativefoilwaspresentforalongtimeinsocietyandinitsdopolavoroobjectsbeforeitwas paintedbelatedlyandthereforeinsucharadicallycharacteristicway.Thehistoricalpicturesofpastabundanceandfestivity,theseSundayeveningoperasintroduced onto

Page815 canvas,merelyconfirmed,bythefactthattheyweresoworthlessandmendaciousaspaintings,thewistfulHadesofthearrivedfeastday.Andontheotherhanditwas confirmedbythemercilessartwithwhichasparing,rigorouspaintinginthemannerofMaressoughttopresent,orrathertoconjureuptheotherworldbeyond hardship.InGreekpicturesfullofnoblegestures,solitarygrace,withposedorangegroves,withsupposedstatuaryfigurespluckingandofferinggoldenfruits,with preciousbuildingsofreposeandyet,asisobvious,withtheatricalityheretoo.Thisdisappearedonlywhenreallygenuinepaintingdidnotmerelycultivate,inanaive fashion,thegreatesttechnicalrigour,butaboveallwhenitsimplifieditsobjects,i.e.restrictedthemtothoseinwhicheveninthebourgeoisworldapositiveimageof Sundaynesswasstillpossible.ThisoccursaboveallinCzanne,withresignationandrestrictiontoarusticlittleworldandtoagreatnessofnatureseeninequally simplemonumentalterms.OnlyinthiswaydidatranquillityofSundaywhichremainedhighlylaconicbecomebothmateriallyconcreteandmonumental.Thiseven,if notpredominantly,intheportrayalofpluckedfruits,andfurtherinthereservedlandscapepaintingsandtheirDoricallymaintainedElysium.TheEpicurusofaDjeuner surl'herbeisatanend,theGardensoftheHesperideswhichhavebecomeacademicarenotobserved:insteadthereappearsinthepicturethemostsubstantialcorpus ofreposethatisknowninthenineteenthandespeciallyinthetwentiethcentury.Czannetransformsevenhisstilllifesintoplacesinwhichthingsarerigorousand sedentary,inwhichhappyripenesshassettled.Whathasbeenpluckedinthesepictures,theapples,lemons,oranges,arenotfruitsanymore,althoughtheyarepainted assuchwithextremecareandprecision,theyarewitnessestoaheavycontentment,broughtfromHesperianlandscapesontothetableclothofthefeastday.Here everythingisstilllifeandnothing,forCzannecondensedwholeworldsofreposeintothesesmallcreations,statuaryonesinwhichharvesthasoccurred,inwhichan ElysianCeresputsherhandsinherlap.Czanne'sheroicfiguresandlandscapesarealsojustasreassured,justasorderedintherestrictiontomeredetail,thoroughly architectonic.Nudesliebuiltinstoneorriselikepillarsintotheair,standbetweenthetrees,inByzantinerows,orbuiltintoabackgroundoffoliage(LesOndines)as intoaniche.ThemasterpieceGrandesBaigneusesbendsthetrunkswhichframethepicturerightandleftintoGothicarches,leaningonthemrisestandingnudes,they turnintorecliningonestowardsthemiddleandtheground,aSundayspaceparexcellencefillsthearchitselfbeach,meadow,water,villagelandscape,highclouds. Thingsandpeople

Page816 thusbecomebuildingstonesofdifferentformanddifferentweight,destinedtoproduceandtosupportapicturebuilding.Eachthingfindsitsplace,isinscribedinitwith firmstrokes,withthoseofitsshape.EvenpurelandscapepaintingslikeL'EstaquebuildupwhatistheirsinabalancewhichhadnotbeenachievedsinceGiotto. Reddishbrowntiledroofs,greentreetops,acrimsonbluegulf,yellowishpurplehills,andaturquoiseblueskytogetheryieldmorethanunityofsurface,thecolours alsomodeloutthegeologicalstructurebeneaththeflesh,asasureataraxyofthelandscape.Thereposeofasettlednatureappears,butofcoursepreciselywith restrictedorsharplyclippedobjectsandonthewholedistantineveryrespectfromtheconflictsofthelargecity.Anagrarianworlduncontemporaneouswith developedcapitalismanditsobjectsarises,aprovinciallandscapewithprofoundlyviewedextensionsintocheerfulnessandorder.ThusCzanne'sequilibrium,his reposereminiscentofGiotto,preciselythisinfact,isalsocertainlyareservedSundayoftheworld,autopiawhichcanonlystillbemouldedinbaysandthemost sparingformalrigour.ThusifSundayisintendedinbreadthandforeverydayasitwere,withaportrayalwhichdoesnotmodeloutitsobjectsasifitwasdiggingfor treasure,thengivenEuropehadtobeabandoned.ThenallthatpresenteditselfwasthatworldwhichasomuchmoreinferiorandmoreaffectuouspainterlikeGauguin soughtandfoundasitwere,farfromEurope,fleeingfromit,inaveryremoteandprimitiveotherworldbeyondhardship.HappinessandcolouronTahiti:thiskindof thingnowcomesintothelateSundaypicture,alonglostpieceofsouthland.ThisdreamhadfirstappearedwhenTahitiwithitsseeminglyparadisialinnocencewas discoveredin1606,andithadfoundnewnourishmentintheEuropeofRousseauthroughCookandthefine,eloquentaccountsofGeorgForster.TheSundayfeeling alreadysoughttropicalaccessoriesatthattimeandpreciselythese:ThroughForster'scharmingdescriptionofOtaheiti,saysAlexandervonHumboldtinhisAspects ofNature,foreseeingGauguin,particularlyinnorthernEuropeageneral,IcouldsayyearninginteresthadbeenarousedfortheislandsofthePacific.Eventhe differentlylocatedornovelisticfeelingswhichhavebeencirculatingheresinceRousseau:SaintPierre'sPauletVirginie,thenovelofpalmsandinnocence,ortheThe IndianHut,eventhiskindofRobinsonade(withnoreturn)ispaidoutbyGauguininlateillustration.AssuchtheTahitistillparticularlyuncontemporaneouswith capitalismisnowpainted,andthesubjectsseemindiscriminatelyparadisialasitwere:apairofchildrenamongflowers,ayoungriderandgirlswhoawaithim,aMaori housebetweenpalms,effortlessfruitpicking.

Page817 Everythingliesinfierybrownrepose,asouth,admittedlystillseeninParisianbrunettes,buttheyhaveshedthenativeEve,melancholyisdissolvedortransformedinto silenceanddistantvacancy.NatureForUs,thismostfundamentalbackgroundoftheLandofCockaigne,isindicatedbyaparadisialregionandsolessfundamentally putinthepicture.TheSundayonTahitiisboughtwithprimitiveness,andthisprimitivenessisrewardedwithcarefreenessatleastinGauguin'spictures.But:terra australisinEuropeandwithoutprimitives,thisworkdayasSundayhasnotyetbeenpaintedanywhereforitwouldbetheclasslesssociety.Dostoevsky'sdespair causedarecollectionofClaudeLorrain'spictureAcisandGalateatoappearatvarioustimesinhisnovels,whichisalwaysdescribedbyhisheroesastheGolden Age(cf.Lukcs,DerrussischeRealismusinderWeltliteratur,1952,p.147).Modernbourgeoispainting,fullofsentimentaldistance,couldnotyieldmuchmorethan suchArcadianmythicalSundaysinanattainedCytheraitself.PaintedEdeninthemodernagemustalwaysequipitselfwiththesentimentalresignationofamere Arcadia,thatis,withaSundaytofleeto,whichforthisveryreasonalsoonlyhasadualisticrelation,notoneofassimilationandrelaxation,totheworkday.TheMiddle Agestoo,eveninitshappiestandrelativelymostharmoniousperiod,transferredthepeaceofwhathascomegood,asweknow,beyondeveryworldonlytheredid theoliveleafandthepeaceoftheSabbathgrow.SotoointhepicturewhenitprojectsthisotherworldontoanobservableHere:thehappinessoftheNuncstans remainedhoweverlittleitwasdependentformedievalconsciousnessonrestriction,andespeciallyonartificialprimitivesinthelandoflegend. Atthattimeofcoursethefeelingofhavingfaithfulsupporttherewasallthemorecertain.Thereligiouspicturebelievesinitswishfulplaceinexistingsacredevents,only erringmanexcludeshimselffromit.Thepicturebecomesanexhortationtoorder,tothesameorderwhichthedepictedsacredmaterialpaintsforwaveringlife.The worldofperspectiveisultimatelyalientothis,notmerelyfortechnicalreasons.Canonicalmedievalpaintingisnotfamiliarwithanespressivoanymorethanits predominanttwodimensionalstyleisfamiliarwithperspectivesandbothforrelatedreasons.Forbothareamatterofthesubjectandofitsdistance,notofthe religiouslypossessedobjectanditsabsoluteThere.Distanceandprojectionaremeretensionsinwhathaslongbeendecided,andcomegoodthroughChristian fulfilment.Noexternalnaturemakesitselfavailableforthisofcourse,butratherthatwovenbylegend(sacredhistory)mostcompletelyinGiotto.Notleastbecause Giotto,standingattheendofthe

Page818 MiddleAges,summarizesthelatterforthisveryreason,initshierarchyanditsreferencetolegends,withapaintedfinale.Somorethaneverhereeverythingfindsits believedsupportandplace,everymovementisallocatedtoitandbuiltintoit.Evenangelsinflight,preciselythesestickandrest,therearenolongeranycrowdsand accidentsinthepicture,itsobjectshavetakentheirseats.Thenaturalisticappearsonlyattheedgeofthisorder:incontrastforexampletothenaturemysticismofthe otherorder,theTaoorder,inChineselandscapepainting.Thenaturalisticisaninstrumentor,asamountainoutline,anornamentwhichservestoframethefigures (PaduanfrescoesJoachim'sdream,FlightintoEgypt).Eventheexternalarchitectureissimplyacoordinatesystemtotheinternaloneofthepictorialstructure:the loggiasandterraces,thethronesandhallsareaspirituallyerectedsphereofactivity(FlorentinefrescoesAnnunciationtoZachariah,TheAssumptionofStJohn). ThusthereappearsinGiotto'sidealspacenotmerelyextremerepose,butapaintedexistenceofanabsolutelycertainkind:mysticalgravity.EspeciallyGiotto's maturestwork,theApparitionofStFrancistotheChapteratArles(Florence,S.Croce),givessuchrepose:withacontinuoushorizontal,adividingverticalline,and givessuchgravity:withtheweightoftheselfcommunionoftheseatedmonks,withtheunshakeablepositionofthesaintinthemiddle.AccordingtoThomasAquinas, angelsarenotcontainedinspacelikeabody,buttheythemselvescontaintheirspace,andtheyencloseitinsteadofbeingenclosedbyitcomparabletothis,inGiotto everysacredeventitselfpositstheplacewhereitislocated,andthedivisionofthesurfaceofthepictureisstrictlyorientatedtotheweightinessoftheeventoccurring withinit.Athirdelementafterreposeandgravitythereforefollowsfromthis:theconstructionofthepictureoccursfromthestandpointsofthevaluebasedhierarchy portrayed.Thefiguresaredistributedinthespacewithpreciseconsiderationoftheirweightinesscorrespondingtothisisthefactthateventheirdegreeofrealityis gradedaccordingtotheirspiritualvalue.Thatistosay:thehigheraneventinthespiritualhierarchy,themorereally,whichheremeans:morereallyinconceptual terms,itispainted.ThiseventhoughweknowthatGiotto'sagealsoperceivedhiminnaturalistictermsGhibertipraisedhimforhavingabandonedthestyleofthe Greeksandforhavingintroducednaturalnessandgracefulness.ThebeginningsofbourgeoisemancipationwerethusperceivedinGiotto,andwiththempicturesque detail,clearlydescriptivenarrative,andindividualcharacterizationthusevenBoccaccio'sDecameronassertedthatnatureproducednothingwhichGiottowasnot abletoimitate.Butinfactthese

Page819 examplesofnaturalismareonlysuchwhencomparedwiththeByzantinesandalsowithCimabuetheyarenonewithintheGothicdiversityofbeingandthehierarchyof beingbeneathwhichthediverse,bybeingbuiltin,isallthemoretriumphantlybowed.InthisrespectGiottototallyconformstotheThomistworldpicture,theequation ofvaluationswithlevelsofbeing,ofthedegreeofrealitywiththehierarchicalstatus.ThisstrangelyoptimistictheoryfillsthewholeconceptualrealismoftheHigh MiddleAges,itisalsothesolepremiseoftheontologicalproofoftheexistenceofGod(Godisthereforebyfarthemostrealbeingbecauseheisthemostuniversal andmostcomplete).ThusevenGiotto'sartsuccumbstotheontologicalhierarchicalconviction:hepaintsrobes,rocksandthelikeflat,almosttwodimensional,butthe realityincreasestowardsthecentreofthecomposition(whichcentredoesnotnecessarilycoincidewiththemiddleofthepicture).Giottothussupplementsthespatial hierarchyofhisobjectsmostvividlywithhierarchyofbeing:onlythisconveystoreposeandgravitythatparticulardignityofvaluewhichstemsfrombelievedBeing More.Eventhesuperficialitytowhichthenaturalistic,andalsoarchitectureisusuallysubordinatedinGiotto,withregardtotheunumnecessarium:landoflegend,canin thisway,byunderlininganeventofvalue,ultimatelybecomecentral.ThemountainoutlinewhichservesasanornamentintheFlightintoEgypt,asabackgroundto thetravellingfiguresalsorepeatstheiroutlinesandsignsitselflikethemintoeternity.Butallthisoccurssolelyinthelandoflegendforwhichsacredhistoryhas succeeded,andinsteadofperspectiveintheRenaissancesenseitexclusivelycontainshierarchyofsuccessfulnessandcompositionsteeringtowardsit.Thusinthis paintingautopiaofChristianityisformedasexisting,infactasalreadybyfarthemostrealcorrespondingtotheenormousoptimismoftheproportionalityofbeingand value.Thisoptimismhasshattered,thespecificutopiaofGiotto'sworldhasthoroughlyturnedintoameremythologyofautopiankind.Itsbuiltnessalsoimmediately shatteredwiththeendofthemedievalfeudaltheocracy,itevenbrokeininternalreligiousterms.Grnewald'sworldofChrist,theBaptistnotcathedralone,presents theBiblelegendsolelyasexplosiveandthecentre(resurrectionintheIsenheim.altar)solelyasthatofthemostglaringparadox.ButeveninhisdayGiotto'slandof legendlayonthatnarrowridgeofequilibriumwhichwasstretchedoutmoreinheaventhanonearthandwhichthemodernagelostasmuchasabandoned.The perspectiveofmerepremonition,aprecisebutdawningone,whichappearsinthebackgroundoftheMonaLisaandevenintheabsorbingdistantcentreofthe Baroque,expressesmoreappropriatelythe

Page820 existingwishfulstate,andalsothelastingincurableness.Thoughnotthegoverningwishfulcontent,whichisnotoneofdistance,mostimportantly,noroneofendlessly movedmotion,butoneofrepose.Thatiswhyeveninthiswishfullandscape,finallandscapewhichhasbecometrulymonumental,despiteitsskippeddistance,its mythologicalhypostasis,thereappearsameasureofallthatwhichcanbetrulypaintedthereappearsthepaintedgoldgroundofeverymovement:peace.Eventhe FlightintoEgyptexhibitsit,andespeciallytheApparitionofStFrancistotheChapteratArles,withthehomogeneityofasuccessfulnesswhichhasalsofully composedtheheterogeneous.Thiskindofpresence,thisreposefulnessandspatiality,thisgravityandmonumentality,witheveryobjectinitsvalueplace,remainsan ironcorrectivetoeverylaterorder.Thereposepaintedthusiscertainlyonlyacorrective,itisnoconcreteattainedness,letaloneguaranteeofthebeingofitscontent.A fixedontologyisalsobynomeanscontainedinthiscorrectiveasinThomasAquinasandsomanyphilosophersofclosednessandenclosedness.Whatisattestedin Giottoisthereforesolelytheultimateprimacyofrestovermotion,ofspaceovertime,ofspatialutopiaoverendlesstemporalutopia,oftheformofarrivalover perspective.Legendanditslandherewantstomakethesituationintosituationlessnessandcomposeseachofitsevents,withthestrictestgradation,intoahierarchyof theUltimate,inwhicheverythingportrayedseemstobeorderedincorrespondenceswhicharebothpromisedandhaveoccurredlongago. Landoflegendinliterature:ascelestialroseinDante'sParadiso,astranscendentalhighmountainsintheFaustianheaven ThefeaturesoftheUltimatewererigorouslypainted,butonlyhesitantlyexpressed.Theirlanguagefalteredamongnothingbutpsalmsandsongsofpraiseordidnot ventureintothevastSunday.Nodefinitionfromtheobjectiverealworldcouldbeappliedtotheabsoluteonewithoutcautionandmeresignifying.Onlywherethe highestvisionarypowerwithregardtotheinvisibleexistedcouldacelestiallandoflegendalsobeprovidedwithwords,butwithapproximatedones.DanteandGoethe thusconcludedtheirworkssolelywithindirectimagesofheaven,theoneincontemplationofagivenfaith,theotherinthefaithofatransparentcontemplation. However,eventhemedievallysecureDanteavoidsthedirectnesswhichgreatcontemporarypaintingdisplayedtowardsheaven.Giotto'svisible

Page821 orderofvisibleobjectsbecomesinthefinalcantosofTheDivineComedyahighlysymbolicsketchofunnarnablecontents.TheparadiseofthesaintsinGiotto'sLast Judgementisfestivelyclear,thethronesofthepatriarchsstandausterely,anarenaofangels'headsandgleaminggoldrisessolidlybehindthethrones.WhereasDante's geographyintroducesfiguresandsoliditiesfromtheobjectiverealworldintotheParadisoonlywithmetaphoricallanguage,andfinallysymbolsfromaverydistant utopiaofspace.Consequently,TheDivineComedyalsotransformsitsarchitectureofthesevenheavensfromthesphereoffixedstarsdownwardsintothewishful mysteriesofaspaceofbothinwardandultramundanedepth.Eventheexternalfigureoflightdoesnotcorrespondtoit,atleastnotthatwhichappearsinthesunandin themerestarfireoftheheavenoffixedstars,onlystrivingtowardstheEmpyrean.Forthesun(inDanteequatedwiththecardinalvirtueofwisdom)isindeedtheplace wheretheTheologiansresidewhohavebecomeimmersedintheinfinitelightofGodnevertheless,thecircleofthesunisbynomeanstheEmpyrean,infact(a particulardifficultyfortheinterpretationofDante'shierarchyofheaven)thecirclesofMars,JupiterandSaturnareplacedaboveitascirclesofcourage,justiceand temperance.ThismeansthatinDante'sspacethereisautopiawhichinitshighestmanifestationmaycorrespondtothesphereofthesun,butinsteadofthisreveals itselfinaspecialsymbolicformwhichisbynomeansastronomicalanymore.AssuchthereappearsintheEmpyrean,abovethefinaldriveoftheworldringtowards purelight,theroseofheaven:

Lightisthereabove,throughwhichisclearlyrenderedthecreatorvisibletothatcreationwhosepeace,aloneinseeinghim,isengendered.

Andextendinginacircularformationtosuchagirththatitscircumferencewouldseemtoolargeagirdleforthesun'sillumination.

Thewholeofitsappearance,fashionedbyabeam,reflectsfromthepeakoftheprimummobilefromwhereitsvigourandpotentialstream.

Andasthehillsideseemstoputonadisplayinthewatermirror,admiringitsimagewhenitsgreeneryandflowersareinfullarray,

Page822

soIsaw,floatingabovethelight,stagebystage,mirroringthemselvesinmorethanathousandtiers,allthoseofusreturnedtothathighvantage

Thusintheformofawhiteunblemishedrosethesacredhostwasthenrevealedtome,theverybridethatChristwithhisownbloodchose. (Paradiso,Canto30,31)

Thesoulsofthecrusadersformacrucifix,theangelsthegreatfloweroflighteverythingistheformandyeteverythingthesymbolofaVenerabilethatisaroseand thenagainisnot.TheutopiaofspacehasbecomespacelessnessintheEmpyrean:nearnessanddistancecanhereneithergivenortakemore(Pressoelontano,li,ne ponneleva,Par.30,l.121)*therethusremainsevenintheroseonlytheperfectcircularformoffulfilment.Thisisnottheroseoflovefromasecularliteratureatall anymore,noteventheRoseofMary,althoughDante,attheleveloftheheavenoffixedstars,callsthemotherofGodthis(Par.23,l.73f.):themostperfectfigure remainsoutsidespace.ShortlybeforeDante,PietrodaMora,cardinalofCapua,publishedatreatisederosainthisthemostperfectflowerfromtimeimmemorial figuredthreetimes:forthechorusmartyrum,forthevirgovirginum,andforthemediatorDeiethominum.WhileDante'ssymbolismoftherosealsoexactlyconcurs withthistrinity(cf.Olschki,SacradoctrinaeTheologiamystica,1934,p.20squ.),itcertainlydoesnotdosowithregardtothewishfullandscape:spatialfigureofthe roseitselfthisstandsinthehyperspaceoftheEmpyreansolelyforthecircleofeverywhere.Andwithinit,asthenownolongerseparatingbutsolelyconnectingwishful dream,theflowerofparadisecanbegraspedwithasingleglance(Par.30,l.118),indeeditisgraphicnessitselfinthehighestpartofparadise,cognitionisnecessarily supersededbyvision.Thecouragetodescribetheindescribable,whichisnotevenindescribable,thereforeevenprogressedtotheimageofaswarmofbees,aswhich theangelspresentthemselves,aswhichtheysettleinthecalyxoftheroseofheavenandflyuptoGod(Par.31,l.7ff.).Thenagainancientarchitecturalimagesare chosen:theleavesoftheroseappearastiers(dibancoinbanco)ofavastamphitheatre.Theroseisabletobeallthisbecauseitischosenasaspatialsymbolofa perfectionwhichcannolongerbe *Nearandfar,overthere,neitheraddnortakeaway.

Page823 comparedwithanyspaceatallotherthanthatwhichthecirclingaroundthecentralcoredescribes,andwhichthushasasitssimileallroundnessthatispurelyforming itself. Otherwiseawhiffofthethingsofthisworldpenetrateditswayacrosshereonlyinpassing,apleasantwhiff.Theythemselvesareessentiallyabandoned,inDante'seyes theearthliesridiculouslysmallbelowhim(Par.22.,l.152.),onlyitsdeedsreachup.ThischangesinGoethe,wheretheriftbetweenHereandYondercomestoanend evenforthelandoflegend,byvirtueofcontemplationwhichhasbecomesecular.Faustenterstheinfinitebystridingintothefiniteonallsides,althoughagainina mountaineeringway.TheheaveninGoethe'sFaustremainstotallydrawnfromearthlyperceptionandholdsfasttoit,thoughagainalwayssymbolically,indeed (Everythingtransitoryisonlyametaphor)withparticularlypronouncedsymbolism,reflectedalmostmorethaninDante.Only:thesceneoftheFaustianheaven,which issofigurative,isandremainsofthisworld,isthatofthehighmountain,oftheAlpinemassiffullofravinesintheblue.Danteofcourse,onthepeakofMount Purgatory,alsohadanearthlylandscapeasanalmostcelestialone.Uptherelaytheearthlyparadise,andtherewasspringbreeze,birdsong,hiddenintheleaves, ambrosialforest,withLetheandEunoasriversofblessing(Purg.28,l.1ff.).TothedeadlyforestofsinatthebeginningofHell(Inf.I,l.2ff.)aforestofGodis opposedhere,inthemorningthepinegrovenearRavennaserved,inDante'smemory,asamodel.However,thethusanimatedandillustratedearthlyparadiseisin Dantetotallydifferentfromtheheavenlyone,itisamereplaceoftransit,forsoulswhicharereadyforadmissiontotheheavenlyparadise.Edenonlybelongstoheaven insofarasitisthelowestsituatedspacetowhichtheveiledBeatricecanstilldescendtogreetDante.Consequently,theuseofimagesfromnatureherebynomeans signifiesthesameasinGoetheinDantetheyonlyadornanddescribeanaturalplace,thoughatransfiguredone,theydonotbecometransparentwithoutariftforthe placeofglory.ItsregionwasinDantearosewithoutseparatingspace,inGoethehowevereventhehighestregionisandremainsfurtherintensifyingspace,isthe transcendenttranscendentalhighmountains,andinfactthosewhichwereonlyconquered,almostrevealedinGoethe'sage.Alpinenaturesurroundstheblessedboys whofloatthroughthefirslikelittlemorningclouds,greetstheangelsmistingaroundrockyheights,containsthepureradianceabovethepeaks.Amountaincathedral, risingoutofecstaticprecipicesintotheether,thatisGoethe'svisionofheaven,andpreciselyasanincessantrangeofhighmountains,with

Page824 constantlynewspheresupabove.Eventhisactiveinfinitesystem,aProtestantstrivingonetensedintoconstantlynewpremonitionsaswell,thusupholds,incontrastto Dante,theearthlyconnection,thegeographyofupwardstrivingandofevernewpeaks.Theframeworkremainsthatofthehighmountains,notofthecirclethefinal Faustianlandscaperemainstranscendent,nottranscendental,bothinthelastingabilitytobecomeofitsfiguresandinthecontinuallyramifyingUpward.Theagesand societiesparthere,thefeudaloneinDante,thecapitalistProtestantoneinGoethe:Dantecompletedawellconductedarrivingjourney,Goethe'sFaustgropesfurther forhisgoaleveninheaven.InDantethefiguresarefinished,thestatusterminihasreplacedthestatusviae,adefinitiveposition,exceptinthePurgatorio,andeventhis hasitsprecisemeasure.Dante'sfiguresaredefinitelythepastintheshapeofeternity,andthelandscapeofthisimmortalityissoconstitutedwhereastheimmortal elementinFaustisconceivedinthechrysaliscondition,thatis:expectingsheerfutureintheformofeternity.Insteadofspiritualhyperspace,witheverysoulintheplace ofitsrevealedfinishedquality,anewspaceofinfluenceopensup,insteadofacompletedutopiaofspacetheutopiaoftimeaswell,stilllastingwithinthatspace.And tothetemporalutopiaoftheFaustianheaventherecorrespondsinfacttheinfinityofthestrivingendeavour,withimmortalpremonitionatitscoreatthehighestpointof Dante'sParadisohowever,atthegoaltowhichallwishesturn,longingends(L'ardordeldesiderioinmefinii,Par.33,l.48).*VisiobeatificaDeiandtheprimacyof thevitacontemplativaoverthevitaactivaabsorbthewillintothemselvesindeedthelongingoftheDantesubjectsisnotonlydestroyedbydivinecontemplationand throughtheroseofheaven,thelonging,asonewhichhaslikewisebecomeeternal,iswithoutafutureandhasreachedtheend,evenendsinHell.Eventheworst situationbecomesthroughitseternitysituationless,liketheexistenceofthegods,andthereforeblessedintheformalsense.HenceHegel'sveryboldformulation,but validforDante:EvenhisdamnedinHellstillhavethesalvationofeternityioeternodurostandsoverthegatesofHell,theyarewhattheyare,withoutremorse anddesire,donotspeakoftheirtormentsthesedonotconcernusandthemasitwere,fortheylastforever,buttheyonlyremembertheiropinionsanddeeds, firmlyselfconsistentinthesameinterests,withoutlamentationandlonging(Hegel,WerkeX3,p.107).ButthereposewhichevenappliestoHellinDantedoesnot evenapplytoheaveninGoethe's *Iputanendtotheardourofmycraving.

Page825 Faust,letalonetothechrysalisconditionnoteventheeternityofhappinessishereoneofrepose.Evenarrivalstillremainsprocesshere,withrisingfallgain,even salvationdoesnotceaseheretocontainaTantalussuigeneris,akindofTantalusofhappiness.Evenheavenyieldsnoreadygoalcontent,thereremainsinsteadan infinitelystrivingdistancefromit,andtherealsoremainsofcoursethatnotscrupulousbutrichpremonitionwhichpassesoveragainandagaintountestedhorizons.The scrupulousdistanceisProtestant,asnotedabove,asresolutelyasthefaithinattainabilityandcontemplatablegoalformhasremainedarchCatholic.TheProtestant Faustianheavencorresponds,despiteitsCatholicclothing,toLessing'spropositionthattruthisonlyforGodalone,thestrivingfortruthisformanandrelatedtothisis Kant'sdoctrineoftheeternallyonlyapproximativemovementtowardstheideal.WhereasDante'sheaven,thistotalexpositionofarrival,correspondswithequallygreat fidelitytotheultimatefaithinSabbathandrestofclassicmedievalphilosophy,representedaboveallbyDante'smasterThomasAquinas.InThomasthereisnoendless approachtotheidealatall,buthumancreaturesarethoroughlycapableofattainingbymeansofgracethatdivinaebonitatissimilitudoforwhichtheyaredestined.So whereasintheProtestantFaustianheaventhegoalperpetuallymovesandthereforedistancesitselfsomuchthatitalmostceasestobeone,inDante'sCatholicheaven itstandssofirmlyandeternallyincentralreposeasifinitsownessenceitwasnogoalatall,i.e.incorrelationtoapath,butanabsoluteselfcomposureandperfection ofBeinginandforitself.ButalthoughinDanteThomasreposeisthusreifiedandontologicallyhypostasized,asinFaustLessingKanttheinfinitelystrivingdistance fromit,aprimacyofDante'sParadisoovertheFaustianheavenstillemergesontheonehand,wherethisinfinitestrivingisconcerned.Itistheutopianprimacyofrest, astheschemaoffulfilment,overmotion,astheschemaofunfulfilledstrivingforsomethingwherebyDante'slandoflegend,likethatofGiotto,standsasacorrectiveto everyintentionperspectivewhichdoesnotdestroyitselfinbadinfinityofapproachinganymorethanininfinitevariability.Theinfinitywhichappearsasscrupulosityif notasultimatenonwantingofarrivalandsuccessfulnessisacaricatureofthehistoricalutopianconscienceandbynomeansthisconscienceitself.Thisispreciselywhy theroseasDante'ssymbolofresthasautopianprimacyovertheinfinitelyramifyingsymbolsofelevationintheFaustianhighmountainsforutopiaisaccordinglynot oneofitself,butoneofitsnolongerutopiancontentasonethatisattained.Ontheotherhand,ofcourse,theprimacyofcircularrestoverFaustianmotion

Page826 changesthemomentattentionisnolongerpaidtothescrupulousinfinityofelevationtoeverhigherspheresbutsimplytotheelementofpremonitionwithinit,i.e.of utopiancertaintythatnopreviouslysupposedorevenhypostasizedfinalsymbolbuysupsorrow,fulfilshope,oradequatesthesubjectwiththesubstance.Thethus preservedmotionisthennotareifiedone,notoneofarunningamokmadeabsoluteineternaldistance,butitprovesforallitsfaithinthefinallyattainablegoal,indeed preciselybecauseofthisfaith,theconsciousnessofthestilllastingunachievednessofthegoalandofitssubstance.SointhisrespecttheFaustianhighmountains,with everhigherandasitweremoreauthenticpeaks,containadarkerblueofutopianconscience.TheFaustianheavencontainsfromthisstandpointtheconscienceofan arrivalcontentwhosedayhasnotyetcome,whosemedievalmeredayoflegendtogetherwithatranscendentalEmpyreanhavedisappeared.Andthatisprecisely why,inthenontranscendenttranscendenceofpremonition,evenDante'srealmofrestshinesonlyasthecorrectivetoaperfection,butatnopointofthecontentthat hasremainedaestheticastheformerimagefulfilmentofwhatcanbesignifiedwiththecategoryofheaven.Theelementwhichisnotindifferentinliteratureeither,nor canbeshuntedoffintoartisticenjoyment,affirmsitselfinthisway:evensuchahighwishfullandscapeoftheAllasDante'sroseofheaven,eventhisrevelationofanAll haslongbecomeinsufficientwithregardtoitsAbsoluteorfinalessence.Eachrevelationofgreatreligiousarthaditstruth,insofarandassoonasitpossessedit,solely asasubstitutionforthestilloutstanding,stillconsistentlyutopianrealcontentofwhatwasmeantingeneralandcancontinuetooperatesolelyinthisway.Forthe seriousnessofatheism,againstwhichnorealityoftheotherworldandGodwhatsoevercanholdoutanymore,exceptasahypostasiswhichhasbecomeshallowor evensimplyasahistoricizingartindustry,artreligionindustry,thisseriousnessisthebasicconditionforeverycentrallycomprehendedutopia.Itisalsothebasic conditionforthepossibleinheritanceofthestillrelevant,andinutopianterms(notmythicalontologicalones)stillvalidcontentsofformerreligiousartandofreligion itself.Foritissolelytheexperimentingutopianform,andnowherenowthemaintainedrealformoftheAbsolute,wherebyrosesofheaven,describedgods,the Empyreanandotherintentionalcontentsrepresentedasperfectremaininthememoryofhope.Atheismasawholebothcreatedtheintentionalcontentsofthefinal utopiafromthealreadyexistingrealityandsharpenedtheintentiontowardsthesecontents,withoutmythologyandpartpayment.Butheavenlyrestofcourse, interpretedasacorrective,indicatestotheutopiaofmotion,andprecisely

Page827 tothatwhichisconscientious,whatithasinititselfasitsmostradicalintention:theendofintention,theinfinityofcontent,notofthepath.Thewillofutopiaisonthe rightpathonlywhenitdoesnotallowtheelevationtohigherspherestobeblockedbytemporarycasesoffulfilment,yetbelievesjustasrigorouslyinanend,timestop, arrival.Whenitbelievesinnothingmorethantheobjectivelyfoundedpossibilityofthisarrival,butthereforealsointhepowertohastenitandnottorenounceitforthe sakeofthepath.Preciselythefinalformofthehighestmoment,whichFaustincreasinglysoughtandofcoursecontinuestomakeeventfulinheaven,assomethingstill insufficient:preciselythisfinalformhasnohighersphereaboveitanylonger,indeednosphereatallanymorealongsideothers.Dante'slandoflegendgivesthedensely successfulrose,Faust'slandgivesmountainsabovemountainsintheoutspreadblueintheformerthemysteryistheexistingsolution,inthelatterthesolutionisthe stillremainingmystery. Splendour,Elysiuminoperaandoratorio Soundhovers,itisnotclearwhereitislocated.Equallyitisnotveryplainwhatitexpresses,completelydifferentwordshavebeensettothesametune.Yetasound canalsoexpressbetterthananycolourorwordsthattransitionwherewenolongerknowwhetheritisalamentoraconsolation.Musiconthewholedoesnotstickat it,certainlynotinamajorkey,butnotinaminorkeyeither.Ithasatotallylonelybutlongdrawnout,undyinglightinthepainitstates,andforseriousnessithasasong whichcoverseventhehardeststepofthegrave*asonetowardshope.Thefactthatmusicexistsatall,asapathorwayoutprefigurednowhereelse,shinesthrough andalreadysurpassesthematerialstowhichitturns.Towhichitturnsinasearching,hoveringfashionthough,sothatthesolutionisnotyetbindingexceptforafew greatmusicalstatements.Thepathofmusicislongerthanthatofpainting,andeventhatofpoetrythusitisbynomeansasobjectiveasotherarts,althoughreferringfar moreintensivelytoobjectswhichdonotlieinthehorizonofsensationsandideasbutofemotions.Butatthesametime,sinceallemotionsarepressingforasolution, thismeansthat,ofallthearts,musicismostgearedtothisand,byvirtueoftheconsolingcharacterofitshoveringabove,mostpowerfullycapableofgivingapre appearanceofoutflow.Thoughalsoinamostcarefreeway,atleastintheformofmusic *Thisisgraveinthemusicalsense.

Page828 whichisnotsorigorous,i.e.wherecadenzaandfinalepresstowardsradianceanyway,towardsthevisibilityofradiance:intheopera.Assuch,liketheoratorio,the operaisonlyaforminwhichtheinstrumentofthehumanvoicecanjoininand,withoutcausingatrafficobstruction,isheardtoadvantage.Butoverandabovethisthe operapositsvisibleactionitssinginginstrumentshaverisenabovetheorchestra,andarepeopleinascene.Andinaddition,sincetheBaroqueperiodinwhichitfirst blossomedonawidescale,theoperahasservedthefestival,imposingdisplay,andelevatedexistence.Itisintent,evenmoredecidedlythanthefinaleofasymphony, onhappiness,ontriumph,eventhoughpossiblyonasilent,exhalingtriumph.Eventhecoolexperimentsinthemannerofclassicalantiquitywithwhichtheoperabegan inFlorence,indeedbymeansofwhichitwasinvented,showedasurprisingdesireforthebrightendinganditsland,despitetheelegiacmaterialtheychose.Peri's Eurydice,1600,endedcheerfully,andalittlelaterMonteverdi'sOrfeoadmittedlyrestoresEurydice'ssadreturntotheunderworld,butApolloplacesthecouple amongthestars.MorethaneverthesplendidBaroqueoperaneedstheperasperaadastrainitsmusic:nothingbetterfilledthefestivesets,nothingallowedmorelavish ceremonies,moreevidentsplendourofthehappyend.Theorchestraasyetpossessednocrescendo,butpreciselythejerkychangesintheintensityoftoneallowedthe formationofterracesofsound,andaboveallanabruptcontrast.Togetherwiththeindividual,thedramaticsolonowaroseandtheverticallineofthechord,withthe cadenzaeffectofvictorywhichitalonemadepossiblethedominantandtoniceffectwassupportedbyharmonicinnovationsliketheNeapolitansixth,oneofthemost powerfulmeansofexpressioninBaroqueopera,preciselywithregardtoappearingtriumph.AquietArcadiawasstillundoubtedlymorenaturaltotheRenaissance operawhenitbeganinFlorence,anditfollowedpastoralplaysatleastasmuchasitdidantiquitybuttheBaroqueoperamadeanapotheosisoutofit.TheBaroque operasthemselvesareforgotten,andlikethenovel,thetragedy,andeventhepoetryofthisperiodhavenotyetattainedthemodernesteemwhicharoseforBaroque buildingsandalsoBaroquesculpture.Thisselectivityconcerningthedifferentvaluesofindividualkindsofartinthesameperiodisstrangeandunprecedentedyet constantespressivo,andconstantmaestosoobviouslyhaslimitsintheafterripening,itenforcesfractionsandrationsinwhichitcanbeabsorbed.Evenmasterpieceslike Scarlatti'sTheodora,likePurcell'sDidoandAeneas,andevenHandel'sJuliusCaesarhavenotyetbecomereallyreproducibleasfullscalecreations,intheir grandtoneandbackground.

Page829 JosefFux,theauthorofthefamousGradusadParnassum,hadcomposedafestivaloperain1723fortheking'scoronationinPraguewhichwasperformedbya hundredsingersandatwohundredstrongorchestra:notasoundofsuchcolossi,orevenofsuchassiduouslavishnesscomesacrosstousanymore.Butthestructural techniqueoftheoperaformitselfhardlyeverforgotthisBaroqueradianceinthebadandgoodsenseafterall,evenfromthecradleoperawasdirectedtowardsthe Elysian,andthentowardsthesplendid.ThemagnificentstyleoftheScarlattiaria:sustainedinitialnoteswithlargeintervalswhicharefollowedbyalivelymovement, thisstylewasofcoursemockedinMozart'sCosfantutte(Fiordiligi'saria),butithasaninfluencedowntoWeberandbeyond.Notintheoperabuffa,butratherin theoperaseria,evenMozartservesupthegrandscenefromtheBaroque,thetheatricalonethattranscendsalleverydaylife,withtheradianceofterrorand apotheosishencethestormatseainIdomeneo,andtheburningoftheCapitolinTitus.NeitherareadequateMozartoperasofcourse,andtheElysiumofthis geniuslies,insteadofinapotheoses,inthegardenmusicofFigaro,buteventheMagicFlute(withthefinalstagedirection:Thewholetheatreistransformedintoa sun)endsinthetoneoftriumph,landoftriumph,towhichtheBaroqueoperawascommitted.Monteverdi'sApollo,afterallthedarknessesofoperaticfate,places thecoupleagainandagainamongthestars:theoperaisoptimistic,andthesignificantexceptionstothisarenoneormerelyprovetherule.Allthemoresointhe nineteenthcentury(whenthebourgeoisiewasstrivingforimposingradianceandadoptedtheinstrumentoftheoperaforthispurpose)whenSpontiniandMeyerbeer, andespeciallyWagnerstartedbaroquefestivals,highdramaswithaborrowedauroraoroneoftheirown.Atthesametimethebanalityofthegrandscenecametothe forehere,insofarasvictoriaistrumpetedwithinitinatoocontrivedway,andthedangerousmixtureofriskandconventioninthevictoriousoperaticfinaleadanger whichcanincidentallyalsoariseinasomuchhigherstyle:preciselyinthesymphonicfinale.Nothingismoreurgentinoperaticcompositionthantobereadybefore dramaticclimaxesandlowpointswithanideawhichisworthyofthegreatmomentandespeciallyoftheblissfulmoment,butnothinginthenineteenthcenturywasmore threatenedbytheroutineofthetheatricaleffecteither.Theatricaleffect,saidWagner,themasterofresoundingsilence,butevenmoresoofthecolossus,iseffect withoutcausethisphenomenonornonphenomenonthereforeadvancedaboveallintothegreatoutbursts,greatconclusionsofactsandclosingvedutasoftheopera. Theatricaleffectwasstillmostsuitablewhereincidental

Page830 musicofthelefthand,musicasaccompanimenttothespectaclewaspermissibleanyway:inballet,andaboveallintheBeingbesideoneselfofthebacchanal(thatcan becombinedwithballet).Thegardenoflovemadeintomusicherestillcontainedalegacyoffestivenessinwhichthesetisalargepartoftheattractiveandlecherous businessitself.TheembarkationforCythera,thefinehesitantone,isfaroff,unlessitrings,isolatedbackwardsandforwards,inOffenbach'sintroductorymusictothe barcarole,inhisluxuriousEvosandinhislatestconcertoofOrpheus,butthegardensofloveandmagicislandsoftheBaroquecertainlyappear,bothcoarsenedand magicized,inthegreatbacchanalsthroughout,especiallyinthatoftheParisTannhuser.Hereisamasterpieceofdesireandofnothingelseintheworld,anabyssof satyriasis,demonizeddownfromstrainsofTristan,andfaroffintheabyss,fromtheshorewhichitdoesnothave,thesongofthenymphswaftsacross,thebrothel radianceofahigherorder,witharoseofhell.Yetmoredubiouslyinfactthaninthebacchanalthesaluteofbeachandradiancecouldbeathandwhereclimaxesof operaticaction,whereaboveallconclusionsofactsandthelandscapeofthefinalearealsotobemadepresent.Thevariousconsecrationsofswords,prayerscenes andtrumpingconclusionsinMeyerbeerandthereforealsoinWagnerherebecameaclich.AclichinstatunascendiinthecaseofSiegmund'slovesicknessand Siegfried'sswordsong,theentryofthegodsintoValhallaandalltheothertransportablefortissimiofsomethingallegedlyrightorwonderlandishwhichnowseemsto breakthroughandyetremainsmerelyrhetoric,effectwithoutcause,abraggarttone.Verdi,althoughlikewisebelongingtotheageofMeyerbeer,kepthimselffreer fromtheclichofsuchclimaxespreciselybydeliveringitintheminorpartsandconfiningittothem,sotospeak.Thus,togiveasingleexample,thetriumphalmarchin Aidasparkles,beingkeptassuperficialasitshouldbe,butthemomentafterwardswhenAmneriscrownsthevictorwithlaurelsdoesnotsparklemusically,andthe lovescenebetweenOthelloandDesdemonawhenthePleiadestouchtheocean,whenspacegrowssmallandtheworldgrowsdeep,differsinthislowpointofitsown characteristicallyfromthecontrivedclimaxoftheconclusionofanotheract,betweenSiegmundandSieglinde,whentheVolsungs'bloodglowsinflood.TheWagnerof Tristancertainlydoesnotneedtobedirectedintothepianomoodandthewhollyextraordinary,heisateacherofthepianomoodandoftheauroratonightbeyond compare,buttheconventionoftheclimax,fromRienzitotheRingoftheNibelungenandbeyond,isthesatanicangelwhobeatsthiswickedgreatgeniuswithhis fists.The

Page831 satanicangelistheimposingradianceoftheBaroqueinthemidstofthebourgeoisie,initsGermanalliancewithstale,refurbished,romanticizedfeudalismthusthe stateddangeroffalsepreappearanceofradiantoutflow,outflowingradiancebecameinWagnerjustasclearasgenuinepreappearancecertainlyalsoemergesagain andagainintheoperaticwishfullandscape,byvirtueofmusicandbyvirtueofaworkofgeniusinmusic.Anditisnotforexampleasifthespectacleassuch,with fortissimo,whichissopowerfullyfamiliarfromtheBaroque,wereincompetentfromthestartattheclimax,andpossiblyevenatthelowpointtheincompetentaspect ofitremainsessentiallyonlytheclich,whichisalwayssoeasilycombinedwithemptinessinwhatispompouslywonderful.Thefactthatthepompouslywonderfulas well,eventhatwhichisparticularlyheightened,canbeeffectwithcause,apowerfullyfulfilledtoniceveninopera,assoonasthecontrivedzestisabsent:thisisshown inthelastactoftheMeistersingerbythechorusoftheAwake,thisunexpectedlymightyreddeningdawn,aftereveryintensificationofdayalreadyseemedtohave come.Andeventhefine,moremysteriousreddeningdawnbecomesfreewhereveraclimax,apausewithouttheclichofpretendingtobeaclimax,showsits landscape:aseveninthedrumbeatssurroundingSenta'sfirstencounterwiththeDutchmanasinthequintetoftheMeistersingerevenasintheviolinstrainsofthe GoodFridaymeadow.Thisisthelegitimatethingaboutsignificantoperaingeneral:thefactthat,outofthetonicradiancenativetoitasalsooutoftragedyand especiallyoutofhappiness,itcancauseasolutiontoariseintheactionwhichthespokenwordlacksinthisexpansiveoceanicelement.Withwhatgrandarched jubilationtheblissmakingmelodyendsandalsodoesnotendinthefinalbarsoftheGtterdmmerung,theoppositelandtothebombasticentryintoValhallawhich isherealsomusicallypurified.Thereishightimeintheopera,resoundinglyrepresentedwishfullandwhichitwellbefitsifbyvirtueofthestillhoveringsound,asinthe mostpowerfulofalloperas:inFidelio,itrisesaboveanamelessoceanwithnamelessjoy. Allthispresupposesatautsoundofcourse,whichsurprisinglyslackens.Theragingthendiesdowninsuchawaythatitflowsoutintotheenteringsongofrest.Butthis outflowisstillitselffilledwiththeprecedingunrest,andthusthesongwhichreproducesitischaracteristicallyhot.Andthedangerherealwaysremainsasensational entryofthetonic(inafurthersensethanthefundamentalharmonicone).Butthereisstillanoftensmaller,alwayscoolmelodicregionwhereakindofsilveryreleased elementitselfemergesfromtheactioninopera.AsanArcadianmelody,withoutprevious

Page832 overheating,asananteroomtothewishfullandscapewhereoneforgetsthewishingonehashad.Aseeminglymodestandcertainlystrikingexampleofthisisprovided bytheroundelaystrainsinGluck'sOrpheus,abovealltheElysiumscene:Whataclearskycoversthisplace.Gluckgavemorethanthemelodioussensualityofthe Neapolitanschoolhereandalsomorethanthedramaticcontrasttotheagitationsandunhappinessesofhisinfernalchorus,onthecontrary:thereisoverdramaticlento here,transparentlysimpleatthesametime.Elysiumemerges,beyondvanquisheddeath,inOrpheus'glanceattheclearskyanditssofterlight,inthetransfiguredmajor keyoftheroundelay,andthenchorus,tothestrainsofwhichOrpheusgreetsEurydice.Thisisthemodelofseraphicrestintheopera,butespeciallyintheoratorio(to whichGluck'sOrpheushalfbelongs)thereisnothingmajesticaboutit,onlypeace,peace,astheKoransays.Theclassicalmanifestationofwhatcanbecalledarrival styleinmusicmaynotofcourseflourishintheatricalformsandhenceformsofactionatall,insofarastheyalsoextendintotheoratorio.Itisratherwhollyappliedto tranquillitasanimi,anditsmusician:Palestrinaisthemasterofsuchtransfiguration.ItspurerainbowsoundalreadylivesinthesecularmadrigalsofPalestrina'syouth,it triumphsinthesuddensimplicityofhismasses,assoonasthedogmatickeywordsounds.Therhythmisreducedtoaminimumofmovement,chromaticsareavoided, astheexpressionofindividuallybrokenfeelingsandfeelingsofdistance.Melodyandpolyphonyaretotallyclearedup,thefourpartmovementherehasanabsolutely assertiveeffect,andshowsrulingsimplicity:homophony(oftenrevellinginpuretriads)doesnotinterruptbutcrownsamasterlycounterpointobtainedfromtheDutch. PalestrinaseeksanechoofthatwhichSaintCeciliahears,ofwhomthelegendsaysthatshehadalreadyheardthechoirsofangelsonearth.Suchauditiobeatifica correspondstoThomasAquinas'andDante'sidealofavisiobeatificaDeiitcorrespondsevenmorepreciselytoAugustine'sidealofmusicasapraeludiumvitae aeternae.ThePalestrinastylewasthustheonlyonetoindicateinpracticaltermswhathadremainedtheoryinthemusicalidealofthewholeMiddleAges,alearned thoughdevouttheoryofparadise.Palestrina'sartisreallyappliedtothewishfulimageofthesingingofangels,hismusicwasinfactheardastheechoofheavenly strains.SinceAugustine,musichadbeentheoreticallycelebratedasthisecho,hehimselfhadascribedtothehymnsingingoftheChurchashareinhisownconversion, hehimselfhadfirstreinterpretedtheancientharmonyofthespheres,thisastralmythicpsaltery,asthesingingofangels,asaparadisesoundinnolongerplanetarybut humanlikeform.

Page833 ThissingingofangelswillincorporateandsurroundthoseredeemedbytheLord,andsoallearthlymusicwhichtakesitsinspirationfromthisAboveisforAugustinean opengateofheaven,preciselyapraeludiumvitaeaeternae,utacorporeisadincorporeatranseamus*(DemusicaVI,2).Augustinewasthustheonesourceofthe ElysiumdreaminthemedievalviewofmusicbuttheotherwasDionysiosAreopagita,healreadymademusicwhollyintothelanguageofangelsitself,i.e.here:intoa hierarchicallygradedmessage.Musicwasnowforthefirsttimetodealtotallywiththeconnectionsoftheheavenlyandhumanharmonyitdescendsfromparadiseto themusicamundana,thecosmicharmony,thentothemusicahumana,theharmonyofbodyandsoul,andreturnstoparadise.Allthiswasstillastralmythicthroughout ofcourse,anastronomicaltheoryofmusic,rebaptizedinChristianterms,anditsinfluenceonrealmusicwasslightthroughoutthewholeoftheMiddleAges.Now,in Palestrinaanintentiontowardsamusicacoelestiswonthroughinpractice,sothatPiusIVhereventuredasuperlativewhich,whollyinthespiritofAugustine,sought andwasabletofindthepraeludiumvitaeaeternaeonlyinamusician,notinpaintingorliterature:HereaJohnintheearthlyJerusalemgivesusasensationofthatsong heardbyJohntheapostleintheheavenlyJerusalem,propheticallyenraptured.Thechoirsofangelsofcourseareahypostasizedmythology,liketheroseofheaven, andmusicacoelestisbelongssolelyinthegreathumanhistoryofhopeanditspostulatedspaces,notintheexistingheavenwhichhadsolargelybeeninventedasdeaf. ThusnomusicsincePalestrinahasdaredtoreproducethismusicacoelestisasapossessionpreciselyasmusic,allexamplesofsanctusandgloriawereexpectedtobe appealsorconjurationsandnotpretendedreflections,noteveninthemosttimidpianissimo.Beethovencertainlyhasseraphicelementsasthefinalword,butalwaysas incomprehensibleelapsionorasapromiseoftheBenedictuswhichhascometothehope.ThereisofcoursemusicofarrivalinBeethoventhroughout:itsmost significantlyfulfilledformsoundswhereLeonoraremovesFlorestan'schains,withapresentimentofthehighestmomentbutthearrivalanditslandneverspreadto angelicspheres.Hemustdwellabovethestars:themisteriosoofthischorusfromtheNinthSymphonyisstirredandsurroundedbytheempiricaldoubtofamere KantianpostulateofGod,itdoesnotlandintranscendentalperfectionwhichhasbeenandcanbesungtoanend.Musicthereforesharestoaparticularlystrong degreethedestructionoftheheavenly *preludetotheeternallife,sothatwemaycrossfromthecorporealtotheincorporeal.

Page834 certaintyofBeing,yetinsuchawaythat,throughnonrenunciationasatthesametimethroughthestatedambiguoushoveringabovewhichneverthelessaimswith wishfulemotion,wishfulsolution,throughitstendencyobjectinotherwords,musicwasabletogivethestrongestpreappearanceofwhathascomegood.Ofa humanlypossibleElysiumforwhichthereisasyetnoconcretion,butinwhichthereisnomythologyeither.Theutopiandistancestrikesintotheimmediacyofmusical selfcontact,thenearnessofthismusicallandscapeisinturnchargedwithsignificancesofanextremelyhumanizeddistantworld.Musicthushasthatparadoxical perspectivethatitsobjectsappearevergreater,andthereforenearer,themoretheymovetowardsthehorizononwhichmusicliesandformshope.Eventherest announcedbyPalestrinahasbecomeinsufficientinfaceofthemuchfurtherrangingwishfulandvolitionalphenomenonofBeethoven.Butittooremainsinturna correctiveforanandantefinale,howeverrarelypossible,whosearrivalcausesthemusictosoundbothsilentandgreat. Contactoftheinteriorandtheboundlessinthespiritofmusic:Kleist'sideallandscapeSistineMadonna Evenportrayedhappinessisreluctanttobeknownandagreedbeforehand.Itthuspointsinanunfamiliardirection,notjustintothenarrownesswhichweknoworinto theexpansewhichbelongstogreatness.Butinbothoftheseathirddestinationalsorises,onewhichispointedoutnotleastinmusicalterms:theunfathomable.This categoryunitescaveandexpanse,interiorandperspective,containingandsurpassingboth.Theinteriorisparadoxical,itdoesofcoursecontractseductivelyintothe narrow,near,andsecret,butatthesametimeitcontainssignificanthorizoninthisnarrowness.Imagesofspatialcontraction,oftheformationofhousesandinterior spaceasawholeultimatelyshareinanintensiveelementwhich,whenaddedtoit,firstmakestheexpanseincapableoflosingitselfandsubstantial.Thusnointerior remainssimplythis,andnosignificantidyllresignsitselfashappinesstoconfinementinboththereisalsotheoppositeof,ortheswitchinto,theuniverse.Inother words,intoanamalgamateduniverse,withgoldenspaceandgoldentime,intosmallinfinity.Andthegreatimageofexpanseontheotherhand:theperspectiveof infinity,thisconverselydoesnotmerelyproceedtoexpanse.Thecontentoflongingindistanceandtheoceanicelementinperspectivedonotremainsimply

Page835 whomeverygazehasperishedofnearnessthusexchangefaces.AssuchCasparDavidFriedrich'smannerofpaintingisnotlikethis,onthecontrary:itsconstant longingforexpansetearsnearnessanddistanceroughlyapart,withoutapaintedintermediateworldbetweenthetwo.ButbythisverymeansKleist'screative consternationinfrontofthepicturecandescribesuchatremendousarcbetweennearnessanddistance,centreandcircle.Kleist'ssoundlessapocalypsecontainsthe sparkoflifeanew,inanunfathomableabyssinwhichmanandnaturebothare,andbothnolongerare.Theeyedisappearsbylookingatthepicture,theviewer disappearstogetherwithhisdistance,thepictureinjuresthemanstandingoutsideit,asifone'seyelidshadbeencutaway,butitalsoinjuresthesea,forthatonwhich Iwassupposedtolookoutwithlonging,thesea,wascompletelymissing.Somethingitishardtonameappears,goingoutfromtheviewertotheCapucin,goingback fromtheseatothedunesboth,Capucinanddunes,becomeone,thelonelycentreinthelonelycircle,theunfathomableabyssoftheinconspicuouswithtruly Ossianiceffect.Thereishappinessinthis,thatofThule,butagainnoagreed,arrangedhappinessatall,withalocalitythatcanbecatalogued,particularlynotthis.A centralwishfullandscapearisesallthemorestrangely,tothehowlingoffoxesandwolves,attheedgeofanendingworld,inthislaconicism:asubjecthouse,withits twoorthreemysteriousobjects.Astheonlyoneswhichremaininthelonelycirclewiththelonelycentre,andfurthermorecertainlyasObjects,butasthoseabout whichthereisnothingalienanymore.Sothatwecanequally,indeedmoreaccuratelyspeakofanobjecthouse:andallthemoresobecauseofthedepthextensionof itsnaturalObjects,ofahouseconcentratingsubjectandobject.Ofalldescriptionsofpicturesthisonehasmostpenetratedintothepaintedhiatusbetweensubjectand object,hasfilleditwithdestructionandwithanunusualnightormistpieceofJerusalem. Onlywecannotseeorbreathehere,inthissoverynearestremoteregion.Kleist'sdescriptionisoneofthemostprofound,butthefamiliarsunnolongerrises,and anotheronedoesnotyetbecomevisible.AndFriedrich'ssealandscapecangiveonlyinsuchcentralimpressions,suchdescriptionpowerfullyexperiencingthings through,thatwhichgreatpaintingcommunicatesinitsownhorizon:theunityofmananddistance,thereturnofperspectiveintothemanifoldMonaLisaandofthelatter intotheperspectiveofthemanifoldedgesoftheworld.Nevertheless,allhumanetranscendentalpaintedspacesbecomealmostconventionalcomparedwiththat describedbyKleist,withasingleexception,thespaceoftheSistineMadonna.

Page837 Itisdifferentfromthespacewhichisusuallypainted,andthustheSistineMadonnaistheboldestpictureandthelandscapeinitthemostmysterious.Thereisnoso calledsouthernspacehere,thefirmlyconstructedstage,norsocallednorthernspace,withthevaryingstructuredeterminedbytheeventswithinit.Thereis geometricallyclearunity,inthespiritofsouthernspace,inRaphael'spicture,butitdeterminesnoplaceatallforthefigurewithinit,neitherinnearnessnordistance, neitherinthisworldnortheotherworld.TheMadonnahoversequallybeforeandbetweenandbehindthepeculiarcurtainwhichframesheraurainthepicture.She riseswhileshedescends,anddescendswhilesheascends,herspaceisthatofabductionandofhomecoming.TherelationoftheMadonnagloriosainFausttothis hoveringoneisobvious:inthegentlenessofanoutspreadmystery,inthereceptiveinnerworldofimmensity.FranzMarchassaidthatpicturesareourownsurfacingin anotherplace,andhere,intheplacelessnessinwhichinteriorandperspectivemutuallymergeandpermeatethemselveswithadissolvedotherworld,awholeexistence surfacesintheotherplaceherethereisnothingmorethanthewishfullandscapeofthisEverywhere,ofthispermeatednesswithhomeland.Alimitofartisalsoreached hereofcourse,ifnotventuredbeyondforreligiousartisnoneatallinsofarasitisalwaysonthepointofdoingawaywiththeappearancewhichexistsforthesenses, withoutwhichappearancenothingcanbeportrayedaesthetically.Wishfullandscapeofbeauty,ofsublimityasawholeremainsinaestheticpreappearanceandassuch theattempttocompleteworldwithoutitperishing.Suchvirtualperfection,theobjectofeveryiconoclasmandofcourseitselfperforatedinreligiousart:thisrises,suo generegeographically,inthewishfullandscapes,placedfarahead,frompainting,opera,andliterature.Theyareoftenmythologicallycloakedanddisguised,butnever remainsettledandsealedinthisfortheyintendhumanhappiness,asenseofitsspacehavingbeenwellplacedandhavingturnedoutwell,fromtheidyllictothestill mysticalspace.Preappearancegivesthisaestheticsignificanceofhappinessatadistance,concentratedintoaframe.ForthehappinessimaginedinKleist,powerful enoughtomakefoxesandwolveshowl,deepenoughtosatisfythedemandmadebytheheartandtodispeltheinjurydonetousbynature,inanunalienatedworld: forthisutopiaintheutopianelementitselfthesituationlesslandscapeiscertainlyoneofthemostexactspatialsymbols,inthepreappearanceofthepicture.But everywherethewishfullandscapeissuchthateverythingwhichhappinessneedsispresentnolessandequallynomorethanthat.Itwillbeincumbentuponsocialistart toseethatthisauroralfeatureinthepicture

Page838 oftherealisalsoalwayscommunicated.Correctedandcorrectlyplaced,nocturnalday,asthecheerfulGreeksthemselvescalledthereddeningdawn.Thewishful landscapeinarthasthiscolourfulforeglowupitssleeve,indeedhasitasanObjectafteritisplantedintheworldandmaygrow,buthasnotyetripened.

41WISHFULLANDSCAPEANDWISDOMSUBSPECIEAETERNITATISANDOFPROCESS
WhatdoIhave, IfIdonothaveall,theyoungboysaid, Istherehereacaseoflessandmore? Andisyourtruthjustlikethesenses'bliss Asimplesumwecanpossessingreater Orsmallerformandalwaysstillpossess? Orisitnotaloneandundivided? Schiller,TheVeiledImageatSais Ifasingletruthprevailslikethesun,thatisday. Hamann,Aestheticainnuce Theconceptisthefence,physicsthegarden,ethicsthefruit. ChrysippostheStoic Thesearchforproportion Thereisnothinkingforitsownsakeandneverhasbeen.Thinkingbeganwithwantingtorecognizeasituationinordertoknowone'swayaroundinit.Behindthis thinkingstoodfearsandaboveallwishingneedswhicharetobesatisfied,andmoreoverbymeansofashortcut,deliberately.Thereisnopathherewhichhasnotbeen madeintoone,sothatpeoplemaywalkonitandarrivewheretheywishtogoinaccordancewiththeirinterests.Forwhichtheyhavesetoutwithlightabovetheir workinaworldhalfmediatedwiththem.Thisresultsinwishfullandsevenincognition,aboveallwherelifeissurveyedasawhole,andhencephilosophically,andisto bebroughttowhatistobefled,whatistobesought.Forthefirstreallyfreethinking,whichwasGreek,began

Page839 preciselywithwhatistobefled,whatistobesoughtasawhole.Ittriedtosketchitsworldclearlyaccordingtotheproportionsofthisrightwish,ofthewishforwhat isright.Thusifwetakethesocalledsevensages,allofthemalreadydistinguishedintheirrulesandmainpointsthethinkingtowhichtheycouldadhere.Itwasthe middlecourseinlifeandinthecircumstancesofthings,itwasnotyettheauthenticingeneralbutthisverymiddlecoursewasnowdecisiveandstressedthatinwhich thingsreallyruninaccordancewithbonsens.Insofaras,intheopinionofthesesages,thingsareideallyastheyshouldbe,intheextractofferedtothembytheworld. ThusBias,Solonandothermenofepigramsaboveallpraisedcontentmentandnoremorse,anothingtoomuchwhichmayportraytheGreekwayoftheTao,ofthe rhythmoflife.Ontheplaneofeverydaylifeofcourseandinaretractedway:thesenseoftheseepigramsportraysasitwereastilllifeintheformofthoughtandof calmnessasaprotectivehouse.Andthegroundofanxietyontowhichandtowardswhichallthiswasdrawnevensubsequentlyisthetransitorinessandfrailnessoflife, theuncertaintyofallitsconditions.ThroughthewholeofearlyGreekthinkingthererunsthelamentofSimonidesthathumanbeingsdroplikeleavesintheforestbut equallytheassumptionrunsthroughoutthateverythingispreservedmostcalmlyandforthelongesttimeinthemiddle.Thusthesevensageswerecalledsuchbecause theirthinkingsoughtindisorderlylifeproportionandharmony,inwhichtherewasablessing.Indeed,withnewabilityitfurnishedthekeytosomethingdurable,to presumablytheoldestsenseofwhatwascalled tobeunageing,toholdtogether.Foolsgivethemselvesalotoffutiletroubleoverthatwhich haslostallproportion,inwhichthereisnoblessing,buttheaforementionedsages,usuallyscepticalineverything,backedwhatwaswellbalanced.Itwasinfacttobe humanandmaterialbonsensatoneandthesametime,inthemostdesirableway.Itwastobetheequilibriumofthepointerinthescalesofcircumstances,theorderly wayoflifewherethingsareallrightastheyare.Throughthisworldgoesthatwhichhasbeendesignatedagainandagain,fromtheStoicstoGoethe,asrecoveryper seanditssupport.ItcoincideshereattractivelywithtrueBeingitself,asthelandofthesimplicitywhichalwayscomposesitselfbetweenextremes.Wherethetrueis confinedtothatwhichconstantlythinksitselfintowhatisrightandissoasgoodworld.Eventhoughthelatterdoesnotliethereascalmlyashouse,home,andgarden makeitseem.
vacute iota

Page840 Theauthenticinprimarymatterandlaw Greatthinkingwentouttothingsmoresharplyassoonasitoccurred.Enlightening,againstantiquatedcustom,otherworldlymist,butalsoagainstmeresensory appearance.Andtrustwasputinthefactthatessencecouldbefoundandthat,evenaswater,itcouldbewalkedon.Inotherwords,somethingexistedtowhich,as friendlymatter,assustainingphysis,manwasrelatedintheauthentic.Theantithesisthatlikecanonlybeperceivedandespeciallyrecognizedbylikerunsevenin purelyepistemologicaltermstrustinglythroughsocalledpreSocraticthinking.IttacitlyunderliesthatofThalesandclearlyunderliesthatofHeraclitus,thoughitonly becameconsciousinEmpedocles.Sothatwecanonlygraspthecoldthroughthecold,andthehotthroughthehot,hatredonlythroughhatred,lovethroughloveand soonincorrespondingareasofmanandworld.Whichthenled,inPlotinusandinGoethe,tothegreatexpansionintobilateralperfection:Iftheeyewasnotsunlike,it couldneverseethesun.TheinformationaboutthiselectiveaffinitycanbeasdifferentastherestlessfireoflifeinHeraclitusandthemotionlesssphereofBeingofthe Eleaticsacommonfeature,however,istheequationofthisauthenticelementororiginalmatterwiththatinwhichanauthenticelementinmanhasitsmotion,itstrue essence.ThusHeraclitussaysthatthemoredryandfierythesoulis,thebetteritsharesintherationalprimaryfire(DieFragmentederVorsokratiker,Diels,fr.118). ThusParmenidessaysthatThemisandDike,i.e.thegoddessesofunwaveringjustice,liftedtheveilwheretheunchangingHenkaiPansitsenthroned,theunshakeable heartofwellroundedtruth(fr.1).ThesevaluetingedsketchesoftheessentialarecontradictedleastofallbytheamazinglyeconomicreflectioninHeraclitus:All thingsareanexchangeforfireandfireforallthings,asarecommoditiesforgoldandgoldforcommodities(fr.90).Forinthisstatementanearlycommoditythinkingin theIoniantradingcitiescomestogetherwithgoldasanallegoricalpermanentvaluepreciselybymakingitselfcosmic.Likegolditself,thealwayspreciousfirenow shines,madebynogodandnoman,proportionatelygoingoutagainandagain,andignitingagainandagain(fr.30)butconverselythestaticHenkaiPanisalso removedfromeverychange.Empedocleswasofcoursethefirsttoformulateconsciouslytheelectivepropositionthatonlylikecouldperceiveandrecognizelike.And evenhereitisbynomeansconfinedtohotorcold,butposesasthekeytonothinglessthansomethingvolitionalintheturnoverofthings

Page841 themselves.ThusEmpedoclesnotonlygoessympatheticallytotheelementsbutalsotoakindoflifeofvaluebetweenthem:Withourearthmatterweperceivethe earth,withourwaterthewater,withourairthedivineair,withourfirethedestructivefire,withourlovefinallythelove(oftheworld)anditshatredwithoursad hatred(fr.109).Thusforthefirsttimebasicemotionslikeloveandhateareherefoundinthemotions,separations,andconnectionsoffourelements.Nothinglessin factthanthevolitionalintensiveelement,interestitselfwastherebydesignatedforthefirsttimeasanobjectivelymotivefactorintheworldafermentinglandscape fullofdestruction,butultimatelyfullofconstruction.Forhowevermuch

vtend

iotatilde

,hatred,disturbsanddestroystheuniverse,andseparatesagainand
iota

againthatwhichisbeautifullytakingshape,unrestislikewisestillthestrongestseekerofrestintheEmpedocleanemotionalmatter.Ultimately ,love,brings theelementstogetheragainintoatruewishfulland,untiltheyareallunitedincompleteharmony.Thisharmonyconstitutesinitsmostperfectformthesphairos,asthe last,victoriouscounterparttothewhirlpoolofhate.WithallthisEmpedoclesapproachesthebasicHeracliteanideaofstruggleasthefatherofallthings.Andhe defusesthisideaagainofcourse,sinceforhimstruggleisnotonlynofatherbutmoreaMoloch,sothatpreciselytheproductivedialecticsofHeraclitusislost.Butitis lostsimplyintheprematureanticipationoftotalharmonywiththelull,prophesiedutterlyinthemannerofawishfulimage,intherestoredessencesolelymovedby love.OIrisbow!aboverushing/Waters,whenthewaveinsilverclouds/Fliesup,asyouare,soismyjoy'thisfreerenderingbyHlderlininhisEmpedoclesdoes infactrenewtherainbowlightinthiselevatedlandscape.Likeisrecognizedbylike,i.e.notjusttheearthbywhatisearthy,butalsotheetherbythehighestelement:by theairymatterofthesoul. Thisisapowerfulwish,togetherwiththeoutsideworldthatissupposedtocorrespondtoit.Onsolid,consciouslymaterialistsoil,however,standsthemostsoberand mostimportantsocalledpreSocraticphilosopher:Democritus.Thephysisisdisenchantedofallmythicalfeatures,butitisalsotherebyilluminatedintheadvalorem sense,namelyinawhollyuniformfriendlyway.Thedarkestelementofthedemonic:Moira,theoldgoddessoffate,isintentionallyrecollected,butvictoriously recollected.Fatebecomestotallyunderstandablecausalnecessity.Thisgivesthesoleexplanatoryreasonforeverythingthathappensintheworld,andtheAnanke,the necessityilluminatedassuch,isnowwithoutspectresandclouds,anewwhollycooledetherasitwereandoneinallmotions,manifestations

Page842 ofmatter,evennow.ThisrecognitioncausesaccordingtoDemocrituswhatismostworthstrivingforandhappiestinman,the ,thecalm atsea(Diog.IX),butequallythewishfulimageofcalmisthatofthelawfullyruledlandscapeitself.Thefineandgentlemotionofthefireatomswhichformthehuman soulnotonlygivescalmhappinessbutalsoopensupagainrecognizinglikewithliketheworldsothisworlditselfisoneoftheevencourse,theinevitableyet transparentconstraintofcauses.EpicurusandLucretiuslaterstressedthefearlesselementinthislandscape,andtheStoicswithanevenstrongerpraiseofnecessity trustintheworld.TheeternalessenceinDemocritusisthetotalityoftheatomsmovingthroughtheirheavinessandformingtheworld.Butthereisnodoubtthat thereliesinthisnaturalnecessityaninterpretationofitatthesametimewhichsatisfiesthewishforhappinessitliesintheprospect:cheerfulfate. KantandtheintelligiblekingdomPlato,Erosandthepyramidofvalue Itwasonlyfairlylatethatthinkingfocusedonman,indeedbeganwithhim.TheSophistsbroughtthisinnerglancesotospeak,thoughonewhichoriginallywasnotatall inwardinthelaterandaboveallGermansense,butascepticalone.ItbelongstotheAthenianenlightenmentwhichisdifferentfromtheprecedingoneinthecoloniesin thatitbringsthesoughtafterauthenticelementintothesubjectivefactor.Andcrushesthatelementwithiniteithermoreorlessindividualistically,asinthecaseofthe Sophists,orinsteadseekstoinvestigateitwithinitafreshbymeansofphilosophicalcraft(,thewiseman,originallymeanscraftsman),asinthecaseofSocrates. Buthetooremainssubjectiveoranthropological:Icanlearnnothingfromthetrees,butIcanlearnfrompeopleinthecity.Thephysisthereforeceasestobethefirst consideration,initsplacethesoul,themind,andthespiritarenowtobeprimary.Idealisticconsciousnessbeginsandnowcoversinhowevermanyforms,inamore orlessreactionarywayalsolettinginmythicalconsciousnessagaintheworld.Ofcoursetheidealismthusexposed,despiteitsirredeemablebiasesand exaggerationsinthespirit,hasbecomeoneofthemostimportantantitheticalenzymesofphilosophicaldevelopment,preciselyformaterialismitself.Itbecameimportant bothbecauseofthesubjectiveapproach,andhencetheepistemologicalspur,whichsincesophisticalscepticismcannolongerbestopped,
netaacute vtend

Page843 andbecauseoftheabundanceofdefinitionswhichtheconstantconsiderationpreciselyofwhatislogicalintheworldwasabletoreveal.Howevermuchthislogical elementwasstoodonitshead,i.e.wasturnedfromamaterialpredicateintoanallsustainingsubject.Anditnaturallyfollowsthatanewperspectiveofwishful contents,i.e.here:ofideals,alsobelongstotheauthenticallyexperimentingabundanceofidealismspouringfromthesubject,butpossiblyalsofromthetendencies oftheobject.Anditmustbefurtheremphasizedherethatthestrugglebetweenmaterialismandidealisminthehistoryofphilosophycannotbedividedassimplyasa strugglebetweentwosportsteams.HereDessauagainstSchwerin,hereDynamoagainstTurbine,herematerialistsagainstidealists,thelatterwithacapitalI,andthe otherswithacapitalMontheirshirts.Butthestrugglefrequentlytakesplacewithinsignificantphilosophiesthemselves:notinthecaseofSocrates,notinthecaseofthe sosharplydistinctgrandidealistPlato(whocharacteristicallydoesnotevenmentionDemocritus),butratherintheStoics,inAristotle,Leibniz,andHegel.Asalsoin thecaseofthegreatestmanintheseriesofthesubjectivefactorrunningonfromSocrates,inKant.ForhisTheoryoftheHeavensof1755wasalmostpurely mechanicalandmaterialistic,hisCritiqueofPureReasonistotallyidealisticinitsapproach,atranscendentalone,yetitsObjectisexclusivelyNewton'smechanics, andtheidealisticideas:God,freedom,andimmortalityareexpelledfromscience.Instead,asideasoftheunconditionalwhichsimplydonotoccurintheexisting worldofunbrokenconditionalconnections,theyaretopreserveanunrealplaceinfaith,togetherwithallstillunrealimagesofperfectionintheideal(and ultimatelyinthehighestgood).SoKantdoesadmittedlywanttodoawaywithknowledgeinordertomakewayforfaith,butwhatistobedoneawaywithisbyno meansallknowledge,leastofallthehighlyrecognizedoneofmechanics,butaboveallthefalse,dogmaticknowledgewhichdealswiththeideasoftheunconditional asiftheyweremorethanmeretranscendentalappearance,asiftheywereexisting,empiricalreality.AndthroughthisreductionoftheauthentictoanAbsolute, whichcanultimatelyonlybeaspiredto,intheworld,aparticularlyaccentuatedwishfullandscape,whichheremeansalandscapeofperfection,infactappearedin philosophywithretainedmaterialisminBeing,andabstractpostulativeidealisminobligation.Therethusarisesofcourseinthemidstofthematerialisticidealistic coalitionanewrealmoftwoworlds,analltoomechanisticandareallyalltoodetached,intelligibleone.Significantly,however,thetenorofhisfaithisstated preciselybytheprecriticaland

Page844 thusnotyetsodualisticKantasonewhichisbynomeansmerelyunworldly.Idonotfindthatanyattachmentoranyotherinclinationwhichhascreptinbefore inspectionrobsmymindoftractabilitytowardsallkindsofreasonsfororagainst,withonesingleexception.Thescalesofreasonarenotcompletelyimpartialafterall, andonearmofthosescaleswhichbearstheinscription:hopeforthefuture,hasamechanicaladvantagewhichmeansthatevenlightreasonswhichfallintothepan belongingtoitraisespeculationsontheothersidewhichareinherentlyheavier.ThisistheonlyerrorwhichIprobablycannotcorrectandwhichinfactIalsonever wanttocorrect(TrumeeinesGeistersehers,Werke,Hartenstein,II,p.357).Thiskindofthingrefersofcoursethereandthenapparentlyonlytodepartedsouls andthefutureworldofthissort,yetinrealityanintelligiblerealmisimpliedinthissignificantstatement,towhichtheaccessisnotdeathbuthistoryincosmopolitan intention.JustaspreciselythelaterKantexpressedthehopeforthefuturetotheeffectthatthehumanracehasalwaysbeenprogressingtowardssomethingbetter andwillcontinuetoprogressinthisway(StreitderFakultten,WerkeVII,p.402).Inthesenseofthebeautifulidealofarealizationofthemorallaw,whichwedo notforeseeasanempiricalcompletion,butontowhichwelookoutonlyinthecontinuousprogressionandapproachtowardsthehighestgoodpossibleonearth,i.e. weareabletomakepreparationsforit(ReligioninnerhalbderGrenzen,WerkeVI,p.234f.).UltimatelythisperspectiveofhopeinKantaimsatamoralkingdomof Godonearth,elucidatedbythecitoyen.Germanmiseryadmittedlytorethiswishfulimageagainandagainoffthehistoricallyvaryingreality,andthusitremainedin Kantparticularlystronglywithininwardnessandeternallydistantabstractness.However,thisabstractnessanddistanceoutlinednootherworldinKanthimself,but exclusivelyaheaveninthehumanenesswhichwasworkingitswayupandwastobepromoted.Thishumanenessisservedbythepostulateswhichapplytheideasof theunconditional(God,freedom,immortality)purelytomorality.Itisservedbyidealsastheregulativeconceptsofwhatiswhollycompleteandperfectinthefieldof humanreason.Postulates,ideasoftheunconditionalandidealsthusrepresentawhollyuniquestarrylandscape,astarstuddedskyofpurepracticalreason.Andthe analogyoftheimageevenextendstothefactthatallthesesternlights,likethestars,radiatetheirsublimityonlyinapurelynormativeway,withoutempirically illuminatingthegapsinthenightsky.Thisisthesituationwiththeidealofreason,whichmustalwaysbebasedondefiniteconceptsandserveasaruleandaprototype, whether

Page845 ofcomplianceorassessment(WerkeIII,p.392).KantdefinitelyprotestsagainstbelongingtothosewhokindledtheirlightfromPlato,buthisownidealismmeansof coursethathetransferredPlatonicprototypesorideaspartlyfrommetaphysicalBeingintomoralobligation.Theynowshineaheadwithinitinpure,alltoopurefuture, intheunmediatedskyofgoodwillandultimatemoralpurpose. Thepuritywhichisnottobefoundherewassoughtforwards,butwasfirstsoughtupwards.Thelatteristhemythicalway,ithadbeenabandonedintheIonianand Siciliantradingcities.TheAthenianenlightenmentinparticular,whenitdeclaredinthecaseoftheSophistseventheearthlyauthoritiestobebogus,hadcertainly announcedthattherewasnocelestialAbove,andtherewerenogods.Platohowever,isthearistocraticandmythicalsetbacktothis,butasgoeswithoutsaying preciselyregardingtheheight,indeedparticularluminosityofthemostdangerousandgreatestidealist,heisnotthisalone.ItwaseasierforPlato,asawishfulthinker likenonebeforehim,tobelieveintheinvisiblethaninthevisible,andtheUpwardsbecameforhimalonging,anEros,acompetitivestriving,andfinallyofcourseaso calledvisionoftheinvisible.Asiftheworldlayintwilightandonlytheconceptualprototypeswithinitwerethetrue,thesolelyreal,thatwhichfulfilsinnonsensory purity.Awishfullandthroughandthrough,withmuchreactionaryrelationtoSpartanorder,muchsentimentalrelationtoEgyptianrepose,andawishfullandwhichas therealmoffiguresandtypescoveredtheworld,conceptuallydoubledit,hierarchicallydividedit,andidealisticallyconcealedit.Preciselybecauseofthestrongwishful characterhere,however,agreatdealofveryemotionalmaterialisalsoinvolved,untiltheapparentlysopurelyspiritualvisionisreached.Hencethelongingwhichdoes notbelieveatallthatitwillmeetthelikethingthatitseekstograspinsomethingavailabletothesenses.HencetheEroswhichisbynomeansmerelytoconsistoflike thingsbutalsoofthespurofunlikethings,oftheexistingdeficiency,andthus,drivendialecticallyagainandagain,neitherhasnordoesnothavethetreasureoftheright thing,butseeksit.NotleasttheimageoftheAgonisalsoofsuchanemotionalnature,theimageofthecontestinwhichtheneverthelessstillamiable,indeedplayful Eros,asPlatoportraysitintheSymposium,becomesinthePhaedrustheallbeginner,allcreator.IftheErosoftheSymposium(203CE)standsinthetransition fromnothavingtohavingandviceversa,asthesonofwealthandpoverty,withthecharacteristicsofboth,inthePhaedrus(247B,C)itisawingandateamof horses,astheagentdrivingontoperfection,verysteeply

Page846 upthepathtothevaultsoftheheavens,andthevaultsthemselvesnowcirclewiththegodsthemselvesaroundthegreatBeing,colourlessandwithoutformand intangible.Theloveofwisdomlooksupthere,adialecticalvisioninsofarasitembraces,aboveallintheParmenides,certainoppositesliketheManyandtheOne, theunlikeandthelikeandisnotalso,asinHeraclitus,anobjectivedialecticsthroughthetotalityoftheworld.Insteadthewholeworldremainsinadualismoftwo spheres,ofwhichtheupperonemerelyshinesintothedarkspaceofthelowerone.Thoughalsoassociateswithallitsgeometricalfiguresandquantitativequalitative typeswithinit,offeringthatbeautywhichstillgoesintotheneoPlatonismofFaust'smonologue:Howheavenlypowersriseandthendescend,/Toeachtheirgolden pailsextend!/Withfragrantblessingswinging/Fromheaventhroughtheearthallswinging,/Throughuniverseharmoniousringing.*Thiskindofthingremainsmonisticin Goethedespitealltransparency,withanembracingorrathervanquishingofeveryechoofanimageoftwoworldsbySpinoza'sspaciousnaturasivedeus.InPlato, however,theJacob'sladderlandscapeandlaterchurchwindowlandscapeoftheworldisclearlyonefromlighttonight,fromnighttolight.InPlatotheworldistotally inexplicableintermsofitself,indeeddoesnotexistatallinitself,asemptyspace:only,acceptingparticipationintheideas,and , communicatingcurrencyoftheideas,givethingstheircharacteristics,theirtypes,theirpalmlike,leoninequality,beauty,andgoodnesshighup.Andinacloudyform,in mereimitation,comparedwiththepureJacob'sladder,ofthepyramidofideasrisingwithevertruerBeingtoeverhigherperfection.Afterall,itsapexissupposedto betheideaofgoodness,asthesoleandfinaldefinitionprojectingintothemysticallyindefiniteelementofthehighestBeing.Atthesametimethisideaissupposedtobe thepurposivecauseofthewholemethexisandparusia,herewithrevertingtothestrongwishfulcharacterwhich,aswehaveseen,accompaniedPlato'sapparentlyso contemplativevisionfromthestart,withlonging,Eros,andAgon.Fromthisstandpoint,fromthestandpointofthesupremeideaofgoodness(Platocallsit,notwithout purposivecauseitself, ,hismostimportantpieceofinstruction)Plato'sreformingactivityseekstojustifyitself, togetherwiththehierarchicalutopia,asdoeshismomentousequationofeverhigherperfectionwithevermoreexistingBeingandviceversa.Thelatterequationiseven supposedtomakethewishfullandscapeofPlatonismintoanevermorerealone,thehigheritrisesintotheetherof *Faust,PartI,44953.
iota vtend alphaacute oncom

Page847 theIdeasanidealistichypostasis(themoreperfect,themorereal)whichultimatelyhasacontinuinginfluencerightdowntoAnselm'sproofoftheexistenceofGod(ens perfectissimumensrealissimum),andinfactintotheBeingforitself,evermoreimpervioustoreality,oftheabsolutespiritinHegel.Andthisprovidesatthesame timethemostdecisivefoil(econtrario)fortheidealbutnotrealdefinitionoftheKantianfinalmoralpurposewhichofcourse?likeallKant'snormativeprototypes, presupposesPlatonism,togetherwithitstheoryoftwoworlds,yetleavesoutpreciselythebeingreal,especiallythatrisingwiththeideals.Theideallandinviewofthe lastidea,thatofgoodness,isthesame,butsuchthatinKantitstandsinhopeandinunfortunatelyonlyanendlessapproachtowardsitsrealization,whereasinPlatoit standsinthestrongestreality,removedfromallBecoming.Aboveallintheworkofhisoldage,thePhilebos,Platodevelopedtheideaofgoodnessassucha teleologicallyrealcentralsun,withthedoubleentrances:pleasureandinsighttogether,simplyaswhatisdesirableforalland(really)perfectperse(61A).Andthe centripetalpulltowardsitultimatelyitselfprovidedtheheliotropefortheErosandAgonPlatonismwhichcontinuedtohaveaneffectinotherwisesolittledualisticbut reallyteleologicalphilosophieslikethoseofAristotle,Leibniz,andHegel.ErosinAristotleistheimpulse( )ofmattertoform,atits highestpointtopureform=Godthustheworldshineshereasselfembodyingform.ErosinLeibnizistheinquietudepoussanteortendencyofthemonadstowards evermorealert,morecopiousreflection(repraesentatio)oftheuniversethustheworldshineshereasaselfbrighteningphenomenonoflight.ErosinHegelisthe penetratingpowerofthedialecticalshaping,reshaping,outoftheHadesoftheabstractInitselfthroughthejungleofthephysicalBesideitselftotheBeingforitselfof culturethustheworldshineshereasprocessofitsselfemptying,selfamalgamatingspiritualsubstance.Alltheseareidealismsintheetherealdirectionoftheirwishand theiraim,yetidealismswhichwouldnotonlynothavebecomeobjectiveoneswithoutthehierarchicalPlatonicrealmbutwhichhaveenrichedtheknowledgeprecisely oftheworldfromwithinitselffarbeyondDemocritusandDemocritism.Namelythroughtransformingincorporationoftheoriginallysostaticpyramidofideasintoan emergingsuccessionwherebyinfactanew,bynomeansexhaustedperspectiveappeared:thatofimmanentteleology. BrunoandtheinfiniteworkofartSpinozaandtheworldascrystal Andnowthinkingturnsoutwardagain,sothatitlooksatmatteronce
ocom oncom netaacute

Page848 more.Thisoccurredinthenewer,bourgeoisattitudesinsofarastheyweregivenovertothisworldandnothingelseanymore.Insofarastheywantedtogointothe gardenofthisworldandnotjusttoworkinitbutalsotakepleasureinit.ThusThaleshadcausedthefertilizingwater,andAnaximenestheinvigoratingairtoflow aroundeverything,andbothalreadydidthiswithreligiousdevotiontotheworld.Matterwasenhancedandanimated,therewasevenroominitfortheetherealandfor thisinparticular.Butthisneveroccurredmorebeautifully,andaboveallmorebroadlythaninthevisionofGiordanoBruno,whichfinallyagainseekstobeamaterially immanentonelikethatofthefirstIonianthinkers(Brunodeliberatelypraisesthem),butisadistantvisionhere.Theappearanceofthehabitualbecomestoonarrowin theageofdiscoveriesandtheCopernicanrevolution:Itisobviouslyfoolish,saysBruno,tothinktherearenoothercreatures,noothersensesandnootherintellect thanthosefamiliartous.Awish,itselfvast,intotheboundlessnowbegins,ileroicofurore,anoceanicfeeling,acosmicconsciousness,asifonagreatmountaintop withthecloudsbeneathoneandonlythesunandthestarsaboveone,aroundone.ThusBrunostepsforward,aphilosophicalminnesingerofinfinity,inthespiritof Copernicus,butfarbeyondandabovehim,foreventheceilingoftheheavenscracks,towhichthelatterhadleftthefixedstarsattached.Theperspectiveintothis worldlyinfinitybeganearlierinpictures,inthelargehorizoninJanvanEyck,thaninthoughtdespitelargepreparationsinAlaindeLille,andespeciallyinNicholasof Cusa.Thisnewspace,acentrifugalspace,isnowcompletelybrokenallaroundtheearth,notjustonthehorizonbutalsointothezenith:theearthdisappears,butalso thesunasthecentre,andthereremainsonlytheinfinitespherewhosecentreiseverywhere.Inaddition,minimumandmaximumarenowtoharmonizein comprehensiveinfinity:theminimumasapoint,atom,monad,themaximumastheuniverseinwhichthisindividualprofusionisframed.Notnumericallyframedasina deadspace,butsothattheinexhaustibleactivityoftheprincipleinherentintheworldpositsanequallyrichandvariedprofusionofformations.Atthesametime, however,theentiretyoftheuniverseisagaincelebratedasthebalancingoutofallthesedifferences,sothatintoxicationwiththeworld,whichhasclimbedsohigh, reallydoesseeandwouldliketoseeallthecloudsofexistencebeneathit.Hencealsothedifferencesbetweenlightandshadowandabovealltheshadowsthemselves thisisnowtobalanceitselfoutinharmony,subspecietoti,injustthesamewayaslikeandunlike,motionandrest,andultimately

Page849 possibilityandreality.Thelatteraboveall:thedenialofaseparate,stillexistingpossibilityintheentiretyoftheworld,maintainingasitwerethefinishedemptiednessof theuniverseasonewhichisclosed,denotesastrangeinterruptionintheperspectiveofinfinityinBrunohimselfandthispreciselyinaccordancewiththewishful imageofacosmicallyexistingperfection.Foronlyfinitethingsare,accordingtoBruno,noteverythingtheycanbe,indeedforhimtheformativepowerinherentinthings neverweariesofcreatingnewforms,butintheentiretyoftheuniversethepossibleandtherealaresupposedtocoincideperfectly,becauseitisitselfperfection.Forif itstillcontainedanunrealizedpossibility,ifallthepossibilitieshadnotbeenrealizedinit,thensoBrunoarguesitwouldlacksomething,andthuswouldnotbe perfect.ButBrunotherebyappliednotonlytheclassicalconceptofharmonyandthatoftheRenaissancetotheuniverse,withartwhichhassupposedlyeverywhere achieveditsgoal,butalsotheensperfectissimumofscholastictheology.Andinaddition,againstallprospectsofopenunrealizedelementsintheworld,thedivine Possest,CanbeofGodinNicholasCusanus,astheabsoluterealityinwhichipsofactoallpossibilitiesarerealized.ThusBrunoonceagainintroducedafiniteness intohisinfinity,namelythatofbeingstaticallyenclosedintheextentandentiretyoftheuniverseitselfatthispointtherefore,towardsthefuture,theceilingofthe heavensisnotyetbroken.Thetemptationtothisisofcourseasgoeswithoutsayinginthegreatantitheistnottheology,butultimatelythegreatwishfullandscape oftheworldasacompletedworkofart.Andtheworkofartpointstotheartist,tosomethingdivineasartistinworldimmanentandworkmasterlytermsprecisely intheheartofnatureitself.ButBrunohastherebyagainemployedpossibility,ifnotintheTotumoftheworld,thenatleastforeveryindividuallyshapingelementwithin thisTotum,andaboveallfortheworkmasterlyelementwithinit:thenaturanaturans.Thisisthefireoflifewhichformativelyrunsthroughthings,the
oncom vtend iota vtend vtilde

ofHeraclitus,butinseparablylinkedwithmatter.Matteristhebirthgivingwomb,itcontainsallitsformsanddesigns potentially,andbringsthemtolightatthesametimewithitsownpotentiality:ThusweattainamoreworthyviewoftheGodheadandthisMotherNaturewho produces,preservesandincorporatesusagaininherwomb,andwewillhenceforthnolongerbelievethatanybodyiswithoutasoul,oreven,asmanylie,thatmatter isnothingotherthanacesspitofchemicalsubstances(Werke,1909,VI,p.120f.).Matterhasotherdimensionsintheformofman,othersinthatofthehorse,others intheformofthemyrtle,othersinthatoftheeye:but

Page850 ithasthepotentialforallthisequallyandatthesametimethepotentialitytoshapeitthoroughlyandtomouldit.Itisthesamematerialprinciplewhichisformativein metals,plants,andanimals,andwhichthinksandorganizesinhumanbeings,exceptthatitmanifestsitselfinaninfinitelyvariousway.Logically,Brunocallsthe distinction:formlessmatter,immaterialformapureabstractionandabolishesit.Instead,hecelebratesmatteritselfasthedatorformarum,asMotherNature(natura naturans)andNatureofForms(naturanaturata)inonehethuscompletesthenaturalizationofAristotle,whichhadbeendriventowardsmoreandmoreemphatic materialismbyhisfollowerStrato,byhiscommentatorAlexanderofAphrodisias,byAvicennaandAverros,byAvicebronandtheAmalrikans.Towardsaqualitative materialismthough,oneinwhichmatterlargelyappearedinman'simage,inthelifeimageandcreatorimageofRenaissanceman,withaRenaissancedimension.The worldmatterinParacelsuswasalsosofullofforgingVulcanus,sofullofwaterspiritsinJakobBhme.Amongthepropertiesinnateinmatter,motionisthefirst andmostexcellent,notjustasmechanicalandmathematicalmotion,butevenmoreasthedrive,vitalspirit,vigour,astheagonytouseJakobBhme'stermof matter:thissentencefromMarx'sHolyFamilyisequallytrueofBruno,togetherwiththestatement:Mattersmilesonthewholemaninpoeticallysensuouslustre.In factthisstatementisparticularlytrueofBruno,oftheworldasaworkofart.OfthewishfulimageofmanasachildinMotherNature,oftheenthusiasmwhichwantsto knowitisinagreementwiththethisworldofinfinity.WheretheuniversestandsfortheAllandnaturealreadyseemstobelongcompletelyintheplaceitoccupies. Eventhethinkingwhichdoesnotguardagainstbeingedifyingpurifiesitselfasbrightthinkingbeforehand.Themirrorofcognitionischeckedforstainsoruneven patchesbeforeitisworkedwith.Firstcamethecheckforsensorydelusion,laterandmoreimportantlytherefollowedthatforimpurelogicalcomponents,andin additionforthoseofanemotionalkind.Brunobelievedtherewasnoreasontoclarifythinkingotherthanbysmashingwindowsandexpandinginalldirections.But Spinoza,whenhelikewisetookthemysteriouspathoutwards,wrotehismoralessayOntheimprovementoftheintellect.Thisessayismoralandnotmerelyas goeswithoutsayinginthemostunequivocalofallrationalistsepistemologicalbutheseeksallthemoreeagerlytopurgetheintellectitselfoftheturmoilofthe emotionswhichcloudandweakenit.Andtothembelongseverythingwhichlurestowardstransitorypossessions

Page851 (sensualpleasure,riches,externalhonour),unlikethelastingpossessionandObjectofatruelife.Tothembelongseverythingwhichisclearonlyassuchalure,unlike thegenuineclaritythatisgainedincertaintythroughunerringintellectandthatsolelyprovidesconstantjoy.Sonowisheswhatsoeverseemtohaveanyplaceiniteither, sincewishing,aboveallashoping,involvesthatuncertainelementwhichisdetrimentaltojoyandtotheprideofcognition.Spinozatriedtoremoveallsuchinadequate emotionsasvehiclesofinadequateideasevenmoreclearlyinhisEthicsandconsequentlynotjustremorseandthelike,assomethingdepressing,butalsohope andthelike,assomethinguncertain(Eth.III,TableofEmotions12).Infact,inadequateideaswithoutanyrealreferencearealsosupposedtolieinallqualitativeand valuejudgements,like:good,evil,order,confusion,hot,cold,beautyandugliness(Eth.I,Appendix).Andyetthesamephilosopheroutlinedinhissystemoneofthe mostcheerfullandscapesoforderintheworldpreciselyonthebasisofwhathecallsrationalclarity.Notwithoutinconsistency(itisoftenparticularlynoticeablein Spinoza,sincehedevelopsdifferentchainsofthoughtsoconsistentlythattheycannotbeharmonizedanymore)thereisnowafterallaknowledgeofgoodandevil, indeedonelinkedwithemotions:Theknowledgeofgoodandevilisnothingotherthantheemotionofjoyorsorrowinsofarasweareawareofit(Eth.IV,Prop.8). Andevenmorethanthis:thejudgementsaboutperfectionandimperfectionareadmittedlysupposedtobepurelysubjective,modesofthinkingwithfalse,purely anthropomorphicmeasurement(Eth.IV,Intro.),butperfectionitselfischaracterizedassoobjectivethatSpinozacansay:ByrealityandperfectionIunderstandthe samething(Eth.II,Def.6).Thatis,therearesupposedtobenovaluejudgementsaboutperfectionbecausethereisnomeasurableMoreorLessofperfectionatallin thesenseofopinions,butonlyaMoreorLessinthesenseofreality(Eth.V,Prop.40)andnoobjectiverealimperfectionatall.Soonelookshere,againstthegrain, intothemostperfectdesideratumanondesiderando,intoasoperfectwishfullandscapeofphilosophythatitleavesnothingtobedesiredanymore.Allthisresults forSpinozafromthesolekindofknowledgewhichheallows:fromthatsubspecieaeternitatisanditsperspective.Asanabsolutegreatnessofcontemplation,cursing nothing,ridiculingnothing,butknowingeverythingintheformofeternity,whichisalsotheformofthecomprehendednecessityofeverything:Thingscouldbe producedinnootherwayandinnootherorderbyGodthanthatinwhichtheyhavebeenproduced(Eth.I,Prop.33).Itisthereforenotapart,asinBruno,ofthe infinitecreativepowerofthenaturanaturanstoformpreciselytheimperfectaswellalongsidetheperfect,but:Fromwhathas

Page852 gonebeforeitclearlyfollowsthatthingsareproducedintheirhighestperfectionbyGodsincetheyhavenecessarilyfollowedfromthegivenmostperfectnature(Eth. I,Prop.33,Note).Necessarilyfollowed,whichmeanshere:justasmathematicsisregardedasanexemplarykindofknowledgeofnecessity,sothingshavefollowed moregeometrico,withthesameapodicticconsistency,fromtheGodnature.Accordinglyevenhumanactionsanddrives(howevermuchtheymaybedenouncedfor themostpartasinadequateemotionsorneoStoicallyasperturbationesanimae)arealsoregardedasifinvestigationhadtodowithlines,areasandbodies(Eth. III,Intro.).SpinozismisfromhereinfacttheNovum:mathematicalpantheismwhichdistinguishesitparticularlyclearlyfromtheenthusiasticpantheismofBruno.Butit doesnotdistinguishitfromthepowerfulimmanenceofBruno(withAvicennaandAverrosbehindhim),whichinSpinozaratherbecomesonlyworldfigure,likewise concerningandcontainingnaturanaturans,naturanaturata:Namelythatbynaturanaturanswehavetounderstandthatwhichisinitselfandiscomprehendedthrough itself,orsuchattributesofsubstancewhichexpresseternalandinfiniteessentiality.ButbynaturanaturataIunderstandeverythingwhichfollowsfromthenecessityof thenatureofGodorofeachofGod'sattributes,i.e.allthemodesoftheattributesofGodinsofarastheyareregardedasthings(Eth.I,Theorem29,Note).Deus sivenaturais,asnaturing,thereforejustasmuchthegroundortheimpliedperfectworldasitis,asnatured,thesamesequenceintermsofcontentortheexplicated perfectworld.Iworkatthebuzzingloomoftime/AndweavevividclothesfortheGodheadsublime:*thisstatementbyGoethe'sEarthspiritdoesofcourseseparate histerrestrialessencefromtheuniversalGodhead,butitdefinitelycontainsasawholethejubilantidentityofnaturanaturansandnaturanaturata.Andinthedepthsof Spinoza'sworld,towhichtheunityofamorfatiandamordeiintellectualisturns,thatsilencereignsinwhichthetideoflifeandthestormofactiondiedown,into harmony.ThevastwishfulfilmentreignsofAboveallsummitsthereispeace,andGoethe'sotherseraphicstatementisconceived:Forallurging,allstruggleis eternalrestintheLordGod..Sothethinkerwhosoughttopurifytheintellecttotallyofeverythingwhichdoesnotbelongtotheintellectfinallynoteddownthemost solemnlybeautifullandscapeofwishfulfeelinginhisuniverse.Theworldstandshereascrystal,withthesuninthezenith,sothatnothingcastsashadow.NoGod thrustsherefromoutside,Spinozainhis *Faust,PartI,5089. FromGoethe'sWanderersNachtlied ZahmeXenienVI

Page853 TheologicalpoliticalTreatiseprotestsbrilliantlyagainsttheviewthatknowledgecanbelearnedfromreligion,thatdeussivenaturashouldbeconfusedwiththeimage ofgodsinanyreligion:thusheisnotonlyamathematicalpantheist,butapantheisticmaterialist.Withnothingbutworldwhichhasmadeitself(Eth.I,Appendix),with worldlinessofthehighestconsciousness,andconsciousnessofthehighestworldliness.Timeismissing,historyismissing,developmentismissingandespeciallyevery concretemultiplicityintheoneoceanofsubstance.ButSpinozismgivesandthisconstitutesitsuniquealtitudeapictureoftheworldwhichseemstohaveno subjectivitybecauseitiswhollyfilledwithperfectobjectsubstance,andnopurposebecausetheperfectdoesnotneedone.Spinozismstandsthereasiftherewas eternalnooninthenecessityoftheworld,inthedeterminismofitsgeometryandofitsbothcarefreeandsituationlesscrystalsubspecieaeternitatis. AugustineandgoalhistoryLeibnizandtheworldasprocessofillumination Thethinkingthatlooksoutwardsskirtsalongtheedgeofthings.Ifthismovementisessentiallyatemporal,forwarddirectedone,itentrustsitselftoaflux,nottorest. Theprospectisthenoneofprogress,andrestitselfisnotintheroundedwholebutonlyinanoutflowing,lateon,probablyevenrightattheend.Itischaracteristicthat Heraclitus,thephilosopherofflux,calledtimethefirstbody,andinfacthewasprecededinthislineevenearlierbyorphicmythicalthinking.Pherekydes,onesuch orphic,hadthusplacedChronosatthebeginningofthingsandcausedfire,thebreathofairandwatertospringfromhim,inotherwordsnothingbutthingsthathave beenmovedZeus,theheavens,andChthonia,thedepthsoftheearth,herestandonlyinthesecondrank.HewasfollowedbyHeraclituswithhisstrangeyettrend settingpropositionsthegodsdisappeared,theineverysenseoriginalKronosChronosremained.Butatthesametimeasecondfeatureoftheperspectivebeginning withtimeandrunningwithinitwaslaiddownhere:namelythevisionofBecomingasavaluestressedbecominglight.Aswehaveseen,Empedocleshadinanycase declaredsomethingasthoroughlyinterestedandthereforevaluestressedashateandlovetobetheagentofmotion,oftheseparationandcombinationofsubstances. Andfromthisstandpointaviewwasnowpossiblewhichemphasizedactualhistoricaltimeintheworld,withrestonlyintheinitialandfinalstateoftheworld.In betweenliestheintervention

Page854 ofseparatinghate,andfurthermoreinthreeperiods:thatoftheemergingseparationofsubstances,thatoftheirtotalseverancebyacompletepreponderanceoflove afterwhichthewhirlpoolofprocess,evenlyfreedofhateandlove,ofthemotionofseparationandcombination,againflowsintothesphairosofharmony.Butflows intoitagainasatemporalsphereforeventhesphairosistransitory,becauseseveringhateinvadesitagainandagainandsetsthelifeofnatureinmotion,togetherwith recombininglove.ThepeculiarcontributionofEmpedoclesisthereforethathenotonlyintroducedconceptsofvalueintothecontemplationofnature,butthathetried abovealltodivideupthemotionofnatureintoperiodsthroughthealternatingproportionalsharesofhateandlovewiththeultimateextinctionofbothinakindof worldlessnessingeneral.Mythicaldefinitionsalsoundoubtedlylaybehindthisaswell,asinHeraclitus'theoryoftimeasthefirstbodyandespeciallyintheChronos whobeganeverythingforPherekydes.Infact,themythicaldefinitionsoftheHeracliteanbodyoftimeevenhavethesamemythicaloriginasthepowersofhateand loveinEmpedocles,namelyaPersianone.BoundlesstimeisattheheadofthegenesisoftheworldintheZendavestatooandinPersianmyththecounter movementsofhateandloveactmorethaneverasthoseofthedestructiveAhriman,ofthebrightOrmuzd.AndthisPersiandualism,renewedmanycenturieslaterby Maniandhissect,inturnstirredsomanycenturiesafterEmpedoclesalateclassicalthinkerwhowasaManichaean,beforehebecameaChurchFather:Augustine. Itisthereforenoleapoverhistoricalabyssesatallifnowatthispoint,almostovertheheadsofalltheGreekphilosopherswholiebetweenthem,Empedoclesand AugustinemoveclosertogetherlinkedbyPersianmyths,asthinkersofastruggleofprocess,ofaperspectiveofthetriumphoflove,thetriumphoflight.And Augustine'sclearmission:tomakeroominsocietyforChristasagainstCaesar,naturallyparticularlysharpenedthedualityofhateandlove,darknessandlight.And furthermore,thetotalinsertionofAhrimanorthedevilishelementintothepoleofhate,andOrmuzdorthedivineelementintothepoleoflovevastlydramatizedthe worldprocessfromanalternatingprocessrelationshipofhateandloveitisturnedintoabattlefieldbetweenSatanandChrist.Thisnewperspectiveappears,world historicallyharnessedbetweentheFallandtheLastJudgment,inthetwentytwobooksofAugustine'sDecivitateDei,asinglepreparatoryactivationoffeudal clericalsocietyandmuchmorebesides.Sothatthisbookdisplaysyetanothercontextandcontentthanthatofsocialutopiawhichhasalreadybeendealtwith,a contentwhichfires,excitesandaimsatthewholeofhistory.ThereposepositedasgivenofaHenkaiPan,asasphereorlateras

Page855 amathematicalcrystalnature,isnowover.Buttheeternalrecurrenceofacycleisalsoover,withnootherresultatallinitsdynamicsthanasphairoswhichshatters overandoveragainthroughthepowerofhate.Onthecontrary:worldhistoryisunique,togetherwithitsclimaxChristitbecomesthesphairos(heretheSabbathrest oftheworld),andisportrayedasanolongerdisturbabletriumphoftheluxaeterna.Thepathofhistoryisnowtoproceedtothisend,accordingtoAugustine,insix epochs(articulitemporis)throughnighttolight,throughajourneyofwarandpilgrimagebythechosenfewandtheirkingdomofGodrightthroughthecivitasterrenaof sinfulcreation(andfallennature).Thegoalitselfofcourseisreadygivenhere,andalreadyexistenthighabove,indeedforanomniscientGodhistoryconverselydoes notexistasprocess:AllhappeningshavealreadyhappenedinpraedestinationeDeiideonihilrecenssubsole*(Deciv.DeiXII,14).Andwithafurther,purely spatialcolouring,ifnoteliminationofthecategoryoftime:ThecivitasDeiisasfarremovedfromthecivitasterrenaastheskyisfromtheearth(l.c.,V,17).Sothat thereforethehistoricalprocessoflightmayfinallystandasamerelypedagogicalone,asoneofmereprogressivelightfindinginsteadofprogressivelightkindlingitself occurringinthematter.Butitispreciselythiswhich,foralltherejectionofhumanhubris,isintendedinAugustine'sperspectiveandhasinfluencednotecclesiastical historyofcourse,certainlynot,butratherhereticalhistory.Mostofallwiththedirectednessoftime,astimewhichisirreversibleintermsofsalvationhistory,butalso whichcannotbearrestedinanypreviouscivitasDeimode.AfterwhichthisdirectednesscamebacktolifepreciselyintheworkofthemanwhotookAugustine's kingdomofGodmostseriouslyofall,inJoachimofFiore,theIsaiahofthethirteenthcentury.Forwhomthestatusoflightevenfromthepointofviewofitsexistenceis onewhichisonlycomingup,sothatitisnotnowfoundbymeansoftheformationofhistoricalstages,butisitselfcomingtobirth.Andatworkinthisdirectednessis Augustine'spropositionoftherestorationofthehumanlikenessattheendofhistory,whichdecisivelyfiredhereticalhistory.Namelybecauseofthesharply eschatologicalemphasisitpossessesdespitetherestoration(themererestitutioinintegrum)anddespitetherejectioncitedaboveofallhistoricalproduction(regarding thekingdomofGod).Thisvastproposition,clearlycontainingsomethingnew,ofawishfullandwaseffectiveaboveall:Wehumanbeingsourselveswillbetheseventh day,Diesseptimusetiamnosipsierimus,quandoeiusfuerimusbenedictioneetsanctificationepleni *inGod'spredestinationandsothereisnothingnewunderthesun Weourselveswillbetheseventhday,whenwewillbefilledwithhisblessingandsanctification

Page856 (l.c.,XXII,30).ButonthepathtowardsthisAugustineremainsthegreatestdiscovererrightupuntilLeibnizoftheobjectivefunctionoftime:furthermoreasafunction oftheworlditself,despitethemythologicallyfixedconnections.ForAugustineultimatelystressed,inadistantvisionofprocesswhichwasunavoidableagainandagain, nothinglessthanthemutabilityoftheworldwhichmakesthisprocesspossible.Andthisintheliteral,bothnegativeandultimatelycomplexpositivesenseoftheconcept ofchangeabilityasafallintothetransitory(corruptio,defectus),butaboveallalsoasaprogression(augmentatio,profectus)ofdeliverance.Thoughhere Augustine'sconceptoftime(andthisfirstphilosopherofhistorywasaccordinglyalsothefirsttothinkdeeplyabouttime)isstrangelyshackledbothtomerereality basedonexperienceandtotheimageofthehourglasssimplytricklingdown.Timetricklesasitwereoutoftheretortofthefuturethroughthenarrowcrackofthe presentincessantly,inexorablyintotheretortofthepastwherebyanimageofgravity,animageofantiflightsimultaneouslygetsunderway.Inthisrespectthe depravingelement,indeedthecharacterofdeathinthelapseoftimenowalsopredominates,seenfromthisstandpoint,thetransportoutofvaguefuturethroughtheso narrowactualityofthemomentdownintoanincreasinglyaccumulatingNoLongerBeingofthepast.Changeability,conceivedalongtheselinespredominantlyas corruptioanddefectus,thereforesignifiesinitstimemerelyanimperfectioninBeing,adefect,indeedadownrightevilAugustinethinksheisabletodevourthiskindof changeabilitywiththenothingnessoutofwhichtheworldwascreatedandintowhichallthingscanalsopassaway,quaeexnihilofactasunt*(l.c.,XII,8).But Augustineadvancesfromthefallingofthishourglasstimethoroughlydialecticallytotimeasapilgrimage,tomovementoutofthedefectusintonothingnesstowardsthe profectusintoexpectantfullness.Ifthetemporalbeingofcreaturesandtheworldsinksintothepastagainandagainbecauseoftheirshareofnothingness,temporal beingasunfoldingproceedsintothefutureagainandagain,fromwhichitsexistenceandultimatelyanevertrueroneaccrues.AccordingtoAugustine'smythology,of course,onlythecreatormundihimself,i.e.God,keepsusabovetheabyssandultimatelysavesusfromtheabyssotherwisetherewouldnotbeanyprocessupwards. Butthisisalsothewayinwhichevents,insteadofmerelyflowingawayintothespecificnothingnessofthepast,moveintotheunfoldingofthefuture,intotherealization ofitspossibilities,especiallyofthepossibilitiesofsalvationprearrangedforit.ThoughtheircontentliesforAugustineonceagaintotally *whicharemadefromnothingness.

Page857 outsidetemporality,itisBeingwithoutanytime:Observethechangesofthings,andyouwillfindEritetFuitthinkofGodandyouwillfindEst,inwhichFuitetErit cannotbe(InJoh.ev.tractatus38,10).Thecrystalofreposetherebyevenrisesoutofalldissonancesoftime,butasacrystaloftheendofhistory.Thusitistheone mostalientopantheism,itisnotoneofacosmiccurve,butofthethoroughlytranscendentaldepths,notoneofspacebutofeternity.Nuncstansaeternitas:thisisfor Augustinetheoriginallightwhichonlybreaksthroughafteratotallyendedhistoricalcosmicillumination. Athinkingwhichischargedwithtimemostlyalsoprovestobehumanlycharged.Forpassingawayandarisingarenotonlylookedatbutatfirstexperiencedina particularlycloseandinvolvedwayinone'sownbodyandbeing.Eveniftimeisbynomeanstheformoftheinnermind,butamaterialmodeofexistencethroughand through,itsconsciousnessstillunlocksmorethanthatofspaceastrivingandWhereToinBeing.Inallthinkerswholookoutwardandareneverthelessfullofsubjective movementwethereforefindthemotionofthingsasanequallyarousedmotion.Atangleofemotionalandworldeventstakesplacewhichhadfirstbeenindicatedin Empedoclesbyhateandlove.ButwhichalsoaroseinthegreatprogressivethinkerofdevelopmentAristotleas ,i.e.asthestatedurgeof mattertowardsform,andthenasaselfrealizationofforminmatter.AndwhichfinallyinantiquityfulfilledAugustine'sworldperspectiveofastrugglingpilgrimage, withfarewelltotheoldsocietyandwiththeformationofsignalsforthenewsociety.Allthisnowintensifieswiththeincipientbourgeoisselfconfidentandsosubject rich,ultimatelydynamicconsciousnessofthemodernage.Insofarasitappearspreciselyastendencytolight,aslightintendencyandnotalreadyasspatialcompletion oflight.AnessentialfeaturefromEckharttoHegelinthispredominanttemporallandscapeofphilosophy(inotherwordsNonorNotYetSpinozism)istheco operationofselfilluminationandworldillumination,suchthattheFiatluxassistsitselfandechoesoninboth.ThereisEckhart:thegroundofeverythingthatisdeclares itself,manisitshighestword,andinhimitreturnsasarecognizedgroundbackintoitself.Ifnonthinkingcreaturesarethefootprintsofthegroundwhichhasturnedout well,thenthethinkingsoulisitslikeness,itslikenessreleasedfromalluncleardarkness.Paracelsusfollows,orthedoctrineofthegroundasthecreativeforceofnature itself,insideandoutside,inthefeverandinthestorm,inmanandintheworld.Butmanisthehighestundertakingofthisnaturanaturans,anditisuptohimtoreinforce andtopurifyeverfurthertheBecomingofthings.Godwantseverythinghehaslaidout
oncom netaacute

Page858 andleftimperfecttobebroughttocompletion:thedoctorasphilosopher,thephilosopherasdoctorthusstandswhollyinthisprocessofpurification.Thepurification occursinaverybroadsensealchemically:bothasaremovalofimpureelementsandasaheighteningofvirtus,efficiency,fullnessoflife.Allthisistooccurthroughtruth tonature,thatis,theimaginationtruetothenaturanaturans,whichknowsallaboutquintessence.Thismeansinturn:abouttheextractionofthevitalessencefrom everything,aboutthecontinuationofthemaizeofthegreatworldeventheLastJudgementisthusunderstoodinmoralchemical,chemicalmoralterms.Jakob Bhmefollowspreciselyrelatedinsuchprocessingoutorthedoctrineofthemanifestationofthedarkoriginalgroundthroughquaking,kraken,qualityon towardsthekingdomoflight.IfonewantstotalkofGod,whatGodis,onemustdiligentlyconsidertheforcesinnature.Butthese(andthiskindofthinghadno longerbeenheardsinceHeraclitus)arethemselvesastrugglebetweenopposites.Thustobeginwith:Naturehastwoqualitiesinit,alovely,heavenlyandholyone, andafierce,hellishandthirstyone(Aurora,Preface9)thisisstillreminiscentoftheoldManichaeanduality.Butthencomesthecontinuation:Allcreaturesaremade fromthesetwosources,andeverythingwhichgrowsoutoftheearth,whichlivesandwellsoutoftheforceofthesequalitiesForthroughitsdoublesourceeverything hasitsgreatmobility,running,racing,welling,sproutingandgrowing(l.c.,Chap.2,1)thisconsequentlypassesfromtheManichaeantoobjectivedialectics.With sevenwellingspiritsornaturalforms,fromthedryandbitterthroughthefireoflightningtowarmlight,tothepealofjoyrightuptothewholecorpusnaturaeandto Christinman,athousandtimesgreaterthantheFather,i.e.thantheundevelopedbeginningororiginalground.Thustheselfexplicationofthegroundhereisnotonly itsselfknowledge,asinEckart,butapartfromthisitsselfcorrection.Asathemewhich,minusthechemicalnightsanddayswithwhichitwascolouredinParacelsus andBhme,becameeverlastingfromhereoninthephilosophyofprocess. Butnowofcourse,althoughallthisdefinitelyintendedthinkingoflightbecoming,ithadnotescapedfromthefermentationofthelatter.Itspowerfulinternaland externalweatherthereforestillformednoseparatestrictcounterparttotheSpinozismofthecrystal.Thiscounterpartisfirstgiveninthatlandscape,illuminatingitselfso vigorouslyandextensively,whichisdescribedbyLeibniz.Consequentlybythethinkerofgeneticenlightenment,bytheperceptionandexplicationoftheworldcontent developingineverclearer,evermoredistinctreflection.Nevertheless,

Page859 LeibnizdefinitelystandsinthelandscapeofprocessenteredbyParacelsusandBhmeamongsomanyricheshehasthisspecificallyGermanRenaissancedimension eventoaconsiderabledegree.Leibniz'senlightenment,inkeepingwithitsrationalisticspirit,abandonedthefermentingsystemofretorts,andafoaminggoldcookingis replacedbyacontinuousintensitysequenceoflightincreasing,butinfact:thislightincreasingformspreciselyinLeibniztheworldasprocessofillumination,the landscapeofitsperfectibilit.Fivemainpointsparticularlystandoutinthepresentconnectionhere,theyallshowman,time,andworldonceagainasintertwinedand relatedtotheprocessofgrowinglight.FirstlyallBeingissupposedtoconsisthereofmentalpowerpoints,eachofthematotallyinternallifewhichhasnowindows, butfindinginitself,namelyreflecting,everythingoutside.Secondlythesemonadsarecharacterizedinthisreflectionbyanappetitus,atendency,fortheyareconceived ascosmopolitansoftheEnlightenment,theyarealloftheracewhichstrivesoutofdarknessintolight,andforLeibnizthereisnothingbutthisappetitusoflight.Thirdly thetendency,asinquitudepoussante,runsexplosively,particularlywhenconstricted,andLeibnizhereusesthearchprocessive,longunheardequationofopen spaceandfuture:Justas,intheelasticbodywhichisconstricted,itsgreaterdimensionliesasstriving,sointhemonaddoesitsownfuturestate,andfurther,ina replytoBaylein1702:Onecansaythatinthesoul,aseverywhereelse,thepresentisbigwiththefuture.Insuchdefinitions,objectivedialecticsaboveallattained moreclearlythaneverbeforetheclosestconnectionwithprocess,indeedasaprocessessentiallymediatedwiththefuture,notonlywiththepast(cf.ErnstBloch, SubjektObjekt,1951,p.123f.)despitetheblockagainstthegenuinefuture,againstwhatisinrealitynew,whichevenLeibnizdisplays.Fourthlythetendency, preciselyasanimmanentonepeculiartothemonadsthemselves,possessesitsWhereToasWhatForitcannotevenbeconceivedwithoutsuchapurposiverelation. LeibnizdiffersabovealleveninthispointfromSpinozaandnolessfromBaconandHobbes,whoallrejectedthecategoryofpurposeSpinozacalledittherefugeof ignorance.However,thisrejectionwasdirectedchieflyagainsttheequationofteleologyandtheology,i.e.againsttranscendentalpurposesettingbyadivinewill,by divineProvidenceandthelike.ButSpinozahimselfbynomeansavoidedthecategoryofpurposewhenhesawitatworkinnaturalistic0terms,i.e.intheworkofman, notinasocalledworkofGod:asforinstanceinthedefinitionofthestateasamachinebuiltbymenforthepurposeoftheirwelfare.AndhowevermuchLeibniz ultimatelyseekstofoundhisconceptofpurpose,

Page860 i.e.withametaphysicallimitingconcept,inadivinepurposesettingofthebestofallthingspossible,justaslittledoeshecanceloutthecausaldeterminisminitwhich hasnoexceptioninsteadthisprevailsinordertofulfilthepurpose,asinamachine.Andtheconceptofpurposeisinfactappliedtoimmanenttendency,asaWhere Toconnectionbetweenthenaturalandthemoralworld.Itguaranteestheperfectibilitoftheworld,andthereforenotjusttheharmonyofalltheactivitiesofthe monadsbuttheeverbrighterrepresentationoftheuniverseinthemonads,rightdowntothetransformationoftheworldintothehighestbrightnessofitscontent.Fifthly, forthefirsttimesinceAristotle,Leibnizopenedupwithgenuineideasofprocesstheconceptofpossibilityagain,conceivedbothasdisposition,dispositioto unfoldingineverymonad,andasarealmofinfinitepossibilities,ofwhichtheexistingworldisapartialrealization.Thedispositionisthevirtualcontainmentofthe predicateswithinthesubject,againwithsharpreferencetothetendency:Omnepossibileexigitexistere.*Therealmofinfinitepossibilitiesontheotherhand,from amongwhichtheexistingworldconstitutesapartialrealization,signifiesdespitethepurelytheologicallocationgiventothisrealmbyLeibnizanenormoushorizonof possibility,whichalsoinfactextendsintotheexistingworlditself(byvirtueofthedispositionswithinit).Somuchinthisconnection,thatofthelandscapeofprocess, forthefivemainpointsofatheoryofworlddevelopmentsubspecieperfectionisinsteadofatheoryofworldperfectionsubspecieaeternitatis.SinceLeibnizportrays aninorganicallyorganicallyhumanegraduatedstructureoftheuniverseastheclimaxofillumination,healsopositstheprocessofthisclimax,thepluralisticallydynamic process,asjustasmuchaformationoftierstowardsperfection.EverysubstanceislikeaworldbyitselfandlikeamirrorofGodorratherofthewholeuniverse whichit,eachinitsownway,expresses(Philos.Schriften,Gerhardt,IV,p.434),namelyinaneverclearerandmoredistinctway.Thustheindependenceof forcesandtheselfdevelopmentofthingscontinuouslyriseandintensify,withtheultimatepurposeofaclaritywhichrepresentsboththemachineofGodandthe stateofGod,thatis,ofthehighestperfection.Byvirtueofthisharmonythepathsofnatureleadtograceoftheirownaccord(Monadologie,88):thisisLeibniz's utopiaofworldprocessinplaceofSpinoza'sunityofnatureandgraceandasagainstAugustine'stranscendentalinfluenceofgrace.Thedarkgroundofcourse,the gloomynongroundofJakobBhmehaslikewisebeenomittedinthisrationalism,asoneabovousquefinem.OnlythelaterSchellingreferredtoit *everythingpossibledemandsexistence.

Page861 again,notwithoutaverydifferentlyobscure,namelyreactionarybrief,butapartfromthisnotwithoutthestrengthofthememorythatpreciselyinthestriving,volitional, dynamicelementofLeibniz'stendencythereliessomethingotherthanthemerelogosoftheRatio.HenceSchelling'sdistinctionbetweenthepositing,volitionalThat elementandtherationalWhatelementinprocess(indicatedinAristoteliantermsasthedifferencebetweenthe andthe , expressedinscholastictermsasthedifferencebetweenthequodditasandthequidditas).ThefirstBeing,thisprimumexistens,isthereforeatthesametimethefirst contingentelement(originalcontingency).Thiswholeconstructionthereforebeginswiththegenesisofthefirstcontingentelementwhatisunlikeitself,itbegins withadissonanceandprobablymustbegininthisway(Schelling,WerkeX,p.101).Ifweleaveasidethefallingawaymythology,addedtothisbySchelling,ofthis firstBeing,anincalculableprocesselementiscertainlyconsideredalongwiththeintensityfactorofprocessconceivedasBhme'snonground.Forifthegrowthof cosmicbrightnessassuchonlyhadrationalelements,thentherewouldbenothingatallwhichhastenedgrowthwithanintensiveagency.Furthermore,iftheprocessdid nothavetoproduceandtomanifestsomethingwhichisbynomeansalreadyabovoquidditas,therewouldbenoprocessatalleither,infacttherewouldnotevenbe Leibniz'scategoryofrelationinit.Insteadofthis,andespeciallyinsteadofthedifferencesinbrightnesswithinapurelylogicalquidditas,therewouldbenodifferences andconnectionsatall,butthecollapseofallrelationsintoprocesslessidentity.AsisalsowhollyconsistentlythecaseinSpinoza'stotalrationalisminaccordancewith itsradicaleliminationofprocess.ButhowsignificantlyeventheconceptofprocessinBhmeultimatelystemsfromadarklyintensiveupwardstruggleanditsaurora howconspicuouslybothahealingprocessandajudicialprocessareencompassedinthewholecategoryofprocess,howbotharereferredtosomethingnegative whichistobehealedandcorrectedbymeansofprocess.Andtheprocessineachoftheseformsmustbegainedforitrefersbacktosomethingunfinished, somethingwhichoughtnottobe,whichformsthefoundationofthisprocesswithoutthisprocessbeingfoundedonit.WhichiswhyHegelinparticularasremoteas hewasfromScheling'sIrratio,andhowevermuchthelattercriticizedhiminparticularcertainlyadoptedandrecognizedtheoldBhmeanresistancefromthe standpointofanonground.AndwhichismoreoverwhyLeibniz'sintentionstowardsdialecticsweresodynamicallysharpenedbyHegel,namelybytransferringthe processdrivingagentintonegation.Becausethelatter,asanocturnalandturning
oddash iota iota iota

Page862 pointofexistence,bothtautensandbreakseachtime,anelementofthenongroundisconstantlysentintoLeibniz'scontinuum,thoughalsologicizedbyitagain.Buta sourdough,anelementofblacknessistherebyaddedtoLeibniz'sperfectionism,indeedtotheideaofprocessasasimplyselfinterpretingselflove,selfknowledgeof Godoutofperfection:Thisideadescendsintoedificationandevenintoinsipidityiftheseriousness,thepain,thepatienceandworkofthenegativeelementislackingin it(Hegel,WerkeII,p.15).Thenegativeelement,thisenormousdrivingpower,isinHegel'sperspectiveofprocessforthisveryreasontheinequalityofsubstance withitself,becausethepositiveelementisonlytheessencecompletingitselfthroughitsdevelopment.TheessenceasThatWhichIsinreality,thisauthenticelement orinHegelianlanguage:Absolutethereforemovesentirelytothepeakofgeneticworldpreservation,thatis,toitsend.Temporalitythustriumphsasatrueproduction centre,atleastintheworldofhistoricalBecomingforitselfthusessencelivesinitsBeingforitselfonlyasagoal.Theworldofprocessasadominanttothistonic nowbecomesatotalblossomfruitarchetypeincontrasttothatofcrystal:ItmustbesaidoftheAbsolutethatitisessentiallyresult,thatitiswhatitisinrealityonlyat theend(l.c.,p.16).Here,ofcourse,therenewedutmostlogicizationcausesHegel'sphilosophyofprocesstoadjustitsworldpurelytotheidea,somuchsothateven everintensivematerialelementtogetherwithdifferenceandnegationissupposedtoconsistofspiritandnothingbutspirit.Likewise,asinLeibniz,indeedmorethanin him,allpredicatesoftheresultarefarfrombeingactuallyarisingNova,onthecontrarytheyarealreadyfixedlycontainedineverystageandsimplynotyetclearand distinct.Thisistheoldbarrierofcontemplationandanamnesiseveninphilosophiesofprocess,whichhasbeenpreservedrightuptothegatesofMarxism.Anamnesis alwaysremainsconservativeandthuspreventstherealdepictionofrealprocesses,i.e.thoseworkingintotheNew.NeverthelessthelinefromEckharttoHegel,even thepreviouslysotranscendentallyharnessedphilosophyofhistoryofAugustine,opensupasingledispersalfromjuxtapositionandevensuperimpositiontosuccession, fromspacetotimeandcalmlybacktofinalformasresultitisthelineofGothicinsteadofEgyptinphilosophy. Thewatchfulconceptorthe'authentic'asatask Ifthereisnothinkingforitsownsake,itmustbecleanforthisveryreason.Preciselybecauseithasaneedandvolitionbehindit,thisvolition

Page863 anditsbeingthoughtisonlypossibleasaprogressiveoneineachcase,notasacheerlessone.Thethinkerscitedabovethusstoodontheheightsoftheirage,though withadifferentstatusofthemselvesandtheirageandaboveallwithadifferentlyunerringglanceintothecoreoftheapparentworldspirit.Butallsought,idealistically andespeciallymaterialistically,inconcreteaiming,theThatWhichReallyIs,towhichmancancling.Sothathedidnotstumblefivestepsfromhishouseintodarkness andthickets,butpathsweremade,thepathwasrecognizedasarealconnection,andthesoughtafteressencebecameatangibleconcept.Itischaracteristicofthe greatfeatureinphilosophizingherethattheessencewhichwasthusdisplayedaspresence,namelyashouseandhold,wastobeanAllinwhicheachhumanconcern andallexternalmanifestationsarecomprised.TheinformationaboutthisTotum(weonlyhavetothinkofHeraclitus'fireandthenofthefixedsphereofbeingofthe Eleatics)issodifferentthatfoolishconfusersofsubstantialresearchwithwitheredcatechismthoughttheycouldcallthehistoryofphilosophythestrongestrefutationof philosophy.Inrealitythevariousgreatconcepts,asthosewhichportraynontransitoryideologyoftransitoryconditionsorevenhiredchampioningsofsocial retrogressionanddecline,bynomeansdepresstothepointofrelativism.Insteadthesegreatworldconcepts,oftenintransitoryguise,withsomuchidealisticbutalso withmechanisticwetnessbehindtheears,representsectorsinsuccessionorinjuxtapositionand,expressedlessstatically,respectivefrontalareasofreality, complementingoneanother.ThusthesweepingLeibnizsayshehasneverfoundatotallyfalseideaanywhere,andifsomethinglikethisisalsofartoosweeping,Hegel isstillfreeofsuchobjectivisticsecondarystressoftheuniversal,whenhefirstlyonlypermitssignificantstepformingideasassuchandsecondlytreatstheseas progressiverevelationsoftheworldcontent.Hismistakeistoportraytheserevelationsasconcretereproductionsofhisabstractlogicalcategories,hismeritistohave finallyliberatedthehistoryofphilosophyfromakindofintellectualcollectionofanecdotes,whereuponitbecomesrecognizableasaprogressiveunfoldingofscientific worldconsciousness.Inaddition,thereisafurtherpeculiarityofgreatphilosophies,whichhashardlybeensufficientlytakenintoaccountuptillnow:thedrivingtoan endoftheirbasicideas,withthevolitional,socialbiasedbasicimpetusinandbehindit.Thisdrivingtoanendinfactconstitutesthespecificwishfullandscapein philosophies,i.e.theperfectiontowhichapromisingmotifofknowledge,asuggestivesideoftheworlddevotedtoit,hasbeenboosted.Thiswaspartlyalleviatedand partlyconcealedinitsutopian

Page864 characterbytheformaldrivingtoanendoflogicalconsistencyandthearchitectonictotalkindinthesystem.Alleviatedbecausethelogicalconsistencyincorporates thevolitionalemotionalkind,likethesteamofthelocomotivewhichcarriesoffthehotgasesandthuspromotesthedraughtintheboiler.Theperspectiveofautopian completedkindisconcealedbytheroundingoffinterruptedalmostonlyinKantofaclosedsysteminthefabricofdoctrinesofphilosophyelaboratedalongpre Marxistlineswhichiswhythatwhichisdistinguishedastheauthenticappearedbothasreadyexistingandasfactuallyclosed,andthereforewithoutFrontand Novum.TheoldspellofPlatonicanamnesisisagainatworkthroughouthere,thetheorythatalllearningisonlyarerememberingofwhatwasseenlongagoandThat WhichTimelesslyIsthisantiquarianspellalsoconcealsintheshapeoftheclosedsystemthebynomeansantiquarianelementineachperspectiveontotheauthentic oressence.Yetthisperspectiveassuchexistseverywhere,andinfact:itis,subspecietoto,subspecieaeternitatis,oneinwhichoneofthegreatarchetypesofthe worldasawhole(motion,rest,oceanofmatter,light,crystal)isboostedintoanimageoftheend,animageofperfection.ThusHeraclitus,Parmenides,Democritus cameclose,asdidBrunoandSpinoza,andLeibnizinadifferentwaynothingbutputtingtheworld,invarioussectorsorevenfronts,tothetestofessence.And aboveallinthealreadyalwayssorrowlessanddaybrightmaterialism,inBruno'sworldtree,inSpinoza'smiddaycrystalthererisestheselfperfectingconsciousness, thererisesthecriticaloptative:Ifonlyitwereso!IfonlytheworldwereasfullofenthusiasmasinBruno,asfullofshadowlesscrystallizationasinSpinoza!Ifonlythis intensification,indeedoverintensificationofsomethingwhichexistsonlyinfragmentaryformsignifiedasolutionoftheworldmystery!Suchanoptativeholdsgood despitethetotallackofhistoryinSpinoza,whichalonewouldcausethefragmentaryAlmostNotintheprojectedmiddaycrystaltobecomprehendedandpursuedina NotYet.Theoptativeholdsgooddespitetherationalisticdogmatismofthesystem,despitethepantheismwhichpositsthedeniedGodofheavenastheaffirmedone ofnatureandwhich,asFeuerbachrightlysays,representsthenegationoftheologyfromthestandpointoftheology.ButSpinoza'ssubstanceinitsradiantrepose cumgranosalissimilartoGiotto'sandDante'sreposeinartwillappearasacorrectiveofLeibniz'sgoalofunrestandprocess.Howremote,therefore,thethus conceivednotationanddistinctionofphilosophicalimagesofperfectionisfromrelativismandespeciallyfromthesubjectivistabjurationsoftruthwhicharecalled pragmatismorfictionalism.Buthowremote,

Page865 too,thenotationcitedaboveisfromthenondialecticswhichalreadyregardstheauthenticelementandessenceofthingsorevensimplytheTotumasastatic completionwiththeperspectiveonlyasanintendingglanceatortowardsitandnotalsoasanobjecttendencyitself.Thedecisionhereruns:theoptative,which strikeswithmoreorlessconsternationaccordingtothephilosophicalapproximationstothisessentialelement,hastobecomeataskinorderincreasinglytorecognize andincreasinglytomanifesttheauthenticinthesamefeature.Toputitanotherway:theessentialelementneedspeopleforitsevermoreidenticalpresentationand thismostthoroughtheorypracticeisthemoralofthecorrectedwishfullandscapeinphilosophy. Fromthispointofviewnothingismorefalsethantheunexaminedpropositionthatsomethingistoobeautifultobetrue.Itmustbeexamined,whichisadutyand withoutwhichcertainlynothingcanbeaffirmedaboutthisbeautifulthingfromthestart,butcannotbedeniedaboutitinthiswayeither.Whichmeansthatmorethan anywhereelsethewatchfulconceptbelongsherewithavaluesubstance,eventhehighest,withwhichThatWhichTrulyIshasbeenprovided.Thisconceptisbyno meansthedestructiveoneintermsofvalue,inthemannerofamiserableandultimatelyallthemoresubjectivistpositivism,butitismoresharplythananywhereelse(for corruptiooptimipessima)thecorrectingone.ThatiswhyAristotledescribedthescientificstatementasapropositionwhichpreciselyincontrasttothewishful propositionappearsastrueorfalse.Whichonlymeansofcoursethatwishfulpropositionsofanegativeorpositivekind,eveniftheyrefertosomethingobjectively possible,refertosomethingwhichhasnotornottotallyoccurredanddoesnotornottotallyexist,sothattheyarenotornotfullyaffirmableordeniablewithregardto this.Butratherallwishfulpropositionsinsofarastheycanbetreatedscientificallymoveinthesphereofmoreorlessgreatprobabilitytowardsfalsehoodortruthand furthermore,thisprobabilityisdeterminedaccordingtothedegreeofmoreorlessgreatobjectivepossibilityinthecontentofthewishfulproposition.Possibility therefore,thatis,partialexistenceofconditionswhichisstillbynomeansalreadysufficientfortheirrealization,thisconstitutesthesphereinwhichnothingwhatsoever canbetoobeautifulnottobetrueinthefutureatleast,accordingtotheconditions.Indeedinwhichtruth,preciselyasoneofessence,withthefullandveryoldgolden soundofBeingInTruth,possiblydoesnotevenhavetobewareofbeingedifying.Possiblyofcourse,andthismeansinfact:aftercorrectionbydetailedknowledgeof thereallyoccurringprocess,oftheobjectiverealpossibilityinwhichthewholeprocessrealityissubstantiatedasone

Page866 ofprocesscapacityitself.ThiscorrectioncamethroughMarx,andhereleastofallitextinguishedthetaskoftheworldbeingchangedintowishedforandhumane recognitionandofessencebecomingthatofanembracingAtHome.Withouthaste,notskippingpagesinordertogettotheendmorequicklywithoutinflationof individualfactorsandsectorsinordertoimpoverishtheworldinanidealisticbutalsovulgarmaterialistway.Withoutidealisticreificationofabstractionsasawhole, whichturntheworldonitshead,makethepredicateintothesubjectandseektheprimacyinthemindinsteadofintheinterestsandmaterialconditions.Butfinallyalso withoutanyabovementionedaftereffectofanamnesisincosmicstyle,justasiftheauthentichadalreadybeenproducedandwasstationednotjustasens perfectissimumbutalreadyasensrealissimum.Preciselybecausethisisnotthecase,isfundamentallynotyetthecase,thewatchfulconceptanditspracticeoperates duringthecorrectionandafteritjustastirelesslyasmindfulnessoftheVerumBonum,withtrulyhighlyorganizedmatterinview.Thustheworldthenstandsofcourse withacrystallightofSpinozisminphilosophicalpreappearance,whichseestheworldwithoutanythingunessential,morethanthis:withouttrulyrealunessential mischief.Inthehorizonofthetaskwhichproceedsfromtheamorfatitothecontrolofcomprehendeddestinyandfromtheamordeiintellectualistoworlddevotion, buttotherightkindandtothatofarightworld. Twowishfulpropositions:teachablevirtue,thecategoricalimperative Soberthinkingisparticularlysplendidifitisnotnarrowaswell.Boldthinkingisparticularlypreciousifitalsoknowsthefrontiersitisextending.Andyettherearecases whereitisnecessarytoshootnotjustbeyondthebarriersbutevenbeyondthegoalinordertohitit.Justasconverselyitcanbeaformulaoftotalbasenesstotake thingsastheyare,withaviewtoleavingthemlikethat.Therearethereforenotonlygreatconceptionsoftheworldbutalsoindividualphilosophicalpropositionswhich arefalsepurelywithregardtothefactsandwhichyet,becauseevenmoreaboutthemleavessomethingtobedesired,arenottotallyfinishedwithregardtothetruth. Whetheritisthatevenconcerningthem,inthemthewisharises:ifonlyitwereso!Orevenwhetheritisthatthesepropositions,atleastpartly,arefalsewithregardto thefactsbecausetheyhaveassertedsomethingthatisnotyetdue,inahastyway,becausethey

Page867 cametooearly.Heretoothewishisthenfathertothethought,butnot,assoofteninothercases,toafoolish,extravagant,probablyevenlyingthought,buttoa thoughtrushingonahead,eventhoughinanexaggeratedway.Suchathoughtcanlateralsoseemmuchmoresoberthanmanypoorimitationsandpiecesofadvice fromwhathappenstoexistatthetime,whichintheirdaythoughttheywereeversoeffective.Ofcourse,thedryassessmentofhowthingsareandstandatpresentis indispensableandcannotbedryenough.Butitisonethingtonotethestateofthingsisbad,andanothertoaffirmitorevensimplytoconsiderittobeirremediable. ThusevenoneoftheSevenSagessays:Mostpeoplearebad,whichisnotfarfromHobbes'opinion,whichuntilrecentlywasalmostoverwhelminglycorrect,that manisawolftoman.Butitisallaquestionofnotagreeingwithsuchopinionsofrecognizingthecausesfromwhichtheywillnotspringnorneedtospringforever knowinghowbadsomanythingsstillare,butknowingmoredeeplyhowgoodtheycouldbe.Thelatterisinfacttobefound,inahastyway,alsoofteninanabstract wholesalefashion,insomeotherwisenotatallverycomprehensiblephilosophicalpropositionsasforexampleinSocrates'propositionthatnobodyvoluntarilydoes wrong.Suchpropositionssharetheir,shallwesay:cheerfulhastewithmanywishfulpropositionsofamuchlesserkindandtheystillhavethedefectthattheydonot seemtobeconsciousoftheirwishatall.Butthesepropositionsaresodesignedthattheysimplyironicallyconcealthewish,togetherwiththewellknowndistancefrom theassertionandthelandinwhichtheyareindigenous.Thismakestheirseriousnessrelatedtothesoparticularlyinvisibleandunobtrusiveoneofhumour,whichagain isnotatallhastybutratherstretchesapoint,becauseittakesmisfortuneevenless,muchlessseriouslythanitself.Thoughthepropositionsofthekindintendedand citedabovebynomeanshaveasmileincommonwithhumourbutratheranempiricallyoftensoincomprehensibleyetneverprecipitate,thoroughlywellhoused elapsion.Sothatinthemnotjustthoughtsbutalsothingssiteasilysidebyside,inwellaccentuatedpreappearance.Whichthereforedoesnothoverintheairorwould nothavetoifthingswerealreadyontherighttrackeverywhere. Letustakethepropositionthatnomanvoluntarilydoeswrong.Bysayingthis,Socratesisassertingmuchmorethanjustthis,virtueisteachableandlearnable.Heis alsoassertingmorethantheuniformityofvirtueandinsight,inthesensethattruevirtueconsistsinknowledgeor,somewhatrestrictively,thatultimatelyallvirtuesare onlyone:knowledge.AndthisknowledgeforSocratesisonlyallowedtobeoneofgoodnessanyway,

Page868 sincenothingcanbelearntfromthetrees,butratherfrompeopleinthetown,andaknowledgeoftreesandthingsevenmoreremotefromtherightstyleofliving,which isallthatmatters,isofnouseatall.Forallitsnarrowness,thisleadsSocratesinhisapologiaeventothesublimeremarkthathedoesnotknowwhetherdeathisanevil buthedoesknowthatwrongdoingisone.Andsincethisistotallyknowable,teachable,andlearnable,Socratesnowgoesontotheverymuchmoreextremeassertion, whichsoundsalmostabsurdatthattimeandplace,thatamanistotallyincapableofdoingwhatiswrongifheknowswhatisright.Theknowledgeofgoodnessassuch isalwaysthestronger,andcannotbeovercomebyanydesireanymoresoinordertoarousemoralefficiencyand ,happilygeneral usefulnessofbehaviour,itisnotthewillbutsolelytheunderstandingwhichhastobeimproved.Socratesofcourse,asagenuineenlightener,therebyacquittedmanofa meredullandoftenbruteorigin.TheKantiancryishisown:Enlightenmentistheemergenceofmanfromhisselfinflictedminority.Butlikethedesire,thedefiancenot towantandnottodopreciselywhatisgoodisnotseenoradmittedeither.Iamdeterminedtoproveavillain,saysRichardIII,so,whollycontrarytothehigh doctrineofSocrates,hestillcertainlyhasthepsychologicalfreedomofchoicetodoevileventhoughhehasrecognizedit(andevilisinfactonlyachangingconceptof good).ThecircumstancesinparticulararewhollyomittedinwhichpeopleliveandbywhichtheirwillisfarmorestronglydeterminedthanbytheABC,however illuminating,ofmoralknowledge.NomoreneedstobesaidhereaboutwhatsoundsnonsensicalandisinfactactualnonsenseinSocrates'propositiononvirtueand knowledge,anditwasonlysaidinordertosetoffitsrelevantsensehere,despiteeverything.Undoubtedlythewishisfathertothethoughtinthisproposition,yetinfact awishwhichisnotnonsensicalitself,onewhichisnoterroneousforever,butmerelyonewhichwaspronouncedtooearly.Ifthecircumstancesareputinorderwhich keephumanbeingsfromdoingwhatisgood,indeedfromunfalsifiedideologyfreeunderstandingofit,thenthedetermininginfluenceofunderstandingonactionis certainlynolongerdifficult.Itisnotevennecessarytowaituntilthecircumstances(theyarefundamentallythoseofproperty)haveallchanged,fortheirchangingitself,if itisconcrete,isdominantlydeterminedbytheunderstandingofwhatisright.Sheermiseryonlybecomesarevolutionaryforcethroughthenotionwhichitgainsofits situationandoftrueeupraxia,andthemoraldutytochangeherespringsofcourseinevitablyfromaknowledgewhichpreciselyinthisdecisivecaseisnotleasta
vcomma oncom

Page869 knowledgeofvirtue.SothepropositionofSocratescitedaboveisofcoursenotyettrueatthattimeandplace,butithastheadvantageasitwereofbecomingand beingabletobecomeevermoretrue.Socratesdidnotsaywithoutfurtheradothatmanisgood,buthesaidvirtuewastheonlytruehumanBeing.Andinordertodo whatistruevoluntarily,firstlynobodymustbecompelledanymoretosufferorcarryoutevilinvoluntarily,namelyonpainofdestruction,andsecondlythegoodmust certainlyhavebeenbothrecognizedandadmitted.Inafinallyfriendlyrelation,onepossibleasfriendly,ofhumanbeingstohumanbeings,inthiseupraxiaso prematurelyacceptedbySocrateswhatisknowntobegoodcanfirstandforemostmakeitselfinevitable.Thusnomanwillinfactvoluntarilydowrongifinaccordance withthewishfulimageofthispropositionthecircumstancesarechangedwhichmadeitnonsensicalbecausetheypreventedit. Nowletustakethemuchmoredesirablepropositionthatmanisnevermerelyameansbutisanend.Kantteachesthis,andthefactthatforthetimebeingthisisonly thestatementofademandisunfortunatelyobvious.GivenanindividualturnthisShouldberuns:Manisunholyenough,buthumanityinhispersonmustbeholyto him.GivenasocialextensionthisShouldberuns:Actinsuchawaythatthemaximofyourwillcansimultaneouslycountastheprincipleofagenerallegislation,i.e. thatintheattempttoconceivethemaximofthisactionasagenerallyobeyedlawnocontradictionemerges.Thiskindofthingthenbecomesadownrightcommand, thecategoricalimperative,asiswellknown,theallegedlyinherentautonomouslawofpurepracticalreasonapriori.Andonceagainmutatismutandisasin Socrates'propositionaboutknowledgeandvirtueembarrassment,indeedrejectionandconsternationallarisetogether.Dependingonwhetherthelandscapeofthis moralpropositionisconsidereddirectly,atthattimeandplace,orinutopianterms,initsintendedandlegitimatelyintendablefuturesubstance.InKant'smoral propositionwhatfirstleaptotheeyeasbothstrangeanduntenableareitsalltooinwardquality,itscoldlyformalquality,itsPrussiancitoyenlikeamalgam.Butwithso muchdistancefromtheoldAdamandresidueofearththatJeanPaul,preciselywithregardtothismoralproposition,couldsaythatKantwasacompleteradiant systemoffixedstarsallofasudden.Undoubtedlythecategoricalimperativeisstronglyinward,crucialtoitistheframeofmindinwhichpeopleact,asgoodwillin itself.InadditionthisframeofmindisportrayedinaveryPrussianfashionasoneinwhichnotevenanywarmth,anyinclinationtodorightisallowed

Page870 tooccur,onpainofnotbeingpure.Theonlyfeelingitisallowedistheverybitteronecalledrespect,forthemorallawwhichsimplycommands.Somethingpurehas rarelybeenfranklymaskedoutofsheerpurityinsuchanunfriendlyandindeedsourway,suchagloomyreactiontosomethingsogood.Undoubtedlythecategorical imperativeisalsostronglyformal,i.e.itsdutifulframeofmindissupposedtoproveitselfintheform,notinthecontentofwanting.Norisitscriterion,anymorethanits impetusanditsmotive,supposedtobeaningratiatingone,onewhichdoesnotcharacterizethemoralcommandforitsownsakeandthusdistinguishesitfromallmere adviceofcleverness,allsquintingatsecondarypurposesandalsoconsequences.Thelattergaveonlyimpureimperatives,whichchangeddependingonthesituation andwerethereforehypothetical,whereasthetruemoralcommandment,commandingunconditionally,isandmustbesimplyacategoricalone.Andforthisveryreason acriterionaccordingtoKantmustbeapurelyformalone,i.e.oneabsolutelyfreefromsituationalfluctuationsandhistoricalchangesofitsempiricalcontent,indeed suchaveryformaloneatthattimeandplacethatKantcannotnameanyethicalcriterionatallanymore,butsolelyonefromformallogic.Itissimplythatofnon contradictionwherebythecapacityofamaximtobeconceivedasagenerallyobeyedlawhasitsmoralitymeasuredanddecidedsolelybythepermanentunityofwhat isthusconceived.Accordingly,mancanonlynotwantpeopletolieingeneralbecauseitcontradictstheconceptofthestatementforittobealie.Ormancanonlynot wantadeposittobeembezzledbecauseitcontradictstheconceptofthedeposit,asasumdestinedtobegivenback,forittobeembezzled.Infacthardlyanyethics haseverstartedoutmoreformally,noteventhemostlaboriousethicsofreflectionagainoutofsheerpuritythevirtueofthepureframeofmindalwaysneedsa collegiumlogicum,asthetestinglaboratoryofitsmetal.Andfinallythecategoricalimperativeisundoubtedlyalsostronglyideological,namelyaPrussianwalkingstick plustheidealizedrealmofthebourgeoisie.ThePrussianwalkingstick,incorporatedintohisownframeofmind,wasevenoftenfelttobethemorepowerfulelementin Kant'smoralpropositionandthuseitherrejected,bythevictimsofboundenduty,orpraised,bytheprovostmarshalsandindeedthosedrivingpeopletotheslaughter. Asifinfacttheabsolutemorallaw,simplycommandingtowardsthenaturalimpulsesofthehumancreature,didnotlookwhollyunlikethewilloftheabsolutemonarch, simplycommandingtowardstheunderlinghumancreature.Bethatasitmay,farmoreclearlythanthewalkingstickatanyrate,Kant'smoralproposition,ideologically

Page871 conceived,containstheidealizedrealmofthebourgeoisiedevelopingoutofthemiddlecitizen.Itcontainsnomonarch,buttheformalequalityofallbeforethelaw, againstclassprivileges,andallthemoreagainstprivilegedmasters'moralityallthisreflectedwithGerman,nonrevolutionaryabstraction.Thecitoyenwhohadraised himselfintheideologyoftheFrenchRevolutioninanunmediatedidealwayabovetherealbusinessmanofthebourgeoisclasswasnowspiritualizedorcerebralized morethaneverintoahumanityinthesublimelygeneralsense.Andhereagain,amazinglybriefcrossconnectionsconsistofsuchgreatnormativeheightwithprecisely thisrealbusinessmanasintheabovementionedexampleofcriteriaforthegeneralconceivabilityofamaxim,intheexampleofthedeposit.Inthisrespect,ofcourse, Kant'smoralpropositionisthennotatallmerelyformaleither,notatallmerelypurepracticalreasonwithoutanyregardtoempiricalmotives,toaheteronomous sanction,i.e.onelyingoutsideitsselflegislation.Insteadthissanctiondecidesthequestionastowhichmaximsaresuitablefortheprincipleofagenerallegislation, ultimatelybynomeansunempiricallynorinanunconditionallyautonomousway.Inotherwords,itdecidesaccordingtotheconsequenceswhichwouldresultfromthe generalvaliditywithinbourgeoissociety.ThisisthensomuchthebourgeoisdimensionofKant'smoralcriteriathat,preciselyasfarasthedepositanditscontradiction tobeingembezzledisconcerned,thequestiondoesnotoccurtoKantatallwhichHegel,whocertainlywasnotunbourgeois,sawveryearlyonintermsofradical content:Butwhatcontradictionswouldlieinthefactthatnodepositexistedatall?(WerkeI,p.352).Somuchthereforeforatransitorinessinasodeeplyrelevant moralproposition,inonewhichadmittedlyshowsthecharactertocalltoagathering,toaninwardlygeneral,formallyconcurringgathering,likeanewpealofbells despiteallephemerality,aslaconicallyasbellsandyetwithoutanyformlesssingingintheears,butcelebratesadutywhichpredominantlyseemstoeffectrather KnigsberginPrussiathantheMarseillaise,orcontainsitatthattimeandplace. ButwhatifevenKant'ssorigidseemingpropositionwaspreciselyaheadofitstime?Ifinitsdirectionitcontainedaboldnessandahappinesswhichareonlywaitingto beablefinallytoappear?Ifitsquestionableelementwasagainatthesametimeabackgroundfromwhichsomethingextremelyworthquestioningandmorethanthat withnearfuturestoodout?Afterall,Kant'sabovementioneddemand,whichunderlieseverythingelse,nevertoregardmanmerelyasameansbutalwaysasanendat thesametimeisnotexactlybourgeoisitcannotbefulfilledatallinanyclasssociety.

Page872 Foreachofthesesocietieswasbased,thoughindifferentformsofassociation,onthemasterservantrelationship,ontheuseofpeopleandtheirworkforendswhich arebynomeanstheirown.Manastheonlyend:howevergeneralthishumaneelementandespeciallytheabstractnotionhumanityinmanmaybeinKant,and incidentallycontinuedtobeuptoandincludingFeuerbach,exploitationisabsolutelydeniedbyit.Onlymorallydenied,ofcourse,Kant'spracticalreasonlacksallreal practicebecauseoftheGermanmisery,butitringsthejudgmentbellforexploitationfromthestandpointofprinciple.Anditdoessobothfortheoverexploitationof manandthepredatorywarwhichisinseparablyconnectedwithit:allthiswithprojectionfromthestandpointofthemoralprinciple,butalsofromthestandpointofa futurewhichisapproachingit.Thecategoricalimperativedoesnotremainrigideither,anymorethanitremainsormayultimatelyremainconfinedtotheidealisticrealm ofthebourgeoisie.IlluminatinginthisrespectisarealthunderandlightningpropositionfromtheDisputeoftheFaculties,1798,averylateworkinotherwords, withoutmercyforbourgeoisieandfeudalismtogether:Since,fortheomnipotenceofnatureorratheritssupremecauseunattainabletous,manisonlyatrifle.Butthe factthattherulersofhisownkindalsotakehimforoneandtreathimasone,partlybyburdeninghimlikeananimal,asthemereinstrumentoftheirpurposes,and partlybylininghimupintheirquarrelswithoneanotherinordertohavehimslaughteredthatisnotatriflebutareversalofthefinalpurposeofcreation itself(Werke,Hartenstein,VII,p.402f.).Thefinalpurposeofcreation:withthisconceptKantdoesnotmeananyempiricalreality,butnotheologicalshamreality eitherhemeanstheShouldbeofthemorallawanditsrealizationbythehistoricalandaboveallfuturedevelopmentofthehumanrace.Buthereandthisfounds preciselythethunderingethicsofthepropositioncitedabove,buthereastratumistouchedonwhichismostparticularlychargedwithutopianpathosinKant. Wherebythemereidealizationofanideologicalkind(thatoftherealmofthebourgeoisie),ascertainlyasitexistsatthattimeandplace,ispervadedwithavery differentsignature.Itis,logicallyspeaking,thesignatureofvalueconcepts,inthiscaseofaShouldbethatbynomeansunconditionallysurrenderstowhatisonlyonce given.Anddoesnotdosopreciselybecausethevalueconceptsinquestion(andonlythoseofarealvalue,henceprogressivehumaneones,areconcernedhere)bear thewishful,volitionalandtendencycontentsofarisingclasswhichhasnotyetattainedfullpowerandtherebyatthesametimeimply,givensufficientthoroughness,the radicalcontentofthe

Page873 wholehumanstruggleforliberation.Suchavalueconceptisthennotmerelyabstractedfromfinishedfacts,butfromtendenciesconsequentlyitcannotreadilybe corrected,refutedorconfirmedbyanexistinglatitudeofexperienceeither,butsotospeakonlybyitstendentiallongitudinalextension,i.e.bythereality,situatedin events,ofwhatiscomingupandcapableofvictory.Butnotonlythealreadymaturesocialistvalueconceptsareofthiskind,inaneminentfashion,buttheradically bourgeoisrevolutionaryoneswerealsoofthiskind,withobviousdistance,beyondtheiradditionofideologicallytransitoryorevenmerelyillusionarycomponents.Thus thecontentsofbourgeoisrevolutionaryNaturalRight,forinstance,insofarastheyrefertoinalienablehumandignity,wererefutedbynogivenfactofrightandstateat thetimeonthecontrary,Rousseaurefutedthisgivenfact.Thatsomethingcanbealltheworseforthefactsifatheorydoesnotagreewiththem:thisproposition,so untenableinallnonnormativeconcepts,isthoroughlytenableandnotevengrotesqueintheareaofaprogressiveconcreteShouldbe.Infact,itconstitutedtheglory ofRousseau'sNaturalRight,incontrasttothemerelydrapedoneofaChristianWolfforevenaPufendorf,thatitbynomeanssoughtatouchstoneofitsrightnessin theexistingempiricism,asoneoffeudalismforthebourgeoisrevolutionary,thistouchstonewouldratherhavebeenanattestationofitsmistakenness,indeedbetrayal. Andnowletusconsiderthepropositionofthecategoricalimperative,sinceitdefinitelybelongstothoseoftheShouldbe,ofthehumanefinalpurposeofcreation,in acorrespondinglyrightwaysubspecieaeternitatisvelsubstantiaehumanae,inKant'sownapproximativesense.ThenitfollowspreciselyfortheKantianmoral proposition:itsketchesaShouldbewhich,againstthegrainatthattimeandplace,isnotevenapproachableinanyclasssociety.Kantcitedthefreedomfrom contradictionasacriterioninordertobeabletoconceiveamaximofbehaviourasagenerallyfollowedlawofcourse,thisisterriblyformal.Butifthecontradictionis notcoveredintheconceptandespeciallyinconceptsofmerebusinessethics(asintheexampleofthedepositthatcannotbeembezzled),ifitappearsinsteadinthe volitionalmaximitself,thenitactuallydoesbecomeacriterionwhichcandecidethemoralenforceabilityornonenforceabilityofanactionasagenerallyvalidone.And thisdecisionthenmakesitimpossibletoobeythecategoricalimperativeasawhole,andhencenotjustitsindividualtrialproblems,intheclasssociety.Forno proletariancanwantthemaximofhisbehaviourtobeabletobeconceivedastheprincipleofagenerallegislation,whichalsoincludesthecapitaliststhatwouldnotbe moralitybutbetrayalofhisbrothers.

Page874 Thecraziestcontradictioninthemoralwayofthinkingwouldbecausedbythisverymeans,indeedtheradicalpreventionofthecategoricalimperativebyitself.Butit preventsitselfaccordingtoKant'ssounambiguouslyjudgingtestimonysolelyinasocietywhoserulerstreatmanpartlybyburdeninghimlikeananimal,asthemere instrumentoftheirpurposes,andpartlybylininghimupintheirquarrelswithoneanotherinordertohavehimslaughtered.Itpreventsitselfnolessinthepurely capitalistworldthataroseafterKant,intheworldofdeceptionwhichHegelcalledthespiritualanimalkingdom'.Thusthecategoricalimperativecontainswithinita Humanumwhichissolittlemerelyabstractlygeneralandsoclearlyalsoanticipatorilygeneralthatitisnotaccommodatedwithitshumanlandscapeinanyclasssociety. Onthecontrary,thisaxiom,withtheunmistakableoptativebehindit,seemsalmostlikeananticipatoryformuladirectedtowardsanonantagonisticsociety,thatis,toa classlessone,inwhichrealgeneralityofmorallegislationispossiblefortheveryfirsttime.Onlyhere,withtheindividualmaximasanequallygeneralprinciple,isthat transformationofforcespropresintosocialonestobefound,asprophesiedbyMarxinaccordancewithasolidaritythathasbecomepossibleinatotalway.The categoricalimperativethusbecomes,beneathstarswhichitcalculatedsotospeakbutcouldnotyetsee,theelementofaformulaforclasslesssolidarityitsapparently greyfieldisinfactfullofdistantenthusiasm. ThepropositionofAnaximanderorworldwhichturnsintolikeness Nothinkingwithoutdeprivation,butconstantsurpriseatsomethingtakesitfurther.Surpriseandastonishmentnotjustatparticularlyabruptlyemergingthings,butalso atfamiliarthings.Itcanthusbecomepreciselyconspicuous,apartfromtheHowofaBeing,thatanythingisatall.Sotheworldisencounteredasalien,andthisalien elementitselfgivestheimpetustothinkfurtherandfurtheraboutit.ThatiswhythesorichlyvariableassertionbyEmpedoclescitedabove:thatonlylikecanunderstand like,hasnotremaineduncontradicted.Atleastnotforthethinkingofthequestion,ofthetransformationofthefamiliarintosomethingconspicuousandbynomeans selfevidentinfactthiskindofthingisthenalreadysupposedtobeginwithgraspingasperceiving.ThatiswhyAnaxagorasclaimedthecontrarytoEmpedocles:the propertiesofobjectswereonlygraspablebymeansoftheoppositeelementinuslikecouldthereforeonlybeexperiencedandcomprehendedthroughunlike.Thisis followedby

Page875 theuncommonlyfineremarkwithagoodknowledgeofdisturbance:becauseoftheoppositeelementiniteveryperceptionproceeds
vacute alphagrave

,i.e.connectedwithreluctancealsoofcourse(fromthesamecontrast)onlythevisiblerevealstheinvisible(Diels,fr.26a,).Certainlyonlythecold perceivesthehot,thebitterthesweetandviceversa,justasonlythesickmannotices,econtrario,whatthehealthimperceptibletothehealthymanis.Infact, astonishmentitselfpresupposesaninconsistentrelationshiptotheworld,thoughnotonewhichhasandseekstoremaininconsistent.TotheworldinwhichtheUnat home,theunhomelyelementadmittedlynolongerpredominates,asintheprimitive,buthasremainedasaspurtoquestions,asaperceptibilityofsomethingnotwholly evident,notwhollycrystallineintheworldwhichnowexistsorhasexisteduptonow.ThusAnaxagorassignificantlysupplementedtheEmpedocleandictumoflikeness withthedictumofrelativeunlikenessbetweencognizingsubjectandobject.Andmoreoverwithamomentousregardtowhattheworldleavestobedesired,soto speak,inthewayoflogicalbutalsometaphysicalevidence.Afterall,thelogicalcruxhasalwaysbeentheindividualandparticularinrelationtothegeneral,theManyin relationtotheembracingOne.Preciselytheindividualandparticular,thefactualManyofphenomenahasalwaysbeenastumblingblockfortheepistemological equationofthinkingBeingand,asmustbeadded,inawaywhichfruitfullydisturbsidealism.Thisdisturbancebecametotallyapparentinlatemedievalnominalism, whenthefactuallyindividualandManyexplodedtheuniversals,inotherwordsthegenericconceptswhichappearedsohomogeneoustologicalthinking.Therift, whollyirrevocableforidealism,betweenlogicalgeneralevidenceandfactbasedindividualdatumwasthenstatedmorepreciselyinLeibniz'sdistinctionofvrits ternellesofamathematicalmoralmetaphysicalkindandtheritsdefaitunderivablefromthem,i.e.thenotlogicallyobviousbutempiricallyobtrusivetruthsof experience.OnlyHegelnotedthedialecticalunityinthecontrastsoftheindividualandgeneralwhichhadbecomeabstract,andMarxgraspedtheminmaterialterms wherebyeverythingeffectivelyparticularisthatofsomethinggeneralandeverythingconcretelygeneralisthatofsomethingparticular.Buttheotherspurofthequestion ofunlikeness,thatofthenonevidenceofthemanyindividual,aboveallthatofworldbeingitselfasabynomeanspanlogical,bynomeanscrystallinecompletedone, thisspurdidnotdisappeareveninmaterialistictermsandleastofallinrevolutionarymaterialisticterms.Thereisafterall,aswastobeseen,preciselyinrevolutionary idealsaShouldbewithevidence(andbynomeans

Page876 justalogicalevidence,butahumaneoneinmediatedtermsandintermsofcontent),whichdoesnotlowertheflagorsurrendertheswordtothemereFactumifitis inadequatetotheideal.Insteadtherevolutionaryreasonisadmittedlyananticipationcorrectedbydamagebutneverdestroyedbyitorevenmerelyrefutedaufond. Therealunityofthinking(inthiscaseofarevolutionarytotalkind)andworldbeingmustratherfirstbefounditisleastofalldialecticallyalreadyagivenfact,butinthe mosteminentsenseadialecticaltask.Uptothefrontierlandscapeofthefulfilmentofthistaskthehistoricalprocessholdsgood,whosecontinuancewouldnotexistif somethingdidnotexistwhichoughtnottoexist.Thetruethought,stilluncompletedforthisveryreason,istheartoftherightwayhomeinthisOntheway. Buttheastonishmentremainseffective,interferesforsolonginthetrend.Itsellsitselfonlydearly,namelyatthepriceofaBeingprematurelypassedoffasauthentic. Whichnowhastoappearallthemoreprecious,althoughinviewofthebadwayinwhichsomuchoftheworldstillfindsitselfthisBeingcanonlybedeeplytentative preappearance.Unlikelike,likelikeitissignificantnowthatpreciselythefirstsurvivingpropositionofoneoftheearliestEuropeanthinkerscontainspainful astonishmentoftheunlikeandafterwardsharmony.NamelythepropositionofAnaximander,itisascapableandinneedoftheindicationofitsdarknessanditssought Athomeasnotmanylateronesare.Theproposition,forallthedarknessinit,isthatofamaterialistwhosoughttoexplaintheworldinitsownterms,anearthybutby nomeanssimplematerialist.HisthesisrunsinthetranslationgivenbyDiels(DieFragmentederVorsokratiker,1912,p.15)asfollows(fr.9):Thebeginningofthings istheinfinite(
alphadash

iota

oncom

vtend

,themisshapen,inexhaustibleprimalmatter).Butthatwhichgavethembirth(
oncom vtend

vtend

netaacute

iota

)is

alsothedirectionoftheirdeathinaccordancewithnecessity(
iota iota vtend

omegaacute

vtend

).Fortheypayoneanother(
alphaacute

alphdash

)apenaltyandforfeit(
vtend

vtend

iota

)fortheirwickedness(

iota

)accordingtotheorder(
vtend

alphaacute vtend

)oftime.Theproblemofthispropositionisobviouslyfirstthemultiplicityofindividualthings(
oncom omegaacute

omegatilde vtend

alphadash

,ofThatWhichIsintheplural),andthen,inaccordancewithnecessity( ,perhapsalso:custom),theirpassing,hence theveryunilluminatingaspectoftransitoriness,particularlyincludingman.Thesolutiontotheproblemisfirstcharacterizedbypenaltyandforfeit,hencebyakindof reparationfortheemergenceofthingsintheirmultiplicityandtheninthepassingofthingstheirreturnintotheApeironisprobablyalsoimplied.Eventhoughthe importantword

alphagrave

netaacute

iota

(i.e.,payingapenaltyandforfeitmutuallytooneanotherand

Page877 nottotheApeironitself)iscertainlynotinterpolated,althoughitismissinginthedoxographSimplikios,theApeironasfinalplaceofreturn(aslaterHeraclitus'primal firewhichagainbecomesundivided)isneverthelessthebackgroundofthisgoingunder,goingtothebottomofthings.Theseparatethingsemergingfromtheir measurebutalsohavingemergedfromtheApeironmustthereforepay(forfeit,probablyinamoregeneralsense:justice)fortheir

alphaacute alphdash

iota

(wickedness,inamoreliteralandmoregeneralsense:injustice)accordingtothe (order,probablyrather:respectivepenaltynorm)oftime(cf.inthe sensewhichappearsamazinglyrelated:WorldhistoryistheLastJudgement).Dikitself,whichthusprevailsaccordingtotheorderoftime,wasregardedinmyth, accordingtotherecordofHerodotus,asoneofthethreeHorae,togetherwithEunomia,wellorderedness,andEirn,peacebutmoreinstructiveisthefactthatthe Horae,oneofwhichDikbecame,wereoriginallygoddessesoftheairandwind,andthenchangedintothoseoftheseasons,afterwhichDik,whowasalsocitedby nameasthedaughterofChronosandnolongerofZeus,couldtheneasilytakeovereveninallegoricaltermsthejusticeofchronologicalorder,theLastJudgementas worldhistory.ThecounterparttoDik,theAdikiawhoispersecutedbyher,isparticularlyverycloselyassociatedwithAnaximander'sworldofunlikeness,andworld ofevidencewhichisonlyjustestablishingitself.Adikia,injustice,is,asstatedabove,firstlythemultiplicityofindividualthingsandsecondly,preciselyconnectedwith thisseparationanditsinflationwhichfollowsfromit,theirtransitoriness.ThisthereforeleadsinAnaximandertotheamazingfactofaveryearlyobjectivedialectics,but beforewegointothisanassuranceisinorder,concerningthelandscapeofperspective.Nothingmaybedetectedinaphilosopher,especiallyinanearlyone,whichis notinherentinhisownwork,inaverifiablewaythereisnohermeneutics,apartfromacheekyanddecadentkind,henceapartfromitsopposite,withoutthesoundart ofreading,whichiscalledphilologyinthenarrowsense.Butinaphilosopher,insofarasheissignificant,i.e.capableofculturalheritage,thereisthiselementinherent preciselywithinhimself:notjusttohavethoughtatthattimeandplace,andhencetohaveformulatedinphilosophynotjusthisowntimebutalsoapermanentconcern ofthetimes,andtohaveputitinphilosophicalperspective.Ontheotherhand,greatthinkersandindeedeverythinggreatthathasbeencreatedwouldmerelybesleep ofthepast,aquitesuperfluouslywokensleeporrather:asleepresortedtobythoseasleepthemselvestoincreasetheirowndrunkenness,defeatistdrunken drowsinessinsteadofpast

Page878 philosophersbeingquotedasthosewhoarenotpast,namelyfromthepointofviewoftheirundischargedelement,whichextendsitsinfluenceintothefuturespaceof suchthoughtswhichcontinuetooperate.Thusthesamealsogoesfortheearly,alreadyidentifieddialecticsofAnaximander,thewitnessoflight,adialecticswhichis thoroughlyverifiableandcollectedpreciselyintheastonishmentovertheAdikia. Decisivehereishisdoctrineastohowthevariousthingsmaterializedinsuchatransitoryway.Justashotandcold,densityandthinnessemergedfromtheApeiron whichisitselffeatureless,buttheseoppositescombinefurtherintotheelements,intowater,earth,air,andfire.Butthisalsogivesrisetothestateofalastingimbalance oftheseelementsinrelationtooneanother,infactanencroachment,apreponderance( )ofoneovertheother,sothatthehotseeksto displacethecoldandviceversa,sothatwaterorearththreatenstosuppresstheairorfirethreatenstosuppresseverythingelse,andtotakeitsplace.Or,asthe PhysicsofAristotlesayswhollyinthespiritofAnaximanderagainsttheassociationofairandinfinityinAnaximenes:Ifasingleelementwereinfinite,theotherswould haveceasedtoexist.Butinfacttheworldconsistsofnothingbutachangingpreponderanceofelementsandalsotheseparatethingsformedfromthem:sothatit operatesinnothingbutsuchintensifieddifferences,andalwaysnewlyheightenedcontrasts.Soanobjectivedialecticsisquiteunmistakablyevidenthere,obviouslyalso onewhichinterpretedtherelationshipofthecosmicelementsoutoftheeverchangingpreponderanceofDemosandurbannobilityintheIoniantradingcities.The dialecticthusappearedasanAdikiarepeatedlycorrectedanddirectedinthedestructibilityofseparatethings,inthefrailtyoflivingthings,andinthecycleofmatterbut itisalsoevidentintheextinctionoftheAdikia,namelyintheultimaterelationshipofseparatethingstotheApeiron.Thesejustlydestroyoneanother,becausetheover intensifieddifferenceoftheirseparatebeingwearsitselfdownuntilitannihilatesitselfbutthingsarealsodestroyedbecausetheirseparatebeingasawholeturnsinto likenessatoneendoftheworld,andcancelsitselfoutinthecontrastlessnessoftheApeiron.Thatisthenwheretheunisonis,attainedbytheDikwhichwithtime bringseverythingtolightandmorethanthis:whichbringsitintolight,intotheharmonyoftheinfinite.Andatthesametimeaveryunusualorientalnoteissoundedhere unusualbecausefortheGreekstheinfinite(assomethingmisshapen,unplastic)wasotherwisealwayssomethingnegative.OnlyinlateHellenism,andhencepreciselyin theunrestrainedinvasionoftheOrient,didtherevaluationoftheinfinitereach
alphagrave iota

Page879 theveryhighest,atleastveryhighesttheologicalcategory.OnlyinfactAnaximander'sperspectiveintoanApeirondidnotfirstneedthefalse,lateHellenisticpatriarchal airthecharacterofthe ,ofthedivine,whichhegavepreciselytohisprimalmatterastheinfinite,wasstillbasedverydirectlyonthe mysticismoftheOrient.ThoughinAnaximander,thematerialist,theinfiniteisnevertheinfiniteofaGodorevenofaNirvanabutalwaysthatofaprimalmatter,ofone thatisundefined.AndthatiswhyAristotle'sobservationaboutthisApeironisbothwellinformedandparticularlyimportanthere:intheundefinedprimalmatterof AnaximanderasintheAristoteliandefinitionofmattereverythingconsistsofThatwhichispotentially( ),butnotThatwhichis actually(Metaph.XII,2.).ButbeyondthistheearliestsurvivingdictumofEuropeanphilosophygiveslater,indeedfinalperspectivesinaveryvariedwayandthis, vastlypremature,evenasfarasharvestandpeace.Thedictumischargedwithlonelinessandfarreachingthoughts,inafirstconceptofmatteraspotentialityit simultaneouslydisplaysthefirstphilosophicalwishfulandintentionalimageofidentityagainstthedifferentnessofhumanbeingsfromtheworldandoftheworldfrom itself. Lightnessinthedepths,joyfulnessofthephenomenonoflight Nothinkingwithoutdeprivation,yetoccasionallyeverythingarounditbecomescheerfulallatonce.Thisalreadyoccursassoonaspeoplearecapableoftakingeven aninconvenientthinglightly.Andthistakinglightlypossiblypointstoabynomeansselfevidentcapacityforbeinglightinthingsthemselves.Itsplaceisnotwit,which isoftenmerelysubjective,theunexpectedlightningcomparisonofseeminglyincompatiblefactsandObjects.Itsplaceisratherhumour,thereadinessoffactsand Objectsthemselvesnolongertoholdtheirgravityassoimportant,oratleastnotassoexclusiveandfinal,inhumanbeingswhoarethemselvesreadyforandaboveall capableofthis.Bothofcourse,witandhumour,havethefactincommonthattheywidelythrivepreciselyincheapandcheapestversions.Orrather:theygrowrifeand grimaceinaccordancewiththestockoflaughterwhichisundoubtedlygreaterinthefoolishnessofthesubjectthanintheobjectiveworld.Berliozevenobservedthat thereismorelaughterinthemadhousethananywhereelsehecouldhaveaddedtheshrieksandburstsoflaughterofDionysianbourgeoisfemaleandmaleconformists. Notjustbrutalseriousnesshasalllivestockonitsside,butalsothepetitbourgeoisurgeforamusementandthatwhichsatisfiesit.
vtend alphaacute iotatilde vtend

Page880 W.Benjaminremarkedaptlyandconclusivelyonthisstrangecasethathumourwasaplantwhichcouldbefoundinverylargeandveryworthlessnumbersinthe lowlands,butwhichbecamealltherarerandespeciallyallthemorepreciousthehigherthesiteonwhichitoccurred.Humour,insuchnobleandinlessnobleform,isin turnnotedinseveralregions,alongsideitshigherorlowersituation,butalongsidethoseregionsofstylisticattitudeusuallyonlyoralmostonlyinworksofart,notof philosophy.Thisisallthemorestrikingasthephenomenonofthewiseman,butalsowisdomassuchcontainareemphasis,andpreciselyasmilingone,ofwhatis important,areemphasiswhichhasalwaysappearedasthewishfullandscapeofadeeptakinglightly,andhenceisassociatedwithhumour,ofaparticularlyprecious kind.LaoTzu,thewiseman,admittedlywarnsagainsttakingthingslightlyundercertaincircumstances:Theweightyistherootoflightness/Bytakingthingslightlywe losetheroot(Taotching,Saying26),buthewarnsonlyagainstlightnessinthesenseoflevity,indeedofgiddyfrivolity,whichcausesarulertotaketheworld lightly.WhereasintheTaotchingitselftheadviceofthetender,effortless,andunassumingmanshinesoutconcerningallthattheelementofbeingtrulylightinthe courseofthingsmeans,inthetrueplayfulrotationaroundthetruecentre.Andthisadviceshinesoutfullofunassumingmodestyagainsteverythingdressedup,against heavilyarmedandthusnotmerelybrutalseriousness.Likewise,evenonthissideofLaoTzu'squietestTao:Thefactthathumourispossibledoesnotmeansmiling amidsttearsinthesensethat,alwayslockedindreamsanew,wecouldleadahappyandrefinedexistence,whilethebasisoftheworldisunchanged,reallysad.Butits makinglightandaccentuationmeanspreciselyandhereafinemysteriousrayoflight,aknowledgenourishedonlyfromwithin,inexplicable,supportedbynothing, andmystical,flashesintolifethatsomethingisnotrightinit,thatthetearsarenottobetakenwhollyseriouslycomparedwithourimmortalsoul,howeverhorribly realtheymayappeartogetherwiththeworldbasisfromwhichtheystemthatGoethe'sstatement:Versethat'sgood,likerainbow'sarc,isdrawnagainstaground that'sdark,isprobablytrueofdeeputterancesbutnotofthemostessentialonesthatthereforedreaming,theapparentlysoillusoryabilitytohope,thesignificant lightnessofbeing,whichisadmittedlyansweredbutbynomeansguaranteed,andincomprehensibledelightassuch,isclosertothetruthandrealitywhichdoesnot needtobetheworldbasisthanalltheoppressive,verifiable,andindubitablefeaturesoffactualcircumstanceswiththeirentire,sensorilymostrealbrutality(Ernst Bloch,GeistderUtopie,1918,p.75f.).The

Page881 importantconnectionofhumourwithjoyful,indeedmostjoyfulcontents,whichdonotexistonlyasiftheydonotyetexist,isbeyonddoubtatanyrate,evenifthese contentsaresodistantthattheycanbehopedforalmostsolelyagainsthopeitself.Bitinghumourevenbehavesasifthecontentsofitsstrangelysignificantjoyfulness weresecretandnotyetthere,butlikethefinalstateringingthrough.ThisissoevenwhenthedaughterfromElysiumdidnotcomestridingupthestepsforaverylong time,andallthemoresowhenhumourdoesnotneedanymessageatallfromElysium.Foraboveallinfact,humour(itisnotfornothingthatoneofitsmostdrolland thoughtfulborderlinecasesissocalledgallowshumour)hasnoguaranteedconfidencebeingorevenafixedotherworldlybeingwhateverinthespaceofitsJustso. ThetotalJustsodoesnotofcoursegosofarthatitcouldsayforexample:Iwouldnotknowthattheexistingworldexistedifitdidnotexist,thatis,ifitdidnotforce itselfuponmeempirically.ButIknowthatwhatwasformerlymeantanddesignatedbythedivineexists,althoughnothingofthekindactuallyexists,indeedbecause nothingofthekindactuallyexists.Forsuchastatementwouldnotonlybepureidealism,butareifiedutopianismkeptpermanentaswell,withalienationnotonly towardsaninadequatelyexistingworldbuttowardseveryrealizationanditsrealityingeneral.JustasiftheJustsohadtoremainaKingJohnLacklandonprincipleso tospeak,onitshonour.Orasifeveryrealizationofperfectevidence,ofevidenceoftheperfectcausedablemishevenfarbeyondthewellknownmelancholyof fulfilment,evenbeyondtheRomanticreificationofdreams.Buthumour,whichisinfactthemostunassumingofallutopias,andatleasthastheminit,doesnotreify itself,anditscheerfulJustsodoesnotaimatsomethingoutsidereality,butstressespreciselywithinititspossiblefinalstateringingthroughfulloflightness,fullof liquoroftheabilitytobedifferent,beingdifferentinessence,withoutbecomingfixed,withoutescape,andalsowithoutanysupraworldofanoisyorsolemnjubilation. Inaword:humourischaracterizedexclusivelybytransparencyofthatlightnessandpeacefulnessofBeingwhichgivesthelietogravity.Andthiswithoutlightness alreadyhavingempiricalconfirmationonasufficientscaleorevenneedingasupraempiricalguarantee(trustinGod). Allbrighteningupfollowsfromthelight,butatthesametimeprecedesit.Itaccompaniestherisingeveninadoublefashion,firstasparticularlycarefreedissolvingof theoutmoded,andthenasagreetingofwhatiscomingup.Thedissolvingelementisbusyintheoldandwithitonlymerrily,aswithalandwhichoccasionallyitself beginstodisappeareasily,indeed

Page882 comically.Sothatmankindcheerfullydepartsfromitspast,Marxsaysofthisthisistrue,sinceevenbloodydespots,inwhomadecliningsocietyabounds,casta comicshadow.AndthecheerfulfarewellisallthemoretruewherereallygreatmaterialofwhatispastandoutmodeddissolvesunceremoniallyinthefaceoftheNew, asmaterialforlaughter.Historyisthoroughandgoesthroughmanyphaseswhenitburiesanoldform.Thelastphaseofaworldhistoricalformisitscomedy.The godsofGreece,whowerealreadyoncefatallywoundedintragictermsintheboundPrometheusofAeschylus,hadtodieoncemoreincomictermsintheDialogues ofLucian(Marx,IntroductiontotheCritiqueofHegel'sPhilosophyofRight).Thismeansthereforethatthecheerfulnessofthefarewelloccasionallyneedssome assistance,andthisisthencalledsatire.Hegelhimself,inidealisticdialectics,hadgiventhecueforthedisappearanceofeachantiquatedlandscapeofpreappearance, andfortheemergenceofeachnewaestheticone,intripleform:asdissolvingofsymbolicartintheepigram,ofclassicalartinsatire,ofromanticartinatotally eruptedfarewellthroughhumour.ThespiritonlyworksaroundinobjectsaslongasthereisstillsomethingsecretandunrevealedinthemButoncearthasrevealed onallsidestheessentialworldviewswhichliewithinitsconceptionaswellasthesphereofthecontentwhichbelongstotheseworldviews,ithasshakenoffthis substancedestinedoneachoccasionforaparticularnationandaparticulartime,andthetrueneedtoincorporateitagainonlywakeswiththeneedtoturnagainstthe substancewhichhasbeensolelyvaliduptonowjustasinGreece,forexample,AristophanesrebelledagainsthisowntimesandLucianrebelledagainstthewhole Greekpast,andinItalyandSpain,inthedepartingMiddleAges,AriostoandCervantesbegantoturnagainstchivalry(WerkeX2,p.231f.).Thissortofthing thereforecharacterizeshumourofthefirst,criticalkind(andboththeepigramandsatirearethenonlyitspointedorsharplyribbedmanifestations)itactuallycreates farewellspace,anditalsopositstheridiculousnesswhicheffortlesslyfinishesoffandkills.Buthumourremainsandbecomesmuchmoreimportant,namely,inthe second,positivekind,belongingtotherisingoflight,asalandinwhatiscomingup,andthereinstillsecretandunrevealeditself.Itisthethoroughlysurprisingfacthere thatHegelhimself,whoerectedawhollyclosedsystemafterallandleftopennothingatallwithinitthatwasstillsecretandunrevealed,neverthelessgrantstohumour, apartfromacriticalcharacter,onewhichfranklypointsbeyondeverything.Atleastinartandbeyondit,apparentlybeyondandovertoreligion,morespecifically:to theretreatofmanintohimselfbutforhimhumouras

Page883 humanismisunavowedlyalwayssomethingunclosed.Itisthedissolvingofcircumstancessungtoanendpreciselyasthatwhichisitselfnotsungtoanend,asthe circulationofanabsolutelyfuturelightnessintheeffortandgravityofprocess.Thisalthoughthethinkerofmemoryandcirclesincirclesseekstokeepfuturethings absolutelyunconceptualandwithoutlight:Thepastisthepreservationofthepresent,asreality,butthefutureistheoppositeofthis,orrathertheformlesssono formwhatsoevercanbeviewedinthefuture(WerkeXIV,p.105)buthumourdisplaysinitsfluidity,eveninHegel,transparencyofformwhichhasnotbecome manifest.ThispreciselyexplainsHegel'saversiontomerelyarbitraryhumour,tosaucyandbrilliantwryness,thecometaryworldofsmellsandsounds,withoutacore, thegameinunrealistictonesofthehollowspiritthisexplainstheclassificationoftruehumourwithdepthswhichlieveryfarout.Hegelnotesthistrendtowardsthe latter,atrendwhichhasneverbeenwhollyindicatedbyanyexistingpath,andneverbeenwhollyauthenticatedbyanyexistingsignificantObject,asanunaffected, light,inconspicuousstrollingon,whichinitsinsignificancegivesprecisely(!)thehighestconceptofdepth,andsinceitisinfactdetailswhichswirlupindisorder,the innerconnectionmustlieallthedeeperanddriveoutthelightspotofthespiritinwhatisisolatedassuch(WerkeX2,p.228).Hegelpositshere,withthefunctionof strollingon,merelyacertainandnotthehighesthumorousliteraturefortheutopianphenomenonoflightnessthatishumourperse,yetnotonlytheclassificationwitha highestconceptofdepthisdescribedbutalsowhichexplodesthemereaestheticsofhumourwithlightspotseverywhere.Infactitisthejoyfulnessoflightwhich iseverywherecontrastedwithgravityheretooandwhichinthiswholesystemsoalientothefuture,malgrlui,againandagainwithfurtherpointing,furthersignifying transparencyallowsaglimpseofformationsoflightness,farbeyondaesthetics.Brightnessbreaksfortheverywherewheretheinwardturningnocturnalpointof negativeunityveersroundinapositivedirection.Asinthephilosophyofnature:whenlightisthefirsttocheerthegravityofbeingbesideoneselfandconsciousness finallyburststhecrust.Asinthephilosophyofhistorywhen,afterthewildsplendouroftheorientalrisingofthelight,Greeceemergesinitsmorebeautifulnaturalness, freedom,depthandcheerfulness,likethebridefromthechamber.AsinthephilosophyofreligionwhereHegelapparentlyseekstomakethephenomenonoflight culminateinanelapsedway:Allsorrow,allcare,thissandbankoftemporality,hoversinthisether,whetherinthepresentfeelingofdevotionorofhope.Inthisregion ofthespiritstream

Page884 thewatersofLethe,fromwhichPsychedrinks,inwhichshesinksallpain,formsallhardnessesanddarknessesoftimeintoadreamimageandtransfigurestheminto thebrilliantlightoftheeternal(WerkeXI,p.4).Thenarrowerrelationtothespiritofhumour,namelytoanunassumingcheerfulness,ishereabandonedofcoursethe fineflashingandshiningofhumour,althoughitcannotbeworldshatteringbyanymeans,alsocomesfromaverydifferentpeacefromthatmadebyHegel'sphilosophy withanimperfectworld.Butpreciselytheelementwhichhasnotbeensungtoanenditself,andhencethestillobjectivelyutopianelementisatworkaroundallthese successivelightspots(contragravity),togetherwithapositiveelementofthefinalstate,withoutthemisuseofwhichHegel'sphilosophycouldnothavebeenso poorlyapologetic,andwithouttheuseofwhichitcouldnothavebeensofinelyoptimistic.Somuchhereforthesecond,positivekindofphilosophicallyshining transparency,thoroughlybelongingtothegreetingofsomethingthatiscomingup,althoughthepastboundthinkerburieditinaclosedsystem.Buteveninthelightspot ofoptimism,itisonlysinceMarxthatthepasthasnotonlybeenbroughtintothepresentandthelatteragainintothecontemplatedpast,butbothhavebeenbroughton tothehorizonofthefuture.Andwhatisconceivedintheoptative:lightnesscheerfulnesspeacefulnessisnotonlysetonitsfeetbyMarxismbutreferredtoitshands. Formorethanapromisethatallthatisclaimedtobefulloflightcouldbesoisnottobefound,alongsidethewishthatitmaybeso,intheclosedsystemsoflighteven fromthepointofviewofcheerfulness.WemusthererecallSpinozismoncemore,theworldclaimedtobecrystal,andthevastphilosophicalutopiamustbeconsidered whichwouldliketoformanddoesformthefinalconclusionofsuchwisdom:Thereisnothinginnaturewhichiscontrarytointellectualloveorcaneliminateit(Eth.V, Prop.37).Suchapropositionoflightisinitsveryextremenesswithoutempiricalmeaning,butinfactapromiseisimpliedinit,andwithittheextremenessnolonger alientomeaning,thoughremainingvast,ofthetaskofkeepingthepromisethusimpliedapproximative.SothattheAthomeinthisworld,thethisworldofeveryAt home,whichislitintheutopiandimensionofsuchpropositions,doesnotremainunprovenevenempiricallybychangingthenatureofhistoryandtheworld.Thereis certainlynolack,intheempiricalprocess,ofinwardturningorevenlessinwardturningnocturnalpointsofnegativeunity,butevenlessoflightspots,despiteandby meansoftheseNegativa,andoflightinlatency.Thelandscapeofthetrulyessential,withpositiveresolutenessofitscontent,

Page885 isawhollydawningborderlinecontentbutthisliesinthematerialprocess,andtheprocessgoeswithbrighteningupofitscontent.Andthisispreciselywhythe philosophicaloverallviewsinthewishforpenetratingknowledgealsoinvolvethewillforthetrulyessentialitisnottheeveningtoendallthesedaysyet,northeday toendallthesemornings.Philosophiesaretheirage,expressedinideas,buttheirgreatthemes,becausetheycanneverbeexhaustedandcannotevenbewholly formulatedinasingleepoch,liefarbeyondeachrespectiveageandevensociety.Theylieintheconcernoftheage,theconcernoftheprocessingeneralandthe mostcentralofthesethemesofprocessisVerumBonum.Manasaquestionaboutit,aworldasananswertoit:thisis,againsuogeneregeographically,thewishful landscapeinphilosophies.Onlythetruthofessenceinbreakthroughisitspathandgoal,asthepleasanttruthwithoutillusion.

42EIGHTHOURDAY,WORLDINPEACE,FREETIMEANDLEISURE
Lookup:thechimneyissmoking. Brecht IhaveconvincedmyselfbyexperienceofthetruthofthequotationintheBibleandmadeitintomylodestar:ButseekyefirstthekingdomofGod,andhis righteousnessandallthesethingsshallbeaddeduntoyou.* Hegel,LettertoMajorKnebel,30thAugust1807 Eveninnorthernregions,ifweatleastconsidertheexampleoftheoldestandgreatestnations,itseemsmanshouldnotallowhimselftobedegradedinto abeastofburdenbydeprivationbutbecontentwiththelittlethatnaturecangivehimthereoremigrateandifanywhereworkisrequiredfromonechurch belltotheotherifonewantstolive,thenonlyfaultystateconstitutionsandstateadministrationsaretoblameforthis,aconsequentdisproportionate distributionofwhatnatureamplygaveforall,andfeignedneedswhichnatureisnotobligedtosatisfyandthestrangefancycanonlybeinfluentialinthe sermonsandcatechismsofthepreciousChristiannorththatevenineternal *TheEnglishoftheAuthorizedVersionseemstobetheexactinversionofthebiblicalquotationHegelcites,whichcouldbetranslatedSeekfirstforfoodandclothing andthekingdomofGodwillcometoyouofitsownaccord,whichisperhapsmoreinkeepingwiththespiritofBloch'sepigraph.WehavegiventheAuthorized Versionhere.Matthew6,33.

Page886 lifethereisnorest,butratherourenergiesarestilltobeexercisedonhigherobjectsinfurtherspheresofactivity.Theparadisesoftheorientalshave nothingofthis,andsomeonewhomustknowbetterthanwedowhatthingsareliketheredoesnotplacetheblessedataloomagainforexample,but ratheratthetablewithAbraham,IsaacandJacob. JohannPeterHebel,TheJews Therealmoffreedombeginsinfactonlywhereworkingwhichisdeterminedbydeprivationandexternalexpediencyceasesitthereforeliesin accordancewiththenatureofthematterbeyondthesphereofactualmaterialproduction. Marx,DasKapital,III2 Thewhipofhunger Letusreturntoasimplerspotagain.Tothegroundatourfeet,whichismostlyhard.Inprevioussociallifelivesthesufferingwhichlongsmostpowerfullyforaremedy anddreamsitmostexactly.Hungerforcesustowork,butthisworkwearsusoutinitsownwayexactlylikehunger.Theentrepreneurwhoiseagerforhisprofitdoes notknowwhatthissortofworkis,thatoftheservantartistsandscientistsdonotknowanymoreaboutiteither,thoughfordifferentreasons.Foritisdrudgery, imposed,imposedforalienpurposesonlytheproletarianandtheemployeeknowthewholedrearyextentofthisdrudgery.Workhasfurthermorebecomemore monotonousthanbefore,whereatleastawholepiecewasstilltobemadewithlove.Apiecewhichgavethecraftsmanthepleasureofbeingcreatedandskilfully completed.Whereastheworkerwho,throughthedivisionoflabour,increasinglylostsightofthewholepiece,makesonlyapart,dayin,dayoutthesamepartofthe samescrew,withoutlove,withhatred,mitigatedonlybydesolation,andwiththesameflickofthewrist.Thewishhasalwaysexistedtoshakeoffimposedwork,orat leasttoreducethetimewhichisspentonit.Butdependentpeopleneversucceedinthisornotforlong. Fromthecasematesofthebourgeoisie Thepoormanalwayshastoearneverymouthfulthehardwayfirst.Themasterisonebysqueezingtheservantdry,bylivingoffhiswork.Withthegoodswhichthe workerproducesbeyondhisownrequirements(kept

Page887 extremelylow)themasterfinanceshisleisure.Fromthebeginningoftheownershipofaploughandafieldthisexploitationdividedpeopleintotwokinds,twoclasses, andithasbecomebroaderandstricterthanever.Ifprogressingoodnessandhappinessisoftendubiousinhistoricalterms,thatofsqueezingpeopledryisnotit occurredbyandlargemoreandmorearidlyandblatantly.TheGreekslavewaslookedafterbetterthantheserf,andthelatterbetterthanthemodernlabourer.For theslavewasatleastthelivestockofhismaster,andsohewasfedandhadhisstable.Whereastheserfhadtolookafterhimself,insofarashewasleftwithanytime todosoandtheownerofthevillagelefthimabowl.In1525theGermanserfwhohadtakenforhimselfthefreedomofaChristianmanhungontherope.Orhe stumbledwithhiseyesgougedoutandhistonguetornoutthroughtheHolyRomanEmpireuntilheperishedinaditch.Eventhesituationofthejourneymenapproached thatofthepeasantstowardstheendoftheMiddleAges,tothesameextentthatthemasterturnedfromapatriarchalforemanintoanearlycapitalistexploiter.In Danziginaround1550,strikingjourneymenhadtheirearscutoff,andinFlorencetheywerebrandedbythehangmanandfloggedoutofthecity.Individualitywas underwayonlyinthehigherstrata,comingfromthecapitalofmerchantsandprinces,butatthebottomthewholesomebondsprevailed.Theconquerorcertainlydid notadmittoallchildrenoftheearththatthehighesthappinesswaspersonalitythedreamofitwaspunishablebytortureanddeath.Untilatlastevenfreedomof movementbegan,manasthefreeownerofhislabour.Asapartnerwithequalrightsofthecontractofemploymentwhichheconcludeswiththecapitalisteyetoeye, toothfortooth.Theblessings,describedbyEngels,oftheearlyindustrialagearrivedaftertheslave,theserf,andthegraduallyswallowedupjourneyman,the proletarianappeared.Ifthesituationoftheworkingclasswasmiserableuptillthen,itnowbecamehellishtheproletariataround1800beganonthelevelofthegalley slave.Oftenevenfouryearoldchildrenwereforcedtowork,indarkminetunnelsorinthemuggystinkingcottonfactories,theusualageforbeginningworkwaseight ornineyearsold.Workinghoursforchildrenlastedsixtotenhours,fromtheageofthirteentoeighteentheyincreasedtotwelvehours,womenandmenovereighteen stoodattheirmachinesfortheirprofiteersfromfiveo'clockinthemorninguntileighto'clockintheevening,andoftenlonger.Thewomensuckledtheirchildrenwhile theyoperatedthemachine,therewerenobreaksforeating,thepitifulwagemostlydisappearedonrentanyway.Capitalopposedanychangeofthishell,more conservativelythananyfeudallordeverdid

Page888 profitremainsrelentless.Whenpeoplewantedtotakechildrenundernineyearsofageoutofcottonmillsbecausetheironfoundrieswhichcouldnotuseanychildren becamephilanthropic,thepiousEnglishtextilemanufacturersprovedthatcottonspinningwouldhavetoperishifitcouldnotusethelittleworkerswhocrawlaround witheasebeneaththemachinesandontheonehandcandothecleaningandontheothercantieonthethreads.Itwasirrelevantforchurchgoersthatmanyofthelittle workersdiedinaccidentsuninterestingfortheclassicallandofdemocracythatonlyafractionoftheconsumptiveorscurvymouthedworkforcereachedtheageof fortyandnoneofthemtheageoffifty.JonathanSwift,whoknewhisEngland,wasalreadymakingthedifferentlybitterproposalahundredyearsbeforethis,whenno industrywasasyetdevouringeverythingaroundit,thatinordertocontrolthemiseryofchildrenonemightfattenthefruitsofthewombofpovertyforthetablesofthe rich:ItwouldencreasetheCareandTendernessofMotherstowardstheirchildren,whentheyweresureofaSettlementforlife,tothepoorBabes,providedinsome SortbythePublick,totheirannualProfitinsteadofExpenceweshouldsoonseeanhonestEmulationamongthemarriedWomen,whichofthemcouldbringthe fattestChildtotheMarket.*Thisproposal,stylizedasapetitiontoParliamentandadornedwithmanyquotesfromtheBible,waspropheticindustryevendevoured childrenundersixyearsold,andbynomeanswellfedones. Theparentsofthesechildrenwerestillnotprovidedfor,ofcourse.Although,somethingwhichSwiftcouldnotforesee,theyalsosharedintheblessingsofBritishtrade. Theworkernamelyhadtospendhissixhoursoffreetimeinhavingtoearnalloveragainthewagesthathadbeenpaidouttohim,inotherwords:intheinitialstagesof thiscapitalism,heveryoftenreceivedhiswagesnotincashbutingoodsinkind,inproductsofhisownfactory,inumbrellasandthelike,whichhefirstlaboriouslyhad toturnintomoneyonthemarket.Whatasublimeformofmakingoutofthewageslaveanunpaidsalesmanaswelleventhewagesstillservedprofitinthesocalled trucksystem.Theonlymeansofforgettingthisunprecedentedmiserywasspiritsoccasionallywilddespairbrokeout,machineswerewrecked,factoriessetonfire, withlittleothereffectthanthedeathpenalty,whichwasimposedforsuchconvulsionsfrom1811.Inhiswork:TheConditionoftheWorkingClassinEngland,Engels allowedthisconditiontospeakforitself,withtheresult:Rising *Bloch'stextdoesnotappeartobeadirectquotationfromSwifthere,unlessheisusingaveryfreetranslation.WehaveincludedtheclosestexamplefromA ModestProposal.

Page889 capitalismdidnotachieve,asithadpromised,thegreatestpossiblehappiness,butthegreatestpossiblemiseryofthegreatestpossiblenumber.Ademonicworld arose,thatantiCockaigne,exactdowntothelastdetail,whichcapitalistsneedinordertoprepareforthemselvestheirownrelativeCockaigne.OrasMarxsumsitup: Incapitalistsocietyfreetimeisproducedforoneclassbytransformingallthelifetimeofthemassesintoworkingtime.Miseryandbigbusinessareinextricably connected,slumsandhungerwiththecapitalistunleashingoftheforcesofproduction.Theprofitdrivehasmadeitselfabsoluteincapitalistsocietyformerlyascourge, itnowbecameacannibal,formerlyameansintheserviceoffeudalconsumerneeds,itnowbecameanabsolutelyunlimitedendinitself.Andifthegreatestpossible miseryofthegreatestpossiblenumberchangedhereandthereintheepochofhighcapitalismandthenimperialism,itdidsoonlyduringarespectiveboom.Thecrises whichwenteverdeeperandespeciallytherisingmassmurderinthebusinessofwarsshowedthatthecoldheartofthecapitalisteconomydidnotchangeits temperature,norcanchangeitobjectively.Thusthroughwareverythingismadeupforagainwhichwaspreviouslylostintermsofmiseryforexample,andmore accordingtothelawofmaximumprofit.Evenaroundthemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury,henceshortlybeforetheIndustrialRevolution,thetenhourworkingdaywas regardedasnormalinEngland.Whereas,afterthevictoryofthebourgeoisie,itneededenormousstrugglesbeforeeventhisolderstandardfinallyreturnedin1847,a hundredyearslater,foughtforstepbystep.Andthetenhourbillof1847(withaworkingdaythathadbecomeconsiderablymoreintensive)certainlywasnot acceptedonhumanitariangrounds.Butevenwheretheseappeared,inthesentimentalsheenwhichsobecomesarichbiblicalnation,itwasforthemostpartonlythe cleverproductofaparticularinterestandanobservationwhichobtrudeditselfpreciselyonthemanufacturingclass.Foritturnedoutthatthequalityoftheproducts steadilysankasaresultofthedegenerationofthefactorypopulationandthereforebecameuncompetitiveincomparisonwithcountrieswhichhadbeguntheir overexploitationonlyrecently.Thiswasjoinedbythedeteriorationofthesailormaterialforthemerchantnavyandthenavyeventhewhipwhichruledforsolongon Englishshipscouldnotcureconsumptionandscurvy.TheEnglishfamilymagazinenovelhadblushinglycalledtheslumsthedwellingsofviceandpovertybutnow theyhadalsobecomedangerstoprofit.Thusphilanthropybecamealmostinevitable,afterallitsChristianindustrialoblivion,interestmadephilanthropyinevitable.The tenhourdaybecamenormalagain,italsoformed

Page890 thelimittoconcessionsofcourse,onewhichwasrepeatedlysusceptibleandonlyreluctantlyrecognized.Especiallysomethingassubversiveastheeighthourday stoodoutsidehumancivilizationitflowedfromlazinessandlechery,ittestifiedonlytotheawfulgrowthofselfishnessamongthemassofthepeople.Evenin1887,at theendofthesocalledHaymarketrevoltinChicago,fourworkerswerehangedwhosesinhadbeentoproclaimtheeighthourday.TheAmericangeneralpublic regardedthemascommoncriminals.Untilthelabourmovementwhichwasgainingstrengthfinallygaveanewimpetustoloveofmankind,anevenmoreunpleasantone thansinkingcompetitivenessanddeterioratedsoldiermaterial.Germanywasregardedasthecentreofthelabourmovementatthattime,itssocialdemocracyatleast successfullygavethisimpression,thelawagainsttheactivitiesoftheSocialDemocraticParty*hadnotbeenanyuse,insteadtheancientRomanremedyofthrowing panemetcircensestotheplebsnowrecommendeditselftotheupperclasses,sothattheyhopedtopreventrevolutionaryactsbypartpayments.Therethusarosethe widespreadsocialwelfarelegislationunderWilhelmII(England,undauntedbyitsLabourParty,andespeciallyAmericafollowedveryslowly),andfinally1918wasto beswaddledanddupedbeforeitwassuffocated.Theeighthourdaywastheminimumdemandoftheclassconsciousproletariattherewasnothingforitbutto considerthisdemandwithawink.Butthenthecrisiscameandbroughtalotmorecapitalistfreetime,namelyunemployment.Thencameultimatelythelegacyofcrisis andnorevolution:fascism,anditagainbroughtthetwelvehourdaytolight.Suchisthecircle,thisishowitfinallyhadtoturnout:slavedrivingtowarproduction,with massgravesforrelaxationunemploymentinpeace,withfamineforwages. Allkindsofalleviationthroughbenefaction Atleastthepoormanhastheadvantageoflookingdirty.Heisnotaprettysight,heseemsreproachfulevenwhenheissilent.Thepoormanmaytugattheheartstrings butnotofcourseatthepursestringsthemasterdoesthelatterinordertoalleviatethemiseryoffwhichhelives.Especiallywhen,asnotedabove,sentimentalfeeling accompaniesandembellisheseconomicinterests.Alsotherulingclass,withthisfeeling,oftendescribesveryexactlytheuglyexistenceofpoverty,itdenouncesfrom timetotime *Bismarckslawof21October,1878.

Page891 thebrutalityofitsownrepresentatives,namelyasastupidone.Theclevermangivescharitablegiftsandcertainlycharitableopinionswhichareopentotheideaofan eightoreventwohourday,andofhappinessforall,asabeautifuldream.Theliberalbourgeoisieemotionallytakesnoteofneediness,partlyforthesakeofsomething totalkabout,partlyinordertoreformit.Thelatterwithhouseholdremedieswhichbynomeansunderminethefund,thefundofwealthfromwhichthebeneficentgift comesafterall.Bigbusinesswasnevershortofkindheartedwriterswithanaestheticallytroubledglanceatmisery,leastofallinEngland.Galsworthy,himselfa capitalistfrigate,thusdescribes,inanovelwhichaslucusanonlucendoiscalledBeyond,apieceofcontemporaryLondonalmostasEngelshaddescribedit,atleast aLondonwhichhasremainedasitwasinEngels'time:TheusualroutefromthestationtoBuryStreetwasup,andthecabwentbynarrowbystreets,townlanes wherethemiseryoftheworldisonshow,whereilllookingmen,draggledandoverdrivenwomen,andthejauntyghostsoflittlechildreninguttersandondoorsteps proclaim,byeveryfeatureoftheirclaycolouredfacesandeverymovementoftheirunderfedbodies,thepostdatementofthemillenniumwheretheleanandsmutted houseshavealookofdissolutionindefinitelyputoff,andthereisnomoretraceofbeautythaninasewer.Butthisawarenessofmissingbeautycausestheheroineof thenovel,themovedheroine,incidentallyalsoahuntressandafriendofPolyhymnia,todonothingmorethanfoundakindergarten.Thisissimplyreformismorthe liberationoftheproletariatbytheriderswhoaresittingonit.Enoughofthis,enoughaboutaphilanthropywhichmoansandindeedaccuseswhileatthesametime producingthestuffoftheaccusation.Hownimbly,withhowmuchrhetoricalcantthepatrioticEnglishhistorianMacaulayspeaksaboutthehorrorsoftheEastIndia Company,aboutbeastlyexploiterslikeWarrenHastingsandhissuccessors,aboutthewretchednessoftheIndianmasses:Theyhadbeenaccustomedtoliveunder tyranny,butneverundertyrannylikethis.TheyfoundthelittlefingeroftheCompanythickerthantheloinsofSurajahDowlah.It[theEnglishgovernment] resembledthegovernmentofevilGenii,ratherthanthegovernmentofhumantyrants.andthepalanquinoftheEnglishtravellerwasoftencarriedthroughsilent villagesandtowns,whichthereportofhisapproachhadmadedesolate.Buttheintellectwhichdrivesforthsuchtruthfuldescriptionsisalwaysassharpasachiselof soap,anditgetstothebottomofthematterasimperturbablyasthepatronessofacharitysoirebutitdevelopedthataweinspiringcunningwhichproposestorelieve thecrimesagainst

Page892 colonialslavesbytheexportofspirits,andthoseagainsttheproletariatathomebymeansofchloroform.Thisisthatlevelheadedtechnologyofthemillenniumwhicha stirredbourgeoisiebequeathedtothesocialdemocracyofallcountries.WithoutthemillenniumhavingcomenoticeablycloserwhichGalsworthyrightlymissesinthe Londonslums.Thewolfassumesgrandmother'svoice,thecrocodileshedstears,theGestapopractisesWinterAid,*WallStreetfightsforthefreenations.Andan untoldnumberofpetitbourgeois,whohavenotlearnedanythingfromexperience,andalsolivingintellectuallyfromhandtomouth,stillbelieve,almostmorethanever, inthelies,clichsanddistortionswhichwerenotonlyinventedbytheoldfascismbutwhichanewfascism,withthesamegoal,isincreasingbyitssocalledAtlantic freedom.Andwhatisliberallystalehasnowbecometotallypervertedandpoisonous,sothatherethedifferencebetweenwestandeastisfalselychangedfromthat betweencapitalandworkintoonebetweenallegedfreedomandallegedconstraint.ThiskindofthingseesitselfsupportedbyasocialdemocracyofsoftHenryswho arenotatallsosoftwhenitcomestoshootingatthoseforwhomfreedomisnoclichandrevolutionisnosnail.Allthesealleviationsofmiserystifletheawarenessof miseryandofthatwhichwillchangeit,especiallyinitsurbanmorass.Aprovencontributiontothisisalsotheinnerlife,thewhollyunpoliticalone,whichthesonsand daughtersoftheeducatedclasses,aboveallinGermany,havecultivatedforsolongandhavesoabruptlypaidfor.Theleisurewhichtheyhadtosomeextentin advanceoftheworkers,andthebitoflightwhichthehabitofeducationcouldhavebestowed,thusitselfturnedintoafundtoincreasetheirownignoranceandto supportthegeneralignorance.TheseaverageeducatedpeoplewereveryoftenandverygladlyfamiliarwithaGalsworthyorhisotherEuropeanrelatives,buttheyhad hardlyheardthenameofanEngels,andinthecaseofMarxtheycouldonlythinkoftheline:apoliticalsongisanastysong,orthemaximthatnobodyisperfect.This kindofthingdidnotevenbelongtothemomentaryshootingstarsletalonetothefatefulstarryhoursofhumanityinwhicheducatedpeople,wholikefoolsarealways withus,tookdelight.Thusallthesocialworkersandotherorganizationshadaclearconscienceaboutbeggingfromdoortodoorandinthestreet,theydevelopedit themselvesandhaditdevelopedforthem.UntilthegreatestalleviationofmiserywascalledHitlerandspokemorethaneverofspiritualvalues. *ArelieforganizationfortheneedyinwinterduringtheNaziperiod. AbourgeoisclichafterBranderinGoethe'sFaust,PartI,2092.

Page893 Itgoestoshowthatadenofrobberscannotbereformed,itcanonlybecleanedoutandradicallydestroyed.Togetherwithcheapsympathyandphilanthropytowards Christianrobberywithmurder.Actionalonemakeswhatisfeignedinsentimentalbookscometrue,revolutionarypoweralonemakesroomforeducated,fully educatedkindness. Bourgeoispacifismandpeace Eventhenoblestdreamnursedbythebourgeoishastopayforitshalfheartedness.Itistheancientdreamofeternalpeace,agenuinematernalutopiangoal.Butthe meansofattainingithavealwaysbeenofthemostunsuitablekind,andthesoilinwhichthematterwastoprosperwasanunchangedfieldofblood.Asocietywhichis initselfgearedforbattleandintrinsicallyantagonisticcannotfoundanyeternalpeace.Despiteallinclinationstoitinthepopulaceandoccasionallyevenatthetop,at leastaslongasthebourgeoisisearningsmoothly.Butthewishforpeace,anunconditionalone,isonlynaturaltothepeasant,worker,andpetitbourgeois,astheborn andnotunavailablecandidatesforthegraveoftheunknownsoldier.Thewishbecomesallthemorenaturalthemoreexactlyitisassociatedwiththeinsightintothe obligationtodieforalieninterests.Whichonlyscantilymasqueradeasthecauseofthefatherland,whichmeanthere:theimperialistaimsofaminority.Thefightforfree timeisthenautomaticallyassociatedwiththefightagainstthemostdangerousandmostinhumanslavedriving,againstthatoforganizedmurder.Therulingbourgeoisie, however,onlyirregularlyhadepochswhenitseemedtobecomealienatedfromwar.Orrather,whenitappliedwarsolelytocolonialsoil,againstFilippinos,Indian mountaintribes,negroesfromtheCongoandthelike.WhereasabovealltheAngloSaxonlandsofcapital,asthemostwellworncapitalismsusedtothetechniqueof toughdeceitfulnegotiationsortreatyinstruments,soughtreconciliationwithgreatpowersforalongtime,politicsoftheopendoor.ThusitisnoaccidentthatEngland, thehomeofcompromise,hadapparentlydefeatedthefeudalpathosofarmsbyacivilianspiritoreliminateditfromtheconstitution.Therethusarosethatdeceitfuland temporaryvarietywhichcanbecalledstockmarketpacifism:warinorwithEuropeappearedtoorisky,andeveninthecaseofavictorytoofullofheavylossesin businesstermstobeabletobeseriouslyventuredupon.Thus,typicallyenough,AngloSaxonsociology,farbeyondtheVictorianAge,almostequatedwarand feudality,warand

Page894 theJunker,warandtheSamurai.Spencer's*sociologycallsonthefullarmourofitssocalledtheoryofevolutiontoprovethatwarsolelybelongstotheprimitiveand feudalstateofsociety,toconstraint,tutelage,andstrangelyalsotootherwisescarcelyfeudalcentralization.Whereasitisinkeepingwiththemostspecialinterestsof theindustrialperiodtoeliminatesuperannuatedmilitarismlikeaforeignbodywaristheultimaratioofkings,notofthebourgeois.Thereforethedeportmentof Spencer'ssociologyreleasedthewhitedovefromdebitandcredit,oratleastfromcreditpeacefulcompetition,astheyusedtosay,unitesthebusinessoffices.Itwas thusonthisbasis,underthedirectionofEnglandandanearlierNorthAmerica,thatbourgeoispacifismspread.Wellmeaningandvague,shortwindedandcomposed ofmisunderstandingsofitself,andalsohavingbeenusefulasaquasipeaceinourtime,forthepurposeoftoleratingandindeedpromotingHitler.Forcapitalismis certainlynotthesortoflambitwasmadeouttobebytheSpencersociologists,andrisksdonotfrightentheentrepreneurwhenthedestructionofcompetitionisthe goal.Evenallegedmilitarismassuch,whichhadsurvivedinGermanyandJapanfromaprecapitalistfeudalpast,wouldhavedeclinedlongagotoashowpieceifithad nothadthefreshestimperialistmandatebehinditpreciselyinthesetwocountries.Sowarandpeacearenooppositesanymoreintheageofmonopolycapitalismthey bothstemfromthesamebusiness,preciselyfromthis,modernwaritselfcomesfromcapitalistpeaceandbearsitsghastlyfeatures.Thefightformarketingareas,and competitionfightingbyeverypossiblemeans,arewrittenintocapital,henceitcannotkeepanyeternalpeace,henceimperialismsnecessarilyformtheexplosive atmosphereofapermanentprewarperiod,andthedeclarationofwaritself(recentlyitcanbelackingtoo)becomesmererelease.Onlyasentimental,thenaslovenly, thenaroguishidealismcanthereforewatertheplantofpeaceonbourgeoismasterheightsitconcealshereonlythepreparationsforattack,sivisbellum,parapacem, ifyouwantfascism,speakaboutfreedom.Indeedtheverycivilianspirithasbecomesoidenticalwithbigbombersinlatecapitalismthatonlyimperialism,asthelast capitalistphase,hasbroughtwartotheperfectionthatiscalledtotal.ThediverseWallStreetwarsaretotalnotmerelybecausetheybynomeansoccuronlybetween armiesanymorebutbecausetheychoose,withparticularheroism,whatisdefencelessasasacrifice.Thefullchurchesandwomenandchildrenhadnotbeenterrified ofthearmiesofknights,buttheyfindnomercyfromthefuryofthe *HerbertSpencer(18201903),EnglishsociologistwhoanticipatedmuchofDarwin'stheoryofevolution.

Page895 imperialistbourgeoisie,particularlyfromthelatter.Likewise,whatremainsofpacifisminthewomboftheupperbourgeoisieandcondemnsaggression,aggressionitself fabricatedintheWhiteHouseandintheVaticanbynothingbutstockbrokers,Tartuffes,andFrancopriests,hasbecomenotjustroguishidealismbutpureswindling. Thuspeaceprospersincapitalistsoillikealambintheslaughterhousethedreamofpeacecannomorebefulfilledincapitalisttermsthanthatofloveofmaningeneral. Ofcourse,warsarenotinevitableifaunifiedandsufficientlypowerfulactiononthepartoftheirprospectivevictimsintervenes,buteventhentheyremainaconstant threat,atbestamerenonwar,bytheskinofitsteeth,thepreservationofwhichrequiresconstantvigilance.Onlysocialismradicallyremoveswarandtheseedsofnew warscontainedineverycapitalistpeaceagreement.Peaceisnopartymatter,intheagewhereitisconstantlyunderthreatitisamatterformankindparexcellence,but amankindwithoutNimrods.Thewillforfreetimefromwar,andhenceforpacifistleisure,willonlywhollygetachancetogetherwiththattamingofimperialist maximumprofitwhichultimatelymeansitsabolition.Otherwisetheabsence,evenimpossibilityofwarsofaggressionwillneverturnfromahighlydesirablestateof affairsintoanormalone. Sothisiswhatemergeshereassoonasafoxissettowatchthegeese.Atthesametimethefoxesthemselveshadtoadmitthatpeaceisanancientdream,thoughnota beautifuloneforthem.ThecryofBertavonSuttner:Laydownyourarms*movedinsuchanancientandabovealloftenpicturedlongingthatpacifismalmost possessesthetraditionofaseparateutopia.Autopiawhich,thoughitisalsooccasionallycontainedinthesocialones,stillbynomeanscoincideswiththem.Forthe dreamofpeaceisfoundtobeparticularlyelaboratedinthoseverywriterswhohaveleftbehindnoelaboratedsketchesforthebeststateatallasintheancientIsraelite prophets,asinKant.EquallyitbelongstorevolutionaryNaturalRight:Grotius,thefounderofinternationallaw,picturespeacesimplyasthenormalstateofthings.And beforeitamountedtostockmarketpacifismanditsillusion,thedreamofpeacewasclosetotheyoungbourgeoisenlightenmentanditsallianceagainstprinces,against masters'warsandwarsofreligion.ThewholeironyofcapitalistdestinywasinvolvedinmakingpreciselytheFrenchRevolution,withthepopulararmywhichithadto formforitsdefence,intotheoriginofuniversalconscription.PacifistutopiaappearedmostforciblyofallinKant,andnotinfactin *TitleofthelifestoryofBaronessBertavonSuttner(1889).

Page896 asocialutopianconnection,butitslightwaskindledfrommorality.ThesketchOnperpetualpeace,1795,doesnotallowpoliticstotakeasinglestepwithoutfirst havingpaidhomagetoethics,initsabsolutelycommandingform.Politicssays:Beaswilyasserpentsethicsadds(asaqualifyingcondition):andasguilelessas doves(Werke,Hartenstein,VI,p.437)thecombinationofbothisdifficult,butarequirementaboutwhich,accordingtoKant,nodisputeispossible.Ethicalpolitics, politicalethicswouldthensecureeternalpeace,assoonasthestateisformedinallgreatnationsasifithadcomeaboutthroughavoluntaryagreementofitssubjects. Theconstitutionwhichthusarisesistherepublicanone,italonehasapartfromtheintegrityofitsorigin,havingsprungfromthepuresourceoftheconceptofjustice, theprospectofthedesiredresultaswell,namelyeternalpeace(l.c.,p.417).ButKant,evenwhenhenowaimsatasingleworldrepublic,despiteallrigourofmorality hashardbittenbonsensenoughtocontenthimselfwithasubstituteamongtheexistingpiraticalstates:theleagueofnations.Forstates,inrelationwithoneanother, therecanbenootherway,inaccordancewithreason,ofgettingoutofthelawlessconditionthatcontainssheerwarthanbygivinguptheirwild(lawless)freedom,just likeindividualhumanbeings,complyingwithpubliccompulsorylawsandthusformingan(admittedlyalwaysgrowing)internationalstate,whichwouldfinallycomprise allthenationsoftheearth.Butsincetheycertainlydonotwantthis,inaccordancewiththeirideaofinternationallaw,inplaceofthepositiveideaofaworld republic(ifeverythingisnottobelost)onlythenegativesurrogateofaleagueavertingwar,persistingandalwaysspreading,cancheckthefloodofthelawshunning, hostileinclination,butwiththeconstantdangerthatitwillerupt(l.c.,p.423f.).Thispessimismdiffersatleastfromthetrustfulnessofthosepacifistswhosawpeaceand notthearmamentsindustrypromotedinanAmericanworldrepublic.Kant'spessimism,inviewofhisdreamofpeace,stemsofcoursenotonlyfromthetrue assessmentofthelawshunningstatesbutjustasmuchfromtheDecalogueandtheprophets.Bothaddressedthemselveswithoutillusiontothemanwhohasbecomea wolftomantheDecaloguewiththesharpcommandment:Thoushaltnotkill,*theprophetIsaiahwiththeextremelydistantpromise:andtheyshallbeattheirswords intoplowshares,andtheirspearsintopruninghooks.Thisismessianic,anditdidnotentrustorconfusethekingoftheAssyrians,andcertainlynotthemodern priestsofBaaleither,withtherealm *Exodus20,13. Isaiah2,4.

Page897 ofpeace.Thiskindofthinginfactcanonlybefallthedefencecommunityofwolves,thepacifismofdeception,thesamedeceptionwhichlyinglychangesthevictimof aggressionintotheaggressorandmanufacturesatombombsforthesalvationofcivilization.Tosumup:theancientdreamofpeacepresupposesalmostevenmore cogentlythananyotherelementofsocialutopiaclearsupportsandcorrection.EvenintheFirstWorldWar,simplyfromlookingatthePrussianJunkers,itbecame clearthatpacifismdoesnotconsistinendingexistingwarsatanypricebutinradicallypreventingfutureones.IntheSecondWorldWar,whichhasnotfinishedandhas merelyshiftedtheaggressorfromBerlintoWashington,itbecomesobviousthatmilitarism,howevermuchitwasabletocountonthepreservedbrutalityofJunkers,as inPrussiaorJapan,doesnotcomefromfeudalbarbarismbutfromthemostmodernpropertyrelations,andtheradicalpreventionoffuturewarswillnotsucceedinthe longrunwithoutapermanentremovalofmonopolisticinterests.Theswordswillonlycertainlybecomeploughshareswhenthesoiloverwhichtheploughpasses belongstoallnotanhourearlier,noranhourlater.Capitalistpeaceisaparadoxwhichspreadsfearmorethaneverandwhichenjoinsthenationstodefendthecause ofpeacetotheutmost,moststrenuouslywhereassocialistpeaceisatautology. Technologicalmaturity,statecapitalismandstatesocialismOctoberRevolution Howhesitantlywordgetsaroundamongthoseinthecentrethatthingscouldbebettermanaged.Thesmalltrader,afterall,undertheillusionofbeingindependent,still largelyexistswiththisillusion.Andthehappinessoffreecompetition,althoughneithertheformernorthelatterexistsanymore,hasstillbynomeansceasedtomean somethinghere.Themanwithhisownlittlebusiness,thevastamountofsenselessmiddlemen,theemployeewhocannothelpbeingindustriousalthoughitdoesnotget himanywhereanymore,theyallstillbelieveinthecausewhichhasbecomepartlywateryandpartlybloody:privateindustry.Intheirprecarioussituation,ofcourse, theybelieveinitmorestubbornlythanfirmly,atleasttheyareinwardlystillprivate,dragthisremnantaroundwiththem.Theyarethereforejustasmuchahindranceto themselvesastotheconsciousnessoftheotheroverdueandnolongerprivatemodeofproductionandexchange.Now,however,eventheBabbittbeginstofeel somethingrathernewassoonasheadmiresthetechnologicalenterprisewhichseemsasbrightasday,insteadoftheeconomicmachinerythathecannotsee

Page898 andperhapsinmachinesthemselves.Artificialfertilizersandartificialirradiationareontheway,orcouldbe,whichstimulatethesoilintothousandfoldfruit,inahubris andantiDemetermovementbeyondcompare,withthesyntheticborderlineconceptofacornfieldgrowingontheflatofthehand.Inshort,technologyassuchwould beready,almostalreadyable,tomakeusindependentoftheslowandregionallylimitedworkofnatureonrawmaterials,independentevenofwidetransportation(cf. A.Lowe,TheTrendinWorldEconomics,TheAmericanJournalofEconomicsandSociology,1944).Anewsupernaturationofgivennaturewouldbedue,even thoughwiththefamiliardangersoftechnologicalartificialityhandeddownbythebourgeoisieandabstractlyintensified.Butandthisremainssociologicallydecisive forallreddeningdawnsofsyntheticchemistry:thethusfacilitatedomnipotenceofproductionisthemostimpossibleoneinthecapitalistsystemofappropriationand distribution.Itwouldbringtheoverproductionwhichexistsanywaytoalevelforwhichneitherexistingmonopolycapitalismnoritsstatecapitalistformlatentwithinit, withnothingbutrobotsundercentralizedexploitation,wouldbeamatch.Thiskindofthingisatthesametimeafinalsignthattechnologicalmaturityonitsownstillhas nosocialistsignificanceatall.Howevermuchithasoverhauleditsmother,privatecapitalistsociety,andhowevervisiblytheprivateformofexploitationprovestobe superannuatedcomparedwiththelongsincecollectivizedforcesofproductioneveninpurelytechnologicalterms,inthemeansofproduction.Butthemeansof productionalonedonotmakepeoplehappy,theproletariatmustratherhavethemfirst,musthaveseizedpossessionofthem.Withoutthissocializationpreciselythe mosthighlydevelopedmeansofproductionbringcrisisaftercrisis,ortheyarmimperialistwar,ortheypromotetotal,statecapitalistenslavement.Progressa categorywhichhasbeenreducedinexistingsocietyexclusivelytotechnologyisneverlinearasonewhichoccursinauniformandhencerealwayitproceeds insteadinaleapwhichpositsachangeofdirection.Thisleapismerelysuggestedbytheevermorehighlydevelopedmeansofproductionthatisthemachine.The proletariatdrawsthecollectivistconclusion,andagainstthisthebourgeoisiecultivatesevenmorelatentplansapartfromterrorismandwar:monopolisticstate capitalism. Itwouldnotbethefirsttimethatthefalsifyingenemyseekstocureitselfbywhatisgrowingagainstit.Buteveninpurelyhumantermsitisdifferentinanumberof wayswhetheramineisnationalizedfrombeloworfromabovesotospeak.Everywhereacontrolledeconomybecomesinevitable,butthedifferenceisthemost enormouspreciselyhere:

Page900 whethermonopolycapitalistsorproducerswillbethesubjectdoingtheorganizing.Inthefirstcasestatecapitalismarisesorthemerefunctionalchangeofprivate ownershipofthemeansofproduction,inthesecondcasesocialismarrivesorthetransferofthisprivatepropertytothereal,namelyproducingcollective.Both structureshavethecommonelementsotospeakthattheyriseontheruinsoffreecompetition,oftheliberalmarketmechanism.Butbothstructuresdisplaybeyondthis alltooformalsimilaritythevastdifference,hushedupbysocialdemocracy,thatsocialismpresupposesthatrevolutionwhoseveryabsencealonemakesstate capitalismpossible.Thelatterreceiveditsformthroughthetwoworldwars,inwhichoutputwasregulatedfromaboveforthefirsttimesincethemanufacturingperiod. Itreceivesitscontentthroughthegrowingstatedevelopmentofmonopolycapital,throughthetransitionofthepreviouslysubjectivefirmintothestateasthenowquite officiallyandtotallyexecutivecommitteeoftherulingclass.Statecapitalismherecombinesfull,indeedsharpenedexploitationwiththemostdrasticchangesinprevious privateindustryallthiswithanillusionofcollectivism.Thisillusioncanevenmeanthatthecapitalisteconomycontrolledfromaboveclaimstobesocialistitdidthisin thevariousfascistcoupsd'tat,butitalsodoesso,oftenwellmeaningbutalwayswrong,inreformistterms.Asintheoldshortsighteddelusionofthepeaceful growingofcapitalismintosocialism,thisBernsteinismwhichhasalreadybeendreadfullyrefutedtwice,in1914and1933.Inaperiodofprosperityandalaboriously maintainedpeace,capitalism(whichconstantlyhaswithinittheoppositeofprosperityandpeace)mayposeasliberalagain,afterithasneverthelessshownits grotesquefascistfacebutanintensificationofthestateisalwaysimmanentinthecontrolledprofiteconomyofmonopolism.Andinthesocialisteconomythis intensification,contrarytoallpopularopinion,doesnotappearbecausethiseconomyiscontrolledinsocialisttermsbutbecauseittouchesonstatecapitalismor withaviewtoasupposedshortcutmakesinstrumentaluseofitandincorporatesit.Itisofdetectiveutopianimportancetosketchonthehorizonthechangesof whichstatecapitalismcouldbecapableifitisallowedtimeandspace.Andinfacteverythingstaysasitwasinthemainpoint,inexploitation,andthecrisesimmanentin capitalismaresimplywrappedupinguncotton.Thefirstchangewouldconcernthemarket,whichwouldceasetobeafree,openone.Humanbeingsnolongerface oneanotherasagentsofbarter,butthetotalstatecontainsexclusivelythosewhogivetheordersandthosewhoaredominated.Intoitshandspassesthecontrolover pricefixingandthequalityofgoodswhichhad

Page901 beenexerciseduptothenbythefreemarkettosomeextent.Thesecondchangewouldconcernproductionitself,afterthefreedomofthemarketisatanendtogether withitscompetition.Thereisaprospectoffullemployment,thoughwithanecessarilylowerstandardoflivingforthemasses.Thereisaprospectofrelativeeconomic security,asaresultoftheadjustmentofproductiontoconsumption,asaresultofaregulatedprofiteconomyhowever,securityisboughtbythearmyofworkersand employeesbeingtotallytransformedintoslavesinsteadofintocoowningcomrades.Eventheresidualcapitalistsarerestrictedintheirfreedom,publicneedbefore privategreed,whichonlymeanshoweverthatthemonopolistsrestrictManchesteristprivategreedsothattheirownpublicneeditselfremainsallthemoreformidably preserved.Acapitalistcollectivearises,composedofthegreatestrobbersinindustryanddistribution,fromthehighcivilandaboveallmilitarybureaucracyallother people,inthewholeworld,inthevastcomplexofstatecapitalism,whosecentrewouldbeAmerica,wouldbecomeobjectsofacontrolwhichtheworldhasnever seenbeforeonsuchalargescaleandwithsuchthoroughlyrationalizedstrategy.Thetotalprison,withundernourishedrobotsinsuredforlife,theprospecttherefore whichManchestercapitalalwayslyinglyportrayedasthatwhichthreatenedinsocialism,ispreciselyitsown.Andthereistheadditionalpiquancythattheattemptis madetointroducetheeconomicsystemtowhichfascismcorresponds,andthefascismwhichcorrespondstothiseconomicsystem,fromAmerica,whereeventhe wordcapitalismisstillanhonorarytitleandthestateisnot,underthetrademarkoffreedom.Thesethereforeareamongotherthingsthehorizonsofstate capitalism,ultimatelyofthesamestatecapitalismwhichisinthehabitofcallingsocialismredfascismbecauseitisonitsguardagainstthemurderousintentionsof imperialism.Sothatthereforetheliberalsoftheexpiredepochoffreecompetitionromanticizeoutathirdpathwhichwouldliberatethemfromthemildlyunloved fascistalternativeandthegenuinelyhatedsocialistalternative.Thealternativeseemstothemtobeanequalonebetweentotalitarianregimeswhichisnoteven formallytrueinviewofthedictatorshipoftheproletariat,letaloneinrespectofthegoaloffreedomofthisdictatorship,thesolelyandreallytotalgoal.Thedifference betweenthetwocontrolledeconomiesisthereforeobviousdespitethemaliceoralsothegreatfoolishnesswhichmixitupitmarkstheutmostcontrastofsocial content:ofabolishedexploitationontheonehand,andoftotallyrammedinexploitationontheother.Andstatecapitalismthreatensasapossibility,indeedasan alreadybegunrealityonlyaslong

Page902 aspeopleputupwithitandstandforit.Theprofoundlylowlevelofwageswhichseemsinseparablefromstatecapitalism,andthelastingincapacitationwouldbe unbearableinthelongrun,eveniffascismdoesnotenterthelandofnoreturninafinalworldwarwhichitprovokesand,inaccordancewiththelawwithwhichit fellin,mustcontinuetoprovoke.Inallrespects,however,somethingresultsfromtheevillatencyofstatecapitalismwhichhelpsfascismandmakesitalmostconcrete, thetendencytowardsthecapitalistcollectiveinthevacuumofdisappearedfreecompetition:thusstatecapitalismisthelongsoughtelementofrealityinotherwiseso insubstantialfascism.Thelatterusesanachronismandthedullrageofitsprotestintheseducedmasses,butitiseminentlyuptodateinitsleadership.Itisnotmerely spookishhere,itisalsotherealapeofarealtendency,thattowardssocializationoftheforcesofproductionfascismmadestatecapitalismformidableasareal alternative.Andthisisjoinedbythemostcentraldangerofthedelusionoforder,andindeedsocialism,withwhichthecapitalistcollectivehasdrapeditselfandmay drapeitselfagainstatecapitalismbeneaththemaskofstatesocialism.Henceabovealltheforgeryofsecurity,indeedliberationfromthestruggleforlifewhichhas becomehorrifyingwhatislostinthewayoffreetimeandfreedomseemstocomeinagainthroughaguarantee,throughguaranteedemployment,throughsubsidized leisure.IfthereisanythinginwhichtheaverageAmericancitizeninparticular,theformerrisktakerparexcellence,isevenmoreinterestedthanheisinprofitmaking,it islifeinsuranceeventheformercapitalistpioneerwillunhesitatinglytakesecurityinexchangeforvanishedadvancement,andfascismseemedandseemstoguarantee thissecurityatleastfortheBabbittsofallzonesasifitwerethefuturestate.Itwasagraveflawthattheexistingpossibilitiesofstatecapitalismhavebeensolittle workedoutinsocialistliteratureitselfanevengraveronethatthemountainouscontraststosocialismhavenotfoundanysufficientanalysis.Throughthefirstflaw fascismcameasacompletesurprise,throughthesecondsocialdemocracywasreassuredaboutitsinactivityandabouttheallegedlydialecticaloptimismitshowedfor thebigcompanies.Capitalismseemed,asiswellknown,tochangeintosocialismofitsownaccordassoonasitwasfurthersynthesizedindeedeventhePrussian militarizationsofeconomiclife,whichbeganin1914,thesocalledideasof1914,appearedassocialismhere.Throughthesecondflaw:theinsufficientdistinction betweenstatecapitalismandtemporarystatesocialism,itwasmadeparticularlyeasyanywayforsocialdemocracyandtherestofthebourgeoisietooverlook itsownstatecapitalism,by

Page903 neverthelesstheendofforceinthiskindofforceisinescapablyimmanent.Whereasinbourgeoisliberalism,whichoncesohighlyconspiredandsodeeplyrevealed itself,itwasalwaysonlythecapitalistapparatusofforcethatwashiddenandpresent.Fromthefirst,theworkerinthecapitalistclassstateonlyhadthefreedomto starveifhedidnotbowtothedictatorshipofprofit,andhewouldnothaveachievedeithertherighttostrikeoreventheeighthourday,thesamerightswhichstate capitalismwilltakefromhimagain,ifhehadnotbloodilywrestedthemfromthesocalledStatueofLibertythroughorganization.Whereasthelandofsocialist constructionemployedallitsvastpowertothisendandmustunerringlyuseitsothatpoweroverpeoplecomestoanend.Sothatinsteadoffreedomoftrade,with whichliberalismhasluredanddeceived,freedomfromacquisitionmayarise.Sothatinsteadofthesocalledstateundertheruleoflaw,whichbecauseofitsrotten classcontenthasbecomewhollyastateundertheruleofillegality,nostateatallisnecessaryanymore.Theorderwhichisstillpossibleinlatecapitalism,thatofstate capitalismorfascism,consistssolelyofatrocitiesoforder,andthefreedom,withselfalienationthathasbecometotal,persistssolelyasasuppressed,ifnotmissing freedom.Againitisevident,moresharplythaninthecaseofbeneficenceandpacifism,moreterriblyperverted:inthelatebourgeoisiepeacebecomeswar,order barbarism,leisureemasculationanddesolation.Thehighdramaoffascismthusstillhardlyprovestobeexhaustedinitsstatecapitalistpossibilities,althoughrestrictedin them.TheSovietUnionwastheverytroublesomecontemporaryoffascismatStalingradaSovietUnionininvitingmaturitywillputanendtothisstatecapitalism everywhere. Delusionsoffreetime:tougheningupforbusiness Intheeveningtheoppressedmanfinallyrelaxes,becomesfreeasitwere.Heisallowedtorecuperate,andheisallowedtodosobecauseevenaworkergetstired. Hereceivesfreetimeafterthetrialsandtribulationsoftheday,tofeedandoilhimselfasamachine.ThehoursafterworkandSundaymean:recuperationofworking powermanisneveranendintheacquisitivesociety,alwaysameans.Whateverisdonewiththehoursafterwork,privatelyorinaccordancewithancientcustom, merelyembellishesthebourgeoisend:reproductionofworkingpower.Allthemorevariedofcoursearethedreamswhichnowsettleinthehoursafterworkofthe oppressedman.Theywouldliketobefulfilledthere,asin

Page905 aplacewhereatleastahollowspacearises.Freshairistakenin,alcoholwashesdownthedust,cardplayingkillstime,andismoreoverthedesirenotjusttosuccumb tochancebuttobeabletoplaywithitandeventowinsomethingoffsomebodyelse.Thishasthedoubleeffectherethattheworkingday,thebusinessdayis abandonedandatthesametimeitsformscontinueinalightenedway.Sociabilityasawholelargelyrepeatstherelationsbetweenpeopleandthingswhich predominateinsocietyandconstituteitineachcase.Theserelationsprevaileveninthedowntroddenclassthathascomeoffbadly,althoughithasorcouldhave particularinterestindistinguishingthehoursafterworkfromtheworkingdayintermsofformandespeciallyofcontent.Butthiskindofthingisnotsimple,noteven whereacontrastingwillexistssociabilityastheformofplayinasocietyconfirmsthissocietyeveninescapingit.Andsociabilitykeepspeopleuptoscratchallthe more,thelessthosewhohavecomeoffbadlylamentexistingsocialconditionsthemselvesbutonlythesingularplacetheyoccupyinthem.Indeedaswehaveseen: pleasurethenservesasasubstituteforwhathasnotbeenattainedinthecapitaliststruggleforlifeanditsapprovedforms.Thedrivetowinincardplayingandthe pokerfaceimperativeforit,togetherwithitsstraightandcrookedpaths,isinsporttheassiduity,transferredthere,ofcompetitionthatappearedfree.Tothesame extentthatthiscompetitionismadeeconomicallyimpossible,thecontestinsportbeckons.Itbeckonsnotonlyitspractisingenthusiastsbutmuchmore,bymeansof empathywiththesides,thethousandsuponthousandsofSundayspectatorsattheprofessionalmatch.ItistruethatevenGreekwrestlingmatchesandmedieval tournamentshaddisplayedcompetition:butitwasnotabusyoneasyet.Thiscontestreflected,intheupperclassofthetime,noeconomicstruggle,itsparticipants ratherresembledthathighmindedmanwhomAristotlepraisesforgoinghesitantlyandidlythroughlifeexceptwhereanhonouroraworkrequirehim.Theemotion wasthedesireofdistinctionnotoffriction,itwasErosforthegoal,withtheloserasthesecondwinner,notasarivalwhogoesbankruptfromthestockexchange. MutatismutandisthiskindofcontestisalsopossibleinapostcapitalistsocietytheSovietUnionisalreadyusingittoday.Whereasthepleasuretakeninsportby capitalistemployeesnecessarilydisplaysallthefeaturesofcompetinginitscontest,inotherwords:ofthesubstituteintheformofplayforthesociallydisappearedfree competition.Itisnotadmittedbycapitalthatthiscompetition(makewayforefficiency,themarshal'sbatonineveryknapsack)* *BlochadaptsaGermanphraseheretomeanthateveryoneisapotentialleaderofmen.

Page906 iseconomicallyoutmodeditwas,afterall,thestrongestseductivecharmofcapitalism,aboveallinthelandofunlimitedpossibilities.Thus,insofarasitstillworks withtheillusionoffreecompetition,capitalpromotessport,whichmobilizesthisillusioninfreetime.Asifinthiswayatleastthebodywasaccordeditsrights,asifin thiswayatleastmanwerestillworthsomethinginthisfield,evenasifabitofGreeceappeared,calledtheOlympicGames,afestivaloffreepeoplenotofslaves.And thepromotedsociabilityofsportdopolavorodoesnotremainconfinedtoforgedfreedomithasothermeritsaswellincapitalistterms.Evenwherecapitalisnolonger capableoffeigningfreecompetitiontoitsemployees,evenintheconfessedstateofnewserfdomsportismadeusefulfordelusion.Inthiscasenotfortheindividualist kindbutforthecollectivekind,thoughitmustbenoted:forthecollectivekindintheserviceofthefirm,andultimatelyofmonopolyandstatecapitalism.Thisisthe spiritofprefascistandfascistorganizationoffreetime,concerninggymnastics.Bigbusinesseshavelongusedtheloveofsportintheiremployeestoforma particularlyfaithfulfollowingforthemselves.Thisnownolongerreturnsinfreetimetotheindividualillusionofcompetition,onthecontrary:thefollowinghastolead thecoloursofitscapitalistbusinesstovictoryitselfthussportsmenaretransformedintoindustrialrelays.HeretooonlytheSovietUnionandthepeople's democracieshaveproducedthegenuinespiritofacollectivecontest:namelybecausethebusinessesthemselveshavebecomecollectiveproperty.Thefasciststate finallyevenannexedtoitselfthereturntonatureitisnowcalledmilitarysports.Thissawtheendoftheeveningwalkofthelongingforfreshair,oftheartofmoving paralysedlimbs.Buttheinitialreasonsforthisendalreadylieinthefactthatfreetimehasalwaysbeenregardedbythebourgeoisieonlyashiddenserviceand permittedassuch.Strengththroughjoy,takentoitslogicalconclusionthissimplymeans:repairofthewornoutcommodityofworkingpowerbymeansofcunning dopolavoro.Andeverythingisdonetoseethatthecommoditydoesnothaveanyharmfulideasinthejoyfullyfilledfreetime.Toseethatthewistfulconsiderationof possibilitiesiscanalizedandremainsassubordinateasthelittlepositionofthepersondoingtheconsideringhimself.Freetimethereforeultimatelyservesstupefaction here,whetherwithanapparentlaissezfaire,laissezaller(oncapitaliststrings)orwithformswhichfascismimposes,withgarlandsforoxentobeslaughtered.Itmustbe notedthatitisnotthefactthataformisalsosoughtforfreetimewhichislamentableanddetestablebutthat,withsuchcontent,itcomesfromtheenemiesofthe people.Sundayandeven

Page907 thecontactwithnaturetherebyremaincloserthaneverwithinthecapitalistworkdayanditsinterestedparties.Sothatthecommodityofworkingpowerdoesnotshake offitscommoditycharacterevenduringrecuperationthelongarmofcapitalembracesthemanatthemachineandatthesuppertable,inthesportsstadiumandinthe holidayhospitalofnature.Neverthelesstherebelliousdesire,desireforsomethingdifferent,doesnotfailtoappearinthelongrun,noreveninthehoursafterworkfor humanbeingsarenotacommodity.Noristheirlaziness,thissoleresidualfragmentofparadise,asSchlegelsaid,trulyabackwardlookingprophetinthisrespect.But abovealltheirvigour,andnotjusttheirlaziness,seekswithoutexceptionastatewhereeventheclock,asthehandofduty,livesforthemoment. Residualolderformsoffreetime,spoiled,butnothopeless:hobby,publicfestival,amphitheatre Thereisstillapartofmanwhichisnotornotwhollysold.Ienjoymyself,idlenessisatleastnicelyputintowordsinEnglish.Dolcefarniente,aBeing,notjusta word,alreadygiveslifewithoutworkassuchaninnercharm.Providedthatwealsohavetheexternalmeansforitorevenwithoutthemknowhowtohaveasmany holidaysaspossible.Furtherprovidedthatwecanbearnothingmoreeasilythanaseriesofbeautifuldays,andarethereforenotspoiledforpleasure.Becausework hasburntusoutandwehavetimeandexampleneitherforthegracenorthepeaceofhappiness.Youarelikeaflower,thisisadmittedlydifficultinasocietywhicheven initsleisureclass,preciselyinit,displaysfewflowers,exceptcarnivorousones.Butitisevidentthatevenintheholidayruinedbycapitalismtherearestillhalfsheltered spots.Therestilllivesanotwhollysaleablepatchorpatchworkofmanwhichisnotwhollysuitableforthebusinessofreproduction.Andinhimcertaintracesofmore fulfilledleisurehavesurvivedfromoldertimes,fromprecapitalistones,worthyofbeingconsideredandindeedpossiblyrefunctionedunderchangedcircumstances. Becauseofitsprecapitalistfeaturesthiskindofthingisalsofarlessincorporatedintocapitalism,althoughobviouslyusableandfalsifiable.Whataremeanthereare suchvariousentertainmentsafterworkastheprivatehobby,thepublicfestival(mostlygroupedaroundformerchurchfestivals),andthenthewholecomplexofculture whichisbecomingcommunal:theamphitheatreforall.Manisthereforenotwhollybetrayedwherever

Page908 apartofhimisstillnotwhollysoldandenjoysitself.Thehobbybringsthequietestoftheseidlepleasures,thereisaratherlonelybutalwayseasyrideonthishobby horse.Doityourselfenthusiasts,allotmentholders,alongwithsomanyothervarietiesofplay,actoutintheirfavouritepursuittheprofessionwhichtheyhavemissedor whichdoesnotexistatallintheseriousnessoflife.Thiskindofthingoftenmerelyturnsoutstunted,butfromadistanceworkwithoutconstraintopensupwithit,a privateappearanceofwhatactivitywithpleasureandlovecouldmean.Wherethealmostchanceprofession,thejob,satisfiesthefewestpeople,asinAmerica,there arethereforethemosthobbies.Andthefavouritepursuitwillonlydisappearwhenitconstitutesthecorrectprofessionitselfoneday.Untilthenwecanlearnfromthe hobbyhowfulfilledleisureisprivatelydreamed,asworkwhichappearslikeleisure.Butwhenthemostprivateofidlepleasuresturnsintothemostpublicandthrows thewholeactivityawaywhichdoesnotbelongtothehobby,therethenappearsfromancienttimesthemosteffortlessfavouritepursuit:thepublicfestivalinboisterous folklore.Itstillthrivesmoreorlessinrusticregions,andalsoincities,wheretraditionalcustoms,encapsulatedorimmigrated,havecontinuedtobepreserved.Parades, carnivals,andchurchfestivalsthenfillupnoemptyspaceofSundaysandholidaysbutmakethesereallyintosuch.CountrieswithaRomanpaganbasearericherin suchfestivalsthannorthernones,andCatholiconesaremoretalentedatthemthantheProtestantonesoftheworkethic.America,withthreemillionItaliansinNew York,displaysthroughthemthedifferencebetweenlivinganddeadjoyeveninoneandthesamespot.Livingjoyisthatwhichinthecaseofnumerouschurchfestivals hasmigratedoverfromPalermoorRome,fromBariorNaplesdeadjoyisthefunoftheYankeeworld,fromthejukeboxtothecocktailparty.Italy,France, Austria,BavariaandtheRhinelandhavestillpreservedenclavesinthegeneralcapitalistmechanicalresponsebyvirtueoftheclassicalsubsoilandtheCatholictradition, i.e.intervalsofafeelingforlifeforwhichtimeisnotyetmoneyandmerrimentasyetnowhitewashedgrave.Publicfestivalshaveperhapswhollysurvivedonlyin Russia,sothattheSovietUnionwasnotonlyabletotakethemoverbutfirstallowedthepopularlifeandthepopularjoyinthemtoarriveandreturnhomeinthenew society.YeteveninFrancethebourgeoismechanicshasdeformed,itbroughtaboutaharshcontrastbetweentheconventionalandthenaivegaietparisienne.The domesticSundayofthepetitbourgeoisisalmostnevermorethanfurnisheddespairandthepubliclymanifestedSunday,eveninthelandofthedevoutEpicurus?One only

Page909 needs,writesJeanRichardBlochaboutakindofcivilizationwhichhasevenspreaditsveneeroverParis,oneonlyneedstostrollthroughourparksandgardensand overtheboulevardsofourcitiesonholidaystoencounterthesepitifulbourgeoisfamiliesinthousandsofexamples,who,dustyandbored,driveafewidle,sullen, hypocriticalchildrenbeforethem.ThememoryoftheSundaymiserywhichSeuratpaintedinhispromenadepieceLaGrandeJatte(cf.Vol.II,p.814)alsobelongs here,andthecomparisonoftheseincurablegroupsofstrollers,indeedofthewholewaterydesperatepromenadingwithGodinFrance.*Howjuicilyeventheold kermispicturesoftheDutchemergeinthiscontrast,andallthewishfuldreamsattachedtochurchfestivalsandcarnivalsaswell,inwhichSundayafternoon,insteadof beingthebesttimeforsuicide,couldgiveroomforcollectiveenjoymentoflife,afteralltheworkdaymisery.Theworkdaywasevenmorearduousthantoday,butan unoppressedcapacityforjoygainedshapeonfeastdays,thatwhichcanbewonandfilledonlycommunally.WeonlyhavetoreadthedescriptionoftheSaintRoch festivalinBingen,inGoethe'sjourneyOntheRhine,MainandNeckarin1814and1815,thissplendidhealthandcontentment,toseemasterlyjoyinthemostfaithful mirror.Thepublicfestivalherecertainlyreleasedwishfuldreamsoffestivity,buttheylackedtheplayactingandalsomelancholysentimentalelementwhich characterizedthefestiveutopiasoftheleisureclass,despitethegreatestradianceandpreappearance.Thismeansthatpublicfestivalsstandincontrasttodeprivation, butfeastsofourlordstoboredom.AndthelattercannotbecombattedwithrelaxationbutagainonlywithefforthenceHeine'sparadoxofthebravecomradeinarms ofadolcefarniente.Conversely,publicfestivalsdisplaynoartificiality,notevenwhen,asisoftenandparticularlythecaseinItaly,theyhavemodifiedtheformsofthe governingBaroque.WhilepastoralityandtheposedArcadianelementareclearlylackinghere,andanelementofnaivetyandantiquity,abitofthefinalprocessionof Dionysusisaddedinstead.Dionysusisareleasinggod,thushispublicfestivalhasnowprovedtobefitforarefunctioning,foronewhichisbynomeansclericalany more.Thisholidayworldcelebratesjoysforwhichinfacttherebecomesrealoccasiononlylater,i.e.liberationofthepeopleisanticipated.Hencetheeasytransition fromthedancearoundthelindentreetothataroundthelibertytreeoftheFrenchRevolution,hencethealwayslatentelementfromtheend *BlochhasinmindtheidiomTolivelikeGodinFrancewhichisequivalenttotheEnglishTolivelikeaking.

Page910 ofFidelio:Hallowedbetheday,hallowedbethehour.ItisnotinconsequentialthattheSaturnaliaofallpeoplesarebasedonthememoryofaGoldenAge,and henceofthefreedom,equalityandfraternityoftheearlycommunistgentes.Therefunctioningofthepublicfestivalintoarealdopolavorothereforerevivesinits programmaticnewnessveryoldtendencies:onthesoilofthecarnival,oftheStRoch'sday,theStJohn'sday,unitedintherepresentingofathoroughlytransparent occasion,ofsomethingfreefrompain.IsnotthefestivalofthestormingoftheBastilleathomeontheoldsoil?AndhencethefestivaloftheOctoberRevolutionandthe politicalspringfestivalofthefirstofMay?Theholidayhascertainlyrefresheditselfherewithrelicsoftheparade,theprocession,indeedrefunctionedchurchbanners. Therethusremainsinthepublicfestivalacertainhopeforthedopolavorothathasbecomefundamentalandisbecomingevermorefundamental.Allthemoresoasthe groundontowhichthefestivitywasandisapplied,alongsidethetraditionalcheerfulcontentinwhosememorythefestivalisobserved,wasandisstillunobserved hope. Thatwhichpressesformorecultivatedjoydoesnotseemquitesoinviting.Andwhichisfedorfobbedoffthere,withculturalpresentationforeveryone.Withtheso calledculturaltreatwhichthebourgeoisworldprovidesonSundaysandholidays.Thetreatseekstooccurbeyondsportingcontestsandthecinemathusitranges fromconcerts,inwhichthereispaleale,toplaysandbookswhicharefreeofallalcohol.Needs,lifeandformsfromoldertimesarealsopresentintheculturalSunday, ofcourse.Butincomparablymorethaninthecaseofthesurvivingpublicfestivaltheyarecrossedbyordersfromabove,byinteresteddiversion.Ifthesportsbusiness stillfeignsfreecompetitionandifthewholeoffreetimeregulatedbycapitalismissoarrangedthatthecommodityofworkingpowerdoesnotbecomeconsciousof itselfevenduringitsrecuperation,thenthisendeavournaturallycontinuesinbourgeoispresentation,butalsoinanadministeringofculturalassetswhichstilloccursina bourgeoisandespeciallypetitbourgeoisway.Thoughthereisnodoubthereaboutacontinuingprecapitalistexistenceofthesewaysoffillingfreetimeaswell.This traditionalelementisfarsounderthaninsport,wheretheGreekdemocraticpleasurecanberedirectedtoverydifferenttougheningup,andultimatelystupefaction. Beethoven,evenifheispackagedintothesocalledculturaltreat,withreducedpriceandcontent,refusestobemocked.ThefireofPrometheusandthemilkofthe bourgeoispiouswayofthinkingremain,evenwhenadministeredinsocialdemocraticpopulareducation,incompatiblewithoneanother.Theoldplaceswherethe peoplehadnocultural

Page911 treatbutwasinvolvedinthework,stirredbythesubjectitself,indeedrevolutionizedandwhollyabsorbedinit,werecalledamphitheatresinantiquity,andmystery stagesintheMiddleAges.Buttheveryformofmodernhigherholidayactivityrevealsthecharacter,orrather:thenoncharacterwhichlieseveninthephrasepopular educationeveningitself.Thisisclearancesale,thisisdrossandstaplecommodity,thisisanendeavourtoturnMozartintoastickofrock,Goetheintoaphilistine,and theNinthSymphonyintoanondenominationalSundaysermon.Valuableinformationwasandisserveduptoasocalledgeneralpublicfromallareas,without problems,withoutcentres,atbestwiththeeffectofstaunchlyorthodoxboredom.Suchculturaltransmissionresemblesapromenadeconcertinsmallspas,andthe Sundaysupplementinthegreatbourgeoisconformistpress.TheinitiatorintothiseducationalphilistinismwasDavidFriedrichStraussinthosedays,andthousandsof evenmorecheerfulpeopleofhistypehavebeenatworkinSundayculturesincethen.Thewildandthesublimesunoftheoriginalshasset,orisatleastveiled,evenin thosepresentationswhichconnectthepopularwiththecheaplysaleableinsteadofwithpopularenergyandancientpopularimaginationtobeinvoked,andlongactive indance,fairytale,andbroodingreflection.ThestillcurrentdangerofthebourgeoissocialdemocraticculturalparkisindicatedwhenitsDavidFriedrichStraussspeaks likeachorusofahundredthousandseniorprimaryschoolteachers:Alongsideourprofessionweseektokeepasopenaspossibleourappreciationofallhigher interestsofmankindWeaidourunderstandingofthesethingsthroughhistoricalstudieswhicharenowmadeeasyevenforthenonscholarbymeansofaseriesof attractivelyandpopularlywrittenhistoricalworksinaddition,weseektoextendourknowledgeofnature,forwhichgenerallycomprehensibleaidsarenotlacking eitherfinallywefindintheworksofourgreatwriters,intheperformancesoftheworksofourgreatmusiciansastimulusformindandsoul,forimaginationandsense ofhumour,whichleavesnothingtobedesired.Theplushageofthenineteenthcenturywhichregardeditselfasapurpleageispast,butwithundeniableoffshoots intothecontradictioinadjectoofapetitbourgeoiscommunismeducationalphilistinismisnotoutofcirculation.Thebackgroundremainsthemuseumworldofthe previouscentury,withartasillusion,illusionasideal.Anditisultimatelythesamebackgroundwhichinitsfullyelaborateddevelopment,aspurelyepigonic,purely contemplativespaceofconsciousness,isstillcalledhistoricism.Preciselythelatteristheprincipleoftheparasiticculturaltreatortheservabilityofdeadeducationwith historyasrepeatedly

Page912 consideredpast,withcultureassomethingtofillanevening.Historicismelegantlydeliverswhatcapitaldemandsinitsinterestanddisseminatesinculturally pedagogicalterms:itdeliversintotheeducatedleisuretimeofthepetitbourgeoismassestheparalysedmuse,thenolongerfarstrikingApollo.Historicismthoughtit hadaHegelasaforerunner,butHegelinparticularopposedaliminethismuseumofalienation,withthosewhoarealienatedthemselvesasguides:Thelivingspirit demands,inordertorevealitself,tobebornebyarelatedspirit.Itbrushespastthehistoricalbehaviourthatsetsoutfromanyinterestinknowledgeofopinionsasan alienphenomenonanddoesnotrevealitsinnerself.Itcanbeamatterofindifferencetoitthatithastoservetoenlargetheremainingcollectionofmummiesandthe generalpileofcontingencies(WerkeI,p.168).Thusonlytheepigonismofthenineteenthcenturyturnedhistoryintoawarehouseandamuseum,aplaceforalltastes or,notmuchbetter,acanondesignedtostifle.Apartfromhideouscopies,thesubjectlessdiligenceofthisagecertainlyalsoproducedmonumentalworksofhistorical erudition,sothatamaterialcollectionoffidelityonasmallscaleanddubiousnessonalargescalecouldhardlybeaccomplishedanymorelikethatbuiltupbythe historicismofthenineteenthcentury.Butinsteadofthelivinglegacytherearosealullinknowledgeandcontemplation,whichparalysedordangerouslydivertedeven existingproductivityhistoricismisinallfieldsthewisdomofthosewhoareunfruitful.Reallyexperiencedhistory,namelythatexperiencedintermsofforminghistory oneself,providesnolegacyforitsownfamilyvaultorforthecontemplativeSundayroom.Itisrather,touseLudwigBrne'ssplendidmetaphor,ahousewhichhas morestaircasesthanrooms,itresemblesratheranunfinishedsuburbthananumberedfieldofdebris,itonlyapproachesatallfromacommunalfuture,notfromthepast madeintoagrave,namelyconcluded.Thusinfacttheexampleofthefutureinthepastistheonlyonethatpleases,inspiresandteaches.Likethisofcourseandonly likethis,butabsolutelylikethis,therecanandmustbealinkingup,beyondcorruption,withtheeveningculturalconsciousness,withoutlies,withoutillusions,beneath otherstars.Asocietywhichassuchwillitselfstandbeyondworkwillofcourse,forthisveryreason,nolongerhaveanyseparateSundaysandholidays,butjustasit willhavethehobbyasaprofessionandthepublicfestivalasthefinestmanifestationofitscommunity,soitwillalsobeable,inahappymarriagewiththemind,to experiencewithititsfestiveweekday.SothatnoclasslesseducationalphilistineemergessothatpreciselyeducationremainsontheFront,insteadofinepigonism.The careofexistenceremainsenough,

Page913 eveniftheshabbiest,thatofacquisition,isabolishedneedinessremainsenoughwhichpressesforinformationandforthefivethousandyearsofthehistoryof civilization,asasingle,unfinished,continuingday.Butthemoresocietyiseconomicallyinaccord,andtheslighteritsantagonismsstemmingfromthissourceare,the moreexactlythegenuinediscordancesofexistencethenemerge,thoseworthyofhumanbeings,fortheilluminationofwhichcultureinfacthasitsplanofcampaign,and willhaveitmorethanever.Itwasoftenroundedbutneverclosed,neverasumoffinishedproductspreciselythegreateducationalworksprovetheircontinuing surplusoverthesubmergedideologywithinwhichtheyarose.Theartofhearingsingingintheairthennolongerappearsasanescapeorevenasaninterested deificationofsomethingpoorlyavailableitnolongerappearsasahastysolutionofsocialcontradictionsinashininggame,butthepreappearanceofwhatisright emergeswithacontinuingeffect,alonewithacontinuingeffect.Thisistheafterripeningofeverygreatworkafterithasbeenpluckedfromthetreeofitsageandthis treeitselfhaslongdisappearedkingdomspassaway,agoodverseremainsandsayswhatliesahead.Thispreappearancesolittlesuitedtobeastaplecommodity willthereforeoperateallthemorewhentheinauthenticotherreflection,thatofmereclassideology,istakenfromit.Asfarasthisverypreappearanceisconcerned,as joyanddoctrineofatruedopolavoro,itwassaidabove,ontheproblemoftheencounteroftheutopianfunctionwithideology,withitselfpreappearingsignificance: Thusitisalwaysonlytheshapingdreamforcetowardsabetterworldwhichisculturecreative,ortheutopianfunctionasonewhichventuresbeyond.Thisfunction positsinideologyforthefirsttimewhatcanbenamedwithoutclichandhypocrisy,andwithoutproperty,illusionandsuperstition,anditaloneformsthesubstratumfor theculturallegacy.*And:Theparasiticenjoymentofculturereachesanendthroughinsightintothemoreandmoreadequatetrendtowardsourbecomingidentical andthroughcommitmenttothisculturalworksopenupstrategicallyTheyarenow,fromthepointofviewofthephilosophicalconceptofutopia,notanideological prankofahigherkind,buttheattemptedpathandcontentofknownhope(cf.Vol.I,p.153ff.).Andifthereisstillapartofmanwhichisnotornotwhollysold,thisis alsothesameonewhichhasnotyetbecomefreeforitself.Ittherefore *ThoughthisquotationissimilartothecontentofthesectioninVolumeIEncounteroftheutopianfunctionwithideology,itisnotdirectlyquotedverbatim.Itmaybe aquotationfromanearlierdraftofthebookwhichwasnotemendedduringBloch'srevisions.

Page914 seeksitsabsolutionnotleastinleisureculturethusforms,intheleisurethatisitswork,insteadofillusionsofthehoursafterworksubstancesofrealfreetime.For nothingismorethreatenedandmorehopefulthanthis,nothingneedsmorecultivationthanthishuman,stillalltoolittlehumanfield. Thesurroundingsoffreetime:utopianBuenRetiroandpastoral Heinrich: Paul: Jacob,Heinrich,Joe: Paul: Jacob,Heinrich,Joe: Paul: Jacob,Heinrich,Joe: Paul: Weforget. Butsomethingismissing. WonderfulistheapproachofeveningAndfinearethediscussionsofmenbythemselves. Butsomethingismissing. FineisthecalmandthepeaceAndpleasantistheharmony. Butsomethingismissing. MarvellousisthesimplelifeAndmatchlessisthegrandeurofnature. Butsomethingismissing. Brecht,RiseandFalloftheCityofMahagonny

Wesensestilloragainhowwewishtospendourfreelife.ButapartfromtheHowoffreetimeitisaquestionofitsWhere,ofthemorebeautifulfreespace.Evenin thecaseofthefestivalandtheeducationaleveningtheusualsurroundingsarechangedandembellished.Especiallyalongerperiodofleisurerequiresadecidedchange ofspace,whatiscalledstrikingtents.Thedistancefrombusinesswhichiscalledholidaysmustliterallybeone,achangeofair,ofpaths,ofthingsthemselves.Andthe spacearoundthisfreetime,withoutwork,islongedforandregardedastheprotectivespaceofthesimpleunrestrainedlife:freetimespaceisthennaturedevoidof humanbeingsbutnothostiletohumanbeings,inshortthatutopianizedintoanidyll.Thisisparticularlytrueofthoseeveninghoursafterworkcalledtheeveningoflife, andhenceofdopolavoroasconsummateholidays,ofBuenRetiro.AndthenaturearounditwhichisitselfcontentedsotospeakappearsastheArcadiancontent whichpositivelyfills,automaticallyasitwere,theabsenceofbusinessandperhapsevenofpleasures.Itdoesnotneedtobestressedthatnature

Page915 inthissenseofsimplicityandatthesametimefulfilmentisasocialutopiancategorythatitbelongstosocietypreciselybecauseitcontrastswiththelatterandits artificiality,evenemptiness.AsthiscategoryithadbeenvaryinglyintheolderwishesforfreespaceplayedoffbyDiogenesagainstthepolis,byRousseau againstthefortressoffeudalism,byRuskinagainstmechanicalcapitalism.Withevervaryingcontent,simplyaccordingtothecharacterofeachsocietyandits civilizationfromwhichtheRobinsonadepushedoff.Andyetitmustbeemphasized,simplytounderstandthepeculiarunquestionablenessofalldreamsoffreespace,in contrasttothesooftenembarrassedelaborationsofdreamsoffreetime:thereisacommonmatteroffactelementintheArcadiancontrastingwisheswhichalmosthas asmuchstayingpowerasthenaturesoughtbythem.Anddespitethevastpreponderanceofthemerelysocialutopianelement,ofthesocialassurancesandthe contrastinthepastoralpicture:thelandscapebeforethegates,thisobjectivefactor,neverthelessconstantlypresenteditselfforsuchapicture.Arcadiawaslocated fromthefirstbeneathtrees,besidespringsandotherelementsofparadise,notinthecity,howevershimmering.Atraceofthisveryoldutopiaoffreespacestillshines ineveryharmonywithnatureandthatwhichthecitydwellerexpectsandreceivesfromit.LikethepublicfestivalinRomanceandSlavoniccountries,thejoyinnature maywellhavebeenmostardentlydevelopedandpreservedinGermany.Butdopolavorodemandseverywhere,initsdreamsofspace,aportionofthegreatPanand hecertainlyprovidesahallforleisure. Livehiddenaway,thispieceofadviceisjustasdangerouslyisolatingasitisharmlesslyquiet.Itrefersfirsttothesettler'ssmallholdingforwhichthelonelycountryside givesroom,butthenalsotoruralrepose.Freud'stheoryofsleepmakesacertaincontributiontotheparticulardopolavoroofthisquietness,asthatofthecountry.For accordingtothis,thewishforsleepaimsatturningawayfromtheoutsideworld,thelibidooccupationofobjects,theobjectoccupationofthelibidodecreases,libido andegointerestareagainunited,infullnarcissism.Thisproducesthestrongestpossiblerecuperation,namelythatofthepsychologicalreturntothewomb,to objectlessisolation.Andinfactthisshedslightonthepeculiarsecuritywhichthepersonwhohasescapedfromthecitymayfindinnature.Hedoesnotfeeldisturbed byexistingobjectstherethusarisesinthequietnessfoundedbythisaparticularprotectivespace,infactamaternalspaceofleisure.Similarly,writingatnightand writinginthecountryalsohavethisseclusionintheirfavour:quietnessanddarkness,thetwogravesisters,orrather:narcissismcoatsevennaturalobjectsthemselves, sothatthey

Page916 notonlyfailtodisturbbutseemlikeapartoftheegothen,intheillusionoftotalfusion,thetensionsbetweenegoandnonegocompletelyfallaway.Thentheobject ceasestobeonetobeovercomebywork,asisparticularlythecaseincapitalistenterpriseandinitsrelationtomaterials.Thenthereisevenahint,inthefaceof nature,ofthatprelogicallyhappyanimismwhichByronexpressesasfollows:Ilivenotinmyself,butIbecome/Portionofthataroundmeandtome/Highmountains areafeeling.Theholidayfeelinginnatureisthusnotnecessarilythelonelysoulanditsmother,despitethenarcissism,andpossiblysolipsismunderlyingit.TheBeing alonewithoneself,indeed,Beingalonewithoutoneselfinnaturecanratherhavetotalobjectoccupation,onlynotoneinfactsoverymuchalienatedfromtheself.The freespacebeyondworkthenitselfbecomesonebeyondhardshipinitsrepose,abovealltheinorganickind,andtheblueoverheaditgivesmaterialforthis.And preciselythisfeelingofnonalienationinquietness,inthelandscapewhichabsorbs,hasalsoalwaysbestowedonnatureitsveryparticularcharacterofrefuge,the characterofpeace.Itjoinsagainatfirstonlyasasocialcategorytheprotestagainstartificiality,whichthenatureloverbelievesheleavesbehindhim.Oftenwith selfdeception,aswhentherulingclassadministerstheenjoymentofnaturewhollyassleep.Oftenwithdefeatism,aswhenthebustleonthehumanplaneisdeclaredto beincurablybleakandthegreatPanistoresolvesocialcontradictions.Butoftenthereposeofnaturearrivesonthesceneasarealcallforwhatisright,asacorrective toeverythingtormentedinwhichthereisnohealth,andtoeverythingartificialinwhichthereisnoblessing.Leisure,onitsheights,wouldliketolookassetapartasthis quietworking,asdevoidofalltrivialities.TogetherwiththeMuseswhopossiblyinhabittheseheights:themurmuringofthemountainspringonParnassusandHelicon isinGreekmythology,withmorethanmythologicalsignificance,thenaturalbasisoftheMuses.Andthequietnessofnature,thatwhichbelongstoOlympus,wasstill stressedasabasisoftheimmense,theelevated,andthesublimeitselfevenwhennoanimismwhatsoeverwaspreservedanymore.TheneoPlatonistIamblichos remarksthatwecanrecognizethegodsbytheirsilenceandhumanbeingsbytheirtalk,andsothenoise(thefutileunrest)growseverlouderthefurtherwewithdraw fromthelightofheaven.Thisisanexperienceofnaturewhichhasremainedasitwerenaivelyaliveevenbeyondmythology:preciselywithregardtotheheights,the isolationoftheheights.Upthere,sincetheaestheticdiscoveryoftheAlps,thegreatmountainsholdtheirelapsionupright,surroundedbysunandsilence.Aboveallthe upwardlooking

Page917 starsstandupthere,aboveanearththathasbecomeinvisible,indeedreducedtoonesinglelowlandsublimityandsilenceperseareassociatedthroughthemwiththe peacefulcharacterofathuscrownednature.Omniasublunacaduca:thismeansinthisconnection,despiteastarworshipthatcanhardlybereexperiencedanymore, thatthevastdepthsabovethemoonimpressusastotalsituationlessness,astotalotherworldbeyondhardship.Thebroadheavenwhichspreadsabovethe ignominiousbasenessoftheearth:whatTolstoy'sseriouslywoundedAndreiBolkonskythusseesandexperiencesonthebattlefieldofAusterlitzconcentratesa symbolicexperienceofmillionsintheeveninghoursafterworkthathavebecomeanightofcelebrationforthem.*Eveniflater,withtheeyesofthecity,onlythat firmamentremainswhichconcealsavoid.Thestarryskyultimatelygivesthemalecomponenttothematernalfeelinginnature,itgivesthecomponentofsublimitytothat peacefulcharacterwithwhichpreciselyastonishmentatnatureonagrandscalecommunicates.Andtheexperienceofthestarryskygivesevenmoretothepastoral:it indicatesthatthedemonicinnature,onlyapparentlyalientothepastoraloronlyinitsidyllicallychoicemanifestations(preciselyBeethoven'sPastoralSymphony containsthethunderstorm),thatthisgreatwarningagainstnarrownessandabstractnessofcivilizationmayalsobelongtoanunfathomableabyssoftheheights,not justtodarknessinnature.Feltnaturalsublimityasawholegivesasignificantcontactwithsuchelementswhicharestillsealedorunincorporated,andnotacontact whichonlyliesinthemindofmaninsteadofalsointhemountain,oceanorskyobjectofthisspecificastonishment.Thepastoralmaintainsasawhole,aboveits individualismofescape,itsideologyofcontrast,itsutopiaoflonging,thiscontactwithobjectivematerial,withthatwhichinfactonlypresentsitselfinruralnature,never inthecity.Thiskindofcontactiscertainlynotyetthesameasadepictionvalidevenifonlyiniridescentreflection,butcirculatingwithinit,evenwhereitisstilldensely furnishedwithmythology,areelementsofanobjectivelatentfreespace,indeedofoneinnatureitself.PreciselyalsoJudaeoChristianhope,thisdeathofthegreat Pan,wasnotableanddidnotwishtorenouncethepastoralcompletely.Easterstandswhollyinthespring,Christmastakestherisingsun,ifnolongerasitscontent, thencertainlyasitsaccompaniment.ThegrowingworldhatredintheBiblefromDeuteroIsaiahondoesnotstandinthewayofthis,aworldhatred *BlochcoinsthewordFeiernachthereasanintensificationofFeierabend(eveninghoursafterwork),andasacontrastingechotoFeiertag(holiday).

Page918 whichextendedfromthewillofpoliticalupheavaltothatforaradicalupheavalinnature.Foralthoughnaturanaturataishereonlyablockingcrust,althoughearthand heavenhereoccupyaplacewhichdoesnotbefitthembutonlythenewheavenandthenewearth,althoughinthenewheavennomoonandnosunshineanymoreand theHeavenlyJerusalemisnoArcadiaorevenElysiumanymore,butaneternalcity:naturestillremainseveninthisbothnonpaganandselectpastoral,inthatof Christianmyth,fullofsignificances,fullofcipherswhichashighmountain,aslivingwater,astreeoflife,aspreciousstonesaredeliveredtotheapocalypticcity. Adifferentworldnowstandsintheplacewhichtheexistingoneoccupiedandforwhosenewspatialpremisespurewater,highmountain,andcrystallightare transparent.TheBaroqueperiodconstantlysangthepraisesofthiswhollynonpaganpastoralintheexistingoneofdelightinnatureasinAngelusSilesius:So blossom,frozenChristian,Mayisatthedoor,/You'llstayforeverdead,ifnowyoudon'tbloomhere(CherubinicalWandererIII,rhyme90)asinJakobBhme:The powersofheavenalwaysworkinimages,plants,colours,torevealholyGod,sothathemayberecognizedinallthings(TheosophicalMissivesI,,5).Thuseventhe ChristianintendedexplosionofnaturecannotavoidtransposingcategorieslikeMay,images,plants,coloursintoitsSabbath,sothatitisnotonlyanoutwardnesslike sheerinwardness,butequallyaninwardnesslikesheeroutwardness.Howmuchmorethanthisarelationtonaturewhichhasbecomelessordifferentlytransparent mayproveleisureintheindeliblepastoral.Infact,ifitwantstoencounteritspastoralaboveallindepictabilityandnotjustiniridescentreflection,thisprobation ultimatelystillhasaparticularprobleminitsway.Namelythatofthedoubleconsciousnessofouragewithregardtonature:themechanicalontheonehand,the qualitativeaestheticontheother.Itistheproblemofdualismwhichhasopenedupbetweenthemodern,purelycalculatory,andthereforetotallyqualityfreecontentof physicsontheonehandandthenatureinlandscapeexperience,asatotallyqualitativeone.Images,plants,colours,andespeciallybeauty,sublimity,repose,and peacearejustasunrealinthemechanicalaspectwhichappearsasurbanphysicssotospeak,astheycharacterizeinlandscapepainting,andalsotheolderqualitative philosophyofnature,acontentoftherelationtonatureofleisure.OnlyonceinthehistoryofreflectedArcadiahasabridgeemergedbetweenthetwopositions:wecan say:betweenthemechanicalstandpointandthequalitativevantagepoint.ThisoccurredinSchiller'sessayonnaiveandsentimentalpoetry,wherenaturecanbe celebratedinGalileo's

Page919 sense,butalsoinShaftesbury'ssenseasthecalmworkingfromwithinitself,theexistenceaccordingtoitsownlaws,theinnernecessity,theeternalunitywithitself. ThemiracleapproachesthatevencontrastslikethatbetweenNewton'sandGoethe'snatureappearreconciledhere,butofcourse:theequationdoesnotcombine mechanicalcalculationandqualitativefeelingfornature,butitoccursonthebasisofaconformitywithlawsinbothcases.Butthisconformitywithlawsonlyformsan apparentbridge,infactualtermsithasitselfadouble,mutuallydividedsense.Incalculationitisthatofmerelyexternalnecessity,whichproceedsonthechainof causality.InSchiller'simageofnatureitisthatoftheformativeinnernecessity,whichproceedsintheorganismofnaivety,inthequalificationsofsubstantiality.Thus thereisofcoursenosynthesisbetweenmechanicalandlandscapenatureanaturewithoutqualitiesisfarmorealientothatofforests,mountains,andluminousstars thantheChristiannegatedonewas.AndpreciselySchiller'snonsynthesisbetweenthemechanicalandthequalitativeparticularlyindicatestheproblem,thetruth,not workedupasitwere,ofthepastoralviewonbourgeoissoil.Itconcernsadifferentsectorofnaturethanthatappertainingtomathematicalnaturalscience,butitrelates toitinaprecapitalist,inanotyetpostcapitalistway.Thepastoralview,theviewintoforests,mountains,andoceans,haslikethepublicfestivalskeptalivea great,wonderfulelementofnonmechanicalresponsewhichonedaycanandwillenterintoconcreteleisurehowever,theaccesstoitis,asaprecapitalistoneina capitalistage,stilllargelyarchaicromantic.Thereisinitjustasmuchconjurationofasubmergedobjectivityasastonishmentandmeetingofonecomingup undischarged,i.e.ofatruthofthepastoralonwhichpreciselyleisurehastoproveitselfandcanproveitself.Butonlyanolongerabstracteconomicsystemwillbring, eveninmattersofnatureexperience,thateliminationofthedifferencesbetweencityandcountrywhichamongitsotherconsequencesalsocontainstheeliminationof thedualismbetweenurbanandlandscapephysics.Thepastoralitself,withthewholeinheritanceofanotexploitedbutlovednature,herekeepsinview,initsarchaic romanticcloak,autopiankindofrestfullandwithoutthebattlefieldofAusterlitz.Arestfullandinwhichsomethingismissingofcourse,becausemanisnotyetat restinithimselfandthehumanizationofnaturestillinfactliesmostlyinmerepastoral.Onlyactiveleisureinallareaswillbringusclosertoareceptivenature,one notjustdepictedsubspecieofbusinesshumanfreedomandnatureasitsconcretesurroundings(homeland)aremutuallydependent.

Page920 Leisureasimperative,onlyhalfexploredgoal Thepaththereisaneconomicone,mastersandservantshavetogo.Socialordereliminatesboth,inthesameaccomplishment,andmuchmoreaswell.Previous economiccontradictionsdisappear,discordancethatremainsproducesnoexternalandfilthymiseryanymore.Thedifferencesbetweenmanualandbrainwork, betweencountryandcitydisappear,butaboveall,asfaraspossible,thosebetweenworkandleisure.Theyonlyacquiredthisharshnessthroughcapitalismanyway precapitalistproductionknewworkwithmoreshareinworksmadebyhandandjoywithlessdreariness.Socialism,byremovingfromworkthedrudgeryforothers, hasalreadylargelytakenthealienationfromit.Butonlyaclasslesssocietycontainsthebasistoliberatework,thatreducedtoaminimum,fromthecurseofalienation completelyandleisurefromthedevil'sblessingsoftheGrandeJatte.Iteliminatestheexpropriationofworkfromman,thatinwhichtheworkerfeelshimselftobe expropriated,alienated,areifiedcommodity,andisthereforeunhappyinhiswork.Theclasslesssocietyremovesfromleisure,bymeansofthesamereexpropriation, theunlivedemptiness,theSundaythoroughlycorresponding(andnotcontrasting)tothedrearinessofwork.Itremovesfromleisureaboveallthefalsekind,nurtured bythattypeofideologywhichbelongstoillusionandconsequentlyendsinclichandtotalfraud.Thisideologybeganonlywiththeappearanceofmasterandslave,is solelypositedwiththeclasssocietybasedonthedivisionoflabouranddisappearswithit,asseparationofsocialbeingandconsciousness.Theoriginofthisideology, asMarxpresentsit,explainspreciselyitsendwithoutresurrection:Thedivisionoflabouronlyreallybecomesdivisionfromthemomentwhenadivisionofmaterialand intellectuallabouroccurs.Fromthismomenton,consciousnesscanreallyimagineitissomethingotherthantheconsciousnessofprevailingpractice,thatitreally representssomethingwithoutrepresentingsomethingrealfromthismomenton,consciousnessiscapableofemancipatingitselffromtheworldandgivingitselfover totheformationofpuretheory,theology,philosophy,andmorality.Butevenifthistheory,theology,philosophy,moralityetc.enterintocontradictionwithprevailing conditions,thiscanonlyoccurthroughtheprevailingsocialconditionshavingenteredintocontradictionwiththeprevailingforceofproduction(DeutscheIdeologie, Dietz,1953,p.28).WiththesesentencesMarxunequivocallycitesclassdivisionastheorigin,andclasssocietyasthesupportofideology,

Page921 thoughofcourse,andthismotifnowbecomescruciallyimportant:theology,philosophy,moralityetcetera,henceideology,couldalsoenterintocontradiction withprevailingconditionstherethusremainsideologywhichisnotmereillusion,merelies.Itisthelatterasfalse,particularlyasexploitedfalseconsciousnessof prevailingpractice,butnotasthecontradiction,finallycitedbyMarx,oftheorywithprevailingconditions.Thatis,astheexpressionofacontradictionintowhichthe prevailingsocialconditionshaveenteredwiththeprevailingforceofproduction,andaboveallviceversa.Sopossiblythisistheplaceforthatideologyinavery differentsense:notforanobscuringjustifyingone,butforarevolutionarycontrastingone.Itsurfacespreciselyinthechangebetweenclasssocietiesandallthemore sointheeliminationofclasssocietyasawhole.Thiskindofideology,withregardtoitsmilitantintentionandforthemostpartitscontents,issolelyrelatedasa contrastingonetothesocialbasisonwhich,i.e.againstwhichithasarisen.Itdoesnotreflectandjustifythisbasis,itconverselybringstoconsciousnessthenotyetfully developedelementsofthenewsocietywhichhavenotyetachievedpoliticalbreakthrough,andwhichhaveripenedinthewomboftheoldone.Itaccomplishedthisin thepast,becauseofthethenstillunrecognizeddrivingforcesofhistory,withvariousillusions,butneverwithanypurposefulintentionofobscuring.Onthecontrary,this kindofideologywasproducedonthebasisofathoroughlyhonest,revolutionaryprogressivemandate,andevenitsillusionbearsheroicutopianfeatures.Andits positivefunctionistoactivatethestillbynomeansproperlyexistingbasisofthenewsociety,freedfromtheice,withthepoweroftheoryotherwisetheappearanceof thisbasiswouldbemuchmoredifficult,muchmoreuntidy.Andtherefore:thiskindofideology,thatoftheformerlyrevolutionarycontradictionwithprevailing conditions,continuestoremainalivewiththefireandthegoalimagesofitscontradiction,namelyananticipatoryhumaneone.ThustheideologyoftheFrench Revolution,minusillusions,minustherealmofthebourgeoisieidealizedinthem,carriesonworkinginthespaceofprogressiveconsciousnessthusespeciallythe ideologyoftheGermanPeasantWar,minusitsmythologicalcomponents,hasagoalfireinitwhichnonobsoletelystrikesintotherevolutionaryconscience,and particularlyalsointotheimaginationofthisconscience.Andgoingontoleisure,thethuscharacterized,noteasilysatisfiedideologyisnotonlythestartlingpikeina possiblefishpondofleisure,butitpreventsthelatterfrombeingafishpondatall,inotherwords:ahappinessasbedofeaseinsteadofasexpeditionandfullnessof life.Thecontradictionsinsocialistsociety,

Page922 andespeciallyinthefutureclasslessone,arenolongerantagonisticones,butjustastheydonotceaseasnonantagonisticonesnordoesthefunctionofideologyto takecareofdiscordanceswithintheleisuregenerallymadepossibleandtomakeanticipatoryprovisionsfortheirsolution.Evenifthesediscordanceshavefinally becomepurelyhumanones,onesworthyofhumanbeings,andhenceconcerntheonlytrueexistentialcares.Noactivationofanewbasisisthennecessaryanymore, thistaskwassolvedbythesocializationofthemeansofproduction,butrathertheideologythathasbecomecommunisthasthefunctionofactivatingtheeverricherand deeperfashioningofhumanrelations.Forthereispreciselyinleisurestillapowerfulcareerofsolidarity,indeeditisonlystartingtobegin.Thustheideologyofillusion completelypassesaway,butnothowever,inanyway,thatofthesocialmoralshapingofpoliticalconsciousness.Inallitsmainfeatures,evenintheareasofartandthe moredistantsuperstructurenotpredominantlyrelatedtonature,thiskindofideologywillbeanethics.Thenewneedinessofleisureitselfthusproducesanew superstructureaboveanewplannednoneconomy.Itproducesanevermoreessentialideologyofinterhumanilluminationandthispreciselyinthepurifiedserviceof leisure,forthepromotionofitshumanecontents. Butallthatisdiscordantandistobeconsideredgoesfarbeyondthesocialrange.Evenwheretherelationtotheeconomicsubstructureanditsupheavalsiseithernota directone,orwherenosuperstructureatallexists.Asinlanguage,inlogic,generaldialectics,aswellasbecauseoftheoutsideworldherevisiblyindependentof humanbeingsinnaturalscience(minusitsphilosophicaltheories).Nowthereareofcoursepreciselyinthephysicallyorganiccharacterofhumanbeingsextremely powerfulelementsbyvirtueofwhichnatureisadmittedlyindependentofmanbutnotmanofnature.Themostpowerfuloftheseelementsistobefoundindeath,and likewiseitformsthedistinctfieldofacontradiction,evenofaparticularlyharshone,whichisbynomeansmerelyasocialone.Infact,deathillustratesnothingshortof adoublecontradiction,whichisadmittedlyindicatedbysuchintensityandqualityinsocialpressureandthereactiontoit,butdoesnotoccuratallinsuchapronounced form.Thatcontradictionismeanthereinwhichthenegationliesbothasaprotestingoneinthesubjectwhichdenieswhatopposesit,andintheopposingobjectivity,a hinderingandevendestroyingone.Andbothinfactoperatemostharshlyindeathasthenaturalphenomenonofdiscordanceperse(inviewofthenormalwilltolife, work,andlight)andthedoublecontradictionoperates,eveniflesssharply,bynomeansindeathalone.Forsocially

Page923 inexhaustibleconflictsarealsogatheredaroundthepositionofmanintheuniverseasawhole.Thatis,aroundthelastingdisparatenessoftheuniverse(ofitssizein space,ofitsemergenceandpassingintime)tosomanyhumanranksofpurpose,particularlytothoseonthisearthwhichareradicallyandtotally(regnumhominis) aimed.Butthethuscharacterizeddiscrepanciesdefinitelydonotbelongtoanysuperstructureeither,becausetheyarenotsociallyproducedbutdoestheir consciousnessthereforenotbelongtoanideologyeither?Undoubtedlythesediscrepanciesdonotbelongtooneintheusualsense,donotbelongtoitwithregardto theirobjectivenaturalcomponent.However,thesekindsofdiscrepancieshaveproducedinfactaveryspecialstructureofideologyformationintheconsciousnessthat isstartledbythem.Astructurewhichdoesnotreacttosocialcontradictions,nortotheincorporatedanddomesticatedrelation,asitwere,ofhumanbeingstonature, butpreciselytonaturefromthesideofitsnegationorevendisparatenesstohumanbeings,totheircreaturalandculturallydeveloped,indeedparticularlyculturally sharpenedpurposiveconcerns.Inanycase,thephilosophicalinquirieswhichhavebeenissuedaboutthepositionofmaninthecosmosbelongtoideology(inkeeping withthephilosophicaltheorieswithinnaturalscience).Butbeyondthisthenotationsofcontradictionswithbynomeansinterhumanconditionsandthevarious formationsofthoughtorwishfulthinkingfortheirresolutionagainformanideologyofaseparatekind,onewhichissociallyonlypartlycodetermined(asinmythology). Thisdifferentqualityholdsgooddespitetheobvioustanglewhichpermitsnoisolationwhateveroftheconnectionwithnatureintherelationofhumanbeingstohuman beingsandtonature.Nevertheless,anaturenotonlyindependentofmanbutalsofarlessmediatedwithhumanbeingsthaninthesocialmetabolismnecessarilyworks towardsthestateddistinction.Asignificantunitywiththesocialideologyofilluminationexiststhough:namelyanticipation.Sothatbothkindsofideologyalso predominantlycontainutopia,bothasanticipatoryformulationofanewsocietyinconformitywiththeforcesofproductionandaboveallalsoasconsiderationofthe radicaltotalhumanranksofpurposeandtheirpositioninamediateduniverse.Onlythuscantheassuchuseless,anarchicandalltooliteraryelementofintellectual creationsbebroughtintoaframeworkandintoreliefatall,bymeansofahistoricalteleologicalbackgroundwhichassignstoeverythingthathumanbeingscreateabove themselvesinthewayofworksaflux,current,direction,salvationalvalueandametaphysicalplace,theplaceofgenuinesocialistideology,theplaceofthegreatplan ofcampaignofcivilization

Page924 andculture(GeistderUtopie,1918,p.433).Whatismeanthere,thatwhichcouldthereforebecalledtheideologyoftheAbsolute,nowleadsimmediatelytowards leisureagain,inaccordancewithitsfinalcontents,whichareneverthelessincessantlydistributedinit.Thespuroftheoverpoweringandprobablyevenpainful astonishmentataworldwhichcontainssomuchdeathandsuchvastdisparateness,themotoroftheknowledgeablehopeofthecharacterinprocessoftheequal world,asoneoftheheliotropicmatterwhichhumanbeingsareandbywhichtheyaresurrounded:both,astonishmentandhope,occupyandsubstantiateleisureallthe morepurelyandexactly,thefreerfromacquisitionandultimatelyfromworkithasbecomesuchaleisureinorder.Culturalproduction,despiteallitslandsof significance,hassofaraddresseditselfonlysporadicallytotheproblemoftheoutlinesofabetterworld.Butthisproblemanditscontentwillimmediatelybecome systematicassoonasthebeautifulandgreatworknotonlyfindssociallivinggroundagainbutassoonas,inalivinggroundfinallyundividedinsocialterms,the contributionoftheideologyofdeceptionanddiversion,togetherwiththeflatenjoymentoffreetimecorrespondingtoit,indeedcultureasmerebeautifulillusion,is finished.Oncethestateandallgovernmentoverhumanbeingshavedisappeared,thegovernmentandguidancebyteacherswillalsofindenoughfreedomandleisureto makepeopleeagerforthetotalcontentsoffreedom.Togiveahumananswertotheextremelynakedquestionofleisure,totheproblemandessence,thusappearing clearatlast,ofitsevermoreconcretecontents.Strikingoutintherightdirectionleadsintotheterraincognitaofleisureasintoaterrautopica.Butthisstrikingout becomesthesameasastrikingimpact,namelyontheoutstandingconsiderationofwhathumanbeingswantingeneralandhowtheworldasanswerisrelatedtothis. Towardsthis,aftertheexpiryofitspreviousprehistory,runstheinterestofactiveleisureandofitsincipientmainhistory,ashumanizedhistoryitself.Realleisurelives solelyoffthecontentofBeingoneselforoffreedom,presentlyexpectedatanytimeandmadepresentingoodtime,inalikewiseunalienatedworldonlythencomes land.

PageG1

GLOSSARYOFFOREIGNTERMS
Greek(transliterated)
aporia: doubt,perplexity aristoi: aristocraticquality(lit:best) diairesis: division dynameion: WhatIsinpossibility dynaton: capable elphis: hope eschaton: thelastthings eudaemonia: happiness henkaipan: oneandall kairos: occasion,opportunity,therighttime logosspermatikos: engenderingword melos: melody oecumene: thewholeworld,themergingofallnations peripeteia: suddenchange polis: citystate proskunesis: worship zoonpolitikon: politicalanimal

Latin
ahorigine: fromitsorigin Aovo: fromthebeginning absconditurn: thethingthathasvanished actuspurus: thepureact adcalendasapocalypticas: untilthetimeoftheapocalypse adlibitum: asfarasdesirable adoculos: totheeye adpessimum: inapessimisticdirection advalorem: accordingtoitsstrength alterdeus: theothergod

PageG2 alteritas: multiplicity alteriusjuris: accordingtoanotherlaw amorDei: loveofGod amordeiintellectualis: intellectualloveofGod amorfati: loveoffate analogiaeentis: thecorrespondencesbetweenthings anihilocontracta: assimilatedfromnothing animacandidissima: mostcandidsoul animamea: mysoul anterem: beforetheevent apexmentis: theapexofthemind apexterrae: theapexoftheearth aposseadesse: frompotentialtobeing appetitussocialis: socialappetite arpeggioantelucem: thearpeggiobeforethelight arsamandi: theartoflove arscombinatoria: theartofcombination arsdemonstrandi: theartofdemonstration arsinveniendi: theartofinvention arsmagna: thegreatart artesliberales: liberalarts(intheMiddleAges) aseesse: beingtoitself auditiobeatifica: blessedhearing augmentatio: augmentation autCaesarautChristus: eitherCaesarorChrist bonavaletudo: goodhealth caccatum: stained,soiled cantusfirmus: suresong caputmortuum: deadhead caritas: charity,love carpeaeternitateminmomento: seizeeternityinthemoment carpediem: seizetheday(livefortheday) carpethemnostruminmundonostro: seizeourdayinourworld causaaequateffectum: causeequalseffect causafinalis: finalcause causasui: foritsownsake chorusmartyrum: chorusofmartyrs

PageG3 circenses: circuses civitasChristi: thecityofChrist civitasDei: thecityofGod civitasterrena: theearthly,sinfulcity cogitatio: thinking cogitoergosum: IthinkthereforeIam collegiafabrorum: collegeofmasons comes: comrade communesnotiones: commonideas communisopinio: commonopinion compunctiocordis: thecontritionoftheheart conditiosinequanon: anindispensablecondition contemplatio: contemplation contradictioinadjecto: oppositetowhatisnexttoit CorpusChristi: thebodyofChrist corpuspermixtum: adulteratedbody corpusverum: truebody corrumpere: tocorrupt,corruption corruptio,defectus: corruption,disintegration corruptiooptimipessima: theworstthingsareacorruptionofthebest credoquiaabsurdum: Ibelievebecauseitisabsurd(theleapoffaith) crucifixussubPontioPilato: crucifiedunderPontiusPilate cumgranosalis: withagrainofsalt cumiraetstudio: withpassionandpartiality curdeushomo: whydoesgodbecomeman datorformarum: thegiverofforms definitio: definition dejure: accordingtothelaw denobisresagitur: thematterinquestionisourselves deprofundis: ofthedepths descendendoadopera: bygettingdowntobusiness destillatio,solutio,purefactio,nigredo,albedo,fermentatio,projectiomedicinae: thedistillation,solution,purefaction,blackening,whitening,fermentationandprojectionofmedicine destinatio: destination deusabsconditus: vanishedgod deusoptimusmaximus: greatestandbestgod deusspes: godisourhope

PageG4 diesirae: dayofwrath disjectamembra: scatteredlimbs divinaebonitatissimilitudo: thelikenesstodivinegoodness divinaproportio: divineproportion doctaspes: educatedhope doctorangelicus: theangelicdoctor doctorecstaticus: theecstaticdoctor doctorsubtilis: thesubtledoctor donuminventionis: thegiftofinvention dux: commander,leader eccehomo: beholdtheman ecclesiaperennis: eternalchurch ecclesiaphiladelphia: churchofbrotherhood ecclesiatriumphans: thechurchtriumphant eductioformarumexmateria: extractionofformfrommatter egrediensdelocovoluptatis: emergingfromtheplaceofpleasure ensperfectissimum: perfectbeing epithetonornans: decorativeepithet eritissicutdeus: youwillbelikeGod etinArcadiaego: andItooam/havebeen/willbeinArcadia excathedra: edictfromtheauthority(bishop) excontrario: fromtheopposite exempladocent: examplesteach exencyclica: edictfromanencyclical(pope) exercitiaspiritualia: spiritualexercises exingenio: fromcharacter,personality existere: toexist,existence exitusletalis: departurethroughdeath exmachina: bydivineintervention exorientelux: lightfromtheEast expressivo: expressively exprimatio: expression exunavocepluresfaciens: makingmanythingsfromonevoice exunojudiciopluresfaciens: makingmanythingsfromonejudgement facieshippocratica: shrunkenanddeathlyappearance factumbrutum: barefact facultasagendi: individualjustification(lit.theabilitytodosomething)

PageG5 fiatlux: lettherebelight fides: faith fieri: tobedone figuraanimae: formofthesoul figuraDei: formofGod figuravirtutum: formofthevirtues finisadquemomnia: endtowhichallthingsmove florealia: flowerfestivals fortunavertit: fortunechanges fruitio: fruition generatioaequivoca: ofdubiousgeneration hieetnunc: hereandnow hicRhodus,hicsalta: hereisRhodes,hererise homoabsconditus: vanishedman homocontemplativus: contemplativeman homofaber: manasmaker homohominihomo: manbeingmantoman homohominilupus: manbeingawolftoman homoreligiosus: religiousman horrorpulchri: fearofthebeautiful horrorvacui: fearofthevoid idolatheatri: idolsofthetheatre imitatiodeorum: theimitationofthegods imitatiomundi: theimitationoftheworld impietas: impiety,disrespect impossibiliumnullaobligatio: undernoobligationbecauseimpossible inaeternumdamnatus: damnedforeternity incipitvitanova: thenewlifebegins inconcreto: inconcreteterms incorpore: insubstance,asawhole incredibiledictu: incredibletorelate influxunascendi: intheprocessofbirth ingloriaetjubilo: ingloryandjubilation inlitteris: literally innuce: inanutshell inrealitate: inreality

PageG6 inspe: tobehopedfor instatunascendi: inthestateofbirth intellectus: intellect intermissiolegis: legalloophole intimum,summum,apexmentis: inmost,uppermost,peakofthemind intoto: asawhole intyrannos: againsttyranny ipsofacto: inthefactitself justificatio: justification justitia: justice laboratoriumDei: laboratoryofGod laudabilitersesubjecit: hesubjectshimselfinalaudablemanner lexcontinui: lawofcontinuity lexdivina: divinelaw libertasamicorum: thefreedomoffriendship libertaternperfectam: perfectfreedom liquidassorores: liquidsisters locusminorisresistentiae: placeofleastresistance lucusanonlucendo: lightthatdoesnotlight luxaeterna: eternallight luxnova: newlight luxpura: purelight lyraApollinisvelSolis: thelyreofApolloortheSun(god) magianaturalis: naturalmagic magisteriummagnum: thegreatteaching magnumopusetstrenuum: thegreatandstrenuouswork mappamundi: mapoftheworld materiaprima: primematter mathesis: (fromGreek)science,mathematics,astrology mediatorDeiethominum: themediatorbetweenGodandman medicinamentis: medicineforthemind meditatio: meditation mementomori: aremembranceofdeath mensbona: goodmind menssanaincorporesano: ahealthymindinahealthybody miseracontribuensplebs: thepeoplepoolingtheirmiseries

PageG7 moralitasmusicae: moralityofmusic moregeometrico: ingeometricfashion morsaeterna: eternaldeath mundussitualis: worldfixedasitisnow musicacoelestis: heavenlymusic musicaepersonae: musicalcharacters musicahumana: humanmusic musicainstrumentalis: instrumentalmusic musicamathematica: mathematicalmusic musicamundana: wordlymusic mutatiospecierum: themutationofthespecies mutatismutandis: withsuitableornecessaryalteration mysteriumtremendum: tremendousmystery naturafacitsaltus: naturemakesleaps naturanaturans: naturenaturing naturanaturata: naturenatured naturasivedeus: whethernatureorgod nervusrerum: thenerve,pulseofthings nequeinplanoviasitaest: noristhepathontheflat nobilissimilocitotiusterrae: themostnobleplaceonthewholeearth nolensvolens: willingorunwilling nonliquet: itwillnotdissolve nonomnisconfundar: letmenotbeutterlyconfounded/destroyed nonplusultra: thatwhichcannotbebettered nonpossumusnonpeccare: itisimpossibleforusnottosin normaagendi: legalprescription novainstauratioscientiarum: newinstaurationofthesciences numen: heavenlypower,divinity numerusclausus: limitationofnumbers numinosum: numinous nuncaeternum: theeternalnow nuncstans: thestationarymoment,thecapturednow omniasintcommunia: leteverythingbeincommon omniasublunacaduca: everythingunderthemoonismortal,fallible orbis: globe ordinesangelorum: theordersoftheangels ordocognitionis: orderofcognition

PageG8 ordosempiternusrerum: theeternalorderofthings origo: root,origin paradisivoluptatis: paradisesofpleasure parsmentisaeternaestintellectus: theeternalpartofthemindistheintellect parsprototo: partforthewhole paterfamilias: fatherofthefamily paternoster: ourfather pavornocturnus: nightfear paxAmericana: Americanpeace paxBritannica: Britishpeace paxcapitalistica: capitalistpeace paxRomana: Romanpeace perasperaadastra: throughdifficultiestothestars perdefinitionem: bydefinition perdefinitionerncalculi: bythedefinitionofcalculations perseexitus: exitthroughoneself,suicide perfectiomotus: perfectmotion,thecompletionofmotion perturbatioanimi: disturbanceofthemind phantasmabenefundaturn: wellestablishedfantasy phantasmautopicissimefundaturn: afantasyestablishedinamostutopianmanner pharos: lighthouse(atAlexandria) pictum: painted plusultra: thatwhichiscapableofbeingbettered poesisase: creationthroughitself poeticatempestas: poeticstorm postfestum: afterthecelebration potentiapossibilitas: potentialitypossibility praeludiumvitaeaeternae: preludetotheeternallife pretiumjustum: justprice primaenoctis: feudalrightofthefirstnight(droitdeseigneur) primaepossibilitates: firstpossibilities primumagensmateriale: firstagentofmatter primusinterpares: firstamongequals profectus: progression qua: as

PageG9 quale: essence quendamvultureetgesture: acertainmienandgesture quidditas: whatness,WhatEssence(Bloch) quiesincoelis: thatartinheaven quietasinfuga: quietnessinthefugue(lit:quietnessinflight) quodditas: thatness,Thatground(Bloch) quosego: thosewhomIaffect ratio: reason rebussicstantibus: asthingsnowstand rebussicimperfectibus: thingsthusbeingimperfected rebussicimperfectisetfluentibus: intheimperfectandfluidstateofthings receptaculasalutis: refugesofsalvation rectaratio: therightreasoning regnumChristi: thereignofChrist regnumhomini: thereignforman regressio: regressivematerial resfinita: finitething restitutoinintegrum: puttingbacktogetheragain,makingwholeagain Romaquadrato: theRomansquare sacerdos: priest sacramenturnplenum: fullsacrament salphilosophicum: philosophers'salt saltarefabulam: toperformaplay sancta: thesacred satisest: thatisenough seculis: ages sed: but sensus: physicalsense signaturarerum: thesignatureofthings signifersanctusMichael: Michaeltheholystandardbearer sivisbellumparapacem: ifyouwantwarprepareforpeace socialisvitasanctorum: thesocialexistenceofthesaints societasamicorum: societyoffriends solinvinctus: sununchained solusipse: theindividualhimself spes: hope spesquaesperatur: hopewhichishoped

PageG10 statusquoante: thestatusquobefore statusrecipientispromeritis: stateofreceivingonmerit statustermini: endstate statusviae: transitionalstate statusviatoris: transitionalstate studio: study subIovefrigido: underanicyJove subspecie: undertheeyeof subspecieaeternitatis: inthelongeyeofhistory(lit.inthesightofeternity) subspecieaeternitatisvelsubstantiaehumanae: inthelongeyeofhistoryorhumansubstance subspecietoti: undertheeyeofall suigeneris: ofitsownorpeculiarkind suijuris: accordingtoitsownlaw summurnbonum: thehighestgood suomodo: afteritsfashion supremaspes: supremehope sursumcorda: liftupyourhearts suumcuique: toeachhisown suumesseconservare: topreserveone'sbeing terminusaquo: startingpoint terminusadquem: finishingpoint terraaustralis: southerncountry,Australia terrainhabilitabilis: uninhabitablecountry terrautopica: utopiancountry tertiumnondatur: thereisnothirdpossibility theatrummechanicum: mechanicaltheatre totaliter: inatotalway totocoelo: everywhere,acrossthewholesky tranquillitasanimi: tranquillityofthesoul transcendere: totranscend,transcendence tuaresagitur: itisyourconcern tubamirumspargenssomnum: thetrumpetscatteringitsamazingsound ubibene,ibipatria: wheregood,therethefatherland ubilux,ibipatria: wherelight,therethefatherland ultimalegislatio: ultimatelegislation uniomystica: mysticalunion

PageG11 unitas: oneness universitaslitterarium: universityofstudies unumnecessarium: theonethingnecessary unumverumbonus: theonetruegood unusChristianusnullusChristianus: thesolitaryChristianisnoChristian urbs: city usqueadfinem: righttotheend utaliquidfierivideatur: sothatsomethingmaybeseentobedone vademecum: abookthatcanbecarriedforreferencealongtheway versacrum: sacredspring(season) verumbonum: truegood viaregia: royalroad virgooptimeperfecta: thevirginofsheerperfection virgovirginum: virginofvirgins virtus: virtue virtusingenium: virtuoustalent visdormitiva: dormantstrength visio: perception,vision visiobeatificaDei: beatificvisionofGod vitaactiva: theactivelife vitabrevis,arslonga: lifeisshort,artislong vitacontemplativa: thecontemplativelife

French
acteaccessoire: actofaccessory aprsnousledluge: afterustheflood audessusdelamele: abovetherabble aufond: basically clochesdumonastre: monasterybells concertlavapeur: steamconcert corrigerlafortune: tocorrectfortune donneursd'avis: giversofadvice dure: duration chappdevue: vanishedfromsight galisationdesclasses: theequalizationofclasses paterlebourgeois: toshockthebourgeoisie

PageG12 tatd'me: stateofmind trehumain: humanbeing femmeintrouvable: thewomanwhocannotbefound frocitetverve: ferocityandspirit forcespropres: one'sownpowers grcel'homme: thankstoman inconscientsuprieur: superiorunconscious inquitudepoussante: pressinganxiety jardindeplaisance: gardenofpleasure justemilieu: propermedium laissezfaire,laissezaller: letthingsbedone,letthingsgo lanuitetlemoment: thenightandthemoment l'artpourPart: artforart'ssake l'artpourl'espoir: artforhope'ssake lavilleradieuse: theradiantcity lenant: nothingness l'hommemachine: machineman libert: freedom malgrlui: inspiteofthis mystresdel'infini: mysteriesoftheinfinite natureldictionnairedelanature: thenaturaldictionaryofnature papillons: butterflies paradisartificiel: artificialparadise pensesfugitives: fleetingthoughts petitesperceptionsinsensibles: perceptionstoosmalltobediscernible petitpropritaireruralouindustriel: thelittleruralorindustrialproprietor portire: doorcurtain possibilitsternelles: eternalpossibilities prvoir: toforesee,aforeseeing proprit: property rsistancel'oppression: resistancetooppression sanslabarbelimoneuse: withoutthemuddybeard souvenirsdeVarsovie: souvenirsofWarsaw sret: security vritsdefait: factualtruths vritsternelles: eternaltruths violencecratrice: creativeviolence

PageG13

Italian
adagio: quietly,softly amoretti: littleCupids attopuro: pureact dolcefarniente: sweetidleness dopolavoro: afterwork espressivo: expressively grave: withgravity,solemn lento: slowly maestoso: stately martellato: hammered misterioso: mysteriously mondosenzagente: uninhabitedworld oprare: towork pastoso: soft,sticky(frompastadough) piano: softly presto: fast prevenire: anticipate,ananticipationofwhatiscoming sostenuto: sustained sostenutoassai: sustainedeffort trepassardelsegno: venturebeyondthelimits vedere: tosee veduta: aview(withafullperspective) virtordinata: regulatedvirtue vivaceallegro: atalivelypace

Spanish
buenretiro: happyretreat hidalgo: Spanishknight,junker passacaglia: anearlydancetune(ofSpanishorigin)

PageI1

NAMEANDTITLEINDEX
Abelard771,1075,1375 Abeles,Fridaxxii Abert DieMusikanschauungdesMittelalters(TheMiddleAges'viewofMusic)1076,1077 Abulfeda775 Addison389,932,1317,1318 Adler,Alfred578,60,64,66,1667 DernervseCharakter(TheNervousCharacter)57 Adorno,Theodorxxii,xxiv Aeschylus430,121214 PrometheusTrilogy429PrometheusBound428,882,121214 Agricola Deremetallica648 Ailly,Pierred' Imagomundi760 Akiba,Rabbi1263 AlaindeLille848 Alberti1348 AlbertusMagnus761,778 AlexanderIII(Pope)766 AlexanderofAphrodisias207,850 AlexandertheGreat90,474,488,489,492,647,738,760,761,762,766,767,778,1217 Alfarabi1077 Alfieri107,544,932,1317,1319 Ali(Caliph)1276,1277 Altdorfer BathofSusanna709 Althus Politica535 AmadisofGaul(Romanceof)318,367,1036,1037,1039 AmalrichofBena207,236 Ambrosius1076 AmenophisIV(Pharaoh)1191,1216 Anaxagoras8745 Anaximander8769 OntheNatureofThings8769 Anaximenes848,878,1152 Andersen,HansChristian802 TheFlyingSuitcase356 TheLuckyGaloshes356,382 TheTinderbox1000 Andreae,JohannValentin528,6349,644 ChymischeHochzeit(ChemicalWedding)6348 ConfessioFraternitatis634,635 FamaFraternitatis634,635 ReipublicaeChristianopolisdescriptio638 AngelusSilesius CherubinischerWandersmann(TheCherubinicalWanderer)643,918 Annikeris483 AnselmofCanterbury234,847 AntigonosGonatas493 Antisthenes482 AntoniusDiogenes437 AntoniusMarcus(MarkAnthony)328 ApolloniusofTyana679,1188 Aquinas,Thomas218,402,761,818,820,825,832,1300,1320,1329,1330,1332 Quaestionesdisputataequodlibetales954 Summacontragentiles1307,1320 ArabianNights356,362,385,628,7067,708,753,758,1106 Aladdin3567,628,707,1314 KalafandTurandot318,319,320 SinbadtheSailor437,438,753,764 TheTaleofJanshah706

PageI2 Aratus496 Ariosto882 Aristides933 Aristippus483 Aristophanes4356,591,882 TheEcclesiazusae435,591 TheBirds436,484 Aristotlexxvii,7,1689,191,194,2067208,216,223,228,229,236,237,242,243,279,283,429,491,493,642,687,689,757,767,778,843,847,850, 857,860,865,878,879,905,9623,964,985,986,1351,1364,1373 Logic1075PriorAnalytics228 Metaphysics235,879 NicomacheanEthics9623 Physics878Meteorology761 Poetics207 Politics738,962 Arnim,Achimvon DieKronenwchter(TheGuardiansoftheCrown)708 Arnim,Bettinavon28 Arnold,Gottfried UnparteiischeKirchenundKetzerhistorie(ImpartialHistoryoftheChurchanditsHeretics)637 ArnoldofBrescia771 Arts,Hendrik709 Artshibashev Ssanin1172 Asafyev TheFlameofParis406 Asam,CosmasDamian705 Aspasia328 Augustine160,161,203,204,269,479,493,499,501,502,5039,510,511,512,725,732,787,8323,8547,860,862,1019,1064,1076,1087,1319, 1362 DecivitateDei(TheCityofGod)478,5039,8547,11201,1248,1344 Demusica833 Confessions71 InJoh.ev.tractatus857 LettertoMonica1322 Augustus,Caesar383,739,959,1257 AurelianofRom1076 Aurelius,Marcus243,493,495 Meditations1106 Averros207,236,674,771,850,852,1135 Avesta(seeZendavesta) Avicebron207,850 Avicenna207,236,850,852,1135 Baader,Franzvon7879,1332 berdieBegrndungderEthikdurchdiePhysik(OntheFoundationofEthicsthroughPhysics)625,7879 Babcock LegendaryIslandsoftheAtlantic763 Babeuf5756 Bach,J.S.256,533,10637,1069,1079,1080,1081,1084,1088,1095,1096 BrandenburgConcertos1067 CantataNo.391082 CantataNo.481066 CantataNo.631063,1098 ChristmasOratorio1065,1308 MassinBminor158,1066,1068,1275 StJohnPassion1352 StMatthewPassion1266,1286 Bachofen81,135,161,327,5945,111415,1153,1156 DasMutterrecht(Matriliny)595 DieUnsterblichkeitslehrederorphischenTheologie(ThedoctrineofimmortalityinOrphictheology)1115 Bacon,Francisxxxi,139,211,269,518,524,64952,653,6547,666,667,671,812,859,1028,1328 Desapientiaveterum1215 NewAtlantisxxvii,14,144,457,477,6547 NovumOrganum11819,649,650,651,653,655,656,657,752 SylvaSylvarum649,654n TheAdvancementofLearning6501,6567 Bacon,Roger647 Epistoladesecretisoperibusartis647 Baedeker376 Bumer,Gertrud590,591 Bakunin,Michael571,5724,945

PageI3 Balfour599n,6056 Ball,John471 Ballantyne353 Balzac384 Contesdrlatiques(Amusingtales)81 Peaudechagrin(Thewildass'skin)383 BarKochba1263 Barth,Karl1194,1290 DerRmerbrief(TheEpistletotheRomans)1194 Batteux404 Baudelaire434 Bauer,Bruno251,252,270,271,272 Baumgarten212 Bayle859 Bazard564 Beaconsfield,Lord(Disraeli)605 Beaumarchais540 Beauvais,Vincentde753 Speculumnaturale,doctrinale,historiale760 Bebel DieFrauundderSozialismus(WomanandSocialism)5901 Becher,Joachim647,649 NrrischeWeisheitundweiseNarrheit(FoolishWisdomandWiseFolly)647 Becquerel663 BeerHofmann JakobsTraum(Jacob'Dream)609 Beethoven158,220,459,833,834,910,984,999,1057,1063,1069,1079,1080,1085,1086,1087,1094,11013,1162 Aminorquartet1096 Fidelio163,183,368,425,831,833,910,992,1067,1068,1082,1088,10991100,11011103,1375 Hammerklaviersonata1096 RageoveraLostPenny1082 TheThirdSymphony(Eroica)992,1088,1092,1093,1095,1098 TheSixthSymphony(Pastoral)917,1068,1073,1082 TheSeventhSymphony163 TheNinthSymphony833,911,1096HymntoJoy(SchillertextAndieFreude)158,1293 Behaim,Martin764 Bekker,Balthasar DieverzauberteWelt(TheEnchantedWorld)630 Bellamy475,619 LookingBackward61213 Benjamin,Walterxxi,xxii,xxiv,880 UrsprungdesdeutschenTrauerspiels(OriginoftheGermanTragicPlay)384,1166,1168,1350 Benn,Gottfried61 Berg Wozzeck1095 Bergbohm JurisprudenzundRechtsphilosophie(JurisprudenceandthePhilosophyofRight)547 Bergson,Henri59,140,2012,291,292,682,683,945,1202,1290 IntroductionlaMtaphysique(IntroductiontoMetaphysics)140 L'EvolutionCratrice(CreativeEvolution)201 LaPenseetleMouvant(ThoughtandtheMoving)202 Berkeley697 Berlioz,Hector180,181,1057,1068,1099 Requiem1100 Symphoniefantastique10602 BernardofClairvaux213,769,770 OnContemplation771 Bernoulli311n Bernstein581 Berossos1218 Bertholet1235 Bertram957 Berzelius686 Bessler(seeOrfyrus) BethmannHollweg33n Bettelheim,Bruno62n BhagavadGita667,1136,1138 Bias481,839 Bible7,201,221,330n,502,509,510,515,518,578,609,610,642,718,7301,75960,785,787,917,963,1150,1166,11945,1198,1231,1232,1237, 125674,1276,1278,1279,12823,1291,1301,130410,1349

PageI4 Characters Aaron1304 Abel506,1268 Abraham505,732,1131,1230,1276 Adam478,505,507,636,637,952,1002,1127,1128,1238,1247,1272,1277,1289,1294 Daniel1126,1128,1132,1146,1238 David401,505,1076,1238,1243,1256,1263 DeuteroIsaiah498,917 Elijah497,605,645,704,1125,1262,1271,1274,1275,1304,1305,13623 Enoch637,1125,1127,1130,1262 Esau1268 Ezekiel1304 Eve478,1247,1294 Herod163,1103,1256,1262,1311 Hezekiah1267 Hosea496 Isaac1230,1268 Isaiah602,776,1240,1282,1283,1294,1362 Jacob230,480,712,1230,1268,1269 Jeremiah496,602 JesusChrist14,32731,465,499501,502,503,504,505,507,508,511,512,514,515,519,542,577,578,609,950,952,953,1048,1120,1129,1130, 1131,U32,1158,1190,1191,11923,1203,1213,1231,1238,1243,1244,1245,1247,1249,125674,1275,1285,1287,1289,1293,1303,1304,1305, 1306,1307,1311,1344,1357 Job1150,1215,1234,1235,1239 John1079,1305 JohntheBaptist497,499,510,1129,1233,1245,1257,1263,1300 Jonah12823 Joseph(sonofJacob)80,160,12301,1258 Joseph(fatherofJesus)1243,1265 Judas609 Leah954 Lazarus1131 Luke1304 MaryandMartha9537 Micah401 Moses496,607,609,717,1190,1191,1192,1203,1213,123041,1249,1256,1259,1265,1267,1268,1272,1274,1275,1311 Nicodemus1267 Noah478,505,1265 Paul330,496,499,501,508,513,952,1108,1117,1120,1131,1247,1261,1262,1264,1266,1270,1309 Peter496,1247 Pilate500,1048,1256,1260,1263 Rachel954 Samson497 Samuel497,11235,1233 Saul401,1072,1125 Solomon497,6347,1239 Books:OldTestament Genesis711,730,731,760,769,1125,1197,11989,12301,1237,1238,1267,1268,1269 Exodus212,719,896,1127,1234,1235,1236,1237,1267,1270,12823,1284,1308 Leviticus38,1233,1261,1263 Numbers1234,1267 Deuteronomy746 Samuel401,497,1125 Kings401,497,718,1197,1267,1275,1304 Chronicles718 Job213,731,1126,1128,1150,1234,1235,1269,1270,1283 Psalms103,189,213,731,781,1126,1239,1269,1291,1357 Proverbs1269 Ecclesiastes288 SongofSolomon(SongofSongs)330 Isaiah498,499,500,515,610,731,776,896,1098,1100,1126,1127,11934,1236,1237,1240,1274 Jeremiah1269,1282,1291 Ezekiel134,679,776,1238,1269,1340 Daniel1126,1238,1243,1273 Hosea1233

PageI5 Amos4978,515,731 Jonah1282 Micah498 Zephaniah1132n Hagai1263 Books:NewTestament Matthew17,451,499,500,501,516,1128,1133,1135,1260,1261,1262,1263,1264,1267,1269,1270,1271,1300,1306 Mark501,726,1259,1261,1263,1264,1306 Luke11,274,497,499,542,953,954,1127,1128,1129,1130,1131,1132n,1196,1249,12578,1261n,1265,1271,1308 John500,501,524,970n,1129,1130,1239,1243,1259,1263,1265,1267,1269,1271,1272,1278,1290n,1304,1305 Acts496,514,1260,1270,1273 Romans1131,1194,1266,1289 Corinthians330,952,1100,1117,1131,1195,1264,1289,1309,1310,1353 Ephesians330,729,1120,1273,1289 Philippians1256 Timothy1130 Hebrews1100,1128,1183,1266,1271 FirstEpistleofJohn553n,1100,1202 Jude1127 Revelation215,221,502,733,759,776,1133,1184,1264,1265,1270,1274,1285,1308 Apocrypha BookofEnoch1126,1127 BookofEzra(Esdras)1127 JesusSirach1269 Bier5461 Bindel DiegyptischenPyramiden(TheEgyptianPyramids)723 Bismarck232n,566,890n,942,943 Bizet Carmen934,949 L'Arlsienne398 Blake,William114 Blanc,Louis564,574,903 Bla DasWesenderneuenTanzkunst(TheNatureoftheNewArtofDance)405 Blavatsky,HelenaPetrovna1187 Isisunveiled1186 Bleuler1002 Bloch,ElsaxxiXXII,331n Bloch,Ernstxixxxxiii AvicennaunddieAristotelischeLinke(AvicennaandtheAristotelianLeft)207 DasMaterialismusproblem(TheProblemofMaterialism)xxiii DasPrinzipHoffnung(ThePrincipleofHope)xxxxxiii DasWeltallimLichtedesAtheismus(TheUniverseintheLightofAtheism)xix ErbschaftdieserZeit(LegacyofthisTime)xxiii,6 GeistderUtopia(TheSpiritofUtopia)xxi,xxii,xxiii,6,157,215,28990,2978,304,3867,724,733,880,924,1058,1070,1084,1371 RenaissancederSinnlichkeit(RenaissanceofSensuality)xix: Spuren(Traces)xix,xxiii,xxxii,6,289 SubjektObjekt,ErluterungenzuHegel(SubjectObject,CommentariesonHegel)6,859,1058 ThomasMnzeralsTheologederRevolution(ThomasMnzerasTheologianoftheRevolution)xxiii,xxx,6,582 berdengegenwrtigenStandderPhilosophie(Onthepresentstateofphilosophy)1371 Bloch,JanRobertxxiv Bloch,JeanRichard909 Bloch,Karolaxxii,xxiv AusmeinemLeben(FromMyLife)xxii Blok,Alexander514 MarchoftheTwelve514 Blossius495 Blher588

PageI6 Boccaccio Decameron818 Bodin,Jean517 Bcklin380 Bhme,Jakob365,637,640,643,671,712,850,859,860,861,1188 Designaturarerum1349 MorgenrotinAufgang(Aurora)712,858 TheosophischeSendbriefe(TheosophicalMissives)928 Blsche,Wilhelm380,1153 Brne,Ludwig912 FragmenteundAphorismen(FragmentsandAphorisms)1367 Bothius1075 Arsmusica1075,1077 Botie,EtiennedeLaLeContr'unoudelaservitudevolontaire(Thecontrarymanorthewilltobondage)516 Bttger629 Bollnov104 Bonnet Palingnsiesphilosophiques1145 BookofJohn(Mandaean)1306 Borchardt,Ludwig723 Bosch,Hieronymus435 Boyle,Robert647n Brahms1063 AGermanRequiem11001 FourthSymphony107 Brand62930 Breasted TheHistoryofEgypt730 Brecht,Bertoltxxi,xxiii,4136,417,418,419,424,427,666,746,886,1224,1354 AufstiegundFallderStadtMahagonny(RiseandFalloftheCityofMahagonny)914 DerJasager(TheManWhoSaysYes)416 DerNeinsager(TheManWhoSaysNo)416 DieAusnahmeunddieRegel(TheExceptionandtheRule)415 DieManahme(TheMeasureTaken)415 Dreigroschenoper(ThreepennyOpera)34,414 Dreigroschenroman(ThreepennyNovel)475 KleinesOrganonfrdasTheater(LittleOrganonfortheTheatre)414,415,417 LebendesGalilei(LifeofGalileo)416 Theaterarbeit(Theatrework)414 Brentano,Clemens96 Brentano,Franz71 Brion,Friederike974,977n Brissot933 Brockhaus,Heinrich DieUtopiaSchriftdesThomasMorus(ThomasMore'Utopiawork)51718,519 Brotoffer Elucidariusmajor Browning,Robert1322 PippaPasses172 BrownSequard461 Bruckner267,1079 SixthSymphony1073 Brueghel,Pieter(Theelder) TheLandofCockaigne357n,813 TheTowerofBabel71112 Brning553 Brunelleschi648 Bruno,Giordano207,208,236,237,242,652,672,793,84850,852,864,993,1028 Delacausa,principioeuno(Cause,PrincipleandUnity)236,667 Brunswick,Dukeof294n Brust,Alfred DieverloreneErde(TheLostEarth)1159 Brutus,MarcusJonius152,368,425,933 Budde DieReligiondesVolkesIsraelbiszurVerbannung(TheReligionofthePeopleofIsraeluntiltheirBanishment)1231 Buddha6789,1136,1137,11401,1190,1191,1203,1224,1232,1247,124956,1260,1261,1291,1311,133840

PageI7 SpeechesofGautamaBuddha,seeNeumann,K. BchleinderFialenGerechtigkeit(BookletoftheJusticeofPinnacles)714 Bchner,Georg1172 HessischeLandbote(TheHessenMessenger)1358 Lenz301,977 Woyzeck301 Bchner,Ludwig379,1286 KraftundStoff(ForceandMatter)379n Brger,Gottfried437seealsoMnchhausen Bunsen696,697 Burckhardt,Jakob705,710 Butzbach DesJohannesButzbachWanderbchlein(JohannButzbach'LittleBookofWandering)369 Byron107,136,916,991,999,10034,1010 ChildeHarold1003 DonJuan1010 Manfred10034,11523 Cabet5613,607 VoyageinIcarie(VoyagetoIcaria)5623 Caesar,Julius90,91,294,492,493,650,651n,947,1028,1148 Cagliostro630,631,633,1177 Caiphas1263 Calderon421,422,983,1017 Caligula68 Calvin1282 Cames Lusiads217,1135 Campanella139,479,510,512,5238,529,533,544,545,552,562,566,568,656,744 Civitassolis(CityoftheSun)458,4756,477,490,5238,532,534,638,639,654,656,740,742,1220 Demonarchia526 Desensurerumetmagia524 Philosophiarealis524 Caracalla1118 Carlyle61517,1198 Heroes,HeroWorshipandtheHeroicinHistory126 PastandPresent616 TheFrenchRevolution616 TheHistoryofFrederickIIofPrussia616 Casanova702 CatechismusRomanus1131 Cato933,947,1318 Cellini,Benvenuto433 Cervantes882 DonQuixote16,170,320,352,358,772,1025,1027,1029,103557,1316 Czanne1347,1348 GrandesBaigneuses(LargeBathers)815 LesOndines(TheWatersprites)815 L'Estaque816 Chagall,Marc398 Charlemagne565,567,708,730 CharlesII536 Chassin573 Chekhov,Anton794 Cherubini1099 Requiem1100 Chesterton55,930,1262,1344 GeorgeBernardShaw326 TheReturnofDonQuixote1043 TheEverlastingMan1183 Chisolfi RuinsofCarthage385 Chopin180 ChristianofMainz(Bishop)770 Chrysippos491,493,503,838 Churchill,Winston606 Cicero403,492,536,933,959,960,971,1319 Defato243 Definibusbonorumetmalorum1319 Deoratore403 Laeliusdeamicitia963 SomniumScipionis761 Cieszkovski2701 ProlegomenazurHistoriosophie(ProlegomenatoHistoriosophy)270 Cimabue819

PageI8 Clair,Ren Chapeaudepaille(Strawhat)408 Gaslight408 Claudel,Paul405 L'annoncefaiteMarie(TheTidingsbroughttoMary)736 L'hommeetsondsir(ManandhisLonging)405 ClemensofAlexandria Stromata758 Cleopatra328,704,754 Cocteau OrpheusandEurydice426 Collini390 Columbus732,749,7502,758,760,762,772,773,7747,782,785,788,793,1026 Comenius528,636,717 TheLabyrinthoftheWorldandtheParadiseoftheHeart639 Comte,Auguste474,5678 Confucius1191,1196,12218,1261 Lunyu1221 Conrad,Joseph Typhoon661 Constantine739 Cook778 Cooper,JamesFenimore353 Copernicus7856,848 Correggio744 Cortez777 Cou,Emile453,1158 Creuzer,Friedrich160,1363 SymbolikundMythologiederaltenVlker(TheSymbolismandMythologyoftheAncientPeoples)1601 Cromwell,Oliver1276 Cusanus(seeNicholasofCusa) Cyrus754,1232,1240,1263 Czepo,Daniel1299 Dbler,Theodor101 Dahn,Felix EinKampfumRom(AStruggleforRome)379 Dalcroze394 d'Alembert655 Dali,Salvador365,366 D'Annunzio IlFuoco(TheFire)1002 DanteAlighieri89,218,7612,774,8207,832,864,1317 TheDivineComedy98,158,333,82127,992,1119,1121,11301Inferno761,10237,1130,1297nPurgatorio761,954,1121Paradiso94,122,126,214, 776,813,82127,835 Danton1010 Danziger588 DaPonte1008 Darius1240 Darwin469,646,894n Daumier473,476,1023 DavidofDinant207,236 Davy686 deBonald566 Debussy105,107 Decian506 Dclarationdesdroitsdel'homme(Declarationoftherightsofman)541 Defoe,Daniel RobinsonCrusoe816 Dehio301,957 Delacroix377 delaRoncire Ladcouvertedel'Afriqueaumoyenge(ThediscoveryofAfricaintheMiddleAges)770 deMaistre566 tudesurlaSouverainet(AStudyofSovereignty)566 dellaPorta Magianaturalis651 Democritus2567,285,8412,843,847,864,1364 Descartes72,1234,147,212,257,667,739,740 Meditations72 Desmoulins933 DeutscheZeitschriftfrPhilosophiexxv Dickens,Charles TheOldCuriosityShop692 Dickinson,H.D. EconomicsofSocialism903

PageI9 Diderot1286 EssayonPainting216 Rameau'Nephew428,983 Diels(withW.Kranz) DieFragmentederVorsokratiker(TheFragmentsofthePreSocraticPhilosophers)8401,875,876 Dilthey72 Dinokrates738 DioCassius729 DioChrysostomos1214 DiodorosKronos202,243,244,245 Diodorus1122 Diogenes482,543,15 DionysiosAreopagita833 Disraeli,seeBeaconsfield,Lord DoctorFaustus(chapbookandpuppetplay)489,1305 Dornseiff Odysseus'letzteFahrt(Odysseus'LastVoyage)1025 Dostoevsky817,1047,1048 CrimeandPunishment1004 TheBrothersKaramazov289 TheIdiot320 TheRawYouth Dreyfus602 Drer232,274,1074,1347 ApocalypsisCumFiguris221 David319 StJeromeinhisCell301,932,957,1310 Melencolia123,3012,312,957 Duncan,Isadora394 DunsScotus954,1319 DuPrel,Carl MagiealsexperimentellerNaturwissenschaft(MagicasanExperimentalScience)1186 Dutschke,Rudixxvi Ebers,Georg Semiramis379 Uarda379 Eckermann991 Eddington697 Edison439,661,748 Edrisi757,758,761,778 Egmont,Lamoral1171 EgyptianBookofTheDead1119,1123 Ehrenberg,Ilya410 Einstein,Albert604,664,697,785 Eisenstein BattleshipPotemkin407 TenDaysthatShooktheWorld408 Eisler,Hansxxiii EkkehardI Waltharilied367 Eleagabal328 ElGreco744 Emerson1159 Empedocles840,841,853,854,857,874 Engels,Friedrichxxvii,xxviii,95,216,249,250,251,272279,281,294,481,515,5301,556,557,573,574,578,600,601,617,621,666,6978,887,891, 892,945,1170,1198,12934 AntiDhring530,669,6978,9689,12934 DialektikderNatur(DialecticofNature)286 DieEntwicklungdesSozialismus(TheDevelopmentofSocialism)945 LudwigFeuerbachundderAusgangderklassischendeutschenPhilosophie(LudwigFeuerbachandtheOutcomeofClassicalGermanPhilosophy)250,267 TheConditionoftheWorkingClassinEngland8889 Eosander739 Epictetus243,491 Epicurus168,425,484,489,535,545,813,815,842,908,1010,1148,1291 Erasmus517,518,519,957 Colloquia518 Erdmann,J.E. GrundrissderGeschichtederPhilosophie(OutlineoftheHistoryofPhilosophy)652 Ericson,Leif772,1026 Erman gyptenundgyptischesLebenimAltertum(EgyptandEgyptianLifeinAntiquity)1125 ErnstBlochsRevisiondesMarxismus(ErnstBloch'RevisionofMarxism)xxv

PageI10 Ernst,Max365 Euclid658,743 Euemeros48990,494 HolyInscription489,516 Euripides429 Helen1845 Hippolytus1129 Euryphon738 Eyck,Janvan848 GentAltar713 (Paris)Madonna799800 Ezra(Esdras)1304 F.,P.(Gent) TheHistorieofthedamnablelife,anddeserveddeathofDoctorJohnFaustus1012n FabiusCunctator226,9401,947 Fallada,Hans KleinerMannwasnun?(LittleManWhatNow?)928 Faraday663,685 Fechner DasBchleinvomLebennachdemTode(TheLittleBookofLifeafterDeath)1155 DieTagesansichtgegenberderNachtansicht(TheAspectofDaycomparedwiththeAspectofNight)1155 Fnelon AventuresdeTlmaque544 FerdinandofCastille776 Ferenczi81 Feuchtersleben DietikderSeele(DieteticsoftheSoul)463 Feuerbach,Anselm541 Feuerbach,Ludwig249286,872,11535,11991200,128490,1291,1296,1356 DasWesenderReligion(TheEssenceofReligion)1183 DasWesendesChristentums(TheEssenceofChristianity)250,253,261 GedankenberTodundUnsterblichkeit(ThoughtsonDeathandImmortality)1154 GrundstzederPhilosophiederZukunft(PrinciplesofthePhilosophyoftheFuture)250,253,272 KritikderHegelschenStaatsphilosophie(CritiqueofHegel'PhilosophyofState)251 VorlufigeThesenzurReformderPhilosophie(ProvisionalThesesforaReformofPhilosophy)250,253 ReimverseaufdenTod(RhymesonDeath)1154 Theogonie(Theogony)1296 Fichtexxviii,139,147,244,269,270,476,54855,601,689,1321 DergeschlosseneHandelstaat(TheClosedCommercialState)271,524,54855 DieBestimmungdesMenschen(TheDestinyofMan)471 RedenandiedeutscheNation(SpeechestotheGermanNation)271,554 Rechtslehre(Jurisprudence)548 Staatslehre(PoliticalScience)5545 Wissenschaftslehre(TheoryofScience)553 Ficino,Marsilio644,645 Deartechimica643 TheologiaPlatonica643 Flaischlein,Csar SonneimHerzen(SunintheHeart) Fludd,Robert643 Foigny Laterreaustraleconnue(TheAustralianlandexperienced)779 Fontane,Theodor170 FrauJennyTreibel170,941 Forster,Georg816 Fourier4734,476,477,545,552,555,558561,565,566,570,578,579,580,1044 LeNouveauMondeIndustriel(TheNewIndustrialWorld),476,558 Thoriedesquatremouvements(Theoryofthefourmovements)558 Traitde1'associationdomestiqueagricole(Treatiseonthedomesticagriculturalassociation)558

PageI11 FraAngelico59,401 FraGiocondo741 FrancisofAssisi218,714 Franck,Sebastian972 Franckenberg,Abrahamvon637 Oculussiderius638 Franco895 Frazer TheGoldenBough1190 FrederickI(FrederickBarbarossa)766,770 FrederickIIofPrussia(FredericktheGreat)552,616,991 Freising,Ottovon770 Freud,Sigmundxxix,517,58,60,61,6364,66,67,68,77,7887,94,96,97,109,11516,128,137,1667,915 CivilizationanditsDiscontents(DasUnbehageninderKultur)54 DasIchunddasEs(TheEgoandtheId)83,116,137 NeueFolgederVorlesungen(NewIntroductoryLecturesonPsychoanalysis)84 Vorlesungen(IntroductoryLecturesonPsychoanalysis)87,94,97 Freytag,G. DieJournalisten(TheJournalists)431 Friedrich,CasparDavid8356 FriedrichWilhelmIV271 Fuik,Julius(Composer) MarchoftheGladiators364 Fuik,Julius(Writer)1173 Fux,Josef GradusadParnassum829 Galen4634 Galileo647,667,918,1328,1330,1348 GalliBibiena,Alessandro706 GalliBibiena,Giuseppe7034,706,739 Galsworthy892 Beyond891 Garaudy,Roger625 Garve,Christian erGesellschaftundEinsamkeit(OnSociabilityandSolitude)962 Gauguin81617 Gellert,ChristianFrchtegott GeistlicheOdenundLieder(ReligiousOdesandSongs)1076 Gentile,Giovanni547,943,945 George,Henry61819 ProgressandPoverty618 George,Stefanxx,175,405,468,957,959,999,1337,1338 Gershwin Summertime345n Gervinus1069 Gesell,Silvio617 Ghiberti818 Gibbon1276 Giorgione Concertintheopenair813 SleepingVenus798 Giotto218,267,533,711,71213,816,81720,825,864 AnnunciationtoZachariah818 ApparitionofStFrancistotheChapteratArles818,820 DreamofthePalace818 FlightintoEgypt818,819,820 Jesus'ReturntoHisParents713 Joachim'Dream818 RaisingofLazarus214 TheAssumptionofStJohn818 TheLastJudgement821 Glaucon(Plato'brother)485 Gluck OrpheusandEurydice832 Gres Mythengeschichte(HistoryofMyths)135 Goethe,JohannWolfgangxxvii,xxx,39,122,134n,147,174,175,1767,193,213,215,216,217,223,294,314,377,387,400,4245,597,642,670,789, 807,812,821,839,840,846,880,911,919,9731000,1033,1084,1144,1146,1147,1155,1188,13423,1351 AmRhein,MainundNeckar1814and1815(OntheRhine,MainandNeckar)909 AnmerkungenzuDiderotsRameau'

PageI12 Neffe(ObservationsonDiderot'Rameau'Nephew)983 AnmerkungenzuDiderotsVersuchberdieMalerei(ObservationsonDiderot'EssayonPainting)216 BenvenutoCellini(Goethe'translationofthelifeofCellini)1000 DerZauberfltezweiterTeil(TheMagicFlutePartTwo)329 DeutschesTheater(GermanTheatre)424 DichtungandWahrheit(PoetryandTruth)642,975,979,982,997 DieGeheimnisse(TheMysteries)637 DieLeidendesjungenWerthers(ThesorrowsofyoungWerther)50,322,780,960,962,9745,981,999,1000,1013,1188n EgmontI04n,425,978,980,1171 Erlknig(Erlking)375,1151 EsschlugmeinHerz(Myheartbeat)176n Faustxxviii,xxx,xxxii,16,70n,94,98,119,120,122,157,15860,189,191,197,214,221,240,248,293,312,313,317,325,328,329,373,395,412,428, 430,597,626,670,693,811,91217,837,846,852,8921,949,98081,892,98349985,986,987,988,992,994,996,997,999,101322,1031,1032, 10512,105557,1069n,1078,1092,1107,1121,11634,1188,1303,1361,8 Farbenlehre(TheoryofColours)6456 Ganymed974 GedichtesindgemalteFensterscheiben(PoemsarePaintedWindowpanes)174,992 GesprchemitEckermann(ConversationswithEckermann)991,1146 GtzvonBerlichingen978,980,1017 HeftezurMorphologie(NotebooksonMorphology)984 HermannandDorothea739,999,1146 Hochzeitslied(WeddingSong)290 IphigenieaufTauris(IphigeniaonTauris)979 ItalienischeReise(ItalianJourney)374,376 KampagneinFrankreich(TheCampaigninFrance)294 LettertoF.Stolberg1343 LettertoWilhelmvonHumboldt1163 MarienbaderElegie(MarienbadElegy)975,999 MetamorphosederTiere(MetamorphosisoftheAnimals)984 Mignonlieder(MignonsongsinWilhelmMeister)9947 Pandora333,334,987,997,999 Prometheus(poem)998n Prometheus(dramaticfragment)122,1212,1215 ReliefvonPhigalia(EssayonthereliefofPhigalia)811 SeligeSeuhsucht(BlissfulLonging)310,998 Stella417 TorquatoTasso417,979,980,987,988,994,996,10523,1369 Urfaust(TheoriginaldraftofFaust)122 UrMeister(seeWilhelmMeisterstheatralischeSendung) UrTasso(TheoriginaldraftofTasso)979 Urworte.Orphisch(PrimalWords.Orphic)984,992 VondeutscherBaukunst(OnGermanArchitecture)983 WanderersNachtlied(Wanderer'Nightsong)177,852 WanderersSturmlied(Wanderer'Stormsong)982,990 WeststlicherDivan220,310n,329,1136,1312 WilhelmMeistersLehrjahre(WilhelmMeister'Apprenticeship)122,642n,97980,982,987,988,993997,1017 WilhelmMeisterstheatralischeSendung(WilhelmMeister'theatricalmission)979,980

PageI13 WilhelmMeistersWanderjahre(WilhelmMeister'WanderingYears)999 WillkommenundAbschied(WelcomeandFarewell)176 Winckelmann1055 Xenien231,948 ZahmeXenien459,852 Goethe,KatharinaElisabeth(Goethe'mother)96,973 GtzvonBerlichingen463,978 Goldoni DonGiovanni1007 Goldsmith VicarofWakefield803 Goncourt(Brothers)211 GorgiasofLeontini243 Gorky,Maxim1202,1290,1354 TheMother596 GottfriedvonStrassburg TristanandIsolde187 Gottsched,JohannChristoph4245,976,1086,1368 Goya476 NakedMaya798 Grabbe,ChristianDietrich1003,1010 DonJuanundFaust1003,1011 Hannibal1003 HerzogTheodorvonGothland1003 MariusundSulla1003 Scherz,Satire,IronieundtiefereBedeutung(Joke,Satire,IronyandDeeperMeaning)1003 Gracchus,Gaius152n Gracchus,Tiberius152n,495 Graham,Dr455,460 Grandville Concertlavapeur(Concertforsteam)434 Mystresdel'infini(Mysteriesofinfinity)434 Unautremonde(Anotherworld)434,435 Gregor,Josef DenkmlerdesTheaters(MonumentsoftheTheatre)704 Gregorovius1161 GregoryofNyassa1170 Griffith,D.W.406 BirthofaNation406n Grimm(Brothers)3537,362 BrotherLustig356 Cinderella353 FaithfulJohn3178 FrauHolle86n,455 GodfatherDeath354 HanselandGretel352 TheBoyWhoWentOuttoLearnWhatFearWas3545,357 TheFrogKing355 TheLandofCockaigne357,472,627 TheMagicTable,theGoldenAssandtheCudgelintheSack355,356,472,473,477,627 TheMaidenofWillberg131415 TheStarthalers361 TheTwelveApostles1315 TheValiantLittleTailor353,357 TheWatersprite356 Grimm,Jacob3940 Gropius,Walter3861,735 Grotius537,538,541,895 DeJurebellietpacis5356 Grnewald218,267,774,819 Isenheim.Altar694,819 Guericke,Ottovon647 GuillaumedeLorris RomandelaRose804 Gundolf175 Gunkel SchpfungundChaos(CreationandChaos)776,1269 Haam,Achad603 Haba,Alois1091 Hadrian729,1116 Hckel,Ernst1153,1187,1202 Weltrtsel(Worldriddle)380 Hahn GeschichtederKetzerimMittelalter(TheHistoryoftheHereticsintheMiddleAges)1302 Hall TheEffectsofCivilization556 Haller,Albrechtvon DieAlpen(TheAlps)390

PageI14 Hallmann Marianne630 Hamann134,977 Aestheticainnuce838 Hammurabi1218,1233 Hamsun289 Handel1063 JuliusCaesar828 Hannibal226n,940,1003 Hanno772 Hardenberg541 Harich,Wolfgangxxv Harle JakobBhmeunddieAlchymistenGakobBhmeandtheAlchemists)643 Harnack1245 Dogmengeschichte(HistoryofDogmas)1245 Harrington TheCommonwealthofOceana544 Hartlib,Samuel ADescriptionoftheFamousKingdomeofMacaria474 Hartmann,Eduardvon204 PhilosophiedesSchnen(PhilosophyoftheBeautiful)423 Hartmann,Franz1186 Hartmann,Nicolai241 Hastings,Warren891 Hauff357 DaskalteHerz(TheColdHeart)1314 DerkleineMuck(LittleMuck)3578 SaidsSchicksale(TheFatesofSaid)3556,628 Hauptmann EinsameMenschen(LonelyPeople)569,593 Haydn1063 Creation1082 Hebbel,Friedrich184,430 AufdieUnbekannte(TotheUnknownWoman)322 Hebel,JohannPeter Schatzkstlein(TheLittleTreasureChest)131314 DieJuden(TheJews)8856 Hegelxix,xxvii,xxviii,6,8,18,71,723,124,131,139,143,16970,172,1901,2034,211,215,233,239,242,244,2456,250,251,253,263,26970, 271,274,279,280,282,283,285,291,324,559,600,620,66970,688,689,690,710,722,745,808,812,824,843,847,857,8612,863,871,874,875, 8824,912,955,101622,1084,1123,1217,1224,1284,1287,13078,1330,1342,1361,1362,1371 sthetik(Aesthetics)239,808 BriefevonundanHegel(LetterstoandfromHegel)124,885 DiePhnomenologiedesGeistes(ThePhenomenologyofMind)73,13940,155,246,257,1015,101622 Enzyklopdie(Encyclopaedia)191,203,233,244,245,246 GeschichtederPhilosophie(HistoryofPhilosophy)208 JenenserRealphilosophie670 Logik(Logic)208,244,245 Rechtsphilosophie(PhilosophyofRight)245,270 Hehn,Viktor376 Heidegger72,1056,109 BriefberdenHumanismus(LetteronHumanism)1357 SeinundZeit(BeingandTime)106,110,145,11601 VomWesendesGrundes(OntheEssenceofReasons)1161 WasistMetaphysik?(WhatisMetaphysics?)106 Heimann,Eduard468 Heine147n,321,562,898 Heinse8034,807 ArdinghellounddieghicklichenInseln(ArdinghelloandtheFortunateIsles)803 Heisenberg697 HelenofTyre328 Helmholt697 Helmont643 Helvtius154 HenryVIII516

PageI15 Heraclitus114,840,841,846,850,853,854,958,863,864,877,1098 Herbart728 Herder120n,134n,780,781,812 GeniusderZukunft(GeniusoftheFuture)286 Reisejournal.1769(Travelogue1769)1034 VomGeistderHebrischenPoesie(OntheSpiritofHebrewPoetry)134 Herodotus877,12056,1207,1220 Hertzka EineReisenachFreiland(AJourneytoFreeland)612 Herwegh578 Herzl,Theodor6027,609 Altneuland(OldNewLand)603 DerJudenstaat(TheJewishState)603 Hesiod62,334,111,12057,1209,1214 Hess,Moses271,6002,603,604,605,607,608,609,611 RomundJerusalem600,601 Hildebrandt739 Hipparchia482 Hippel,TheodorGottliebvon1143 Hippocrates463 Hippodamos738 Hippolitos1268 Elenchos1120 HistoriavonD.JohannFausten(Chapbook)1012 Hitler,Adolfxxiii,29,30,68,310,386n,428,443,587,606,733,892,894,1172 Hobbes,Thomas257,5367,543,859,867 Decive536,537 Leviathan536,537 Hlderlin933,11645,1318,1338 AmQuellderDonau(AttheSourceoftheDanube)121 AndieDeutschen(1798)(TotheGermans)1365 AndieDeutschen(1799)(TotheGermans)178 DerToddesEmpedokles(TheDeathofEmpedocles)841,11512,1165 Patmos112,939 Hoffmann,E.T.A.357,378,391,3923,398,803 DasMajorat(TheEstate)393 DergoldeneTopf(TheGoldenPot35860,393,708,755 DonJuan1101 Fermate179 LebensansichtendesKatersMurr(MurrtheTomcat'ViewsonLife)17980,323,1003,1060 RitterGluck189 Hofmannstal DiegyptischeHelena1845 Hogarth AnalysisofBeauty727 Holbein(theyounger)957 Hollingworth JewsinPalestine605 Homer213,792,1111,1113,1143,1162,1203,12058 TheIliad127,313,1207 TheOdyssey185,304,313,418,437,758,1020n,10237,12078,1281 Honegger Pacific2311081 Hooch,Pieterde796,797 Amugofbeer796 Hooke,Robert647n Horace293,373,937,959,1214,1257,1318 Epistles154n Odes290n,393 Horkheimer,Maxxxiv HorsemanofBamberg(sculpture)932 Howard,Ebenezer GardenCitiesofTomorrow612 Tomorrow612 HsiaKuei1226 Huch,Friedrich Trume(Dreams)99 Hudson,W.H. ACrystalAge474 Hufeland Makrobiotik(Macrobiotics)461,463 HughofStVictor1019,1302 Hugo LehrbuchdesNaturrechts(TextbookofNaturalRight)547 Humboldt,Alexandervon39,774,1342 AnsichtenderNatur(ViewsofNature)816 Kosmos213

PageI16 KritischeUntersuchungen(CriticalInvestigations)7645,775 Humboldt,Wilhelmvon1163 IdeenzueinemVersuch,dieGrenzenderWirksamkeitdesStaateszubestimmen(Ideasforanattempttodefinethelimitsoftheeffectivenessofthestate)540 Hume291 EssaysonSuicide,andtheImmortalityoftheSoul1145 Husserl71,1089,230,2912 ZurPhnomenologiedesinnerenZeitbewutseins(Onthephenomenologyoftheinnerconsciousnessoftime)109,292 Huxley,Aldous BraveNewWorld440 Huxley,ThomasH.567 Huygens647 Iamblichus916 Demysteriis93 Iamboulos510 IslandoftheSun4901,516,523 IbnKhordadbeh757 IbnTofail401,771 Ibsen170 AnEnemyofthePeople421 Ghosts170Love'Comedy323 Nora373,593,1308 Rosmersholm144,569 TheDoll'House170 TheWildDuck170,569,1044 TheWomanfromtheSea323 Iching(BookofChanges)1223 Imhotep1191,1216 Impekoven397 Irenaeus1117 IsabellaofCastille776 IsidoreofSeville753 Jacobsen105,107 NielsLyhne934 Jahn,FriedrichLudwig(calledTurnvaterJahn)452 JacobofLige Speculummusicae1075,1077 James,William2756,291,292,682 Pragmatism2756 HumanImmortality1159 Jane,C. SelectedDocuments,IllustratingtheFourVoyagesofColumbus775 Jannequin CrisdeParis(CriesofParis)1081 Jantzen DasNiederlndischeArchitekturbild(TheDutchArchitecturalPicture)709 Jaspers,Karl1161 Philosophie1160 JeandeMeung RomandelaRose8045 JeandeMuris Speculummusicae1075 JeanPaul(Richter)80,136,31314,8057,869,1150 DmmerungenfrDeutschland(DawningsforGermany)314 DieunsichtbareLoge(TheInvisibleLodge)474 Flegeljahre(TheAwkwardAge)1003 Titan314,391,699,8067,1000,1003 Vorschuledersthetik(PreschoolofAesthetics)136 Jeans697 Jefferson,Thomas152 Jensen TheWheel1036 Jeremias BabylonischesImNeuenTestament(BabylonianTracesintheNewTestament)1231 JesustheHangedMan(Satire)1305 JoachimofFiorexxx,206,480,498,50915,513,514,515,610,645,769,855,1198,1273,1302,1362 Deconcordiautriusquetestamenti510 JochanaanbenSakkai679 JohnLackland,King881 JosephofArimathea755 Josephson,Mirjamxxii Josephus,Flavius AntiquitatesJudaicae718

PageI17 Josquin1064,1081 Joyce,James Ulysses101 Jnger,Ernst584,1158 InStahlgewittern(TheStormofSteel)1158n Jung,C.G.xxix,56,57,5964,66,68,77,81,93,102,1378,160 PsychologischeTypen(PsychologicalTypes)60 WandlungenundSymbolederLibido(ThePsychologyoftheUnconscious)62,138 berdieArchetypendeskollektivenBewutseins(ArchetypesoftheCollectiveUnconscious)62. Justinian542 Juvenal216 Kabasilas679 Kafka,Franzxxi Kamasutra372 Kant,Immanuelxxvii,6,8,147,168,169,190,244,257,423,543,549,667,672,6923,784,808,810,825,8445,847,864,86874,8956,951,971,972, 1016,1047,1101,1108,1108,11467,1290,131819,1320,1321,1324,1347,1361,1373 AllgemeineNaturgeschichteundTheoriedesHimmels(NaturalHistoryandTheoryoftheHeavens)783,843 KritikderPraktischenVernunft(CritiqueofPracticalReason)86974,1147,13312 KritikderreinenVernunft(CritiqueofPureReason)244,843 KritikderUrteilskraft(CritiqueofJudgement)672,693,810 ReligioninnerhalbderGrenzenderblossenVernunft(ReligioninsidetheLimitsofMereReason)844 StreitderFakultten(DisputeoftheFaculties)844,872 TrumeeinesGeistersehers(DreamsofaSpiritSeer)245,784,844 ZumewigenFrieden(Onperpetualpeace)896 KarlEugenvonWrttemberg702 KatharineofSiena465 Kauffmann VonLedouxbisCorbusier(FromLedouxtoLeCorbusier)741 Kauffmann,Arthur TriptychoftheGermanEmigrationxxiv Kawerau588 Keller,Gottfried99,102,213,314,357,595,654,114850,1155,1163 DergrneHeinrich(GreenHenry)99100,361,1149 DieJungfraualsRitter(TheVirginasaKnight)358 Poetentod(DeathofthePoet)94 Traumbuch(Dreambook)366 Kellermann294n Kepler,Johann95,647,783,785,1072,1078,1330,1342,1350,1351 Harmonicesmundi1078 KeplerinseinenBriefen(Keplerinhisletters)1072 Kerner,Justinus143 Khrushchev,Nikitaxxvi Kierkegaard,Soren71,72,73,181,182,183,293,9601,989,1011,1021,13356,1338,1356 Either/Or961 ForSelfExamination1104 SicknessuntoDeath1336 TheMoment1057 Kingston353 Kipling,Rudyard TheBrushwoodBoy3612 Kjelln584 Klages,Ludwig59,60,61,77,102 Kleanthes494,496 Kleist,Heinrichvon8358,984 DasKthchenvonHeilbronn317 EmpfindungenvorFriedrichsSeelandschaft(ImpressionsbeforeFriedrich'sealandscape)8356 MichaelKohlhaas1321 berdasMarionettentheater(OnthePuppettheatre)396 Klemperer,Ottoxxiii Kleomenes495

PageI18 Klettenberg,Susannevon642,983 Klinger,FriedrichMaximilian1000,1148 SturmundDrang(StormandStress)977 Klinger,Max380 Klopstock812,998 AnFreundundFeind(ToFriendandFoe)1201 Messias(TheMessiah)120,1878 Knebel,Major885 Knittermeier1357 Kopp DieAlchymie(Alchemy)643 Koran832,1134,1136,1166,12778 Krates482 Kraus,Karl427 Keneck berneueMusik(OnNewMusic)1090 Kriege,H.273,1356 Kries,John.von241 Kritschevski10 Kropotkin571 Kubin,Alfred DieandereSeite(TheOtherSide)99 Krten3467,349 Kuhlmann279 Kunckel629 LaBruyre154 Lactantius121415 Lagerlf,Selma629 LittleNils'JourneywiththeWildGeese360 LaMettrie L'Hommemachine(Machineman)630 LaMotteFouqu,FriedrichBaronde995n Landor,WalterSavage ImaginaryConversations1312 Lange,Helene590,591 LaoTzu304,880,1190,1191,122530,12612,1295 Taotching880,122530 Laroche,J.J.1008n LaRochefoucauld154,964 Larsson,Carl HouseintheSun380 LaskerSchler,Elsexxii Lassalle555,566,600,620,1170 FranzvonSickingen1170n Lasso,Orlandodi1064 Lasswitz,Kurt474,629,753 AufzweiPlaneten(Ontwoplanets)753 Sternentau(Stardew)753 Lavater981 Lavoisier642 Lawrence,D.H.59,61 Lazaretti,David1185 LeCorbusier735,742 Ledoux827,7412,744,812 Lee,Anna1185 Leibniz,GottfriedWilhelm6,8,1323,1389,212,243,257,480,546,653,673,687,843,847,856,858,859,860,8612,863,864,875,1143,1295,1330, 1349,1366 Deartecombinatoria652 Monadologie860 NouveauxEssais(NewEssays)133,1295 Leisegang DieGnosis(Gnosis)12689 Lenau,Nikolaus119,181,183,293,1010 DonJuan101011 Faust101011,1016,1023 Schilflieder(ReedSongs)119 WandelderSehnsucht(ChangeofLonging)1812,323 Lenin6,910,157,174,271,281,294,354,410,554,580,607,610,622,903,943,945,1202,13689 LeftwingCommunism1369 PhilosophicalNotebooks208,673 StateandRevolution574 WhatistobeDone?910 ThreeSourcesandThreeComponentsofMarxism277 Lenz,JakobMichaelReinhold301,977n DerHofmeister(ThePrivateTutor)427 LeonardodaVinci121,6489,670,672,800,1074,1342 MonaLisa800,819,836

PageI19 StAnne,TheVirginandtheInfantChristwithaLamb800 VirginoftheRocks800 Lermontov AHeroofOurTime1004 Lersch DerAufbaudesCharakters(TheStructureofCharacter)104 Lessing727,825,955,976,11437,1182,1354 DieErziehungdesMenschengeschlechts(TheEducationoftheHumanRace)1145 EmiliaGalotti544,809,933 Faustfragment101213 HamburgischeDramaturgie(HamburgDramaturgy)430 Laokoon(Laocoon)411 WiedieAltendenTodgebildet(HowtheAncientsShapedDeath)11437 LvyBruhl62 Lewin,Louis Phantastica89 Lewis,Sinclairxxiv Babbitt32 LiangKai1226 Libersecretus754 Lichtenberg353,11489 BriefeausEngland(LettersfromEngland)1148n LightofHathaYoga676 Lille,Dukeof702 Lincoln,Abraham618 Lipps,Th. LeitfadenderPsychologie(GuidetoPsychology)104 Liszt180 Livy946,1193n Locke CivilGovernment537,1295 Lw,Rabbi1188 Lwith WeltgeschichteundHeilsgeschehen(WorldHistoryandEventsofSalvation)1362 Loheland394,396,397 Lohenstein Agrippina631 Loos,Adolf735 Lorrain,Claude389 AcisandGalatea817 Lotze Geschichtedersthetik(HistoryofAesthetics)1071 LouisXIV524 LouisXVI406 LouisPhilippe377 Lowe,A. TheTrendinWorldEconomics899 Loyola Exercitiaspiritualia675,683 Lucian Dialogues882 VeraHistoria4368,1025 Lucretius842,1010,1148,12912,1343 Dererumnatura489,1292 Lucullus373n Lukcs,Georgxx,xxii,xxiii,xxv,808,1170,1367 DerrussischeRealismusinderWeltliteratur(RussianRealisminWorldLiterature)817 DieSeeleunddieFormen(TheSoulandtheForms)1169 DieTheoriedesRomans(TheTheoryoftheNovel)218 GeschichteundKlassenbewutsein(HistoryandClassConsciousness)xxiii KarlMarxundFriedrichEngelsalsLiteraturhistoriker(KarlMarxandFriedrichEngelsasLiteraryHistorians)1170n DieSickingendebatte(TheSickingenDebate)1170n Lull,Ramon641,643,6513 Luria,Isaac1237 Lutherxxx,171,1064,1161,1188n,1234n,1357 Ein'festeBurgistunserGott(ASecureFortressisourGod)711nFreiheitdesChristenmenschen(FreedomoftheChristianMan)635 Lycurgus486 Lytton,Bulwer Zanoni1186

PageI20 Maa VersuchberdieLeidenschaft(AnEssayonPassion)80 Mably539 Macaulay891 Mach697,774,785 Machiavelli942,943,9467 Discorsi(Discourses)946 IlPrincipe(ThePrince)946,947 Macpherson,James(Ossian)134,391,77981,783 Macrobius111415 Maeterlinck6812 Theolivebranch682 Magellan7723,777 Magus,Simon328 Mahavira1252 Mahler,Gustav1083,1092,1102 LiedvonderErde(SongoftheEarth)1092 SixthSymphony1083 SeventhSymphony1092 Maimonides,Moses732,1128,1241 FhrerderUnschlssigen(GuideofthePerplexed)732 Makart,Hans3789,380,703 Malthus,Rev.Thomas4679 EssayonthePrincipleofPopulation468 Mandeville,Bernardde FableoftheBees150 Mandeville,SirJohn(Jeand'Outremeuse)753 Manet Djeunersurl'herbe(ThePicnic)813,814,815 Mani854,1119,1121,12449,1277,1342 Mann,Heinrich1163 Mann,Thomasxxiv,1068 DerTodinVenedig(DeathinVenice)III DoktorFaustus1004 Mantegna705 Manu BookofLaw1222. Manuel766,768 Marc,Franz794,837 Marcellus(Pope)213,1079,1086 MarchettusofPadua1077 Marcion1244,1270 Marcuse,Herbertxxvi Mares815 Marlitt(EugenieJohn)351 Marlowe DoctorFaustus654,1012,1016,1017,1029 Martinov10 Marx,Karlxxvii,xxviii,5,6,7,8,9,10,17,125,130,131,141,146,148,150,152,1556,163,1734,199,204,208,211,232n,240,247,24986,294,442, 468,481,483,514,534,546,559,560,571,573,576,578,681,582,583,584,585,600,601,604,607,612,615,618,619,61924,695,813,866,874, 882,884,889,892,921,932,947,969,9723,1044,1047,1170,1215,1288,1318,1329,1333,135476 AusdemphilosophischenNachla(PosthumousPhilosophicalWritings)270,5123 CircularagainstH.Kriege273,1356 DasKapital(Capital)76,261,2656,278,620,886,9701,1359,1361 Der18.BrumairedesLouisNapoleon(TheEighteenthBrumaire)294 DiffernzderdemokritischenundepikureischenPhilosophie(DistinctionbetweenDemocriteanandEpicureanPhilosophy)263 EinleitungzurKritikderHegelschenRechtsphilosophie(IntroductiontotheCritiqueofHegel'PhilosophyofRight)265,279,281,882,1183,1358 EinleitungzurKritikderpolitischenkonomie(IntroductiontotheCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy)154 ElfThesenberFeuerbach(ElevenThesesonFeuerbach)199,24986,1358 KritikderGothaerProgramms(CritiqueoftheGothaProgramme)1369 KritikderHegelschenStaatsphilosophie(CritiqueofHegel'PhilosophyofState)251 Lamisredelaphilosophie(The

PageI21 PovertyofPhilosophy)147n,570,579 LettertoEngels(1859)1170n LettertoLassalle(1857)1170n LettertoRuge(1843)155,195,251,1363 konomischphilosophischeManuskripte(EconomicandPhilosophicManuscripts)251,257,281,6256 ZurJudenfrage(OntheJewishQuestion)531 Marx/Engels DiedeutscheIdeologie(TheGermanideology)250,252,252,260,264,266,278,279,280,2834,920 DieHeiligeFamilie(TheHolyFamily)154,250,251,252,264,271,280,569,671,691,850,1359 ManifestderKommunistischenPartei(TheCommunistManifesto)271,2823,471,515,566,600,1356 May,Karlxix MeinLebenundStreben(MyLifeandStrife)352 MaYan1226 MedeaandJason(pantomime)404 Mehring,Franz551,575 Meinong230 MeisterEckhart61,273,292,689,857,862,954,1141,1274,12991300,1301,1302,1340 Melanchthon,Philip1188 LociCommunes1188n Memling709 Mendel458 Mendelssohn,Moses604 MendelssohnBartholdy,Felix1064 MennoSimons512 Mercator764 Mesmer455,632 Metshnikov462 Metsu796 Meyer,Eduard723,1186 GeschichtedesAltertums(HistoryofAntiquity)1258 Meyerbeer829,830 Meyrink,Gustav3646 DerGolem(TheGolem)365 DasgrneGesicht(TheGreenFace)365 MichelangeloBuonarroti220,744,1169 Mill,JohnStuart618 Milton314,781 Mirabeau991 MoellervandenBruck DrittesReich(ThirdReich) Mrike,Eduard96,686 MalerNolten96,172,321n,996 MozartaufderReisenachPrag(MozartontheWaytoPrage)3212 PeregrinaLieder(PeregrinaSongs)321,331 Mohammed708,1134,1186,12758,1282 Moisseyev397 Moleschott,Jacob1286 DerKreislaufdesLebens(TheCircuitofLife)1286n Molire DomJuanouleFestindePierre(DonJuanortheFeastofStone)1008,1011 Molina,Tirsode ElBurladordeSevilla(TheMockerofSeville)1008,1029 Molitor PhilosophiederGeschichteoderberTradition(PhilosophyofHistoryoronTradition)1349 Mommsen294,1210 Montaigne516,657,939 Montesquieu Lettrespersanes(Persianletters)770 Monteverdi1064 Apollo829 Orfeo828 Montezuma523 More,Thomas14,15,139,437,438,475,479,480,510,512,51523,525,527,528,529,530,534,537,544,545,568,585,592,617,618,744 Utopia98,457,475,476,477,479,490,51523,638,740 Morelly CodedelaNature(CodeofNature)539 Moritz,KarlPhilipp160

PageI22 Morris,William551,61315,617 NewsfromNowhere613,614 Mozart,WolfgangAmadeus164,316,321,390,911,1033,1063,1069,1079,1080,1088,1275 Cosfantutti829 LaClemenzadiTito829 DonGiovanni100411 Idomeneo829 TheMagicFlute98,127,164,181,319,322,325,327,328,329,417,628,829,1086,1095 TheMarriageofFigaro240,390,417,829,1067,1082 Mller,Friedrich(calledMalerMller)981 LifeofFaust9778 Mller,Friedrichvon(Chancellor)998 Mnchhausen437,438,631,667,748,1025 Mnzer,Thomasxxiii,xxx,488,511,515,608,774,1108,1171,1195,1301,1303,1357,1363 AusgedrckteEntblssungdesfalschenGlaubens(ExpressedExposureofFalseFaith)1256,1301 VonderngedichtetenGlauben(Onfictionalfaith)512 Mulford,Prentice Yourforcesandhowtousethem681 Mumford,Lewis TheStoryofUtopias523 Musus DerSchatzengrber(TheTreasurehunter)754 Musil,Robert608 Mussolini943n,945 Nagarjuna1251 Nagy,Imrexxv Nansen FarthestNorth376 Napoleon136n,383,565n,991,999,1004,1167 NathanofGaza ATreatiseonDragons1269 NavigatioStBrendani763 Nearch488 Nebuchadnezzar1240 Neefs,Peter709 NemirovitchDantshenko4212 Nero68,310,500,704,729,1118 Nestroy EinenJuxWillErSichMachen(OntheRazzle)441 Neumann,Balthasar739 Neumann,K. DieRedenGotamoBuddhos(TheSpeechesofGautamaBuddha)678,1140,1141 Newcombe660 Newton460,672,784,785,843,919,1328,1330 Opticks687 NicholasofCusa242,526,848,849,1019,1340 Nicolai,ChristophFriedrich1188,1368 Nielsen,Asta405,407,408 Niethammer195 Nietzsche,Friedrich58,59,68,123,204,211,274,615,936,9378,943,94951,959,1004,1207 AlsoSprachZarathustra(ThusSpakeZarathustra)398n,936,949,950,1101 DieGeburtderTragdie(TheBirthofTragedy)1213 MenschlichesAllzumenschliches(HumanAllTooHuman)1164 berWahrheitundLgeimauermoralischenSinne(OnTruthandLiesintheExtramoralSense)1331 Ntling DiekosmischenZahlenderCheopspyramide(TheCosmicNumbersoftheCheopsPyramid)723 Nollius Theoriaphilosophiaehermeticae64S Norden DieGeburtdesKindes(Childbirth)1124 Nostradamus144 Novalis160,970,1315,1350 DieChristenheitoderEuropa(ChristendomorEurope)551 HeinrichvonOfterdingen790n,1315

PageI23 Klingsor'sMrchen(Klingsor'sfairytale)995n NumaPompilius717,1190,1209,1211 Offenbach427,439 HoffmannsErzhlungen(TalesofHoffmann)426,439,631 LaPrichole797 OrpheusinderUnterwelt(OrpheusintheUnderworld)830 PariserLeben(ParisLife)441 Olschki DerBriefdesPresbytersJohannes(TheLetterofPresterJohn)770 SacradoctrinaeTheologiamystica882 Olsen,Regine182 Oncken,Hermann519 Oppert DerPresiterknigJohannesinGeschichteundSage(PresterJohninHistoryandLegend)768 Orcagna AltarpieceinS.MariaNovella Orfyrus(ProfessorMystos)(Bessler)632,633,647 DieachtverborgenenKammerndesNaturgebudes(Theeighthiddenchambersoftheedificeofnature)632 Origen510,1248 Ossian(seeMacpherson) Otto,Luise591 Otto,Rudolf1194 Otto,W. DieGtterGriechenlandes(TheGodsofGreece)1208 Ovid Metamorphoses105960,1308 Tristia959 Owen,Robert476,477,480,528,545,5558,559,560,561,563,607,618,620,656 TheBookoftheNewMoralWorld556 TheSocialSystem556 Pacioli728,1348 PadmaSambhava1139 Palestrina832,833,834,1064,1096 MissapapaeMarcelli1079 Palmerston,Lord605 Panaitios263,491,492 Panofsky Idea1348 VortrgederBibliothekWarburg(LecturesoftheWarburgInstitute)743 Papin659 Paracelsus6356,640,645,648,6836,688,711,784,850,857,858,859,1348,1351 Paragranum645,684 Paramirum684,13489 Signaturaretumnaturalium643 Pareto547 Parmenides311,840,864 Pascal653,1356 Patajah678 Pausanias1204 Pavlov48,57,469 Pavlova396 Pepper433 Perdigon,Luis764 Peri1064 Eurydice828 Pericles328,1112 Perret735 PeterIofRussia(PetertheGreat)991 Petrarch89,774 PetrusHispanus1075 PetrusMartyr516 Pfister KleineTextezumAlexanderroman(MinorTextsontheAlexanderStory)767 Pfitzner Palestrina1079 Pherekydes853 Philalethes1025 PhilippofVitry1077 Arsnova1075 Arscontrapuncti1075 Philo203,609,644,1238 OdesofSolomon6445 Picasso1347 PicodellaMirandola652 PierodellaFrancesca800

PageI24 PietrodaMora Darosa822 Pindar1214 NemeanOdes757,983 Piotrkowska,Karola(KarolaBloch)xxii Piranesi741,742,744 VedutediRoma(ViewsofRome)385 Pisano,Andrea218,334 Pissarev10 PistisSophia1120 PiusIV(Pope)833,1079 PiusIX(Pope)330 Pizarro777 Plato7,8,18,62,140,160,1612,168,212,256,257,269,292,305,4778,480,4848,490,491,492,493,506,512,527,553,609,757,843,8457, 999,1086,1207,1244,1320,1321,1348,1363 Critias489,654 Cratylus1170 Gorgias243 Laws486 Meno283 Parmenides292,846 Phaedrus845 Philebos847,1319 Protagoras671,1214 Republic457,4848,516,523,549,1086 Symposium155,845 Timaeus728 Plautus939 Plekhanov10 Pliny753,767 Plotinus62,211,491,840,1141 Enneads1214 Plutarch464,773,1163 Dedefectuoraculorum764 DeElapudDelphos1236 Defacieinorbelunae764 DefortunaAlexandri492 DeIsietOsiri723 Poe,EdgarAllan392 TheFalloftheHouseofUsher392 TheGoldBug357 Pppelmann,M.D.706n Poincar667 Polo,Marco752,762,767,771,772,778 Polybius492 PomponiusMela753,761 PoncedeLen777 Pontoppidan HansimGlck(LuckyJack)1001 Pope,Alexander389 MenschundTier(ManandAnimal)1187 Poseidonlos491,494 Poussin389 Powel433 PresbyterLeo NativitasetvictoriaAlexandriMagni767 Proclos1118 Prodikos948 Proudhon56972,575,576,579,580,581,617,620 DelaJusticedanslaRvolutionetdansL'glise(OnJusticeinRevolutionandintheChurch)571 Idegnraledelarvolution(GeneralIdeaoftheRevolution)5712 LaPhilosophiedelaMisre(ThePhilosophyofPoverty)147n,5712 Qu'estcequeproprit?(Whatisproperty?)570 PseudoJustinus1087 PseudoKallisthenes BiographyofAlexander760,767 Ptolemy771,1077 Pudovkin StormoverAsia411 Pufendorf546,873 Purcell DidoandAeneas828 Pushkin136 Pythagoras165,1348,13501 Pytheas772 Quesnay Tableauconomique(EconomicTableau)620 Rabelais81,1104 GargantuaandPantagruel437

PageI25 Racine546 Iphignie211 RamesesII1124 Raphael1347 SchoolofAthens709 SistineMadonna8367,1310 Rasputin630 Rawley,William654n Reich,Wilhelm633 Reichenbach PhysikalischphysiologischeUntersuchungen(Physicalphysiologicalinvestigations)633 Reinach,Salomon1128 Reinhardt,Max621 Reitzenstein DasiranischeErlsungsmysterium(TheIranianMysteryoftheRedemption)1240 DasmandischeBuchdesHerrnderGre(TheMandaeanBookoftheLordofGreatness)1245 Rembrandt8002,999 EntombmentofChrist801 ManwiththeGoldenHelmet800 NightWatch801 Resurrection802 RiverLandscapewithRuins801 Saskia800 Renard,Maurice DocteurLerne439 RtifdelaBretonne Ladcouverteaustraleparunhommevolant(Australiadiscoveredbyaflyingman)779 Rebeni,David600 Reuchlin1349 Reuleaux662 Reventlov,Franziska66,467 Ricardo545,557,580,621,1329 RichardofStVictor1299,1302 Richardson,Samuel151 Richelieu524 Richter LiteraryWorksofLeonardodaVinci649 Rienzo774 Rilke,RainerMaria959,1202,1290 DuineserElegien(DuinoElegies)990n Robespierre933,1010 Rodbertus555,620 Roland,Madame933 Rolin,Chancellor799 Rosenberg MythosdeszwanzigstenJahrhunderts(MythoftheTwentiethCentury)584 Rosenkranz Psychologie125 Rousseau68,389,535,53740,541,546,549,597,816,873,915,951,976 Confessions92 Contratsocial(Socialcontract)527,53740 Emile538,539 Ruben GeschichtederindischenPhilosophie(HistoryofIndianPhilosophy)676 Rubens1099 GardenofLove798 Rckert928 Rugexxviii,155,195,251,1363 Ruskin551,613149615,617,915 Russell,Bertrand668,697 Rutherford663 Ruysbroek1300 SabbataiZewi328,600,1185,1269 Sacco,Nicola1173 Sachs,Hans1083,1085 StBoniface12745 StBrendan7634,765,766,772,788 StGermain,Count455,460 StJerome767 SaintPierre,Bernadinde Chaumireindienne(TheIndianHut)816 PauletVirginie816 SaintSans398 SaintSimon474,4767,479,480,528,545,551,560,5638,576,577,578,616,970 NouveauChristianisme(NewChristianity)567 Rorganisationdelasociteuropenne(ReorganizationofEuropeansociety)564

PageI26 Systmeindustriel(IndustrialSystem)477,567 Salin,Edgar468 Salisbury,Lord605 Sallust373n Salzmann998 Sand,George,592 Lemeunierd'Angibault(TheMillerofAngibault)591 Sandschar769 SaporI1244 Sartre433,674,1366 L'treetleNant(BeingandNothingness)433 Satie,Eric PeopleDiningontheTerraceoftheHallattheSpa1081 Sauer,Josef SymbolikdesKirchengebudes(TheSymbolismoftheChurchBuilding)725 Scaliger,JuliusCaesar794,812,1215 Poetics812 Scamozzi741 Scarlatti829 CatFugue1073 Theodora828 Scheeben DieMysteriendesChristentums(TheMysteriesofChristianity)1131 Scheerbart474,736,737 Scheffel,JosephVictorvon Ekkehard375,379 Scheler74,748,1327 Schellingxxviii,190,192,194,672,688,68990,8601,1021,116970,12156,1342 PhilosophiederKunst(PhilosophyofArt)699,1049,1078 PhilosophiederOffenbarung(PhilosophyofRevelation)1104 PhilosophieundReligion192 VorlesungenberdieMethodedesakademischenStudiums(LecturesontheMethodofAcademicStudy)101920 Scher,Peter369 Schiller,Friedrich67,211,215,417,4201,4234,429,430,431,540,625,670,91819,932,948,951,974,988,1000,1067,1086,1175,1317 AndieFreude(OdetoJoy)92n,158,1293 DasLiedvonderGlocke(TheSongoftheBell)625,670 Demetrius427 DieJungfrauvonOrleans(TheMaidofOrleans)407 DiePiccolomini562n DieRuber(TheRobbers)91n,144,200n,368,426,454,978,1017 DieSchaubhnealseinemoralischeAnstaltbetrachtet(TheTheatreregardedasaMoralInstitution)423 DasverschleierteBildzuSais(TheVeiledImageatSais)838DonCarlos144,1044,1051,1320 Fiesco416,544,933 KabaleundLiebe(CabalandLove)425,501 Kalliasletters(toKrner)810 LettertoGoethe(August1794)1163 MariaStuart318,427 Spaziergang(TheWalk)1019,1020 Turandot318 berdenGrunddesVergngensantragischenGegenstnden(OntheReasonforPleasureinTragicObjects)429 OberdieisthetischeErziehungdesMenschen(OntheAestheticEducationofMan)97 berdietragischeKunst(OntheArtofTragedy)429 bernaiveundsentimentalische Dichtung(Onnaiveandsentimentalpoetry)918,1034,1051,1053 Wallenstein420,1169 WilhelmTell(WilliamTell)425,427,544 Xenien231,948n Schlegel,A.W.1030 Schlegel,Friedrich390,907 Schleiermacher420,1188 SchmidtvonLbeckG.P. DesFremdlingsAbendlied(TheStranger'sEveningSong)180n

PageI27 Schmieder GeschichtederAlchymie(HistoryofAlchemy)643 Schnaase715 Schnabel,JohannGottfried InselFelsenburg(TheIsleofFelsenburg)474 Schnberg108991 Erwartung(Expectation)1090 Harmonielehre(TheoryofHarmony)1090 Firststringquartet1091 Firstchambersymphony1091 Secondchambersymphony1091 Threepianopieces1091 Windquintet1091 Scholem TheMajorTrendsinJewishMysticism1269 Schopenhauer,Arthur58,59,120,169,274,793,808,998,10845,1177,1253,1337,1344 Schubert,Franz180n Schubert,G.H. DieGeschichtederSeele(TheStoryoftheSoul)1000 Schultz,Fiete1173 SchultzHencke587 Schumann1093 Schweizer,AlbertJ.S.Bach10656 ScipiotheYounger263,492,971 Scott,Howard898 SeerofPrvost143 Seghers,Anna DassiebteKreuz(TheSeventhCross)1103 Selmer,C.764 Semon60 Semper715 Seneca491 Medea438,773,774,1026 Sens,Bishopof702 SentM'ahesa397 Serubabel1263 SesostrisIII1124 Seurat UndimanchelaGrandeJatte(ASundayontheGrandeJatte)814,909,920 Shaftesbury812,919,951,1215 Shakespeare184,213,418,419,421,422,428,430,440,518,983,9859,1000,102733,1069,1073,1162,1343 AnthonyandCleopatra160 AMidsummerNight'sDream393,986,1031 Cymbeline1030 Hamlet332,416,420,422,4278,102732 KingLear419,459,1167 Macbeth134,419 Othello416 RichardtheThird428,868,1030,1170 RomeoandJuliet422 TheMerchantofVenice427,1077 TheMerryWivesofWindsor1032 TheTempest9869,102933 TheWinter'sTale332,1030 TroilusandCressida986 Shaw,GeorgeBernard1107 Shelley,PercyBysshe136,933,1317,1318 PrometheusUnbound372,1215 Shiching1221 Shuching(BookofDocuments)1221,1223 Sickingen,Franzvon1170 Sidorov741 Sigwart Logik242 Simmel,Georgxx,xxi,668,6823FragmenteundAufstze(FragmentsandEssays)683 Simonides839 Simplikios877 Sinclair,Upton350 Sismondi545,58o Smith,Adam151,552,948,964,1329InquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations544 Smith,Joseph754,1186 TheBookofMormon1185 Smyth,Piazzi7223 OurInheritanceintheGreatPyramid723 OntheReputedMetrologicalSystemoftheGreat

PageI28 Pyramid723 Socrates168,190,269,485,529,530,532,842,844,8679,950,1325,1326,1364 Sohar(Bookof)1135,1269 Solon460,481,839 Sombart13356 DieTechnikim.ZeitalterdesFrhkapitalismus(TechnologyintheEarlyCapitalistAge)647 SongofRoland1027,1036 Sophocles160 Antigone416,1171 Elektra160 OedipusatColonus1213 OedipustheKing1213 Sorel,Georges683,9426 Rflexionssurlaviolence(Reflectionsonviolence)943,944 Southcott,Johanna1184 Spartacus1171 Spedding,James651n,654n,655n,657n,1215n Speiser1351 Spencer,Herbert894 Spengler584,730,942,1160 DerUntergangdesAbendlandes(TheDeclineoftheWest)376,1360 Sperber Traktatvondendreiseculis(Treatiseonthethreeseculis)645,1079 Sphairos495 Spinoza,Benedict67,72,212,234,243,244,257,311,740,793,846,8503,859,861,864,955,993,1148,1328 Ethics72,155,243,8513,884,1195,1328 OntheImprovementoftheIntellect850 TheologicalpoliticalTreatise853 Spitta J.S.Bach1065 Spitteler Imago3234 Spontini829 Spranger,Eduard1364 Stalin547 EconomicProblemsofSocialismintheUSSR669 Stamitz1092,1093 Stangen,Louis375 Stanislavsky420,421 Stein,Charlottevon387 Stein,KarlFreiherrvon541 Stein,Lorenzvon564 Steinach461 Steinbach,Erwinvon717 Steiner,Rudolf11868 Stendhal DePamour(Onlove)179 Sternberger Panorama410 Stevenson,R.L. TreasureIsland353,357 Stieglitz715 Stirner,Max(JohannKasparSchmidt)252,279,5689,572,1004 DerEinzigeundseinEigentum(TheLoneIndividualandhisProperty)271,569 Stckl GeschichtederPhilosophiedesMittelalters(HistoryofthePhilosophyoftheMiddleAges)652 Stolberg,F.1343 StormTheodor ViolaTricolor332 Strachey,Jamesxxix,54n,62n Strato207,850 Strauss,Richard1068 DiegyptischeHelena(TheEgyptianHelen)1845 DonJuan1093 DonQuixote1083 EinHeldenleben(AHero'sLife)596,1093 FrauohneSchatten(Womanwithout:Shadow)1067 Sinfoniadomestica1095 Stravinsky1090 Stritt,Marie590,591 Stritzky,Elsavon(seeElsaBloch) Suarez,Andr1047

PageI29 Suetonjus729 Sulla947,1003,1211 SurajahDowlah891 Susman,Margaretexxi Suttner,Bertavon DieWaffennieder(LayDownyourArms)895 Swedenborg630 Swesen Limanora,TheIslandofProgress457 Swift,Jonathan AModestProposal888 Tacitus Annals72n Germania779,783 Talmud604,1128,1134 Tarde UndergroundMan612 Tasso Aminta804 LiberatedJerusalem1135 Tausend,Franz6334 Taut,Bruno737,742 DieStadtkrone(TheCityCrown)736 Tchaikovsky1068 Telesphorus511 Teniers813 TeresadeJesus1300 Tertullian504,1194,121415,1272 Thales18,672,840,849 Theocritus803,11745 Theodoros489 Theophrastus757 Theopompos488 TheSuitofLeaves(ChineseFairytale(628 Thirion Neustria612 Tholuck,FriedrichAugustGotttreu Suufismus(Sifosm)1278 ThomasKempis TheImitationofChrist1260 Thomasius976 Fundamenturnjurisnaturaeetgentium543 ThomasofCelano Diesirae1067n,1100n,1127,1132 Thorndike AHistoryofMagicandExperimentalScience754,767 TibetanBookoftheDead113940 Tieck,Ludwig1041 DerRunenberg(TheRuneMountain)1350 Tiepolo704,710 Tillich,Paulxxxii Timotheus1081 Tintoretto744 Titian379,778 Titoxxv Tobin433 Tocqueville967,968 DeladmocratieenAmrique(OndemocracyinAmerica)967 Toland,John Pantheisticon568 Tolstoy213,1181,1322 AnnaKarenina302,1181,1322 DeathofIvanIllyich240,302 KreutzerSonata322 WarandPeace240,302,917,1181,1322,13234 Torahxxv,1128,1241 Torre,DonaJuanadela776 Toynbee CivilizationonTrial1361 Trepte LebenundWerkStanislawskijs(LifeandWorkofStanislavsky)420 TroisCousines(ThreeCousins)797 Trotsky426 Turgenev HamletandDonQuixote1048 Tyndall,John237 Uhland Frhlingsglauben(SpringFaith)224 Ulbricht,Walterxxv Upanishads1137,1250,1251,1252 Urfaust(seeHistoria) Usener Gtternamen(NamesoftheGods)1210 Valturio648 VanGogh125

PageI30 Vanzetti,Bartolomeo1173 Varro,M.Terentius6 LiberatedPrometheus439 Odysseusandahalf1025 Vasari,Giorgio220,728,1347 VasariilGiovane741 VascodaGama772 Vauban524 Vayrasse L'HistoiredesSvrambes544 Vedas12501 Rigveda1250 Velde,Henrivander Ruskin61314 Velde,TheodoorH.vande IdealMarriage350 VenusdeMilo386 Verdi998,10991100 Aida830 Othello419,830 Requiem1067,1100 Vermeer796 Verne,Jules474,659,753 AroundtheWorldinEightyDays629 Veronese,Paolo710 FeastintheHouseofLevi710 Verweyen241 Vespucci,Amerigo516 Viera765 Vignola728 VilliersdeL'IleAdam L'Evefuture(ThefutureEve)439 Virgil1214 FourthEclogue1257 Georgics759 Vischer,F.Th.1163 Vitruvius699,701,7289,736 Dearchitectura7289 VivaldiofGenoa1026 Voler EinfhrungindiespanischeDichtung(IntroductiontoSpanishPoetry)1034 Voltaire17,39,390,517,1275,1286,1331 Voronoff461 Voss Luise803 Vries,Vredemande709 Wagner,Adolf468 Wagner,Richard319,420,82931,1057,1063,10679,10835,1344 DieMeistersingervonNrnberg319,322,831,1067,1083,1085,1095 FlyingDutchman319,831,1083 Lohengrin319,1083 Parsifal995n,1084,1135 Rienzi830 RingdesNibelungen86,420,830,1067,1083,1093DasRheingold830,1083DieWalkdre830,1068,1083,1085Siegfried830,1083,1084 Gtterdmmerung831,1084,1085,1098 Tannhuser830,1087 TristanandIsolde51n,830,1069 Wallenstein1167 Walpole,Horace CastleofOtranto391 Warren,Josia572 Washington,George565 Watt,James660 Watteau EmbarkationforCythera7978 Webb,Sidney941 Weber,CarlMariavon829 DerFreischtz1083 Weber,Mariannexxi Weber,Maxxxi GesammelteAufstzezur Religionssoziologie(CollectedEssaysontheSociologyofReligion)1240 Wedekind,Frank Franziska593 FrohlingsErwachen(SpringAwakening)1106 Weill,Kurtxxiii Weininger594 GeschlechtundCharakter(SexandCharacter)5934 Weie,Christian1071 Weitling499,5758 DieMenschheitwiesieist,undwiesieseinsollte(Mankindasitis,andhowitoughttobe)576

PageI31 EvangeliumdesarmenSnders(Gospelofthepoorsinner)577 GarantienderHarmonieundFreiheit(GuaranteesofHarmonyandFreedom)576,577 Welcker1363 Wellhausen IsraelitischeundjdischeGeschichte(IsraeliteandJewishHistory)1232 Welling Opusmagocabalisticurn642 Wells,H.G.584,617 MenlikeGods617 MrBritlingSeesItThrough611 TheTimeMachine43940,617 Welsch739 Werner,Antonvon409 Welsch739 Weyl,Herm. PhilosophiederMathematik.undNaturwissenschaft(PhilosophyofMathematicsandNaturalScience)664 Whitehead1362 Whitman,Walt561 LeavesofGrass1104 Wieland,Christoph803,948 Wiener,Norbert Cybernetics653 Wigman,Mary398,399 Wilarnowitz493 Wilde,Oscar479 WilhelmI942n WilhelmII606,890 Wilhelm,Richard TaoteKing1229 WilliamofOccam269 Williams,Roger517 Wilson,ThomasWoodrow584 Winckelmann377,385,803,1055 Winstanley557 Wolfe,Thomas YouCan'tGoHomeAgain1370 Wolff,Christian221,873 WolframvonEschenbach218 Parzival218n Titurel707 Wollstonecraft,Mary591 Wright,FrankLloyd735 Wyneken588 Xenophanes1207 Xenophon483,948 Xerxes34,49 YangChu1349 Yeats1183 Yeliutaschi76970 Young NightThoughts835,1148 Zeising sthetischePorschungen(AestheticInvestigations)728 Zeller SitzungsberichtderBerlinerAkademie1982(ReportoftheBerlinAcademy)243 Zendavesta1242,1244,1247 Zeno(Eleatic)130,243 Zeno(Stoic)491,492,493,494 Politeia492,493,495 Zimmer IndischeSphren(IndianSpheres)677 Zimmermann,Johann berdieEinsarnkeit(OnSolitude)960 Zoroaster1191,1203,1232,1238,1240,12429,1260,1270,1271,1272,1277,1311 TheGathas1242 Zoser(Pharaoh)1216