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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We extend our heartiest thanks to Mr. Arvind Kaurav, HOD, Electronics Dept. for his support in accomplishment of this project successfully. Furthermore it was his valuable guidance which helped us immensely in various areas of troubleshooting. We would also like to thank Mr. Anil Sharma, Principal, Globus Engg. College. He provides us an opportunity to present this paper. We also thank to our faculties of Electronics Dept. who supported us by their valuable knowledge. Last but not the least we would like to extend thank to my seniors who helped me to reveal various aspect of this project. We also thank to Microsoft Corp. for production support.
RADAR
( Basics of the Radar System)
TABLE OF CONTENT
INTRODUCTION HISTORY PRINCIPLE OF RADAR RADAR EQUATION PERIPHERALS OF RADAR CLASSIFICATION __________________1 __________________2 __________________3 __________________4 __________________5 __________________6
RADAR SIGNAL PROCESSING __________________9 DISPLAY BY RADAR TACTICAL USE STAGES _________________10 _________________11
A radar system has a transmitter that emits either microwaves or radio waves that are reflected by the target and detected by a receiver, typically in the same location as the transmitter. Although the signal returned is usually very weak, the signal can be amplified. Radar can detect static or mobile objects or targets and is the most effective method for guiding a pilot with regard to his location in space and also for warning the approach of an enemy plane for similar purposes.
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HISTORY
1904 - Christian Hulsmeyer demonstrated detection of a ship in dense fog. 1917 - Nikola Tesla first established principle for the first primitive radar units. He stated, " by their [standing electromagnetic waves] use we may produce at will, from a sending station, an electrical effect in any particular region of the globe; [with which] we may determine the relative position or course of a moving object, such as a vessel at sea, the distance traversed by the same, or its speed." 1934 - American Dr. Robert M. Page tested the first monopulse radar. 1934 - Soviet military engineer P.K.Oschepkov produced an experimental apparatus RAPID. 1935 - British Robert Watson-Watt demonstrated to his superiors the capabilities of a working prototype.
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PRINCIPLE OF RADAR
The basis of the radar principle is that if an electromagnetic wave encounters sudden changes in conductivity , permittivity or permeability in the medium, a part of the electromagnetic energy gets absorbed by the second medium and is re-radiated. The significant change in atomic density between the object and what's surrounding it will usually scatter radar (radio) waves. This is particularly true for electrically conductive materials, such as metal and carbon fiber, making radar particularly well suited to the detection of aircraft and ships. Electromagnetic radiation travels in empty space at a speed of 2.998 x 108 metres per second, and in air only slightly less rapidly. This speed is denoted by the letter c.
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Radar equation
The amount of power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the radar equation:
Where Pt = transmitter power Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna = radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target F = pattern propagation factor Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target Rr = distance from the target to the receiver. In the common case where the transmitter and the receiver are at the same location, Rt = Rr and the term Rt Rr can be replaced by R4, where R is the range. This yields:
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PERIPHERALS OF RADAR
1. ANTENNAS 2. DUPLEXER 3. RADIO FREQUENCY SUBSYSTEM 4. DIGITAL WAVEFORM GENERATOR 5. FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZERS AND OSCILLATORS 6. MIXER 7. POWER AMPLIFIER 8. TRANSMITTER SUBSYSTEM 9. LOW NOISE AMPLIFIER 10. RECEIVER SUBSYSTEM 11. SIGNAL PROCESSING/DATA PROCESSING/CONTROL SUBSYSTEMS 12. ANTENNA POSITIONING SYSTEM 13. POWER SYSTEM
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CLA SSIFICATION
Radar system can be broadly classified into two basic categories1. Continuous wave (CW) / Doppler Radars 2. Pulsed Radar
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Relation to Doppler-Effect
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One way to measure the distance to an object is to transmit a short pulse of radio signal, and measure the time it takes for the reflection to return. Since radio waves travel at the speed of light (300,000,000 meters per second), accurate distance measurement requires high-performance electronics. In most cases, the receiver does not detect the return while the signal is being transmitted. Through the use of a device called a duplexer, the radar switches between transmitting and receiving at a predetermined rate. The minimum range is calculated by measuring the length of the pulse multiplied by the speed of light, divided by two. In order to detect closer targets one must use a shorter pulse length.
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Display by Radar
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Frequency Range
330 MHz
Wavelength Range
10100 m
Notes
coastal radar systems, over-the-horizon radar (OTH) radars; 'high frequency' 'P' for 'previous', applied retrospectively to early radar systems very long range, ground penetrating; 'very high frequency' very long range (e.g. ballistic missile early warning), ground penetrating, foliage penetrating; 'ultra high frequency' long range air traffic control and surveillance; 'L' for 'long' terminal air traffic control, long-range weather, marine radar; 'S' for 'short' Satellite transponders; a compromise (hence 'C') between X and S bands; weather
1 m+
VHF
50330 MHz
0.96 m
UHF
0.31 m
12 GHz
1530 cm
24 GHz
7.515 cm
48 GHz
3.757.5 cm
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APPLICATIONS
Civilian Application
1. Radar altimeters for determining the height of plane above ground. 2. Radar blind lander for aiding aircraft to land under poor visibility, at night, under adverse weather condition etc. 3. Airborne radar for satellite surveillance. 4. Police radar for directing and detecting speeding vehicles. 5. Radars for determining the speed of moving target, (e.g the speed of a cricket ball being bowled) automobiles, shells, guided missiles etc.
Military Application
1. Detection ad ranging of enemy target even at night. 2. Aiming guns at aircraft and ships. 3. Bombing ships, aircraft or cities even during overcast or at night. 4. Early warning regarding approaching aircraft or ships. 5. Directing guided missiles. 6. Searching for submarines, land masses and buoys.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Microwave & Radar Engineering, by M. Kulkarni. Available:http://www.icsl.ucla.edu/aagroup/PDF_files/shcourse.PDF Dao, A., Integrated LNA and Mixer Basics, National Semiconductor, 1993. http://www.sss-mag.com/pdf/wirlna.pdf. DC-DC Converter Tutorial, Sunnyvale, CA: Maxim Integrated Products,2000. http://www.maximic.com/appnotes.cfm/appnote_number/710. McPherson, Donald, Receivers/Transmitters. Radar 101 Lecture Series. Syracuse Research Corporation, Syracuse. 14 Nov. 2001. Radar Principles, United States Navy Electrical Engineering Training Series. http://www.tpub.com/neets/book18/index.htm. Reintjes, J. Francis and Godfrey T. Coate, Principles of Radar. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1952. Schuman, Harvey, Antennas. Radar 101 Lecture Series. Syracuse Research Corporation, Syracuse. 24 Oct. 2001. Skolnik, Merrill I., Introduction to Radar Systems. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980. Thomas, Daniel, Signal/Data Processing. Radar 101 Lecture Series. Syracuse Research h Corporation, Syracuse. 6 Nov. 2001.
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