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(008974-T) 2011 1 Microscopic Examinations on Prepared Slides of Spirogyra, Funaria, Marchantia, Dryopteris and Pinus. This experiment enables students to: 1. identify the morphological and anatomical features of algae and plants 2. identify specifi c features for the purpose of grouping an organism into a pa rticular phylum and class Examinations of the prepared slides containing the specimens mentioned above wer e made under low and high magnifi cation of a microscope. A large, notated and labelled drawi ng of each of the specimen was then made. Spirogyra Pinus Marchantia : A thalloid body Funaria : A leafy moss Dryopteris : Sorus on the underside of a frond 1. Spirogyra which belongs to the phylum, Chlorophyta exists as a fi lamentous g reen alga found in ponds and lakes. Each Spirogyra cell has a spiral chloroplast with many pyren oids and a large vacuole with cytoplasm pushed to the periphery against the cell wall. The big nucleus is suspended by cytoplasmic strands over the vacuole. It can photosynthesise to pro duce its own food. Spirogyra reproduces asexually by fragmentation and sexually by conjugatio n producing zygospores. 2. Funaria which belongs to the phylum, Bryophyta and class, Musci has no true l eaves, stem or root and absorption of water and nutrient from the soil is carried out by rhi zoids. It is a moss common in damp places, like tree-trunks and the edges of streams and drains . The green plant is the gametophyte which bears the male reproductive structures, antheridi a and female reproductive structures, archegonia in the same plant (monoecius). The antheridi um produces antherozoids which swim to fertilise with oosphere found in archegonium. 3. Marchantia which belongs to the division, Bryophyta and class, Hepaticae is a green thallus and has no true leaves, stem or root. Absorption of water and nutrient from the soil is carried out by unicellular rhizoids which is also used for attachment of the thallus to the surface of the soil. The plant carries out asexual reproduction by the formation of gemmae and sexual Guide to STPM Practicals

reproduction involves the male reproductive structures, antheridia and female re productive structures, archegonia in different plants (dioecius). The antheridium produces antherozoids which swim to fertilise with oosphere found in archegonium. Marchantia is common in gardens on the surface of moist soil. 4. Dryopteris which belongs to the division, Filicinophyta and class, Filicinae is a common fern found growing in dry open area. It is a hardy plant and lives dominantly as a sp orophyte which has true stem, roots and leaves called fronds. The plant reproduces rapidly and asexually by means of spores found in the sporangia grown in clusters called sori on the unde rside of its fronds. The sporangium maybe protected by indusium. The fern is also capable of reproducing sexually. 5. Pinus cone is a reproductive structure of a Coniferophyta. Pinus belongs to the class, Gymnospermae which has both the male and female cones in the same sporophyte pla nt. Pine tree has true root, stem and leaves. It has simple needle-like leaves. The leave s are usually found in clusters. Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

Guide to STPM Practicals Investigating the Structure of Flowers This experiment enables students to: 1. investigate the morphology of the Flame of the forest (Delonix regia) flower 2. investigate the morphology of the orchid fl ower (Dendrobium) 3. relate the morphology of the flowers to their functions The flowers were cut, using a scalpel, into two equal halves. Large labelled dra wings of the dissected flowers were made with the scale of each drawing stated. Peacock flower (to replace Flame of the forest) Scale : 4x Peacock flower belongs to the family Caesalpinioideae with superior ovary and bi lateral symmetry (zygomorphic). Flower of Dendrobium sp. Scale : 2x Dendrobium sp. belongs to the family Orchidaceae with inferior ovary and bilater al symmetry (zygomorphic). Generally, both flowers are large, prominent, colourful, with nectar guide and n ectar to attract insect pollinators to ensure the success of their cross-fertilisation process. Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

Guide to STPM Practicals Use of the .2 Test in Monohybrid and Dihybrid Genetic Crosses This experiment enables students to use the .2 test to determine whether a set o f experimental data obeys Mendel s first and second law. The monohybrid ratio 3:1 and dihybrid ratio 9:3:3:1 are hypothetical estimations based on dominant and recessive genes, segregation, independent assortment and random fer tilisation which may be influenced by chance events and will be subjected to normal deviation. To assess a genetic hypothesis, a .2 test was used which can change the deviation from the expected value/ratio to the probability that chance alone could be responsible for the deviation. This test takes into account the sample size and the number of parameters (degree of freedom). For most problems in genetics, the degree of freedom (df) is one less the number of classes of phenotypes (n). For example, in a monohybrid cross, where only one trait, that is, the colour of maize seed (yellow and red) is considered (n = 2), then the df is n 1 = 2 1 = 1. In a dihybrid cros s, where two traits, that is, the colour of maize seed (yellow and red) and the pattern of maize seed (striped and white spotted) are considered (n = 4), then the df is n 1 = 4 1 = 3. In this experiment, the phenotypes of the maize seeds are counted and the result s tabulated. From the results, the values of .2 are calculated and compared with the values given in the table below. .2 = S (o e)2/(e)

o = observed value, that is, the actual number of seeds of a particular phenotyp e e = expected value, that is, the number of seeds of a particular phenotype calcu lated from the monohybrid and dihybrid ratios. .2 table df\p .99 .98 .95 .90 .80 .70 .50 .30 .20 .10 .05 .02 .01 1 .00016 .00063 .0039 .016 .064 .148 .455 1.074 1.642 2.706 3.841 5.412 6.635 2 .0201 .0404 .103 .211 .446 .713 1.386 2.408 3.219 4.605 5.991 7.824 9.210 3 .115 .185 .352 .584 1.005 1.424 2.366 3.665 4.642 6.251 7.815 9.837 11.341 4 .297 .429 .711 1.064 1.649 2.195 3.357 4.878 5.989 7.779 9.488 11.668 13.277 p - Probability df - Degree of freedom Monohybrid cross (Mendel s fi rst law) Phenotype Expected ratio Observation (o)

Expected number of count (e) Divergence (o e) Divergence2(o e)2 Divergence2/Expected no. of count (o e)2/(e) Red 1 79 72.75 6.25 39.0625 0.537 Yellow 3 212 218.25 6.25 39.0625 0.179 Total 291 0.716 .2 = 0.716 Conclusions: The calculated .2 value (0.716) is found to be lower than the value (3.841) give n in the .2 table (P0.05, df=1). Therefore the deviation is not significant and the result obeys M endel s fi rst law. Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

Dihybrid cross (Mendel s second law) Phenotype Expected Observation Expected Divergence Divergence2 Divergence2/Expe cted ratio (o) number of (o e) (o e)2 no. of count count (e) (o e)2/(e) Yellow striped 9 669 675 6 36 0.053 Yellow spotted3 232 225 7 49 0.218 Red striped 3 231 225 6 36 0.160 Red spotted 1 68 75 7 49 0.653Total 1200 1.084 .2 = 1.084 Conclusions: The calculated .2 value (1.084) is found to be lower than the value (7.815) give n in the .2 table (P0.05, df =3). Therefore the deviation is not significant, the dihybrid ratio o f 9:3:3:1 is accepted and the result obeys Mendel s second law. Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

Guide to STPM Practicals Construction of a Dichotomous Key Using Local Specimens This experiment enables students to : 1. identify the external features (morphology) of an organism to be grouped into a phylum or a class 2. increase their knowledge in the field of taxonomy Organisms such as Amoeba sp. (slide), Hydra sp. (slide), ant, snail (garden snai l), shrimp, Marchantia sp./moss, Dryopteris sp. (with sori on the undersides of the fronds) and grass were examined under the microscope or using a magnifying glass ( 10). The opposing fea tures, which clearly differentiate the organisms from one another were noted down. A dichotom ous key for this group of organisms was then constructed up to the category of phylum and class. Characteristics of organisms noted: Organism Characteristics Grass Green, containing chlorophyll; does not produce spores; has roots, stems a nd leaves Dryopteris sp. Containing chlorophyll; produces spores; fronds sub-divided into pinnae and pinnules bearing sori on undersides Marchantia sp. Containing chlorophyll; produces spores; thalloid body with rhizo ids; has gemma cups, antheridiophores and archegoniophores as reproductive structures Amoeba sp. Organism without chlorophyll; unicellular. Hydra sp. Multicellular; soft cylindrical body without exoskeleton; body wall co mprises of two layers of cells - ectoderm and endoderm; has tentacles, a gut cavity and a mouth Snail Multicellular; with exoskeleton; has soft muscular foot and calcareous she ll Ant Invertebrate with jointed legs; body divided into head, thorax and abdomen; has three pairs of legs; wingless Shrimp Invertebrate; body divided into cephalothorax and abdomen; has two pairs of antennae and five pairs of jointed legs From the above observations, it can be inferred that, Marchantia sp. is able to live successfully in highlands and damp areas due to its special rhizoids. The structural differences between Marchantia and Dryopteris are that Marchantia has a thalloid body and gemmae cups whereas D ryopteris has roots, stems, and leaves with the presence of sori on the underside of its frond s. Ant and shrimp share the same phylum, Arthropoda as both have segmented body wit h exoskeleton and jointed legs. The structural differences between them can be seen in the tab le below :

Ant Shrimp (a) Body divided into head, thorax and abdomen Body divided into cephalothorax and abdomen (b) A pair of antennae 2 pairs of antennae (c) 3 pairs of legs 5 pairs of legs (d) Tracheal system for respiration Gills for respiration Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

Simple contrasting characteristics to differentiate the organisms for the purpos e of constructing a dichotomous key. organism plant animal non-fl owering fl owering unicellular multicellular without archegonia and antheridiophores with archegonia and antheridiophores Grass Amoeba without tentacle with tentacle Hydra with leg without leg Dryopteris Marchantia Snail six legs ten legs Ant Shrimp Dichotomous key A1 Plant __________________________________________ refer to B A2 Animal ________________________________________ refer to D B1 Does not produce spores but has roots, stems and leaves _________________________________________ Phylum Angiospermae (Grass) B2 Produces spores _________________________________ refer to C C1 Fronds sub-divided into pinnae and pinnules bearing sori on undersides _________________________ Phylum Filicinophyta (Dryop teris) C2 Thalloid body, has gemma cups, antheridiophores and archegoniophores as reproductive structures _______ Phylum Bryophyta (Marcha ntia) D1 Unicellular _____________________________________ Phylum Protoctista (Amoeba) D2 Multicellular ____________________________________ refer to E E1 Soft cylindrical body without exoskeleton. Body wall comprises of ectoderm and endoderm. Tentacles, gut cavity and mouth present ______________ Phylum Cnidaria (Hydra) E2 With exoskeleton ________________________________ refer to F F1 Invertebrate with soft muscular foot and calcareous shell _________________________________ Class Mollusca (Snail) F2 Invertebrate with jointed legs ______________________ refer to G G1 Invertebrate; body divided into head, thorax and abdomen. Has three pairs of legs; wingless ________ Class Insecta (Ant)

G2 Invertebrate; body divided into cephalothorax and abdomen. Has two pairs of antennae and five pairs of legs _________________________________ Class Crustacea (Shrimp) Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

Guide to STPM Practicals Preservation of Plant and Insect Specimens This experiment enables students to: 1. learn the skill of preservation of plants and insects prior to related experi ments 2. understand better the field of taxonomy 3. identify the morphological features of plants and insects 4. determine the phylum, class and order of the preserved plants and insects Below are some of the plants and insects that can be preserved using the standar d procedures. Gemma cups Male umbrellas Female umbrellas Marchantia sp. is a liverwort commonly found in flowerpots in green houses, on m oist bricks in gardens and on badly drained soils. On its leaves are small gemma cups with smal l oval pieces of tissue, which can be spread by rain drops and become new plants This dioecious b ryophyte can easily be identified by its male and female umbrellas which carry the male and fem ale receptacles. Marchantia belongs to the division, Bryophyta and class, Hepaticae. Dryopteris sp. which belongs to the division, Filicinophyta and class, Filicinae is a common fern found growing in dry open area. It is a hardy plant which reproduces rapidly and asexually by means of spores found in the sporangia that grow in clusters called sori on the underside of its fronds. The fern is also capable of reproducing sexually. Both the housefly and the grasshopper (or locust) belongs to the phylum, Arthrop oda which has the characteristics of segmented body, jointed legs in pairs, chitinous exoskeleton and open circulation. Both the animals belong to the class, Insecta which can be characterized by thei r bodies being divided into 3 distinct regions, that is, head, thorax and abdomen. The head bea rs a pair of antennae, the thorax bears 3 pairs of jointed legs and the body is well supplied with resp iratory tubes or trachea. The housefl y belongs to the order, Diptera whereas the grasshopper/loc ust belongs to the order, Orthoptera. Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

Guide to STPM Practicals Collection of Insects This experiment enables students to: 1. be aware of the diversity of insects in Malaysia 2. learn the insects habitats, feeding and sexual behaviour and their economic va lues 3. strengthen their concept and understanding of classification and nomenclature 4. inculcate their love towards all living things and nature Capturing of insects and preserving them 1. Insects can be captured by : (a) sweeping small bushes with a net (b) catching flying insects like butterflies directly with a net (c) using a light trap to catch nocturnal insects 2. The captured insects are then placed into the killing jar containing cotton w ool soaked in concentrated ethanol. After the insects have been fully paralyzed, they are pinn ed on a piece of polystyrene to fix the position. 3. With suitable dissecting tools, the abdomen of the insect is slit open and th e internal organs were removed. A wad of formalin-soaked cotton wool is then inserted into the abd ominal cavity (see diagrams below). 4. Formalin is also injected into parts which are too small to be cut. The slit is then sealed. The abdomen of the insect is slit open and the internal organs are removed A wad of formalin-soaked cotton wool is inserted into the abdominal cavity 5. The preserved insects are then clearly displayed and pinned onto a polystyren e. Each insect is labeled as follows: Local name: Order: Location: Habitat: Date of collection: Collector s name: (A total of 25 different species from at least fi ve different orders of insects are to be collected) 6. A suggested list of insects is given below. (a) Local name: Longhorn beetle Scientifi c name: Batocera davidis

Order: Coleoptera (b) Local name: Brown spruce longhorn beetle Scientifi c name: Tetropium fuscum Order: Coleoptera Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

(c) Local name: Titanic stag beetle Scientifi c name: Dorcus titanic Order: Coleoptera (d) Local name: Elephant beetle Scientifi c name: Xylotrupes ulysses Order: Coleoptera (e) Local name: Click Beetle Scientifi c name: Limonius canus Order: Coleoptera (f) Local name: Sloe bug Scientifi c name: Dolycoris baccarum Order: Hemiptera (g) Local name: Carpenter Bee Scientifi c name: Xylocopa violacea Order: Hymenoptera (h) Local name: Carpenter bee Scientifi c name: Xylocopa aruana Order: Hymenoptera (i) Local name: Honey bee Scientifi c name: Vespa affinis Order: Hymenoptera (j) Local name: Peacock pansy Scientifi c name: Junonia almana Order: Lepidoptera (k) Local name: Striped albatross Scientifi c name: Appias libythea olferna Order: Lepidoptera (l) Local name: Paper kite Scientifi c name: Idea leuconoe Order: Lepidoptera (m) Local name: Great orange-tip butterfly Scientifi c name: Hebomoia glaucippe Order: Lepidoptera (n) Local name: Pepatung merah Scientifi c name: Nannophya pygmaea Order: Odonata (o) Local name: Ruby meadowhawk dragonfly Scientifi c name: Crocothemis servilia Order: Odonata (p) Local name: Red grasshawk dragonfly Scientifi c name: Neurothemis fluctuans Order: Odonata (q) Local name : Common skimmer Scientifi c name: Neurothemis intermedia Order: Odonata (r) Local name: Blue dragonfly Scientifi c name: Trithemis festiva Order: Odonata Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

(s) Local name: Common fi eld grssshopper Sceintifi c name: Chorthippus brunneus Order: Orthoptera (t) Local name: Short horned grasshopper Scientifi c name: Chorthippus parallelus Order: Orthoptera (u) Local name: Grasshopper Scientifi c name: Valanga nigricornis Order: Orthoptera (v) Local name: Katydid Scientifi c name: Pterophylla camellifolia Order: Orthoptera (w) Local name: Sawfly Scientifi c name: Arge humeralis Order: Hymenoptera (x) Local name: Stick insect Scientifi c name: Phasma reinwarditi Order: Phasmida (y) Local name: Cicada Scientifi c name: Cicadetta montana Order: Homoptera 7. Some interesting insects that are found around your neighbourhood. Local name: The wood nymph Order: Lepidoptera Local name: Stick insect Order: Phasmida Local name: Stag beetle Order: Coleoptera Local name: Red dragonfly Order: Odonata Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

Guide to STPM Practicals Collection of Plants This experiment enables students to: 1. be aware of the plant diversity in Malaysia 2. inculcate the love for plants and nature 3. strengthen their understanding of classification of plants and nomenclature 4. learn the economic values of Malaysian plants Collection and preservation process 1. Plant specimen to be collected should not be too young or too old and cut to the size to fi t a tabloid newspaper. Only the leaf and stem (flowers if any) should be collected. 2. Specimens are pressed immediately after collection and put into the oven at 1 05 C to rid them of water (see pictures below). The selected specimen is pressed immediately after collection. The specimen is then put into the oven at 105 C to dry it Dried stems and leaves are then mounted 3. The dried specimen is then mounted onto drawing papers of size 6 in. 10 in. o r 13 in. 8 in. 4. Each plant specimen is fully labelled as follows: Local name: Order: Location: Habitat: Date of collection: Collector s name: 5. A suggested list of plants that can be collected: (a) Local name: Asoka Scientifi c name: Saraca indica Family: Fabaceae (b) Local name: Sial menaun Scientifi c name: Pternandra coerulescens Family: Melastomataceae (c) Local name: Pandan jepun Scientifi c name: Pandanus amaryllifolius Family: Pandanaceae (d) Local name: Ubi kayu Scientifi c name: Manihot utilissima Family: Euphorbiaceae Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

(e) Local name: Angsana Scientifi c name: Pterocarpus indicus Family: Papilionaceae (f) Local name: Tecoma Scientifi c name: Tabeayaia pentaphylla Family: Bignoniaceae (g) Local name: Beringin/Malayan Banyan Scientifi c name: Ficus microcarpa (van nitida) Family: Moraceae (h) Local name: Pulai Scientifi c name: Alstonia scholaris Family: Apocynaceae (i) Local name: Kelat paya Scientifi c name: Eugena papilosa Family: Myrtaceae (j) Local name: Gapis Scientifi c name: Saraca thaipingensis Family: Caesalpiniaceae (k) Local name: Saga Scientifi c name: Adenanthera pavonina Family: Fabaceae (l) Local name: Melinjau Scientifi c name: Gnetum gnemon Family: Gnetaceae (m) Local name: Duku Scientifi c name: Lansium domesticum Family: Meliaceae (n) Local name: Durian Scientifi c name: Durio zibethinus Family: Bombacaceae (o) Local name: Gelam Scientifi c name: Melaleuca leucadendron Family: Myrtaceae (p) Local name: Gaharu Scientifi c name: Aquilaria malaccensis Family: Thymelaeaceae (q) Local name: Gajus Scientifi c name: Anacardium occidentale Family: Anacardiaceae (r) Local name: Mango Scientifi c name: Mangifera indica Family: Anacardiaceae (s) Local name: Cempedak Scientifi c name: Artocarpus champeden Family: Moraceae (t) Local name: Berangan Scientifi c name: Castanopsis inermis Family: Fagaceae Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

(u) Local name: Penaga lilin Scientifi c name: Mesua ferrea Family: Clusiaceae (v) Local name: Nangka Scientifi c name: Artocarpus heterophyllus Family: Moraceae (w) Local name: Ixora Scientifi c name: Ixora javanica Family: Rubiaceae (x) Local name: Kayu manis hutan Scientifi c name: Cinnamomum iners Family: Lauraceae (y) Local name: Badam Scientifi c name: Prunus spp. Family: Rosaceae (25 different species of plant from at least 5 different families should be coll ected) 6. Some interesting plants that can be collected. Lidah buaya Aloe vera Cekur Kaempferia galanga Hempedu bumi paniculata Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011 Andrographis

Guide to STPM Practicals Ecological Study of a Terrestrial Ecosystem This experiment enables students to : 1. learn the basic principles of ecology through hands-on experience 2. understand the biotic and abiotic elements of ecosystems 3. understand the dynamic relationship of elements and energy flow in an ecosyst em 4. learn the simple instrumentations (improvised or otherwise) in ecological stu dies 5. learn the methods of collecting and analysing ecological data 6. write a systematic ecological study report 7. inculcate the love for nature 8. inculcate good moral values, independence and self-confidence Some of the useful ecological tools that you may use in the course of your study

Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

Guide to STPM Practicals Ecological Study of a Terrestrial Ecosystem SOIL ANALYSIS 1. Soil sampling technique Metal cylinders or tin cans (improvised tools) are pressed or hammered into the soil to collect the soil sample. The soil sample is taken back to the school science laboratory in the cylinder for further analysis (see picture below). Soil sample in metal cylinder Laterite soil from open area Soil colour hints its content 2. Determination of soil texture Students may use a soil sieve or measuring cylinder to determine the percentage of each soil component as shown below. Sieves of different mesh sizes are used to determine the amount of clay, silt an d sand in the soil sample. A measuring cylinder (on the right) can also be used for the same purpos e. Calculation of the percentage of components of soil sample Formula Percentage of soil component height of soil component = 100% (using measuring cylinder method) total height of soil sample Working: Percentage of clay 5.55 = 100% = 59.67 % 9.30 Percentage of silt 1.87 = 100% = 20.11 % 9.30 Percentage of sand 1.88

= 100% = 20.22 % 9.30 Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

Texture of soil Height ( cm ) % of soil component clay 5.55 59.67 silt 1.87 20.11 sand 1.88 20.22 Total 9.30 100.00 PERCENT CLAYPERCENT SILT PERCENT SAND Determination of soil texture From the calculated results (as shown in the above table) and using the triangul ar above, it can be concluded that the laterite soil found in the investigated open area is clay soi l. 3. Determination of the water content of soil Formula weight of water Percentage of water content = 100% weight of soil Working: Component Formula Weight (g) Pie dish A 28.75 Pie dish + fresh soil B 33.90 Pie dish + dried soil C 31.75 31.60 32.20 Average of C D 31.85 Soil sample used X = B A 5.15 Water content Y = B D 2.05 % of water content Y X 100 40.00 31.75 + 31.60 + 32.20 D, average of C = 3 = 31.85 X, soil sample used = 33.90 = 5.15 Y, water content = 33.90 = 2.05 28.75

31.85

Percentage of water content in the soil 2.05 = 100% = 40.00% 5.15 Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

4. Determination of the organic matter in the soil Component Formula Weight (g) Crucible + lid A 33.85 Crucible + lid + dried soil B 42.60 Crucible + lid + heated dried soil C 42.40 42.85 42.28 Average of C D 42.51 Soil sample used X = B A 8.75 Organic matter content Y = B D 0.09 % of organic matter content Y 100 X 1.03 Percentage of organic matter in the soil 0.09 = 100% = 1.03% 8.75 5. Determination of air content in the soil Formula Percentage volume of air in soil sample volume of soil sample volume of soil particle (air-free soil) = 100% volume of soil sample volume of air in soil = 100% volume of soil sample Working: Component Formula Weight (cm3) Volume of soil A 20.00 Volume of water added B 100.00 Total volume of soil + water X = A + B 120.00 Final volume of soil + water (after thoroughly stirred) C 116.00 116.00 119.00 Average of C D 117.00 Volume of air in soil Y = X D 3.00 % of air content Y 100 A 15 X, total volume of soil + water = 20.00 + 100.00 = 120.00 116.00 + 116.00 + 119.00 D, average of C =

= 117.00 3 Y, volume air in soil = 120.00 117.00 = 3.00

Percentage of air content in the soil 3.00 = 100% = 15.00% 20.00 6. Determination of soil pH and soil temperature Soil temperature can be measured at site using a thermometer and soil pH can be determined by the procedure as shown below. Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

Adding distilled water to soil to prepare A pH meter for pH reading using a pH meter Content Readings 1 2 3 4 Soil pH 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.3 Soil temperature (C) 27.0 25.0 26.0 26.0 Atmospheric temperature (C) 29.0 28.0 27.0 28.0 The average of soil pH in an open area is 6.3. The average of soil temperature in an open area is 26.0 C. The average of atmospheric temperature in an open area is 28.0 C. DETERMINATION OF THE TYPES OF SOIL ORGANISMS 1. A Tullgren funnel is used to isolate larger animals of groups such as Nematod a, Annelida, Myriapoda, Insecta and Mollusca from the soil. To extract soil organisms using the Tullgren funnel: (a) a set of Tullgren funnel is prepared (b) the soil sample is placed on the screen (c) the light bulb is switched on and the apparatus is left there for a few days (d) the soil organisms collected were separated and identified Tullgren funnel 2. in in To A Baermann funnel is used to isolate smaller aquatic organism found in the th film of water the soil. extract soil organisms using the Baermann funnel:

(a) a set of Baermann funnel is prepared (b) the soil sample is wrapped in a bandage cloth and soaked in the funnel filled with water (c) the light bulb is switched on and the apparatus is left there for a few days (d) the aquatic soil organisms collected were separated and Baermann funnel identified Some of soil organisms that can be collected are shown below. Earthworm Ant Snail Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011

DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANT SPECIES IN A HABITAT 1. Students may carry out this study in groups of 4 or 5. 2. Each group should determine the area to be studied, the objectives, rough wor king plan, and the techniques to be carried out. 3. The density of plant species in a habitat can be determined by using quadrats . Quadrat sampling of plants in an open area. An open area Quadrat size: 0.5 m2 (Notice the laterite soil) (Random sampling) Quadrat Species 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Acantha sp. 56 49 13 13 1 10 4 Ischaemum sp. 15 55 50 5 60 32 28 26 30 20 60 25 50 11 65 25 10 Imperata cylindrica 11 Lycopodium sp. 30 10 20 3 8 14 1 33 1 Leguminosae 25 15 20 6 5 15 1 20 Nepenthus sp. 10 Mimosa pudica 15 3 1 5 Melastoma malabthricum 5 7 7 23 Eleucine sp. 70 98 55 20 10 70 20 25 5 4 Polygala sp. 5 25 Bryophyllum sp. 4 6 2 30 Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2011