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The optic nerve attaches to the retina, causing a blind spot O OPTIC NERVE It is the optic nerve that collects information received by the retina, and transmits it to the occipital lobe of the brain for further processing.
The blind spot is where there is a break in the retina, where the optic nerve begins. There are not photoreceptors located at this spot, and therefore no receptors that can receive light. It is in the brain that the images received by the retina are rearranged, thereby enabling us to see the object as it is in reality.
This retinal image is of a woman on the phone. Note that: the blind spot (no photoreceptors)- appears as a round yellow blob the image is upside- down; left and right are reversed; and, the image is crossed by blood carrying capillaries.
This image shows light waves being received by the retina at the back of the eye.
When rods and cones detect light, they respond by changing the light energy into a form of energy that can be sent to the brain for further processing.
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This patient has just organised and interpreted the optometrists message!
SENSATION: AN OVERVIEW
Stage 2: Transduction Electromagnetic energy (light) is converted to electrochemical energy (neural impulses) by the rods and cones.
Stage 3: Transmission Electrochemical energy travels from the eye to the brain via the optic nerve.
PERCEPTION: AN OVERVIEW
Stage 4: Selection Picking the pieces of the visual stimuli to attend to.
Step 6: Interpretation Working out what the pieces make/ mean when reassembled into a whole.
4. 5.
GESTALT PRINCIPLES
German word means organisation
Similarity Proximity
Grouping individual parts into a whole, usually in the simplest way E.g. if part of what we are looking at is obscured or missing, we mentally fill in the parts in an attempt to make the object complete Gestalt belief The whole is greater than the sum of the parts
The principle of closure applies when we tend to see complete figures even when part of the information is missing.
The nine squares above are placed without proximity. They are perceived as separate shapes. However, when the squares are given close proximity, unity occurs and they are more likely to be perceived as one group.
NOTE the difference in the Retinal Disparity between a distant object F compared to that of a close object X.
Works up to 1.3 metres Ability of the lens to accommodate accurately may be impaired by drugs, alcohol or degeneration of muscles with old age.
INTERPOSITION- when one object partially obscures another, the partially obscured object will be perceived as being further away that the object that obscures it.
RELATIVE SIZE- the tendency to visually perceive the object that produces the largest image on the retina as being closer and the object that produces the smallest image on the retina as being further away. This is largely dependent on our familiarity with objects.
WHAT PICTORIAL DEPTH CUES CAN YOU IDENTIFY IN THE PICTURE BELOW?
Size Shape
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
Orientation Brightness
We perceive the world as a fairly stable place despite it being in a constant state of change Perceptual constancies allow us to perceive a stimulus as remaining constant despite any changes to the image cast on the retina
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
SIZE CONSTANCY Perceiving that an objects actual size remains the same even though the size of the image cast on the retina changes. This can depend on our familiarity with the object being observed, the depth and distance cues available and our ability to perceive and apply them.
For example, in the picture on the left, do we think the canoeist at the front is a giant? Of course not! We understand that although he may be casting a larger image on the retina than the image of him at the back, he still remains the same size, he is just closer than before.
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
SHAPE CONSTANCY Perceiving that an object maintains its normal shape despite the changing angles of view received by the retina.
For example, just because the angles of the door are changing on the retina doesnt mean that the door itself is actually shrinking or getting bigger- its shape remains constant (the same).
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
BRIGHTNESS CONSTANCY Perceiving that an object maintains its level of brightness relative to its surroundings, despite changes in the amount of light being reflected from it to the retina.
For example, sunglasses on/ off. Just because the amount of light being reflected onto the retina changes when we put sunglasses on or take them off doesnt mean that the world around us is actually getting brighter or darker.
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
ORIENTATION CONSTANCY Visually perceive the true orientation of objects in the environment even though the retinal image of the object may be at a different orientation
For example, when lying on the couch watching TV we perceive the images as they would be in normal upright orientation.
PERCEPTUAL SET
Perceptual Set is a psychological factor that predisposes each individual to perceive visual stimuli in a particular way. It is a subjective and personal experience. Perceptual Set is defined as the predisposition or readiness to perceive stimuli in a particular way or in accordance with expectations. It is often referred to as expectancy. Many factors may lead to Perceptual Set, including: - Context - Motivation - Emotional state
- Past experience
- Culture
Perceptual Set may enhance our visual perception when we correctly anticipate a visual stimulus and interpret it more quickly. E.g. you would interpret rember as remember. Perceptual Set may also lead to errors in our visual perception. E.g. After watching the movie Jaws you go swimming and incorrectly interpret a dark, moving shape in the water as a shark instead of seaweed.
Perceptual Set often involves the formation of a Perceptual Hypothesis. This is a prediction or guess about the meaning of sensory information.
Figure 1
The influence of context on Perceptual Set was demonstrated in a famous experiment by Bruner and Minturn (1955). Their research proved that the surrounding environment of a stimulus would influence the way it was interpreted. For example, how do you interpret Figure 1? Does this interpretation change when the stimulus is surrounded by either letters or numbers? Do you see it as the letter B or the number 13?
For example, consider a child who is afraid of being alone in their bedroom (especially in the dark). They imagine shadows as monsters and noises as a creature under their bed.
PAST EXPERIENCE
Past experience refers to our personal experiences throughout our lives. This includes everything we learn through experience, both intentionally and unintentionally. These experiences are subjective in that a given experience may be interpreted in a very personalised way by different people. Consider the research by Toch and Schulte (1961) that involved presenting pairs of illustrations; one being violent, the other neutral. The three groups of participants who observed the pairs were drawn from different backgrounds: Group 1 had completed police style training Group 2 had just begun their police style training Group 3 were university students with no police style training at all. The results indicated that Group 1 participants perceived the violent pictures on 52% of the trials compared with Group 2 on 26% of the trials and Group 3 on 22%. This suggests past experience influenced the interpretation of the illustrations.
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Culture includes customs, traditions, beliefs, values, attitudes, rules about what is right and wrong, music and food etc. Experience with or in a particular culture can influence the way we process and interpret visual information. This was demonstrated in a famous study with a remote village community in Tanzania, Africa, called the Malawi people. Before the Malawi people had access to photographs, a group of them were shown a black and white photograph of a dog. Despite many of the observers owning dogs, they were unable to identify that it was in fact a dog in the photo. This may be explained by the fact that the Malawi people had very little access to picture books and therefore, may not have seen two-dimensional drawings or photos of dogs on paper (Deregowski, 1980).
Swan or squirrel???
Donkey or seal???
Duck or rabbit???
Two illusions that you will need to know are: the Muller-Lyer illusion and the Ames Room illusion.
For both of these, you will need to be able to describe each, explain why each is an illusion and explain why the illusion occurs
MULLER-LYER ILLUSION
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TITFtgH_TcA The Muller-Lyer illusion consists of two lines of equal length, each of which has opposite shaped ends- one feather tail and the other an arrowhead. The illusion is that the line with the feather tail at each end is perceived as being longer than the line with the arrowhead. It is an illusion because the lines are actually the same length. They actually cast the same retinal image size, yet one is perceived as being longer. Two theories may explain the occurrence of this illusion: 1. Gregorys apparent depth of distance theory and 2. Days perceptual compromise theory.
MULLER-LYER ILLUSION
GREGORYS APPARENT DEPTH OF DISTANCE THEORY Our experience with architectural corners or features in our real 3D world leads us to perceive the arrow headed line as the near outside vertical corner of a building the feather tailed line as a far inside corner of a room
The two lines appear to be at different distances from the observer the feather tail line appears further away. The two lines are the same real length, that is, the retinal images are the same size. We misapply the principle of size constancy- when two lines appear to be at different distances and cast retinal images of equal size, then the line that appears further away (feather tail) must be longer.
MULLER-LYER ILLUSION
MULLER-LYER ILLUSION
DAYS PERCEPTUAL COMPROMISE THEORY
Features of the Feather-tail and Arrow-head figures provide contradicting cues. These are: 1. The length of the horizontal lines in each is equal 2. The length of each whole figure appears different. The ENTIRE length of the Feather-tail figure seems bigger than the Arrow-head figure. 3. The length between the tips from one end to another again appear longer in the Feather-tail figure than the Arrow-head figure. We deal with this conflict by making a compromise. We settle on the best interpretation on basis of all info.
1 2 3 1 2
MULLER-LYER ILLUSION
The Ames room illusion is named after an American psychologist Adelbert Ames (1951) who intentionally designed the room to distort visual perception, particularly the sizes of objects in the room. It is an illusion in which a person at one end may look like a dwarf and the person at the other end may look like a giant, but if they cross the room, they appear to change in size.
REVISION QUIZ
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. What are the names of the two illusions you have to know? What are the differences between visual sensation and visual perception? Sketch and label as many key structures of the eye as you can. Explain each of the four Gestalt principles. Brainstorm as many facts that you know about rods and cones. Name each of the stages involved in sensation and perception. What form of energy initially enters the eye? What does it get changed (transduced) into? Explain how the depth and distance cue of Convergence works. What is Accommodation? In your answer, provide an example to show what happens to our lens when focussing on a close/distant object. Name as many pictorial depth cues as you can. For each, sketch an example. Define the term Constancy. Name the four types and give an example of each. Explain the meaning of Perceptual Set. Name and explain two factors that may influence an individuals perceptual set. Using one of the theories you learnt about the Muller-Lyer, explain why people still tend to fall for this illusion. Describe the construction of the Ames Room and why it leads people to believe objects appear to be shrinking and growing when crossing from one side of the room to the another.