1908 - W.S. Andrew - Magic Squares and Cubes

GIFT OF
Professor Robertson
BWGfNEERING
MAGIC
SQUARES AND CUBES

BY
W.
S.
ANDREWS
WITH CHAPTERS BY PAUL CARUS, L. S. FRIERSON, C. A. BROWNE, JR., AND AN INTRODUCTION BY PAUL CARUS
CHICAGO
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY.

LONDON AGENTS
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER &
TQ08
CO., LTD.
COPYRIGHT BY
THE OPEN COURT

1908
PUB. CO.
To
Engineering Library
The
title
vignette
is
an ancient Tibetan magic square.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
Introduction.
v t
,
By Paul Carus
v
I i i
Magic Squares
General Qualities and Characteristics of Magic Squares Odd Magic Squares Even Magic Squares Construction of Even Magic Squares by De La Hire's Method Compound Magic Squares Concentric Magic Squares General Notes on the Construction of Magic Squares
18
34
44
47 54
64
Magic Cubes
Characteristics of
Magic Cubes
64
64
76
Odd Magic Cubes

Even Magic Cubes General Notes on Magic Cubes
84 89
The Franklin Squares
An
Analysis of the Franklin Squares.
By Paul Carus
96
113 113 120 122 125
Reflections on
Magic Squares. The Order of Figures
By Paul Carus
-,
Magic Squares in Symbols The Magic Square in China
The Jaina Square
Mathematical Study of Magic Squares.
By
L. S. Frierson
129
A New Analysis A Study of the Possible Number

Notes on Number
Squares
Series
129
of Variations in
in
Used
Magic Squares.. 140 the Construction of Magic

.
148
Magic Squares and Pythagorean Numbers. By C. A. Browne Mr. Browne's Square and lusus numerorum. By Paul Carus
156 168
173
Some Curious Magic Squares and Combinations

Notes on Various Constructive Plans by which Magic Squares
Classified
May
be
185
I*
'
The Mathematical Value
of
Magic Squares
194
868516
.)o
*2
/t-t*-*^
VH^Z&tSt
ct^f***.
0-4. 4KXc.
Jrt~
INTRODUCTION.
r
I
-*
HE
peculiar interest of magic squares and
all
lusus
numerorum
which by a
in general lies in the fact that they possess the
charm of mys-
tery.
They
appear to betray
some hidden
intelligence
preconceived plan produces the impression of intentional design, a
phenomenon which
finds
its
close analogue in nature.
Although magic squares have no immediate practical use, they have always exercised a great influence upon thinking people. It seems to me that they contain a lesson of great value in being a
palpable instance of the
a clear light
symmetry of mathematics, throwing thereby

that pervades the universe wherever
upon the order
we
turn, in the infinitesimally small interrelations of
atoms as well
as in the immeasurable
which, although of a different kind and
domain of the starry heavens, an order still more intricate, is also

life,
traceable in the development of organized
and even
in
the
complex domain of human
action.
Magic squares
this evidence
are a visible instance of the intrinsic
harmony
of the laws of number, and
we
are thrilled with joy at beholding
which
reflects the glorious
symmetry of the cosmic
order.
Pythagoras says that number is the origin of all things, and certainly the law of number is the key that unlocks the secrets of the universe. But the law of number possesses an immanent order,
which
tance
is
at first sight mystifying, but
we
easily
understand
it
on a more intimate acquainto be intrinsically necessary; and this

instances of the intrinsic
law of number explains the wondrous consistency of the laws of

nature.
Magic squares are conspicuous
VI
INTRODUCTION.
will serve as
harmony of number, and so they

cosmic order that dominates
all
an interpreter of the
existence.
intellectual play that illustrates the
Magic
squares are a
mere
nature of mathematics, and, incidentally, the nature of existence
dominated by mathematical regularity. harmony of mathematics as well as the

of the cosmos.
They
illustrate the intrinsic
intrinsic
harmony of
the laws
In arithmetic
counting; in
we
create a universe of figures by the process of

lines
;
geometry we create another universe by drawing
in the abstract field of imagination, laying in algebra
down
more
definite directions
we produce magnitudes
letters.
of a
still
abstract nature, ex-
pressed by
eral conditions in
In all these cases the first step producing the genwhich we move, lays down the rule to which all further steps are subject, and so every one of these universes is dominated by a consistency, producing a wonderful symmetry, which
in the
cosmic world has been called by Pythagoras "the harmony of
the spheres."
There
is
no science that teaches the harmonies of nature more and the magic squares are
like
clearly than mathematics,
a magic
mirror which
reflects
a ray of the symmetry of the divine
norm
immanent
in all things, in the
not less than in the mysterious depths of the
immeasurable immensity of the cosmos human mind.
PAUL CARUS.
-1
te
MAGIC SQUARES.
AGIC
itful
squares are of themselves only mathematical curios,
but they involve principles whose unfolding should lead the
mind
to a higher conception of the wonderful laws
symphony and order which govern the science of numbers. ot record of a magic square io found
subject liaj
iiuiL ui
leas 3tudicd
and developed
and compre"T^rpose to present some gen methods for constructing magic squares hensive tich he believes to be original, and also to Bîeflv review commonly known
It is the writer's
itraefe
THE GENERAL QUALITIES
flND CHARACTERISTICS
OF
MAGIC SQI\KS.
magic square consists of a JfrieV of numbers arranged in quadratic form so that the sumJof eachVertical, horizontal and
corner diagonal column
is
theâme amounBL These
squares can
be
made with
either
an odd
yan
even number^tf
cells,
but as odd
squares are constructed byJmethods which differwom those that govern the formation of Jfren squares, the two class%.will be considered under separate Jâdings.
)DD MAGIC SQUARES.

it is not only requisite that the sum "3^ squjês the same amount, but also that the sum of columns shall
In these
all
MAGIC SQUARES.
E5
j&'4&
3
is
OF
ODD NUMBERS.
i
A"
*.*i
*U &*&"s<Bare
shown
in Fig.
covers the smallest ag-
gregation of numbers that
carJable of
magic square arrangement,
and
it is
also the only possible
relatively
will
arrangement of nine different numbers, to each other, which fulfills the required conditions. It
be seen that the
sum
of each of the three vertical, the three
horizontal,
15,
and the two corner diagonal columns in this square is making in all eight columns having that total: also that the
of any
sum
two opposite numbers

therefore Q poyioot
is
10,
which
is
twice the center
number.
le
Itmie
ocfuai'L uf 3 )(
is
^.
next largest odd magic square
that of
5X5,
and there
are a great
many
different arrangements of twenty-five numbers,
/7
Totals
15.
MAGIC SQUARES.
angles to that which was last considered, so that
cylinder with the extreme right and
left
it
forms a
vertical
hand columns adjacent

assist
to
each other.
An
understanding of this simple conception will

to follow the-trew
the
are to be
right or left
methods of building odd magic squares of thooo mothodo being,' based on a described/ hand diagonal formation.
all'
Referring to Fig.
2, it will
be seen that the square
is
started
by writing unity
in the center cell of the
numbers proceeding diagonally therefrom
upper row, the consecutive in a right hand direction.
Using the conception of a horizontal
cylinder, 2 will be located in the

cell to
lower row, followed by 3 in the next upper
the right.
Here
the formation of the vertical cylinder being conceived the next upper
square will be where 4

here blocked by
I
is
written, then 5
further progress being

cell
which already occupies the next upper
in
diagonal order.
When
in this case
a block thus occurs in the regular spacing (which will
be at every fifth
number
in a 5
5 square) the next
number must
last filled,
be written in the
written
cell vertically
below the one
so that 6
is
in the cell
below
order
is
then continued in cells

is
5, and the right hand diagonal occupied by 7 and 8. Here the
horizontal cylinder
imagined, showing the location of 9, then the

;
conception of the vertical cylinder will indicate the location of 10

further regular progression being here once
so ii
is
more blocked by
6,
written under 10 and the diagonal order continued to 15.
A
n,
mental picture of the combination of vertical and horizontal cyl-
inders will here

so 16
is
show
that further diagonal progress
is
blocked by
written under 15.
The
vertical cylinder will then indi-
cate the cell in

will
which 17 must be
cell
located,
and the horizontal cylinder

reached and the
show the next

1
diagonally upwards to the right to be occuuntil the final
pied by
8,
and so on
number 25
is
square completed.
Fig. 3 illustrates the development of a 7
7 square constructed
is
according to the preceding method,
and the ctudont
advised to
follow the sequence of the numbers to impress the rule on his

ory.
mem-
variation of the last
method
is
shown
in Fig. 4, illustrating
MAGIC SQUARES.
another
7X7
square.
In this example
is
placed in the next
cell
horizontally to the right of the center
cell,
and the consecutive
numbers proceed diagonally upward therefrom, as before, in a right hand direction until a block occurs. The next number is then
written in the second
filled
cell
horizontally to the right of the last cell
(instead of the cell below as in previous examples) and the

is
upward diagonal order

30 33 45 3S
/
resumed
until
the next block
occurs.
/O
26
2 7 29
7
6
26
2S
/3 /s
2/ 23
36 4*
33 42 44
/2
22
2O
Fig.
3-
MAGIC SQUARES.
previously referred
to.
To
chess-players the knight's
move
will
require no comment, but for those who are not familiar with game it may be explained as a move of two trqunrag straight
this
for-
ward
in
any
direction
and one aquae to

of 5
either right or left.
The magic square

placing
i
in the center cell of the in its
move employed
one
cell to
by and the knight's upper row, construction will be two cells upward and
X5
illustrated in Fig. 5 is started
the right.
in the
Using the idea of the horizontal cylinder 2 must be written second jfape from the bottom, as shown, and then 3 in the
from the
top.
second &t
Now
conceiving a combination of the
horizontal and vertical cylinders, the next
move
will locate
in the
extreme lower
left
hand corner, and then
5 in the
<***,
middle row.
is
We
now
5,
find that the next
move
is
blocked by
so 6
written below
last
and the knight's moves are then continued, and so on until the number, 25, is written in the middle cell of the lower fae; and
In
)fcthe square is thus completed.
common
it
described,
1
with the odd magic squares which were previously will be found that in this square the sum of each of
the five horizontal, the five perpendicular, and the
two corner diagonal columns is 65, also that the sum of any two numbers that are ' gcomctricallyfequidistant from the center is 26, or twice the number
in the center cell, thus filling
all_thegeaaafr qualifications of a
will be noted
perfect square.
In addition, however, to these characteristics

that each spiral
it
figures around the horizontal and vertical cylinders traced either right handed or left handed also amounts In the vertical cylinder, there are five right hand, and five to 65.
left
row of
hand
spirals,
umns
across the square, leaving eight
two of which form the two corner diagonal colnew combinations. Tho oamc
Counting therefore
five horizontal
columns, five vertical col-
umns, two corner diagonal columns, and ciiitoen right and left hand spiral columns, there will bo foand in all twenty-^gfat columns
each of which will
sum up
to 65,
whereas
in the
5X5
square shown
MAGIC SQUARES.
in Fig. 2 there will
be found only twcfoc columns that will amount
to that number.
This method of construction
is
subject to a
number of
variations.
left
For example, the knight's move may be upwards and to the

hand instead of
to the right, or
it
may
be made downwards and

in other directions.
either to the right or left hand,
and also
in
There
are in fact eight different
ways
cell
which the knight's move may

upper
be started from the center
in the
^t.
Six of these
moves are indicated by figure 2's each of these moves if continued

ruiiukir
tjcj^tx*^
in different cells of Fig. 6, in its
and
by
own
direction, varied
breaks as before described, will produce a different but
pprfppt square.
The remaining two
possible knight's moves, indi-
cated by cyphers, will not produce perXect
Fig. 6.
Fig.
7.
It
may
here be desirable to explain another method for locating
numbers
which some may prefer to that which involves the conception of the double cylinder. This method consists in constructing parts of auxiliary squares around two or more
in their
proper
cells
sides of the
main square, and temporarily writing the numbers
in
the cells of these auxiliary squares

ries
when
their regular placing car-
them outside the
limits of the
main square.
The temporary
location of these
numbers
in the cells of the auxiliary squares will
then indicate into which
cells of the
main square they must be per-
manently transferred. Fig. 7 shows a 5
main square with parts of three auxiliary
MAGIC SQUARES.
squares, and the
5-
main square
will
be built up in the same way as
Starting with
in the center of the top
UH^
the
first
knight's
move
of two cells upwards and one to the right takes 2 across the
cell
top margin of the main square into the second
of the second
from the bottom

transferred to the
in
one of the auxiliary squares, so 2 must be

relative position in the
same
main square.
Start-
ing again from 2 in the main square, the next
move
places 3 within
main square, but 4 goes out of it of an auxiliary s4uare, from which

the
into the lower left hand corner

it
must be transferred
to the
same
main square, and so on throughout. The method last described and also the conception of the double
location in the
cylinders
little
be considered simply as aids to the beginner.* With '/tf^ practice the steidont will be able to select the proper cells in 7
may
the square as fast as the figures can be written therein.
^
lines of con-
Having thus explained tii&Mr

struction, the general principles
"p^rifir
Tfpi]
MINI
1-
governing the development of odd magic squares by these methods may now be formulated. i. The center cell in the square must always contain the middle
number of
/T\ \S ^,
is
|
the series of
numbers used, /
i.
e.,
a number which
last
equal to one half the sum of the
first
and
numbers of
the series^ <rf2.
7^
*^_
-f-
No p^ât
center
cell,
but
magic square can therefore be started from its it may be started from any cell other than
which
will
the center one.

3.
With
certain specific exceptions
be referred to
later on,
right or
left
odd magic squares may be constructed by either hand diagonal sequence, or by a number of so-
called knight's moves, varied in all cases
4.
by periodical and from normal spacing. The directions and dimensions of these departures from
well defined departures
normal spacing, or "break-moves," as they may^betermed,

are governed by the relative spacing of cells occupied by the
first
C~~y
and
last
numbers of the
series,
and may be
deter-
mined as follows:
MAGIC SQUARES.
if*
nv
RULE: Place
in the cell
the
first
number of
(excepting the center one) and the/last
the series in any desired cell number of the series

cell
which
first
is
gGomotricallyroQnooito to the
con-
t/~
taining the
cell that
number.
The
relative spacing
between the
contains the last

first
number
of the series and the cell
that contains the
number
of the series must then be
repeated whenever a block occurs in the regular progression.
EXAMPLES.
Using a blank square of

cell
5,
imaV
be vfritten
in the
middle
opposite being 25 must be written therein. I will inthe^lpwertase, "thereforeTielocated four cells above in the middle vertical column,
the middle cell
of the upper jaacr
The goomctrkally
cell to this
or what
is
the
same
thing,
and
easier to follow, one cell
below
25.
first
When, therefore, a square of 5 X 5 is commenced with the number in the middle cell of the upper fae, the break=:move
gdiiiiTjrrbe o
will
,-/,
MAGIC SQUARES.
will naturally
vary with the method of advance, but the relative
spacing of the moves themselves will remain unchanged.
NOTE The foregoing break=moves were

:
previously described in
I, 2, 3, 4,
several specific examples (See Figs.
and 5) and
the reader will

eral rule.
now
observe
how
they agree with the gen-
in
I
Once more using a blank square of 5 X 5, the upper left hand corner and 25 in the lower
will then
may be
written
right
hand corner.
left
occupy a position four cells removed from 25 in a
hand upward diagonal, or what is the same thing and easier to follow, the next cell in a right hand downward diagonal. This will
therefore be the breakrmove whenever a block occurs in the regular
Fig 10 shows the break moves which occur when a knight's move of two cells to the right and one cell upwards is used
spacing.
for the regular advance.
As
left in
a final example
we
will write
in the second cell
from the
placing
the upper line of a 5
5 square, which
calls for the
2,
IO
MAGIC SQUARES.
such as right hand diagonal sequence, upwards or downwards, left hand diagonal sequence upwards or downwards, or a number of knight's moves in various directions. There are four possible moves
from each
each
cell
cell in
diagonal sequence, and eight possible moves from
by the knight's move.
Some
of these moves will produce
ggrfTttfr
magic squares, but there will be found
many
exceptions
which can be shown most readily by diagrams. Fig. 12 is a 5 X 5 square in which the pointed arrow heads
dicate the directions of diagonal sequence by
in-
which perfect squares
may
be constructed, while the blunt arrow heads show the directions
MAGIC SQUARES.
Fig.
is
1
II
6 shows a similar square
in
used for regular advance.
The break ^move
which an elongated knight's move is necessarily the same
in
each example.
s
(See Fig. 10.)
2^-2-
-*,
/,
Z-/
12
Figs. 21, 22,
I
MAGIC SQUARES.
and 23 illustrate three 5X5 squares, each having upper right hand corner and 25 in the lower left hand
in the
/O 22
9
24
20
2/
26
/6
Fig. 21.
MACK
equivalent to a right hand
SQUARES.
downward diagonal sequence wherein

filled.
alternate cells are consecutively
There are
in fact
almost innumerable combinations of moves
by which -&Mfi04 odd magic squares may be constructed.
63
6s
/fl
7
6-6
7*
7 66
'7
J/
77
4%
76
4'
6s
Totals
= 369.
7*
zs
39 26
' 4,0
60 3$
36
7*
7"
JS
Fi
s/
f.
24-
39
20
77 7*
6* 6A
/6
49 44
S3
40
4* J/
2.6
22,
7
Totals
6s 6* 46 4/ 36
= 369.
7"
66
A3
41
23
7* 7'
23
/a
Fig.
SZ JS 33
6? 61
43
foregoing method for building odd magic squares by a
continuous process, imic hiring- the regular spacing of consecutive
numbers varied by
struction have been
different well defined break-smoves.i

writer, but other
methods of con-
known
for
many
years.
One
of the most interesting of these sldur methods involves
the use of
two or more primary squares, the sums of numbers
in
MAGIC SQUARES.
similarly located cells of
which constitute the correct numbers for
transfer into the corresponding cells of the

to be constructed therefrom.
magic square that
is
This method has been ascribed primarily to

been more recently improved by Prof. Scheffler.
It
De
la
Hire but has
may
be simply illustrated by the construction of a few

Figs. 26 and 27
i
5X5
two
squares as examples.
squares in which the numbers
to 5
show two simple primary are so arranged that like numin the
bers occur once and only once in similarly placed cells in the
squares
also that pairs of unlike

in
numbers are not repeated

cells.
same order
any similarly placed

cell in
Thus, 5 occupies the ex-
few of each square, but this combination does not occur in any of the other cells. So also in Fig. 27 4 occupies the extreme right hand cell in the upper line, and in Fig.
treme right hand
the lower
26
this cell contains 2.
No
other
cell,
however,
in
Fig. 27 that
contains 4 corresponds in position with a cellin^26 Leaving the numbers in Fig. 26 unaltered, the numbers in Fig. 27
that contains 2.
must now be changed to

ducing the4*ey square'
bers of the
^nttsttfi*
their respective
in Fig. 28.
key numbers, thus pro-
shown
By adding
the
cell
num-
square Fig. 26 to the corresponding
cell
numbers
numbers,.
i,
2,
5,
3,
4,
5.
numbers,
o,
10, 15, 20.
MAGIC SQUARES.
It is
^*"^^
W-
28 may be pensed with by mentally substituting the kt* numbers for the
in Fig.
evident that the JOT? square
shown
dis-
l6
MAGIC SQUARES.
x
puimapv square Fig. 34 to the

bear
square Fig. 36, the latter
numbers occupying similar cells in being derived from the primary cquarc
MAGIC SQUARES.
written in heavy figures, have the correct summation.
in these
The numbers
must
two columns must therefore be
left
as they are, but the locain light figures,
tion of all the other
numbers, which are written
simple method for effecting this change consists in substituting for each number the complement between it and 17. Thus, the complement between 2 and 17 is 15, so 15 MMM* be written be changed.
in the place of 2,
and so on throughout.
All of the light figure
/z
Fig. 44.
Fig. 45..
numbers being thus changed, the square shown in Fig 42.
result will be the ponfatt
magic
***"
arrangement of figures may be attained by leaving the light figure numbers in their original positions as shown in Fig. 43, and changing the heavy figure numbers in the two corner diagonal columns to their respective complements with 17.
relative
It will
The same
be seen that this
is
only a reversal of the order of the figures
JS
JO
32
7
'7 2/ 22 20 /s
/2 26
29
33
36
J/
20
MAGIC SQUARES.
There are many other arrangements of sixteen numbers which
will fulfil the required conditions
but the examples given will
suffice
to illustrate the principles of this square.
The next even magic square many variations is shown in Fig.
is
that of 6
X 6,
and one of
its
46.
An
analysis of this square
2S
'7 2/ 22
/2 26
29
Fig. 48.
with the
to its
aid'
of geometrical diagrams will point the
way
not only
own
reconstruction but also to an easy
method
for building
6X6 squares
Fig. 47
shows a 6
6 square
in
which
all
the
numbers from
'9
Fig. 49.
to 36 are written in arithmetical sequence,
and the twelve numbers

in
in the
order,
two corner diagonal columns will be found all other numbers requiring rearrangement.
numbers
in the diagonal
magic square
Leaving there-
fore the
columns unchanged, the next step
will be to write in the places of the other numbers their complements
In this square with 37, making the square shown in Fig. 48. out of the total of twenty-four numbers (written in heavy figures)
MAGIC SQUARES.
thirty-six
21
numbers,
will
be found in magic square order, twelve
numbers (written
in light figures)
being
still
incorrectly located.
Finally, the respective positions of these twelve
numbers being
re-
versed in pairs, the magic square given in Fig. 46 will be produced.

Fig.
50 shows the geometrical diagrams of this square,

first
A
ir*
being a diagram of the

fifth lines,
and sixth
lines,
of the second and
and
of the third and fourth lines.
The
striking
regularity
of these
diagrams points to the imperfection- of the
square which they represent, in which, although the
sum
of each
xe
^c
of the two corner diagonal, the six horizontal, and the six perpendicular columns
in, yet only in the two diagonal columns does the sum of any two numbers which occupy/gcomctrioQJ-ljr oppooite aeUe,^
is
'âmount
to 37, or the to
sumof
the firstandTasTnumbers of the series.

irregularities,
Owing
their
pronounced
these diagrams convey
Fig. 50.
but
little
meaning, and in order to analyze their value for further
constructive
work
it
will be necessary to
go a step backwards and
make diagrams of the intermediate square Fig. 48. These diagrams are shown in Fig. 49, and the twelve numbers therein which must
be transposed (as already referred to) are marked by small circles
around
dots,
each pair of numbers to be transposed in position

line.
being connected by a dotted
The numbers
in the
two corner
diagonal columns which were permanently located from the be-
ginning are marked with small
circles.
We
have here correct geometrical figures with
definite
and well
defined irregularities.
The
series of geometrical figures

all
shown
6
in
r~~"^"
A, B, and
remain unchanged in shape for
variations of
X6
f^
squares, but by modifying the irregularities
we may
readily obtain
22
MAGIC SQUARES.
the data for building a large

all
number of
different
qtmres,
showing, however, the
A
of 6
series
same general characteristics as Fig. 46. of these diagrams, with some modifications of their
given in Fig. 51, and in order to build a variety
squares therefrom
it is
irregularities, is
X 6 magic
only necessary to select three
X X X X
/f
Fig. 51 (First Part).
diagrams
in the
order A, B, and C, which have each a different form
of irregularity,
and after numbering them
in arithmetical
sequence
from
to 36, as
shown
in Fig. 49,
copy the
numbers
in
diagrammatic
order into the

It
cells
of a 6
X6
square.
cells in the
must be remembered that the
corner diagonal
MAGIC SQUARES.
columns of
the
Wen
magic squares may be correctly
filled
by writing
numbers
in arithmetical order according to the rule previously
given, so in beginning any

to first write the
new even square
it
will
be found helpful
will then serve
numbers
in these columns,
and they
as guides in the further development of the square.
X X X X
2/
Fig. 51
(Second Part).
Taking
it
will
example the be seen from Fig. 49 that

for
I
6X6
it
magic square shown in Fig. 46, is constructed from the diagrams

Fig. 46
35,
marked
9 and 17
in Fig. 51.
with diagram A, Fig. 49,

in
34 unbroken order; then the diagram shows that 33 and 3 must be
Comparing the first IUK of the sequence of numbers is I,
MAGIC SQUARES.
transposed, so 3
is
written next (instead of 33) then 32 and 6 in

last Jine
-
unbroken order.
,
In the
**
of this square
31 comes
first,
then, seeing that 5

;
is
written instead of 5
is
then 4
(still using diagram and 2 must be transposed, then as 3 and 33 must be trans-
posed, 33
written instead of
3,
5 instead of 2,
and the &6T1?
finished with 36.
Diagram B gives the development of the second
TABLE SHOWING 128 CHANGES WHICH MAY BE RUNG ON THE TWENTY-FOUR DIAGRAMS IN FIG. 51.
A
i,
B
9
10
ii
17,
C \^
"
18,
2,
3 or 4
IQ or
" "
" "
" "
20=16 "
" "
"
"
12
5, 6,
"
7 or 8
13 14 15 16
21, 22, 23 or " " "
= 16 changes == 16 = 16 " 24= 16 = 16 = 128

=16
"
Total changes
EXAMPLES.
3S
28
J3
2S
20
/a
'7 /S
/3
30 26
J/
/Q
MAGIC SQUARES.
of presenting one of these squares ready
made and analyzing

of this
size.
it,
we
will
now
use the information which has been offered by previous
examples
in the construction of a
new square
Referring to Fig. 45, the regular geometrical diagrams of the
4X4
square naturally suggest that an expansion of the same
may
be utilized to construct an 8
8 square.
This expanded diagram
Fig. 52.
is
accordingly shown in Fig. 52, and in Fig. 53

is
we have
in
the magic
square that
order.
produced by copying the
numbers
diagrammatic
Fig. 53-
As might be
rfirtdrirtiV,
anticipated, this square

it
is
p effect
and the ease with which
has been constructed points
to the simplicity of the
method employed.
in Fig. 53
is,
The magic square shown
however, only one of a
26
multitude of 8
characteristics
MAGIC SQUARES.
8 squares,
all
of which have the same general

facility
and may be constructed with equal
from
X
><
Fig. 54-
X
XJ
ft
25-
X
J3
Fig. 55-
various nogulw diagrams that can be readily derived from transpositions of Fig. 52.
Five of these variations are illustrated in Fig.
MAGIC SQUARES.
54,
27
which also show the transpositions by which they are formed from the original diagrams. To construct a poafoot magic square from either of these variations it is only necessary to make four
copies of the one selected, annex the
numbers
to
64
in arithmetical
60
/o
62,
S3 SZ
/s
2' 20 22 42
-JJ
29
7
J/ 32
Totals
= 260.
zs 26
23 43
7
J'J-
49
Fig. 56.
order as before explained, and then copy the numbers in diagrammatic sequence into the
It will
cells
of an 8
X8
square.
be noted in the construction of the
4X4
and
8X8
ft,
60
28
MAGIC SQUARES.
7
JZ
20 22 JO
6-6
zf
32 J/
JJ
Totals
= 260.
26
26
/J /z
S<f
Fig. 58.
:x
Fig- 59-
ss
/o
/J S2
/s 49 42 '7
V
23 3S
JJ
JZ
Totals
= 260.
26 JO
ZA
46 /f
/A SO
60
Fig. 60.
MAGIC SQUARES.
shown
annexed examples. Fig. 55 illustrates two different forms from which the magic square Fig. 56 is constructed. Fig. 57
in the
shows three
different
forms which are used
in connection
with the
square in Fig. 58, and in a similar manner Figs. 59 and 60 show

four different diagrams and the square derived therefrom.
The
Fig. 61.
foregoing examples are sufficient to illustrate the immense number

of different
8X8
magic squares that may be constructed by the

to the
aid of various diagrams.
We
now come
magic square of 10
examples,
it
10,
and applying
be easy to ex-
the comparative method
to the last
will
MAGIC SQUARES.
pand the three diagrams of the
diagrams
that are
6X6
square (Fig. 49) into
five
required
for the
construction of a series of
99
o
8f>
96
92
ss '7 SJ
7*
77
66
Sff
26
2<f
7/
J-/
69
#6.
Totals
= 505.
E
2f>
36
29
7s
/S"
7 s 72
S? /a $9
a
Fig. 62.
/oo
10
10 squares.
These
five
diagrams are shown

is
in Fig. 61,
and
the
in Fig.
62
we have
the magic square which
made by copying
Fig. 63 (First part).
numbers from
10
to 100 in diagrammatic order into the cells of a
10 square.
It will
be unnecessary to proceed further with the construction
MAGIC SQUARES.
of other 10
10 squares, for the reader will recognize the striking
resemblance between the diagrams of the
6X6
and the 10
10
squares, especially in connection with their respective irregularities.
Fig. 63
(Second part).
'42
/Z
23
/S
J>
/o6
9S
62,
SO
*7
/6
77 7* 7
6s SS
7/
Totals
= 870
7Z 7* 7 s
7*
32.
S3
JZ
'Z
/J/
/33
7
Fig. 64
It will
also be seen that the
same methods which were used
for
32
varying the 6
MAGIC SQUARES.
X6
diagrams, are equally applicable to the 10
10
diagrams, so that an almost infinite variety of changes may be rung on them, from which a corresponding number of 10 X 10 squares may be derived, each of which will be different but will resemble
the series of 6
perfections.
X6
squares in their curious and characteristic im-
Fig. 65 (First Part).
lêven magic
d
it
is
worthy of
side ot at*
is
^^Mi^^
an even numberHtescpiare can be made P
U Ul
~ U.-.MJ
MAGIC SQUARES.
33
Fig. 65
(Second Part).
/35
/SO
/6s
/OO
/S
/
/a,
l_
2,3
7s 20
/6A Aff
'2L
'7*
/A'J
67
/si
At
st
40
Aff
/fS
ss /AS
66
//J
/zf
/*_
7*
//O
ft
ft
ss /OS
/t>2
32,
90
/OS
94.
/O/
*7
9S
X/3
#>
//a
/os~ /oA
/If
/It
7*
77
/A A
62,
r_
A6
6*
*/#
A0
2S '7
26
/Sf
7*
'?*
Z/
2.1,
'77
1 94
Fig. 66.
34
square in Fig. 64
is
MAGIC SQUARES.
is
derived.
that
The geometrical design

in Fig. 52 for the
of these
square,
diagrams and it is manifest that
the
same as
shown
8X8
all
the variations that were 12
made
in the
8X8
diagrams are also possible in the
12 diagrams, besides an
immense number of additional changes which are allowed by the

increased size of the square.
In Fig. 65
we have
a series of diagrams illustrating the de-
velopment of the 14
14 magic square shown in Fig. 66.
These
diagrams being plainly derived from the diagrams of the 6

10
X6
and
it is
10 squares, no explanation of them will be required, and
evident that the diagrammatic method

the construction of
It
all sizes
may
be readily applied to
of even magic squares.

illustrate
will
be nwLCTl that the foregoing diagrams
in
graphic manner the interesting results attained by the harmonious

association of figures,
infinite variety
and they also
clearly demonstrate the almost
of possible combinations.
MAGIC SQUARES.
3.
35
all
Construct another
4X4
square, having
numbers
in the
same positions
relatively to each other as in the last square,

all
but reversing the direction of
horizontal and perpendicular
columns (Fig. 69).

4.
Form
in
the
jgsf.
square Fig. 70 from Fig. 69 by substituting

for
piiiîic
lyy numbers
ft>&&-
numbers, and then add the numbers
Ui*e4*y^ye
shown
to similarly located
numbers
in the
primary
3bj
square Fig. 68.
The
result will be the perfect square of
4X4
in Fig. 72.
the 4np square Fig. 71 from the primary square 68 and adding the numbers therein to similarly located numbers Fig. in the primary square Fig. 69, the same magic square of 4 X 4 will be produced, but with all horizontal and perpendicular columns re-
By making
versed in direction as shown in Fig. 73.
NUMBERS
I
NUMRERS
2
3
4
8
12
MAGIC SQUARES.
The
cells
of two
6X6
squares
may
be respectively
filled
with
and Js&y numbers by analyzing the contents of each cell in Commencing at the left hand cell in the upper row, we
note that this
cell
contains
i.
In order to produce this number by

it
the addition of a
"O
iiic number to a -kw number

selected
is
evident that
and
must be
and written
into their respective cells.
The second number Jn the top row of Fig. 46 being 35, the kej^ number 30 must be written in the second cell of the 4*y square and the JMMJMT number 5 in the second cell of the pgimc square, and
on throughout Figs. 74 and 75.
all
the cells, the finished squares being
shown
in
-rv^t
Another ptioae square may now be derived from the k*y square Fig. 74 by writing into the various cells of the former the
MAGIC SQUARES.
to the similarly placed cell
37
numbers
in Fig. 75.
Having thus
its
in-
versely traced the development of the
magic square from
A and
primary and 4jeysquares,
it
will
be useful to note some of the general
characteristics of even primary squares,
which govern
their construction, as these rules will be
and also to study the rules found in-
structive in assisting the sfr*4gt to
work out an almost endless

square shown in Fig. 75,
variety of even magic squares of

I.
all
dimensions.
it
Referring to the 6
the numbers
X 6 A primary
will.be noted that the

I
two corner diagonal columns contain

order, starting respectively
to
m arithmetical
from the upper and lower left hand corner cells, and that the diagonal columns of the B primary square in Fig. 76 also contain the same numbers in arithmetical order but starting
MAGIC SQUARES.
4.
The sum
of every column in a 6
it
6 ke*F sqt ke/' square must be 90,
and under these conditions
follows that the

is
sum
of every
formed by the combination of a primary square with a k&f- square must be
column of a
6X6
magic square which
in (21+90=111).
5.
~ K><rtin
With the necessary changes

good
for all
sizes
numbers the above
rules hold
of
and
primary squares and
We
may now proceed
to
show how a
variety of 6
6 magic
in
squares can be produced by different combinations of numbers

/
MAGIC SQUARES.
Fig. 78
39
of these 6
shows the sequence of numbers in the diagonal columns X 6 A primary squares, and as this arrangement cannot
series, the
be changed in this
Fig. 77 must be
various horizontal columns or rows in
selected accordingly.
The
4.
small letters at the right

No.
5.
No.
i.
No.
2.
No.
b
3.
No.
No.
6.
f
c
d
e
a
Fig. 79-
of Fig. 78 indicate the different horizontal columns that

for the respective lines in the square
in Fig.
;
may
be used
thus either
a, b,
or c column or / for the
77
may
c,
be used for the
first
and sixth
lines, a, e,
second and
neither b,
fifth,
and
c,
d,
or e for the third and fourth lines, but

fifth lines,
or d can be used in the second or
and so
forth.
Six different combinations of columns are given in Fig, 79,
from which twelve different

structed.
6X6
I
Taking column No.
magic squares may be conas an example, Fig. 80 shows an
MAGIC SQUARES.
The above operation may be varied by reversing the horizontal columns of the key square Fig. 82 right and left as shown in Fig.
two
ancTthen forming the magic square given in Fig. 85. In this way different magic squares may be derived from each combination.
30 o
30
6
/z /z
/z
/s
/z
6
30
30
MAGIC SQUARES.
and eighth horizontal columns but cannot be employed for the second, third, sixth or seventh columns, and so
for the
first,
fourth, fifth,
forth.
Fig.
88 suggests half a dozen combinations which

/
will
form
42
MAGIC SQUARES.
adding these key numbers to the ^piiut^ numbers in Fig. 89 gives the popfc'ict magic square of 8 X 8 shown in Fig. 91. The latter will
be found identical with the square which
may
be written out directly
from diagrams
No.
i.
in Fig. 52.
No.
2.
No.
3.
No.
4.
No.
5.
No.
6.
MAGIC SQUARES.
43
63 61
/o
3'f
22
26~
39
2
3Z
33 3/ 60
24
2/
20
? 26 40 46 7
6-4
Totals
= 260.
60
64
Fig. 91.
44
Fig. 95
MAGIC SQUARES.
shows another
8X8 magic
square which
is
constructed
by combining the
square
in Fig.
primary square
in Fig.
89 with the
primary
changing the latter to a bey square in the manner before described? This magic ~square~~miay also be directly
constructed from diagram No. 4 in Fig. 54.
It
is
93 after
evident that an almost unlimited
number
of different
8X8
their application to the formation of other
magic squares may be made by the foregoing methods, and and larger squares is so
it
obvious that
will be unnecessary to present
any further examples.
COMPOUND MAGIC SQUARES.

these highly ingenious combinations
of.
Hermann
Schubert.
They may
be described as a series of small magic squares arin
ranged quadratically
magic square order.

is
The
9X9
square shown in Fig. 96
the smallest of this class
that can be constructed
and
it
consists of nine
i
3X3
sub-squares
arranged in the same order as the numerals
to 9 inclusive in the
3X3
square shown in Fig.
I.
The
first
sub-square occupies the
6?
4-f 6,7
SO
7*
26
2/
22
23
20
33
43
Totals
= 369.
3S
30 32 3V
3/
s-o
7* 7* '7
/o
77 7*
7*
/z
/3
/t
23 7*
Fig. 96.
middle section of the

contains the numbers
first
I
horizontal
row of sub-squares, and

I.
it
to 9 inclusive arranged in regular
magic
square order being a duplicate of Fig.
The second sub-square
MAGIC SQUARES.
is
45
located in the right

it
hand lower corner of the third horizontal row

contains the
of sub- squares and
numbers 10
to 18 inclusive ar-
ranged in magic square order, and so on to the last sub-square which occupies the middle section of the third horizontal row of
Sf if
23 -3V 22 32
44ft,
7*
7*
20 J/ '7
32
SS
SZ
JO
6s
Totals
= 369.
40
2t 33
7*-
7
7*
'
/S
3*
60 7'
S3 7*
Fig. 97-
/*&>
9*
9*
ft,
fv f7
"9
/23
fS 9* 9' SS
/2S /3
9-3
/2f S/S
33
6s 79 7*
7* 7
7'
97
Totals
42 43 3?
4S 77
63
60
62,
7*
fe /o?
/43
"7
/32 '7
3/
/*/
= 870.
30
23
S?
S? S3
/3f
3?
Z/
JZ,
Fig. 98.
numbers 73 to 8 1 inclusive. This peculiar arrangement of the numbers I to 81 inclusive forms a magic square in which the characteristics of the ordinary
sub-squares, and which contains the
46
MAGIC SQUARES.
square are multiplied to a remarkable extent, for whereas in
9X9
the latter square (Fig. 97) there are only twenty columns which
sum up to 369, in the compound square of 9 immense number of combination columns which
This
first
is
X9
there are an
yield this
amount.
evident from the fact that there are eight columns in the
1
sub-square which yield the number
also eight
columns
in
the middle sub-square which yield the
umns
15
in the last sub-square
which sum up
number 123 and eight colto the number 231 and
+
S3
123
+ 231 =369.
MAGIC SQUARES.
47
CONCENTRIC MAGIC SQUARES.

Beginning with a small central magic square it is possible to arrange one or more panels of numbers concentrically around it so that after the addition of each panel, the enlarged square will still
retain
magic
qualifications.
Either a
3X3
its
or
34X4
nucleus, and the square
will obviously
magic square may be used as a remain either odd or even,
according to
beginning, irrespective of the

it.
number of panels
center square will
which may be successively added to
The
/O
48
MAGIC SQUARES.
The
of 5
smallest concentric square that can be constructed
is
that
5,
an example of which
center square of 3
I,
is illustrated in
Fig. 99.
The
3 begins with 9 and continues, with
increments of
up
to 17, the center
with the general rule for a 5
number being 13 square made with
in
accordance
the series of
-Dtaaonal
Colu-rvnj
/X/ IRiiel
et.
JXJ
/O ft
Fig. 109.
Fig. 108.
'S<
6
/^>0
Fig
107.
Fig. 106.
MAGIC SQUARES.
other twelve numbers in the panels
relative positions of the nine
is
49
in Fig.
shown
101.
The
square
numbers
in the central
3X3
cannot be changed, but the entire square
may
be inverted or turned
one quarter, one

$
half, or three quarters
around, so as to vary the
Colu
X9
77
J7
2S
Fig. 113.
77
Fig.
in.
Fig. 112.
TOTALS
3X3 square 123, 5X5 square 205, 7X7 square 287, 9X9 square 369.
5O
MAGIC SQUARES.
square
is
3X3
right.
turned around one quarter of a revolution to the
Several variations
may
also be
made
in the location of the panel
numbers, an example being given
in Figs. 103, 104,
and
105.
Many
ûttttet-f in/
Column
/
6x6
o
&X
<2
tS^ftar-e.,
>
119.
Fig. 118.
2S
//
10
23
3/2,
Fig. 117.
J2
jr
<3<f
Fig. 120.
Totals of 4 Totals of 6
X4 X6
= 74. square = in.

square
other changes in the relative positions of the panel numbers are

selfevident.
One
is
of
many
variations of the 7
7 concentric magic square
shown
in Fig.
no.
The
3X3
central square in this

in order to
example
is
started with 21
and finished with 29
comply with the
MAGIC SQUARES.
general rule that 25 must occupy the center
that includes the series of
cell in
51
a 7
7 square
for the
numbers
to 49.
The numbers
two corner diagonal columns are indicated in their proper order by small circles in Fig. 106, and the arrangement of the panel numbers
is
given in Figs. 107, 108, and 109.

IN
J)taoonitc Columnsi/ristnferj ir
As
a final example of an
6x6 F i ane
'
^JJ-
JJ
X
'8
Fig. 123.
Fig. 122.
MAGIC SQUARES.
indefinitely
and used for the construction of larger odd magic

is
squares of this class.
The
smallest even concentric magic square
that of 6
X 6,
of
Fig. 125.
Fig. 129.
Totals of 4 Totals of 6
Totals of
X4 X6 8 X 8
= 130. square = 195. square = 260.

square
which Fig. 120
is
an example.
The development
of this square
may The
be traced in the diagrams given in Figs. 117, 118, and 119.

center square of 4
X4
is
perfect, but after the panel is
added
MAGIC SQUARES.
the enlarged square
122,
123,
\
53
Figs. 121,
as already noted.
and 124
illustrate
another example of this square with
diagrams of development.
&
QlOO
6*6
0*2
wo
10
9S
82.
Fig. 134.
26
4>Z
Fig. 13368
SS
Fig. 132.
/J
/o
6
Fig. 130.
Fig. 131.
SO 22 23 77 7* 26 9 *? 62
2S
6/ 7*
TOTALS
93 7* 6s 43 29 40
I
4X4 6X6 8X8

10
10
= 202 square = 303 square = 404 square = 505

square
7'
SO S2
/6
6* 39
7 fs 6s 7
7* 20
96
*
9Z
Fig. 135.
2* fz
/s
concentric square of 8
125, 126, 127,
132, 133, 134,
X 8 with diagrams are given in Figs. and 129, and one of 10 X 10 in Figs. 130, 131, 128, and 135. It will be seen that all these larger squares
54
MAGIC SQUARES.
in a
have been developed
very easy manner from successive expan-
sions of the diagrams used for the
6X6
square in Figs. 117, 118,
and
119.
The
rule's
governing the formation of concentric magic squares

difficult,
have been hitherto considered somewhat
diagrams, their construction in great variety
but by the aid of and of any size has
been reduced to an operation of extreme simplicity, involving only the necessary patience to construct the diagrams and copy the numbers.
GENERAL NOTES ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF MAGIC SQUARES.

There are two variables that govern the summation of magic squares formed of numbers that follow each other with equal increments throughout the
1.
series, viz.
The
Initial,
or starting number.
increasing number.
2.
The Increment, or
these
When
easily
two variables are known, the summations can be determined, or when either of these variables and the suminteresting problem in this connection
mation are known, the other variable can be readily derived.
The most
will therefore
is
the constructhis
is
tion of squares with predetermined summations, and
subject
familiar
be
first
considered, assuming that the reader
with the usual methods of building odd and even squares.
If a square of 3
is
constructed in the usual manner, that
is,
beginning with unity and proceeding with regular increments of I, the total of each column will be 15.
MAGIC SQUARES.
55
MAGIC SQUARES.
--
i) in the
above equation, and a table of these constants

all
is
therefore appended for
squares from
3X3toi2Xi2.
Const.
Squares
=K
3X3 4X4 5X5 6X6 7X7 8X8 9X9

10
11
12
30
60
105
168
252
360
495
12
X X X
10
ii
660 858
12
When
using the above constants the equation will be
EXAMPLES.
What
I
initial
number
is
required for the square of 3
3,
with
as the increment, to produce 1903 as the
summation?
Transposing the
last
equation
S
or
(i
0K =A,
12)
MAGIC SQUARES.
57
47? t
Totals
1903.
Fig. 140.
Also to a square of 5
T
5,
93
( i
X 60) = 368
J 6e. 6
= Initial
No.
3*7.6 AS?. 6
Totals
1903.
377.6
3S6.6
370.6
363.6 376.6
Fig.
141.
And
for a square of
6X6.
105)
1903- (IX
=
30/
= Initia
333
305-^
322 r 32/
3/3
Totals
JATf
= 1903-
302. f
Fig. 142.
The preceding examples

built
illustrate the construction of

i,
squares
up with progressive increments of
but the operation
may
be
varied by using increments that are greater or less than unity.
EXAMPLES.
What
initial
3,
number must be used

to
in a square of 3
3,
with
increments of
produce a summation of 1903?
MAGIC SQUARES.
Applying the equation given on page
instead of
i,
56,
but making
ft
we have:
622 1 / 3
is
therefore the
initial
number and by using

3,
this in a
3X3
square with progressive increments of
the desired results
are obtained.
Totals
1903.
Fig. 143.
To
find the initial
number with increments of
10.
Totals
1903.
Fig.
144.
Or
to find the initial
number with increments

12)
of
/8
'903
-(VsX
_ 6 ^ _ Inidal
63ST
NQ
633
Totals
1903,
Fig. 145-
These examples being sufficient to illustrate the rule, we will pass on another step and show how to build squares with predeter-
mined summations, using any desired

increment.
initial
numbers, with a proper
MAGIC SQUARES.
59
EXAMPLES.
What
wherein
I
increment number must be used in a square of

is
3X3,
the initial
number and 1903
the desired
summation?
Referring to equation
on page 56 and transposing, we have
A K
3)
12
ft
= increment,
or
-dX
= IS8 Y, = In crem ent.

,
Starting therefore with unity and building up the square with

successive increments of i58 1 / 3
we
obtain the desired result.
Totals
1903.
Fig.
146.
When
Thus
if
it
is
desired to start with any
number
larger or smaller
than unity, the numbers in the equation can be modified accordingly.
is
selected as an initial
number, the equation

:
will be
1903
(4
12
3)
57 Vie
Increment.
Totals
1903.
Fig.
147-
With an
initial
number of 1 / 3
1903
(Va X_3l
I5 gi^
ncrem ent.
792,
Totals
1903.
Fig.
148.
6o
It is
MAGIC SQUARES.
thus demonstrated that any
initial
is
number may be used

than one-third of the
less
providing (in a square of 3
summation.
In a square of 4
X 3) X4
case,
it
less
it
must be
than one-fourth
of the summation, and so on.
To
number
illustrate
an extreme
3 square and
we
will select
in a 3
find the increment
634 as an which will
initial
result
in a summation of 1903.
1903
-(634x3)
12
= lf = Increment
T
Totals
1903.
Fig. 149.
the formation of magic squares with summations by the use of proper initial numbers predetermined and increments, it only remains to show that the summation of any
Having now considered
square
may
be found,
when
the initial
number and
the increment
56, viz.
:
are given, by the application of the equation
shown on page
EXAMPLES.
Find the summation of a square of 3
number, and 7 as the increment.
(5
3 using 5 as the initial
3)
(7
12)
= 99 = Summation.
Totals
r*
= 99.
MAGIC SQUARES.
61
62
MAGIC SQUARES.
What
12
is
increment must be used
in
a square of 3
3 wherein
the initial
number and
12
12
12 the required
summation?
(12X3)
= Increment.
-/6
MAGIC SQUARES.
great variety of irregular sequences and
squares.
still
63
produce pe^fet magic
Referring to Fig. 40 as an example,

squares
many
different
5X5
may
be formed by varying the sequence of the five groups,
and also by changing the arrangement of the numbers in each group. Instead of writing the five diagonal columns in Fig. 40 with
the
numbers
to 25 in arithmetical order thus:

a.
b.
C.
i
6
II
7
12
8
13
9
14 19
10
15
d.
e.
16
17
18
20
25
d,
21
22
23
24
they
the
may
be arranged in the order b e c a square shown

in Fig. 17.
which
will develop
5X5
Other variations may be made by re-arranging the consecutive
numbers
in
each group, as for example thus:

a.
b.
c.
4
.9
6
ii
8
13
7
12
10
15
14
19
d.
e.
16
21
18
17
20
25
24
23
22
The foregoing may be considered

ways
of grouping
in
as only suggestive of
many
produced
numbers by which poi'foct magic squares may be great variety, which however will be generally found
numbers arranged
in similar
to follow the regular constructive rules heretofore given, providing
that these rules are applied to series of
consecutive order.
f en
MAGIC CUBES.
rTA
-*-
HE
may
curious and interesting characteristics of magic squares
be developed in figures of three dimensions constituting
magic Cubes of odd numbers may be constructed by tinuous process, and cubes of even numbers may be
aid of geometrical diagrams.
cubes.
direct
built
and con-
up by the
In each case the constructive meth-
ods resemble those which were previously explained in connection

with odd and even magic squares.
magic cubes, odd or even, aa^fhat all whether running from the top ofl^rcube to the bottom, frorrTtke front to the back, or from opi*îde to the other,
characteristics of
,
amount, alsotj^rfthe four diagonal columns which unite the eigh^prners^^ffne cube and tho two corner
to
should
sum up
mName
the enbc should
sum up
to the
same amount as the stra^mcolumi^ Furthermore, in magic cubes the sun^âny two numbeN^hat are located
to each other
all
odd
in cells
and equicu^nt from the center diametrically ophite of the cuhidmould equal the sum of the first and lasNûmbers of the sen^îsed, and the center cell must contain the middlermmber of
ie
series.
OBD MAGTC CUBES. Of OPD N C/M_6J^5

The
smallest magic cube
tliis
is
naturally
cu.Dcil).lc
3X3X3.
of
lllan^*
seven numbers in
culjc iirc
different
MAGIC CUBES.
Fig. 157
III,
shows one of these cubes, and
in
columns
I,
II
and
it
Fig. 158, there are given the nine different squares which
contains.
In this cube there are twenty-seven straight columns,
two diagonal columns in each of the three middle squares, and four diagonal columns connecting the eight corners of the cube, making The in all thirty-seven columns each of which sums up to 42.
-4- i
center
number
is
also 14 or
is
and the sum of any pair of gee-
in metrically
opposite numbers
28 or n 3
i.
JL-
of Hit
Fig.
157-
In describing the direct method of building odd magic squares, many forms of regular advance moves were explained, including
right
and
left
It
diagonal sequence, and various so-called "knight's

also
moves."
was
shown
that the order of regular advance
was
periodically broken by other well defined spacings which were termed "breakmoves." In building odd magic squares, only one form of breakmove was employed in each square, but in the con-
odd magic cubes, two kinds are required in each cube which for distinction may be termed n and n 2 breakmoves respecIn magic cubes which commence with unity and proceed tively.
struction of
with increments of
tiple
i,
the n 2 breakmoves occur between each mul-
of n 2 and the next following number, which in a 3
X3X
cube brings them between 9 and

the
ficst
10, 18 and 19, and also between
and
last
numbers of the
series,
27 and
i.
The n breakmoves
66
are
MAGIC CUBES.
made between
and 24 and
all
other multiples of
7,
n,
which
in the
above case
16,
brings them between 3 and 4, 6 and

22, 25.
12
and
13, 15
and
21 and
With
this explanation the rules for building

i
the magic cube
shown
in Fig.
may now
be formulated, and for

is
convenience of observation and construction, the cube
divided
horizontally into three sections or layers, each section being
shown
separately in
It
Column
i,
Fig. 158.
is
may
be mentioned that when a move

the top square
it is
to be continued up-
ward from
carried around to the bottom square,
THREE SQUARES FROM TOP TO BOTTOM COLUMN I.

-
THREE SQUARES FROM FRONT TO BACK COLUMN II.
THREE SQUARES FROM LEFT TO RIGHT COLUMN III.
/o
MAGIC CUBES.
n breakmove.
67
One
//-
breakmove.
downward right-hand diagonal in next square down (from last entry). Same cell in next square down (from last
cell
in
entry).
If
it is
desired to build this cube from the three vertical squares

to
from front
back of Fig. 157, as shown
in
Column
II,
Fig. 158,
I
the directions will then be as follows: commencing with
in the
middle
cell
of the upper
row of numbers
cell
in the
middle square,
Advance move.
11
breakmove.
One One cell
up
in
next square up.

in
in
downward right-hand diagonal
next square up.

;r
breakmove.
tt^tr<
TABLE
I.
68 n 2 breakmove.
Five variations
MAGIC CUBES.
One
cell
down
in
same square (as
last entry).
may
I
be derived from this cube in the simple
way
illustrated in
Table
on the preceding page.

27 inclusive in Fig. 159, and change the
i
Assign three-figure values to the numbers

terms of
i,
to
2,
3 as given in Table
I,
numbers
in the three squares in
Column
I,
Fig. 158, to their cor-
responding three-figure values, thus producing the square shown in

Fig. 160.
It is
evident that
if
the arrangement of
numbers
in the
Column I were unknown, they could be readily from Fig. 160 by the translation of the three-figure values produced into regular numbers in accordance with Table I, but more than
three squares in
Mt'Jtllt,
MAGIC CUBES.
The combination
are
of
i, 2,
3 being given in
normal order
in the
original cube, the five cubes formed from the other combinations
shown
in Figs. 161-165.
These magic cubes may also be constructed by the direct method

in
accordance with the annexed directions.
MAGIC CUBES.
The
analysis of the
numbers
in Fig. 157
2, 3,
and Fig. 166

in Figs.
into their
three-figure values in terms of

167,
i,
as
shown
160 and
makes
clear the curious mathematical order of their arrangeis
ment which
not apparent on the face of the regular numbers as

FIG. 157
DIRECTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING THE 3X3X3 MAGIC CUBE SHOWN IN AND FIVE VARIATIONS OF THE SAME.
COMBINATION
MAGIC CUBES.
column there
is
the
same
triple
repetition.
Furthermore,
to 42,
if
all
the
diagonal columns in the cubes which

their analyses in Figs. 160
lar
sum up
followed into
and 167
will also
be found to carry simi-
repetitions.
brief study of these figures will also disclose
other curious mathematical qualities pertaining to their intrinsic
symmetrical arrangement.
The next odd magic cube

shows one of
its
in order is 5
5,
and Fig. 168

it
many
possible variations.
For convenience,
is
divided into five horizontal sections or layers, forming five
5X5
squares from the top to the bottom of the cube.
Commencing with
A
in the first cell of the
middle horizontal
MAGIC CUBES.
50 straight columns summing up to 315 10 corner diagonal columns summing up to. 315 40 sub-diagonal columns summing up to.... 315 Total loo columns having the same summation.
.
FIG. 166
COMBINATIONS
MAGIC CUBES.
315 50 straight columns summing up to 6 corner diagonal columns summing up to 315 20 sub-diagonal columns summing up to.... 315 Total 76 columns having the same summation.
. .
73
In the five vertical squares from right to

as in the last case, 76 columns which
all
left
of cube, there are,
sum up
to 315.
In the com-
plete cube there are also^four^diagonalj

rjjrht
immrr"Yrrnt-"'Tim up tn
~y
67
74
Select the
belozv
it
MAGIC CUBES.
fey-number which
is
nearest to the cell-number, but
in value.
Then
write
in
down
is
i.
The
section
>*<-**
T
number
which the key-number

__
found.
2.
3.
The primc-number over the -ke^c-number, The difference between the ke^t-number and
will thus
the cell-number.
Three figures
be determined which will represent the
required three-figure value of the cell-number.
Examples.
below
in value
The
first
is
number
in the first
row of
the upper
square in Fig. 168

it
67.
The
is
65
in section 3
nearest kgy-number to this and under the p*we number 4 and the
II.
TABLE
Sectio
/O
/s
20
4-0
SO
60
6s
90
7*
te
//O
Fig.
169.
difference between the fccy
number and the cell-number

is
is 2.
The
three-number value of 67
therefore
3. 4.
2.
Again, the fourth

it
number
in value
in the
is 5
same row
I
is 10.
The
nearest _hpy-number but below

jîiin,
in section
under the
number
2,
and the
differ-
ence between the feey-number and the cell-number

'/ .Xligure value of 10
is
is 5.
The
three-
therefore
all
i. 2.
5.
By
these simple operations
the three-figure values of
the cell-numbers in the
5X5X5
may be quickly determined, and by the system of transposition previously explained, five variations of this cube may
cube in Fig. 168
be constructed.
MAGIC CUBES.
75
The
shorter
method of building these
5X5X5
cubes by the
direct process of filling the different cells in regular order with
consecutive numbers may, however, be considered by some to be

preferable to the
more roundabout way.
(See directions
in
the
following table.)
FIG. 168
COMBINATIONS
76
MAGIC CUBES.
in the center cell of the
middle number of the series (63) appearing

cube according to rule. Odd magic cubes
may
be commenced in various
cells
other
than those shown in the preceding pages, and they
may
be built
up with an almost infinite number of variations. It would, however, be only superfluous and tiresome to amplify the subject further, as the examples already submitted cover aiLthe important points of
construction, and
may
readily be applied to further extensions.
<$/
/OS
zo 96
/9 /oo
so
"7
7*
7'
TOP SQUARE.
2.
30
J-J
62,
'7
//*
6/
7 Sf
BOTTOM SQUARE.
JJ
7*
S/3
77
s/z /a/
60
so J/
/oi
/J
T 7
26
JO
66 21
/os $6 /z 33
Fig. 170.
odd magic cubes larger than may be constructed by the directions which govern the formation of 3 X 3 X 3 and 5 X 5 X 5 cubes
Any
sizes of
5X5X5
MAGIC CUBES.Of
Magic cubes of even numbers may be
built
by the aid of geo-
metric diagrams, similar to those illustrated in the preceding chapter,
which describes the construction of even magic squares.
MAGIC CUBES.
Fig. 171
77
shows one of the many possible arrangements of a

is
4X4X4
viz.,
cube, the diagram of which
given in Fig. 172.
There are fifty-two columns in this cube which sum up to 130, sixteen vertical columns from the top of the cube to the
FIG. 170
DIRECTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING THE 5X5X5 MAGIC CUBE SHOWN IN AND FIVEATARIATIONS OF THE SAME.
COMBINATIONS
MAGIC CUBES.
numbers, which are diametrically opposite to each other and equidistant from the center of the cube also equals 65 or n* i.
Another feature of
this
cube
is
that the
sum
of the four
num-
bers in each of the forty-eight sub-squares of 2

It
is
130.
has been shown in the chapter on "Magic Squares" that the
(Top.)
Section
I.
Section II
J2
Section III.
23
20 4-6
'7
Section IV.
sz
(Bottom.)
6/
Fig. 171.
Totals
130.
square of 4
X4
could be formed by writing the numbers
to 16
in arithmetical order, then leaving the
numbers
the other
in the
two corner
to their
diagonals unchanged, but changing

2 complements with 17 or n
all
numbers
-\- I.
It will
be noted in the magic cube

first
of
4X4X4,
given in Fig. 171, that in the
and
last
of the
MAGIC CUBES.
four sections (I and IV) this rule also holds good.
79
In the two
in the
all
middle sections (II and III) the rule
is
reversed
the
numbers
-(- I,
two corner diagonals being complements with 65 or n 3 the other numbers in arithmetical order.
Fig. 173
and
numbers
to
shows four squares or sections of a cube, with the 64 written in arithmetical order. Those numbers
Fig.
171
that occupy corresponding cells in

circles.
are enclosed within
numbers in Fig. 173 are changed to their complements with 65, the total arrangement of numbers will then be the same as in Fig. 171. In his interesting and instructive chapter entitled "Reflections
If all the other
on Magic Squares"* Dr. Paul Carus gives a novel and ingenious analysis of even squares in different "orders" of numbering, these orders being termed respectively o, ro, i and ri. It is shown that
the
two magic squares of 4
X4
(in the chapter referred to) con-
'7
8o
174
is
MAGIC CUBES.
a 4
X 4X 4
line,
cube which
is
constructed by writing the four
numbers
that are contained in the
2X2
sub-squares (Fig. 171) in
a straight
and there are many other possible transpositions

relative order of the
which
will
change the
numbers, without de-
stroying the magic characteristics of the cube.
Section
I.
6Z
(Top.}
/.s
Section
II.
30
Jf 2S J/ J3
JZ
Section III.
;*
MAGIC CUBES.
81
in order.
The
shows
8X8X8
first
this
Fig. 176 cube divided, for convenience, into eight horizontal layers
magic cube follows next
or sections, and Fig. 177 gives the diagrammatic order of the

bers in the
built
num-
and eighth
sections, the intermediate sections being

in arithmetical order.
from similar diagrams, numbered
82
MAGIC CUBES.
An
cube
sections
examination of Fig. 176 will show that,

it is
like the
4X4X4
In
in Fig. 171
I,
built
up
of o and ro numbers exclusively.

cells in the
IV, V, and VIII, the
corner diagonal columns,

in definite geometrical
all
and
in certain other cells
which are placed

numbers, while
relations thereto, contain o
the other cells con-
as/
zs-o 2.6*.
/2V
//f
tzt
166
2^0 27*
2f/
2.42
396 3V?
/o6
S00
233 226
97
Z9J Z/J 2/g 296
#6
33
2/3
JO 6
302 306 209

204.
ft
fi
20S
7* 7*
63
6f
7*
J/7 /3S '3# 32O

Section V.
Section VII.
\
322 323
326 327 /Sf

3Z2 J33
'7 f
JT6
6*
#62,
J23
'7
463
7'
/ o
/6f
4/3
S
~7
3/ 2?
37 6
30
26
36/
36*
/6
/z S03
S-oZ
J3&
/33
JfS.
47Z
Section VI.
Section VIII.
(Second Part.)
Fig.
176.
tain ro
numbers.
In sections
II,
III,
VI, and VII, the relative
positions of the o and ro numbers are reversed.
By
numbers
noting the symmetrical disposition of these two orders of

in the
different sections, the
cube
may
be readily conFig.
structed without the aid of any geometrical diagrams.
178
shows sections
and
II of Fig.
176
filled
with o and ro symbols
MAGIC CUBES.
without regard to numerical values, and the relative symmetrical
arrangement of the two orders
is
therein plainly illustrated.
This
Fig.
177.
"o" numbers.
~V'ro" numbers.
O O o
o
clear
oo oo
oo oo
and
oo
oo oo 00
oo oo
00 oo
o o o o
Fig. 178.
o o o o
oo
oo oo
oo
00 oo
oo oo
oo
00 oo
o o o o
00
lucid analysis, for
which we are indebted to Dr. Carus,
reduces the formation of a rather complicated numerical structure

to an operation of the utmost simplicity.
84
MAGIC CUBES.
In this cube there are 192 straight columns, and 4 diagonals columns (which unite the eight corners of the cube) each of which sums up to 2052 also 384 half columns and the same number of
;
2X2
sub-squares each of which has the summation of 1026.
It
will also be seen that the
sum
of any
two numbers, whieh are
lo-
cated in cells diametrically opposite to each other and equidistant

x from the center of the cube, is 513 or n* As the writer lias been unable to construct the
-
6X6X0 magic
X
10
cube no attempt
will-
be made in this book to produce-a-LCLX 10
or any larger cube of this peculiar class.
The
12
12
12 cube
and
all
larger ones that are formed with multiples of 4 will naturally
resemble the
8X8X8
cube and will be equally easy to construct.
GENERAL NOTES ON MAGIC CUBES.

Magic cubes may be constructed having any desired summations by using suitable initial numbers with given increments, or
by applying proper increment^to given
* *
*
initial
numbers.
The formula
is
for determining the summations of

in connection
magic cubes
similar to that
which was given
with magic squares
and may be expressed as follows:

Let:
A = initial
fi
number,
then
if
= increment, n = number of cells in each column of cube, S = summation A = and = i:

;
J3
If
and
f$
are
more or
less
than unity, the following general
formula
may
be employed:
An + p^
To
(n
i)
=S.
i)
shorten the above equation,
- (n 5
may
be expressed
as a constant
(K)
for each size of cube as follows:
MAGIC CUBES.
Cubes.
Const.
= K.
3X3X3 4X4X4
5X5X5--:
39
126
3io
!.
6X6X6 7X7X7 8X8X8 9X9X9

10
645
H97
2044
3 2 76
10
10
4995
When
(i)
using the above constants the equation will be
Aw + /?K
S
= S,
An
(2)
(3)
EXAMPLES.
What
with an
increment number
is
required for the cube of 3
X3X
initial
number
of 10 to produce summations of 108?

in figure values:
Expressing equation (2)

108
(IQX3)
Jo 20
/o
1
4-2
a*
86
MAGIC CUBES.
SO
MAGIC CUBES.
ment of numbers and
in various
minor
features, while retaining the
common
characteristic of having similar

is
column
values.
An
ex-
ample of this differentiation
seen in the interesting "Jaina" square
w/.z
88
MAGIC CUBES.
Another
class
is
illustrated
in
the "Franklin
Squares," and
these can also be expanded into cubes constructed on the same
general principles.
The
subject of magic squares and cubes

indefinitely extended.
is
indeed inexhaustible
and may be
The
philosophical significance
of these studies has been so ably set forth by Dr. Carus that the
writer considers
it
unnecessary to add anything in this connection,
but he trusts that the present endeavor to popularize these interesting problems
may some
time lead to useful results.
CHAPTER
TIL
THE FRANKLIN SQUARES.

following letter with magic squares of 8
is
X8
and 16
16
copied from "Letters and papers on Philosophical subjects

S.,"
by Benjamin Franklin, LL. D., F. R.

in
a work which was printed
London, England,
in 1769.
FROM BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
ESQ. OF PHILADELPHIA,
To
DEAR
SIR:
PETER COLLINSON ESQ. AT LONDON.
According to your request I now send you the arithmetical curiosity of which this is the history.
Being one day
in the country at the
house of our
common
French
friend, the late learned
Mr. Logan, he showed me a

if I
folio
book
filled
with magic squares, wrote,
forget not by one Mr.
which he said the author had discovered great ingenuity and dexterity in the management of numbers; and though several
Frenicle, in
other foreigners had distinguished themselves in the same way, he

did not recollect that any one Englishman had done anything of the
kind remarkable.
I said it
was perhaps a mark of the good sense of our mathe-
maticians that they would not spend their time in things that were
He merely difficiles nugce, incapable of any useful application. answered that many of the arithmetical or mathematical questions
publicly
proposed in England were equally trifling and useless. Perhaps the considering and answering such questions, I replied, may not be altogether useless if it produces by practice an habitual

readiness and exactness in mathematical disquisitions, which readi-
ness may, on
says he,
fessed to
many
the
that in
occasions be of real use.
In the same
I
way
may
him
I still
making
of these squares be of use.
then conleisure
I
my
(which
think
in
younger days, having once some might have employed more usefully)
squares,
fill
had
amused myself
making these kind of magic

at
size
it,
and, at
length had acquired such a knack
that I could
the cells of
any magic square of reasonable

fast as I could write
with a series of numbers as such a manner that the sums

or
diagonal,
I
them,
disposed in
of
every
;
row,
horizontal,
perpendicular
should be
equal
but not being satisfied with these, which
looked on as com-
20
S'J
7'
Fig.
183.
mon and
easy things,
in
had imposed on myself more
difficult tasks,
and succeeded
properties,
in the
making other magic squares with a variety of
and much more curious.
He
then showed
me
;
several
same book of an uncommon and more curious kind
but as
I thought none of them equal to some I remembered to have made, he desired me to let him see them; and accordingly the next time
I visited
him,
carried
him a square of 8 which

I will
found among
my
its
old papers,
and which
now
give you with an account of
properties (see Fig. 183).

1.
The
properties are:
That every straight row (horizontal or vertical) of 8 numbers added together, makes 260, and half of each row, half of 260.
2.
That the bent row of 8 numbers ascending and descending

diagonally, viz.,
91
from 16 ascending
its
17 and every one of

etc.
parallel
and from 23 descending to bent rows of 8 numbers make 260, etc.,

to 10
And
lastly the four corner
numbers with the four middle numbers
24 2 '6
2S3 ZAO
4V
S3
/SJ
66
1*0
#7 /$$
676
ot
2,3
/*>
Z&4 2/4
&/Z 266
^J 2/2
Wt /$S
206
2*9
ZS S3
fi
2*6 ZfS
&*
3*? 228 />3
223
Fig. 184.
/2
//s
',1
to
X
XiA
Fig. 185.
make
at
260.
So
this
magical square seems perfect in
its
kind, but
these are not
all its
properties, there are 5 other curious ones which

'
some time
will explain to you.
Mr. Logan then showed me an old arithmetical book
in quarto,
92
wrote,
I

think by one Stifelius, which contained a square of
16
which he said he should imagine to be a work of great labour; but if I forget not, it had only the common properties of making the
same sum, viz., 2056 in every row, horizontal, vertical and diagonal. Not willing to be outdone by Mr. Stifelius, even in the size of my went home, and made that evening the following magical square of 16 (see Fig. 184) which besides having all the properties of the foregoing square of 8, i. e., it would make 2056 in all the
square, I
same rows and diagonals, had

just 16 of the
little
this added, that
a four-square hole
being cut in a piece of paper of such a size as to take in and
show
through
it
squares,
when
laid
on the greater
Fig.
186.
square, the
sum
of the 16 numbers so appearing through the hole,

likewise
after
wherever
'2056.
it
was placed on the greater square should

I sent to
make
some
This
it
our friend the next morning,

letter
who
days sent
back in a
with these words:
"I return to thee thy astonishing
"or most stupendous piece "of the magical square in which" ....
but the compliment

as well as
for I
is
too extravagant and therefore, for his sake,
Nor is it necessary, I ought not to repeat it. no question but you will readily allow the square of 16 make
my own

to be the
93
most magically magical of any magic square ever made

I
by any magician.
am
etc.
B. F.
in Figs. 183
It willjbe
seen that the squares
shown
and 184 are
not perfect according to the rules
^@
magic squares previously
Fig.
187.
given, but the interesting feature of their bent diagonal columns

calls for
more than passing
notice.
In order to
is
facilitate the
study
of their construction, a 4
X4
square
given in Fig. 185 which
presents similar characteristics.
94

The
dotted lines in this square indicate four bent diagonal col;
total of 34 three of these columns being and one being broken. Four bent diagonal columns may be formed from each of the four sides of the square, but only twelve of these sixteen columns have the proper totals.
umns, each of which has a

intact within the square
Adding
to these the eight straight columns,
we
find that this square
contains twenty columns with summations of 34.
The
4X4 "Jaina"
square contains sixteen columns which ordinary
sum up
to 34 while the
The
4X4 magic square contains only 8X8 Franklin square (Fig. 183)
contains
forty-eight
columns which sum up
to 260, viz., eight horizontal, eight perpen-
dicular, sixteen bent horizontal diagonals,
and sixteen bent perpenS9
60
Section
i.
/Z Z/
7 S6
Section
2.
43 42
(Top.)
2$
6z

sub-square
little is
95
514,
and there are also other curious features which a
study will disclose.
J '*
.SecK**
Fig. 189.
The Franklin Squares possess a unique and

in the
peculiar
symmetry
in their
arrangement of their
numbers which
is
is
not clearly observable
on
their faces, but
which
brought out very strikingly
90
geometrical diagrams as given in Figs. 186 and 187, which illustrate respectively the diagrams of the 4 4 and squares.
8X8
be readily constructed by expanding these diagrams and writing in the appropriate numbers. The cube of 4 4 4 an d its diagram are given as examples in Figs. 188 and 189, and it will be observed that the curious char-
Magic cubes
may
X X
acteristics of the square are carried into the cube.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE FRANKLIN SQUARES.

In The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin, by James Parton, (Vol. I, pp. 255-257), there is an account of two magic squares, one
8X8,
the other 16
16,
which are given here
in Figs. 191
and
192.
= 260
II
130 130
260
= 260
130
260
Hh
= 260
=260 PROPERTIES OF FRANKLIN^S

Fig.
IQO.
= 260
=260
8X8
SQUARE.
Mr. Parton explains the
8X8
square as follows:
its
"This square, as explained by

"properties: every straight
contriver, contains astonishing
row
(horizontal or vertical) added to-

52
97
= 1028
2056
=F
= 2056
= 2056
= 2056
= 2056
L -H
2056
=1028
PROPERTIES OF FRANKLIN^S
Fig.
IQ3-
=2056
128
l6Xl6 SQUARE.

"gather makes 260, ana each half row half 260.
99
The bent row

viz.,
of
"eight numbers ascending and descending diagonally,
from 16
"ascending to 10,
"its parallel
and from 23 descending to 17, and every one of bent rows of eight numbers, makes 260. Also, the bent
2056
2056-4-128
~-jo-.fi
j n
= 2056
PROPERTIES OF FRANKLIN^S
Fig- 193 (con.)-
r= 20J-6
l6Xl6 SQUARE.
"row from 52 descending

"every one of
"Also, the bent
its
to 54, and from 43 ascending to 45, and bent rows of eight numbers, makes 260. parallel
row from 45
to 43, descending to the
left,
and from
IOO

17,
"23 to
descending to the right, and every one of
its
parallel bent
"rows of eight numbers, makes 260. Also, the bent row from 52 "to 54, descending to the right, and from 10 to 16, descending to
"the
left,
and every one of
its
parallel bent
rows of eight numbers,
"makes 260.
Also, the parallel bent rows next to the above-men-
tioned, which are shortened to three numbers ascending and three
from 53 to 4 ascending and from 29 to 44 "descending, make, with the two corner numbers, 260. Also, the two "numbers, 14, 61, ascending, and 36, 19, descending, with the lower
"descending,
etc.,
as
"four numbers situated like them,

"ascending, makes 260.
viz., 50, i,
descending, and 32, 47,
And,
lastly,
the four corner numbers, with
"the four middle numbers,
make
all
260.
"But even these are not

"square.
Its contriver
the properties of this marvelous

it
declared that
;
has
'five
other curious ones,'
"discover
"which he does not explain if he can."
but which the ingenious reader
may
These remarkable
characteristics
which Mr. Parton enumerates
are illustrated graphically in the accompanying diagrams in which the

relative position of the cells containing the
numbers which make up
the
number
260,
is
indicated by the relation of the small hollow
squares (Fig. 190).

Franklin's
16X16
this
square
is
constructed upon the same principle
as the smaller, and Mr. Parton continues:
"Nor was
"squares.
the most wonderful
of
Franklin's magical
He made
one of sixteen
cells in
each row, which besides
"possessing the properties of the squares given above (the amount,
"however added, being always 2056), had

"able peculiarity
:
also this
most remark-
a square hole being cut in a piece of paper of such

it
"a size as to take in and show through

"squares,
just sixteen of the
little
when
laid
"bers, so appearing through the hole, wherever
on the greater square, the sum of sixteen numit was placed on the
"greater square, should likewise
make 2056."
Mr. Parton notes of the i6X
The
1
additional peculiarity which

is
6 square
is
true of the smaller square, that the
no more remarkable than the corresponding fact which sum of the numbers in any
A
B
C
D
E
G
H
IO2

combination of
its
2X2
cells
yields
130.
The
properties of the
larger square are also graphically represented here (Fig. 193).
A
follows
clue to the construction of these squares

:
may
be found as
We
letters
write
down
the
numbers
in numerical order
and
call
the
cells after the
precedent of the chess-board, with two sets of symbols,
and numbers.
We
call this
"the plan of construction" (Fig.
194).
Before
we
construct the general scheme of Franklin's square
we
will build
ciple,
which
We
will
up another magic square, a little less complex in prinwork for more complicated squares. simply intermix the ordinary series of numbers according
will be preparatory
to a definite rule alternately reversing the letters so that the
odd
rows are
in alphabetical order
and the even ones reversed.
In order
to distribute the
numbers
in
a regular fashion so that no combinastart with

i
tion of letter
and number would occur twice, we
in the
upper left-hand corner and pass consecutively downwards, alternating between the first and second cells in the successive rows,
thence ascending by the same method of simple alternation from
in the
i
lower left-hand corner.
We
in
have
now
the key to a scheme

It is
for the distribution of

first
numbers
an
8X8
magic square.
the
step in the construction of the Franklin

it
8X8
magic square, and
we
call
"the key to the scheme of simple alternation" (Fig. 195).

if
It
goes without saying that the effect would be the same
we
begin in the same
way
in the right-hand corners,
only
we must
;beware of a distribution that would occasion repetitions.
To
complete the scheme
we have
to repeat the letters, alternately
mvertiiig, their order
row
after row,
and the
first
two given
figures
must be repeated throughout every row, as they are started. The top and bottom rows will read i, 8; i, 8; i, 8; i, 8. The second
row from
7, 2.
3,
the top and also from the bottom will be

third
7,
7,
3,
2
6;
7, 3,
The
3,
row from
the top and bottom will be

5,
6;
In
the
6;
6; and the two center rows
4;
5,
4;
5,
4:
5,
4.
is
every line the
sum
of two consecutive figures yields
9.
This
second step, yielding the completed scheme of simple alternation

(Fig. 196).

The square
is
IO3
now produced by
substituting for the letter and
figure combinations, the corresponding figures according to the con-
secutive arrangement in the plan of construction (Fig. 197).
Trying the
results
we
find that all horizontal
260, while the vertical rows are alternately 260
rows sum up to 4. 4, and 260
The diagonal from the upper right to the lower left corner yields a sum of 260+32, while the other diagonal from the left upper The corner descending to the right lower corner makes 260 32.
the lower halves, and the
upper halves of the two diagonals yield 260, and also the sum of sum total of both diagonals is accordingly
520 or 2X260. 260
The sum
of the two left-hand half diagonals re-
sults in
right-hand side
16, and the sum of the two half diagonals to the makes 260+16. The sum of the four central cells
plus the four extreme corner cells yields also 260.
Considering the fact that the figures
to 8 of our
scheme run
up and down in alternate succession, we naturally have an arrangement of figures in which sets of two belong together. This binate peculiarity is evidenced in the result just stated, that the rows yield
sums which are the same with an

of an equal amount.
alternate addition
and subtraction
So we have a symmetry which is astonishing and might be deemed magical, if it were not a matter of intrinsic
necessity.
We
represent these peculiarities in the adjoined diagrams (Fig.

all
198) which, however, by no means exhaust
the possibilities.
re-
We
must bear
in
mind
that these
is
magic squares are to be

one another as
garded as continuous; that
to say, they are as if their opposite

if
sides in either direction passed over into
they
were joined both ways
in the
shape of a cylinder.
In other words
when we cross the boundary of the square on the right hand, the first row of cells outside to the right has to be regarded as identical with the first row of cells on the left; and in the same way the
uppermost or first horizontal row of cells corresponds to the first row of cells below the bottom row. This remarkable property of the square will bring out some additional peculiarities which mathematicians
cially
may
easily derive according to general principles
espe-
what was
stated of the
sum
of the lower and upper half-
104
U
260
+ 16
D =260
16
260
32
260 -f 32
260
2604
260+4
= 260
Fig. 198.
= 2 X 260
8X8
s=s
20
PROPERTIES OF
SQUARE BY SIMPLE ALTERNATION.
AB
A = 2056 8 B = 2066 + 8
= 2X2056
= 2056
= 2056
Fig. 199.
PROPERTIES OF
l6Xl6 SQUARE BY SIMPLE ALTERNATION.

diagonal of any bent series of
upward
opposite
or
running staircase fashion either downward to the center, and hence proceeding in the
cells
way to the other side. The magic square constructed according
to the
method of sim-
2056
128
= alternately 2056
64 and 2056
+ 64
LJ
= 2056 +
PROPERTIES OF
28
= alternately 2056
Fig.
U
64 and 2056
+ 64
l6X l6 SQUARE BY SIMPLE ALTERNATION.

IQ9 (con.).
is
pie alternation of figures
Franklin, but
we
however, the square of Benjamin can easily transform the former into the latter
not,
by slight modifications.
We
notice that in certain features the
sum
total of the bent
io6

4
5
6
7
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
io8
A1

A
1
no
1
Ill
diagonals represents regularities which counterbalance one another
on the right- and the left-hand side. In order we have to shift the figures of our scheme.
to offset these results
We
take the diagram which forms the key to the scheme of our
distribution by simple alternation (Fig. 195),
middle, turn the lower half upside down, giving the
and cutting it in the first two rows as
seen in Fig. 200 in which the heavy lines indicate the cutting. Cutting
then the upper half in two
(i. e.,
in binate sections),
and transposing
the second quarter to the bottom,
rangement of figures
in
we have the key to the entire arwhich the alternation starts as in the
scheme for simple alternation but skips the four center rows passing from 2 in the second cell of the second row to 3 in the first cell of
the seventh,
5 in the first cell,
and from 4 in the second and thence upwards

of the
cell
of the eighth passing to
in similar alternation, again
passing over the four central rows to the second and ending with 8
in the
second
in the
cell
first
row.
Then
the
same alternation
is
pro-
duced
four center rows.
It is
obvious that this can not start

first
in the first cell as that

i
would duplicate the
row, so
we
start
with
in the
second
cell
passing
down
uninterruptedly to 4 and ascending
as before
from
5 to 8.
A
means
closer examination will

in sets of two. sets of
show
that the
rows are
binate,
which
The
four inner numbers,

each,
i,
3, 4, 5,
6 and the
two outer
two numbers
2 and
7, 8,
are brought to-
gether thus imparting to the whole square a binate character (Fig.

202).
We
the
are
now
provided with a key to build up a magic square
after the pattern of Franklin.
We
have simply to complete
it
in
same way
line.
as our last square repeating the letters with their
order alternately reversed as before, and repeating the figures in
each
When we
insert their figure values
we have
in
a square which
is
not the same as Franklin's, but possesses

qualities (Fig. 203).
principle the same
To make our 8X8 Franklin square we must say, we preserve exactly
square of binate transposition into the

first
take
its
obverse square
that
is
to
the same order but holding the paper
112
..
with the figures toward the light we read them off from the obverse side, and then take the mirror picture of the result, holding the
mirror on either horizontal
side.
So
far
we have
still
our square
with the peculiarities of our scheme, but which lacks one of the
incidental
that he
characteristics
of Franklin's
square.
We
must notice
makes four
to 130
cells in
both horizontal and vertical directions

is
sum up
sets of
which property
each row. If
necessarily limited only to
two
four
cells in
we
write
down
sum
the
sum
of
set
3 _|_ 4 _|_ 5 _(_6+7+8=2Xi8, we
will find that the
middle
1+2+ 3+4+
,
5+6
is
equal to the rest consisting of the
of two extremes,
1+4, and 7+8. rows represented by the

In this
cordingly
way we
cut out in our scheme (Fig. 202) the
letters C,
D, E,
in either order
and
ac-
we
can shift either of the two

side.
first
or two last vertical
rows to the other

his square with
Franklin did the former, thus beginning
G4
in the left
upper corner as in Fig. 204.
We have
indicated this division by heavier lines in both schemes.
The
the
greater square of Franklin, which
same
is 16X16, is made after and the adjoined diagrams (Figs. 205-212) will fashion,
sufficiently explain its construction.
We
sess
do not know the method employed by Franklin; we posonly the result, but it is not probable that he derived his square
according to the scheme employed here. Our 16X16 square is not exactly the same as the square of
Franklin, but
it
belongs to the same
class.
Our method
gives the
key to the construction, and it is understood that the system here represented will allow us to construct many more squares by simply
pushing the square beyond its limits into the opposite row which by this move has to be transferred.
There
is
the same relation between Franklin's
16X16
square
and our square constructed by alternation with quaternate transposition, that exists between the corresponding 8X8 squares.
p. c.
C H A
PTE F?
REFLECTIONS ON MAGIC SQUARES.

A MATHEMATICS, *^* ophy, has always
article
especially in the field
where
it
touches philosS.
been
my
foible,
and so Mr.
W.
Andrews's
on "Magic Squares" tempted me to seek a graphic key to the interrelation among their figures which should reveal at a glance
the mvsterv of their construction.
THE ORDER OF FIGURES.

In odd magic squares, 3
3>
5>
7>
etc.,
there
is
no
difficulty whatever, as Mr. Andrews's diagrams
show
at a glance
(Fig. 213).
The
consecutive figures run up slantingly in the form
114

This cannot be done at once with both
its
shape of a cylinder.
opposite vertical
cess
is
its
two
and
two opposite horizontal
sides,
but the pro-
easily represented in the plane

all its sides,
extended on
must
treat
magic square and -on passing its limits on one side we the extension as if we had entered into the magic square
left
it.
by having the
on the side opposite to where we

over in a
If
we now
transfer the
figures to their respective places in the inside square, they are shoved
way which by
a regular transposition will counteract their
regular increase of counting and so equalize the
sums of
entire rows.
case is somewhat more complicated with even magic and a suggestion which I propose to offer here, pertains squares, to their formation. Mr. Andrews begins their discussion by stating
that "in pcrfuct magicr JCltuircs of thic clacc
it
The
is
necessary thEt the
ch column shall be the same amount, and also that the
y two numbers that are geometrically equidistant from the

center --'Of the square shall equal the
bers
sum
of the
first
and
last
num-
oLihe
series."
The
in a
smallest magic square of even

if
numbers
is,
of course,
4X4:
and he points out that 4
we
write the figures in their regular order
X4
square, those standing on the diagonal lines can remain
in their places,
while the rest are to be reversed so as to replace

its
every figure by
complementary to 17
(i. e.,
2 by 15, 3 by 14, 5 by
12, 9 by 8) the number 17 being the sum of the highest and lowest numbers of the magic square (i. e., n 2 -(- i). It is by this reversal
of figures that the inequalities of the natural order are equalized

again, so as to
make
the
sum
of each
row equal
to 34,
which
is
one
fourth of the
sum
total of all figures, the general
formula being
We
will
now
try to find out
more about the
relation
which the
magic square arrangement bears to the normal sequence of figures. For each corner there are two ways, one horizontal and one
normal sequence accordingly there are altogether eight possible arrangements, from which we select one as fundamental, and regard all others as mere
vertical, in in the
which figures can be written
variations,
produced by inverting and reversing the order.
115
As
the fundamental arrangement

left to
we choose
the ordinary
way
of writing from the
the right, proceeding in parallel lines

o.
downward.
We
call this
"the ordinary order" or
Its
reverse
proceeds from the lower right-hand corner toward the left, and line by line upward, thus beginning the series where the ordinary arrangement ends, and ending where it started. We call this order
"the reversed ordinary," or simply ro.
Another order
is
produced by following the Hebrew and Arabic
mode
of writing:
ing to the left,
we begin in the upper right-hand corner, proceedand then continue in the same way line by line
we
downward.
call briefly
i.
This, the inverse direction to the ordinary way,
The
on we
reverse order of
i,
starting in the lower left corner, pro-
ceeding to the right,

shall
and
line
by
line
upward we
call
n.
Further
fol-
have occasion to represent these four orders by the

:
lowing symbols
by
ro by
by
by
-|-.
n6
/

It will
117
be noticed that
i is
the vertical mirror picture of o and

is
ro of
ri,
and vice
versa. Further if the mirror

ri is
placed upon one

i
of the horizontal lines,
the mirror picture of o as well as ro of
and vice versa. There are four more arrangements. There is the Chinese way of writing downward in vertical columns as well as its inversion,
and the reversed order of both.
of
the
This method originated by the use
bamboo
strips as writing material in China,
two vowel sounds of the word "bamboo"
and we may utilize (viz., a and u) to name and u the

right,
the left and the right
downward
order, a the left
the reverse of the right ru and of the left ra, but for our present
purpose there will be no occasion to use them.
Now we
must bear
in
mind
that
magic squares originate from
the ordinary and normal consecutive arrangement by such transpositions as will counteract the regular increase of value in the nor-
mally progressive series of figures
and these transpositions depend

cells.
upon
the location of the several
All transpositions in the
cells of
even magic squares are brought about by the substitution

i,
of figures of the ro,
and
ri
order for the original figures of the
order, and the symmetry which dominates these becomes apparent in the diagrams, which present at a glance changes the order to which each cell in a magic square belongs.
ordinary or o
Numbers of
the
same order are grouped not unlike the Chladni

it
acoustic figures, and
seems to
me
that the origin of the regular-
ity of both the magic figures and this
phenomenon of
or
in
acoustics, is
due to an analogous law of symmetry. The dominance of one order o, ro,

even magic square,
selection
is
i,
ri,
each
cell
of an
simply due to a definite method of their

different orders of counting.
from the four

cell
Never can
a figure appear in a
where
i,
it
does not belong by right of some
regular order, either o, ro,
or n.
consists only of o
The magic square
of 4
X 4,
and ro
figures,
and the same rule applies to the simplest construction of even squares of multiples of four, such as 8 X 8, and 12 X 12.
There are several ways of constructing a magic square of 6 X 6. Our first sample consists of 12 o, 12 ro, 6 ri, and 6 i figures. The

12 o hold the diagonal lines.
The
12 ro
go
parallel
with one of
these diagonals, and stand in such positions that
square were diagonally turned upon

the 6
i,
itself,
i
and 6
ri figures.
And
again the 6
if the whole magic would exactly cover they and 6 ri also hold toward
each other places in the same

if
way corresponding
to one another;
the magic square were turned
onal, each ri figure
upon itself around the other diagwould cover one of the i order.
119
Fig. 217.
CHLADNI FIGURES.*
is
* The letter a indicates where the surface marks the place where the bow strikes the
touched with a finger
glass plate.
while In the four upper

;
120
verse of o which

is
ro represents one-half turn,
and
ri
the
first
and
third quarter in the whole circuit,
and
it
is
natural, therefore, that

in the
a symmetry-producing wave should produce a similar effect
magic
plate.
square to that of a note
upon the sand of a Chladni
glass
MAGIC SQUARES IN SYMBOLS.

The diagrams which
are offered here in Fig. 218 are the best
evidence of their resemblance to the Chladni figures, both exhibiting in their formation, the effect of the law of symmetry. The most
>'
8X8.
32 o and 32 ro.
10
icx
72 o and 72 ro.
ro.
SQUARES OF MULTIPLES OF FOUR.

Constructed only of o and
++
it
* + +
++ ++ ++'
+'
all
++
+
i,
8X8 SQUARES.
Constructed from
the orders, o, ro,
and
ri.
Fig. 218.
diagrams the plate has been fastened in the center, while in the lower ones has been held tight in an excentric position, indicated by the white dot

elegant
121
way
of rendering the different orders,
i,
ri, o,
and
ro, visible
at a glance,
would be by printing the
cells in
four different colors,
ANOTHER 8X8 SQUARE.

be noted that in this square the arrangement of the o symbols corresponds very closely to the distribution of the sand in the second of the Chladni diagrams. The same may be said of the two following figures, and it is especially true of the first one of the squares just preceding.
It will
8X8
*++
12 o, 12 ro, 6
i,
ri.
+*+
+
!'
+*+ ++* +*+

+
o,
40
40 ro, 10
i,
10
ri.
The reader
between
will notice that there is a remarkable resemblance the symmetry displayed in this figure and in the fourth
of the Chladni diagrams.

Fig. 218. (con.).
EXAMPLES OF 6X6 AND ioX 10 MAGIC SQUARES.

it
but for proving our case,
will
be
sufficient to
have the four orders
represented by four symbols, omitting their figure values, and
we
122

>,
here propose to indicate the order of o by

ri
ro by
@,
by
by +.
THE MAGIC SQUARE

In the introduction to the
find
IN CHINA.
Yih King, we
Chou
edition of the
scroll
some arithmetical diagrams and among them the Loh-Shu, the of the river Loh, which is a mathematical square from I to 9,
symbols, the
so written that all the

i.
e.,
yang
odd numbers are expressed by white dots, emblem of heaven, while the even numbers
THE SCROLL OF LOH.

Fig. 219.
THE MAP OF HO.*

CHINA.
(According to Ts'ai Y.uang-ting.)
TWO ARITHMETICAL DESIGNS OF ANCIENT

i.
are in black dots,
e.,
yin symbols, the
emblem of
earth.
The
in-
vention of the scroll
is
attributed to Fuh-Hi, the mythical founder
of Chinese civilization,
who according
to Chinese reports lived 2858-
2738 B. C.
But
it
goes without saying that
we have
to deal here
with a reconstruction of an ancient document, and not with the
document
itself.
The
scroll of
Loh
is
shown
in Fig. 219. in the
The
first
unequivocal appearance of the

is
Loh-Shu
form of
a magic square
*
in the latter part of the posterior
Chou dynasty
of Ho properly does not belong here, but we let it stand behelps to illustrate the spirit of the times when the scroll of Loh was composed in China. The map of Ho contains five groups of odd and even If the former are refigures, the numbers of heaven and earth respectively. garded as positive and the latter as negative, the difference of each group will uniformly yield -f- 5 or 5.
The map
it
cause
123
(951-1126 A. D.) or the beginning of the Southern Sung dynasty (1127-1333 A. D.). The Loh-Shu is incorporated in the writings
of Ts'ai
Yuan-Ting who
lived
I,
from 1135-1198 A. D.
(cf.
Mayers,
Chinese Reader's Manual,
754a), but similar arithmetical dia-
documents among scholars that lived under the reign of Sung Hwei-Tsung, which lasted from 1101-1125 A. D. (See Mayers, C. R. M., p. 57.)
grams are
traceable as reconstructions of primitive
The Yih King

its
is
unquestionably very ancient and the symbols
yang and yin as emblems of heaven and earth are inseparable from
contents.
They
in
existed at the time of Confucius (551-479 B. C.),
for he wrote several chapters
which are
(III,
I,
called appendices to the
Yih King, and

P-
them he says
i
IX, 49-50.
S. B. E.,
XVI,
4 9
3650
"To heaven belongs

to heaven, 5
;
to earth, 2
to heaven, 3
to earth,
to earth,
to heaven, 7
to earth, 8
to heaven,
to earth, 10.
to earth are five.
"The numbers belonging to heaven are five, and those belonging The numbers of these two series correspond to
each other, and each one has another that

mate.
may
be considered
its
The heavenly numbers amount
to 25,
and the earthly to
30.
The numbers of heaven and
earth together
amount
to 55.
It is
by these that the changes and transformations are spiritlike agencies kept in movement."
This passage was written about 500 B. C. and
effected,
and the
is
approximately
simultaneous with the philosophy of Pythagoras in the Occident,
who
declares
number
is
to be the essence of all things.
One
thing
sure, that the
cannot have been derived from Europe.
magic square among the Chinese It is highly probable, howand a general impulse
ever, that both countries received suggestions
from India and perhaps ultimately from Babylonia. But the development of the yang and yin symbols in their numerical and occult
China to a hoary antiquity so as to render it typically Chinese, and thus it seems strange that the same idea of the odd numbers as belonging to heaven and the even
significance can be traced back in
ones to earth appears in ancient Greece.

I
owe
the following communication to a personal letter from
124
Professor David Eugene Smith of the Teachers' College of
New
York:
"There
is
a Latin aphorism, probably as old as Pythagoras,

Virgil paraphrases this as follows
viii,
:
Deus imparibus numeris gaudet.
Numero deus impare

at
gaudet.
(Eel.
75).
In the edition
have
hand* there
is
a footnote which gives the ancient idea of the
nature of odd and even numbers, saying:

".
.
.impar numerus immortalis,
quiet dividi
licet
integer non potest,
par numerus mortalis, quia dividi potest;

goreos putare imparem
[a curious idea
Varro dicat Pythaideo medendi
numerum
I
habere finem, parent esse infinitum

;
which
have not seen elsewhere]
causa multarumque rerum impares numeros servari: nam, ut supra
dictum
est,
superi dii impari, inferi pari gaudent.
to the fact that the
"There are several references among the later commentators odd numbers are masculine, divine, heavenly,
I
while the even ones were feminine, mortal, earthly, but

at this writing place
cannot just
my
hands upon them.

at the
"As
to the
magic square, Professor Fujisawa,
Inter-
national Congress of Mathematicians at Paris in 1900,

assertion that the mathematics derived at an early time
made
the
from the
Chinese (independent of their

of a
own
native mathematics which
was
somewhat more
scientific
character), included the study of

first
these squares, going as far as the
400 numbers.
if
He
did not,
however, give the dates of these contributions,
indeed they are
known."
As
letter:
to other
magic squares, Professor Smith writes

found
in a
in
another
"The magic square

in the eleventh century.
is
It is also
work by Abraham ben Ezra found in Arabic works of the
twelfth century.
In 1904, Professor Schilling contributed to the
Mathematical Society of Gottingen the fact that Professor Kielhorn
had found a Jaina inscription of the twelfth or thirteenth century

* P. Virgilii Maronis
largyrii,
Pierii,
.
|
|
Opera,
. .
.
|
Accedunt
|
cum integris commentariis Scaligeri et Lindenbrogii

| |
Servii,
|
Phi-
Pancratius
Masvicius
Tom.
I,
Leonardiae,
. j
.
|
cloloccxvii.j

Khajuraho, India, a magic square of the notable peculiarity that each sub-square sums to 34." Fig. 220 is the square which Professor Smith encloses.
in the city of
We
must assume
that
we
are confronted in
many
cases with
an independent parallel development, but it appears that suggestions must have gone out over the whole world in most primitive times perhaps from Mesopotamia, the cradle of Babylonian civilization,
or later from India, the center of a most brilliant development of
scientific
and religious thought.
It
How old the magic square in China may be, is difficult to say. seems more than probable that its first appearance in the twelfth
is
century
not the time of
its
invention, but rather the date of a
Fig. 220.
recapitulation of former accomplishments, the exact date of which
can no longer be determined.
THE JAINA SQUARE.

Prof. Kielhorn's Jaina square
is
not a ".peefeet magic square"
according to
of
all
Mr. Andrews'
definition, epMtedrt&eme.
While the sums
the rows, horizontal, vertical, and diagonal, are equal, the
figures equidistant
sum
of the
first
from the center are not equal to n 2 and last numbers of the series. Yet it
is
I, viz.,
the
will
be seen
that in other respects this square
more
what might be
called absolute
a distribution of the figure values in
equilibrium.
First
we must
I
observe that the Jaina square

it
is
continuous,
by which
mean
itself
that
may
vertically as well as horizontally be

still
turned upon
and the rule
holds good that wherever

in
we
may
start four consecutive
numbers
whatever direction, back-
126

horizontal, vertical, or
34,
ward or forward, upward or downward, in slanting lines, always yield the same sum, viz.
which
is
2(n
-f-i)
and so does any small square of 2 X 2 cells. Since we can not bend the square upon itself at once in two directions, we make the result
visible in Fig. 221,
by extending the square
in
each direction by
half
its
own
size.
Wherever
4X4 cells
are taken out from this extended square,
we
shall find
them
satisfying all the conditions of this peculiar kind
of magic squares.
The
construction of this ancient Jaina equilibrium-square re-
quires another
method than we have suggested
for
Mr. Andrews'
10

inverted order.
127
in the first
is
We
do the same with the numbers

All that remains to be done
and
second vertical rows.

rest in
to
fill
out the
such a
way
as not to repeat either a letter or a number.

still
In
3,
the
first
row there are
missing for
C and D
the
numbers 2 and
of which 2 must belong to C, for
C3
appears already in the second
row and
is left
for D.
I
In the second row there are missing
and
4,
of which
must
belong to B, because
In the
first
we have B 4
row the
in the first
letters
row.
are missing, of
vertical
B and C
which
B must
1234
belong to 3, leaving
to 4.
In Consecutive Order.
The
Start for a Redistribution.
The Perfected
Redistribution.
Figure Values of the Square.

Fig. 222.
In the second vertical row
and
are missing for
and
2.
Aj and Do
then the
the
exist, so
must go
to 2,
all
and
to
i.
In the same simple fashion
the columns are
filled out,
and
cell names replaced by their figure values, which yields same kind of magic square as the one communicated by Prof. left
Smith, with these differences only, that ours starts in the

corner with
number
and the
vertical
rows are exchanged with
the horizontal ones.

ful
It is scarcely
necessary to point out the beauti-
symmetry
in the distribution of the figures
which becomes
fully
apparent
when we
consider their
cell
names.
Both the
letters,
A,
128

I,
B, C, D, and the figures,
2, 3, 4,
are harmoniously distributed

its dis-
over the whole square, so as to leave to each small square

tinct individuality, as
appears from Fig. 223.
Fig. 223.
i
The
center square in each case exhibits a cross relation, thus:
In a similar
way each one
of the four groups of four cells in

its
each of the corners possesses an arrangement of

symmetrically different from the others.
own which
p. c.
is
V-
A MATHEMATICAL STUDY OF MAGIC

SQUARES. A NEW ANALYSIS.
IV
/f"
AGIC
squares are not simple puzzles to be solved by the old
-*:*
rule of
"Try and
try again," but are visible results of "order"
as applied to numbers.
Their construction
is
therefore governed by
laws that are as fixed and immutable as the laws of geometry.

It will
be the object of this essay to investigate these laws, and
evolve certain rules therefrom.
have already been published by which various magic squares may be constructed, but they do not seem to cover the ground comprehensively, ft io the boliof
Many
rules
of-tiTC-writor-tlmt the rulQfi.hfrpin.mVrn will bn rnrnpctont
to.
pro
J?J
Fig. 224.
Fig. 225.
Fig. 226.
I3O
A MATHEMATICAL STUDY OF MAGIC SQUARES.
=b +g 2n = b + d 2c = d -\-m 2a = m + g
2k
It will
be seen that the
first
terms of these equations are the
quantities which occur
in the four corner cells,

is
and therefore that

the
the quantity in each corner cell

tities
mean between
two quan-
in the
two opposite
It is
cells that are
located in the middle of
the outside rows.
therefore evident that the least quantity in

cell
the magic square
must occupy a middle

it
in
one of the four
outside rows, and that
Since the middle

least quantity,
cell
cell
cannotjxcupy a corner celL of an outside row must be occupied by the

cells
and since any of these
of the upper
row by
rotating the square,
may be made the middle we may consider this

it is
cell to
be so occupied.
located the least quantity in the aqua***
plain
Having thus
corner
cells,
that the next higher quantity
must be placed
reflection in a
cells,
it
in
one of the lower
and since a simple
mirror would reverse
the position of the lower corner

smallest quantity
follows that the second
may occupy
either of these corner cells.
Next we
may
write
more equations
a
as follows:
+e
-f-
=S
(or summation)
d+e+g=S
h
also
+ e+ c=S
a+d+h=S
therefore
and
Hence the quantity in the central cell is an arithmetical mean between any two quantities with which it forms a straight row or
column.
13!
With
as
these facts in view a magic square

in Fig. 225.
may now
be constructed
shown
Let x, representing the least quantity, be placed in the middle
upper
cell,
and x -f
3;
in the
lower right-hand corner
cell,
y being
the increment over x.
Since
+y
is
the
mean between x and

v
in the
the quantity in the left-
hand central
cell, this cell
must evidently contain x
+ 2y.
cell,
Now
hand
cell
writing
lower left-hand corner

it
(con-
sidering v as the increment over x)
follows that the central right-
must contain x
+ zv.
cell in
filled
Next, as the quantity in the central
the square
is
mean
between x
2 y and
2z/, it
must be
cell
with
now
follows that the lower central
must contain
+ + y. It x zv + 2y,
v
-f-
and the upper left-hand corner cell x -\- 2.v -\- y, and finally the upper right-hand corner cell must contain x -{-v -\- 2y, thus completing the square which necessarily
must
frave
magic
qualifications
v,
with any conceivable values which
may
be assigned to x,
and
y.
and y which will produce a ^)(^ magic oqnnre rrmtniaing the numbers I to 9 inclusive in arithmetical progression. Evidently x must equal I, and
We
/
mav-aew proceed
to give values to x, v,
as there
must be a number
y=
i,
2, either
Assuming
suit,
if
=
-"
or
v or y must equal I also. 2, duplicate numbers would

3
re-
therefore v mih'
DLLciuoL
lliu
"T
lj1
'W
OK n^f
fe.
xg^ 7g4i
,r
>? .
luwlii LUitral cell is filled
with tho cymbolp
ap
ay,
e,i
and ac
i,
in this case thic

*^-
combination wurt equal 9; therefore,
if
them y
3,
or inco
verse*.
Using these
values, viz.,
I,
y =
and
v =
3,
the familiar
3X3
magic square shown
in Fig.
226
is
produced.
i
the series of numbers used has an
initial
number of
i,
n Fig. 226 and also a
constant increment of
i,
yot thio
may
is
bo conoidorod jK.only an
accidental feature pertaining to this particular square, the real fact
being that a magic square

of three
0/3X3
The
always composed of three sets
numbers .m^h.
is
difference between the
numbers of
each trio
uniform, but the difference between the last term of one
132

trio
133
and the
first
term of the next
trio-is
not necessarily the same as

trios.
the difference between the
numbers of the
will
For example, if x 2, y be as shown in Fig. 227.
=5
and v
= 8,
:
the resulting square
The
trios in this
square are as follows

2
10
18
7
15
12
20
28
23
The
difference between the
numbers of these
trios is
is
y
8.
5,
and the difference between the homologous numbers
=
is
A
in the
recognition of these*t*6o sets of increments
is essential to
the
proper understanding of the magic square. Their existence
masked
3X3
square shown
in Fig.
226 by the more or
less accidental
quality that in this particular square the difference
between adin Fig.
jacent numbers is always i. Nevertheless the square given 226 is really made up of three trios, as follows:
ist trio
i
2
5
2nd
3 rd
in
"
"
4
7
6 9
trios is
which the difference between the numbers of the
and the difference between the homologous numbers is 3. Furthermore it io pimply OH. acridentalr^&y. of this particular square thnt the diffemiro between the last term of a trio and tlicfirot
y v
I,
torm of tho next
trio
iff
T.
Having thus acquired a
clear conception of the structure of a
3X3
the
magic square,
we
are in a position to examine a
X9
com-
pound square
intelligently, this
square being only an expansion of
3X3
square, and governed by the same constructive rules. Referring to Fig. 229 the upper middle cells of the nine sub-
squares
may
first
be
filled^-m
thc-samc way that tho nine

t,
colic in
Fig. Jjij êi'o
filled,
using for this purpose the terms, x,
and
s.
Using
each
these as the initial terms of the subsquares the square
may
..
then be completed, using y as the increment between the terms of

trio,
the trios.
and v as thejncrement between the homologous_terms_of The roc(ihis shown in Fig. 228, in which the assignment of
Ov^fc^"
134
N
*x
X}
1
fc
N N N
a.
N
N
.
N
Xb
Xi
fc
Xi
Xi
N
Xi
x
^x
Xi

any values
square.
to x, y, v,
t
135
and
s,
will yield a perfect,
compound
^
9X9
Values
may
ass? be assigned to x, y, v,
I
and
which
will pro-
duce the series

with the
to 81 inclusive.
As
stated before in connection

I,
3X3
square,
x must
naturally equal
and
in order to
produce 2, one of the remaining symbols must equal I. In order to avoid duplicates, the next larger number must at least equal 3,
'1
and by the same prticggg the next must not be remaining one not less than 27. Because i-f- I
which
is
less
than 9 and the

::
+ 3 + 9 + 2 7=
is
4I
>
the middle
number of
the series
81, therefore just
these values
jli'iuiliuii
must be assigned
LliL
to the five symbols ucod in tho confixed,

I
uf
is
uqiuie.
The only symbol whose value

symbols
however,
x, the other four
may
have the values
9 or 27 assigned to them indiscriminately, thus producing

possible variations of a 9
If
all
the
is first
made
X 9 compound magic square. and y 2, and afterwards 3; is made
and
v =.
etc.
2,
the resulting squares will be simply reflections of each other,
may
is
Six fundamental forms of 9 9 compound magic squares be constructed as shown in Figs. 230, 231, and 232.
Only
six
forms
may
be made, because, excluding

trioa, if
tti
x whose
value
fixed^six different couples, (or
io
included)
may
be
made from the

It will
rest of the square
four^ymbols. becomes fixed.
Tbrm
r'cells beingêTelrmiried, the
be no\cd that theee are arranged in three grourjsoftwo
cquaroc each.on account of the curious fact that the squares in each
pair are
mutually convertible into each other by the following
process
If the
homologous
cells of
each
3X3
subsquare be taken in tbe>( 3 rqtnn?

if this
9X9 ihorofrom, a new magic 3X3 square will result.

order as they occur in the
is
square, pad a 3
ma4e
And
process
followed with
in
all
the cells and the resulting nine
3X3
squares are
will
arranged
result.
magic square order a
new
9X9
compound square
For example, referring to the upper square in Fig. 230, if the numbers in the central cells of the nine 3X3 subsquares are arranged
in
magic square order, the resulting square
will
be the
136
central
3X3
square in the lower
9X9
square in Fig. 230.
This
law holds good in each of the three groups of two squares (Figs. 230, 231 and 232) and no fundamental forms other than these can
be constructed.
The
question
may
be asked
How many
variations of 9
X9
may
compound magic squares can be made?
Since each subsquare
assume any of eight aspects without disturbing the general order of the complete square, and since there are six radically different, or
fundamental forms obtainable, the number of possible variations 6 89 *j
is
We *meyiô\Vi.9QQ6e4r$&* &&&***
magic square as represented in Fig. 233.
the construction of a 4
X4
From our knowledge

3d.
137
Because the two middle terms of each of the two inside
columns (either horizontal or perpendicular) also compose the central square, their four end terms must likewise equal S.
2X2
We
may now ^writclhe

b
-\-
following equations:
-\-
c -}-v
=S
therefore
a
jfr
+ d = v + x,
which
cells is
shows^that
the
equal to the
sum of the terms in any two contiguous corner sum of the terms in the two middle cells in the
opposite outside column.

<3*kr
Because
g+h+n+m=S
and
it
follows that
or,^hat
the
sum
of the two end terms of any inside column, (either
horizontal or perpendicular) is equal to the
sum
of the two middle
terms in the other parallel column.

6tkr Since
t+o+n+d=S
and
h
therefore
+o+n+p
orjhe sum of
the
the two end terms of a diagonal
column
is
equal to
sum
of the two inside terms of the other diagonal column.

six laws -govern all
\
These
4X4
magic squares, but the s
ocillod^pcrfefft
4 squares also possess the additional feature that
the
sum
of the numbers in any two cells that are equally distant

in
from the center and symmetrically opposite to each other

square equals S/2. *^;n, n
i
the
r\
^n w
nirf *
^f^t
138
4X4
a
-\-
magiy
a^d
jp.
square.
corner eel/ we
Xj
-f-
Referring toîg. 234, in the upper left-hand will placer a number ywhich may be represented by
by a
right-hand upper corner a number represented Also in tne central cells of the lower row we will write
in the
numbers represented respectively by a

lower left-hand
cell
3;
and a
t.
Then
in the
we
will place
and
in;
the central cells
a number represented by g x, of the outer right-hand column numbers
x and c x, and because the square represented respectively by b is to be perfect, we must write in the lower right-hand corner a number represented by
+ v.
4X4
square thus
The
unfinished perfect
made may now be
studied by the light of the laws previously given.
By
inspection-we see that

c
*\v=y+
We
also see that the central cells of the
occupied by the symbol
g together with
would
x and
result.
upper row should be v, by law 4, but if
thus occupied, duplicate numbers

It has,
however, been just shown that
:*^ = y +
and therefore g may be combined with y and t, thus producing diverse numbers, and still remaining correct in summation. Seeing that the square is to be perfect, the cell which is symmetrically opposite to that occupied
by a
+ y,
must be
filled
by a
number which
will
+ (g +
v), which
will
produce with a -f- y, a number equal to (a be g t, because
+ x)
/
In the same
*+=*+<
,
way the next cell to the left must be filled with g-\-y, and we may similarly fill the two inner cells of the left-hand
outer column with b
-f-
v and
+
all
v.
By
be
filled,
like
simple calculations
the remaining
empty
cells
may
thus completing the
4X4
square shown
in Fig. 235.
to the eight symbols used in Fig. 235 to
\A
e wfll
MATHEMATICAL STUDY OF MAGIC SQUARES.
now
proceed to show what numbers
may be
assigned
produce a perfect
4X4
magic Square containing the
rryfbes
to 16.
I/
is
evident that some pair
there/ore that one of ihe two symbols must equal
of symbols must equal I and i and the other
must equal
It
is
o,
(minus and fractional quantities being excluded).

evident that because a
-f-
also
=b
-f- c,
if
is
the
smallest
in the series, g must be the largest, and therefore numbers represented by a, b, c, g must form a series in which the means equal the extremes. In like manner x, y, t, v must
number
the four
also
form another similar
series.
1 6,
Supposing now that x and .since b and c are each

other,
and a
= o,
then g -f V must equal
less
than g, and must be also diverse

less
from each
that b
we
3,
i
find that
g Cannot be
than
3.
Supposing
evident
therefore that
g=
c,
then because a
+g=3=b+
c, it is
must equal
(or 2) and c must equal 2 (or i).
The
four
quantities a, b,
g may
therefore be assigned values as given below.
r b=i
g
/^
^\$ =
t t
--,
=3
f=i3equal 13 and y
As g-{-v=i6,--v must
By
this
inspection
it is
seen that either y or
must equal 14. must equal 5, and assigning

t
number
to y,
becomes
9,
or vice versa.
With
these values assigned to the symbols, Fig. 235 will Develop
the perfect
4X4
square shown Jn Fig. 236.
The
possible nurifiêiNDf diverse

i
4X4 magic squares which

to 16 inclusive has
be constructed using; the numbers
been vari-
ously estimated by different writers, '880 changes having

toibre considered the
maximum number.
It
can howevj
proven that no
less
than 4352 of these squares may be^ tender the next heading.
14
STUDY OF THE POSSIBLE NUMBER OF VARIATIONS IN MAGIC SQUARES.

has been shown in connection with the
that there
bers,
is
magic square one possible arrangement of nine different numonly

magic square.
and
all
3X3
which
will constitute a
The
immense
4X4
larger squares
may however
be constructed
in great variety, their
number of
diverse forms increasing in an
ratio with every increase in the size of square.
Beginning with the

of the possible
the
4X4 square, in orftsr to solve the problem

variations that
it
number of
may
be constructed with
numbers
to 16 inclusive,
will
be necessary to consider the
relative properties of its
component elements, Which may be con'
veniently expressed as follows, although there
a're
several other sets
of eight numbers whose combinations will yield similar results.
=12
As
previously stated,
it
will be seen that
and
+g=b+c x+v=y+
a
f.
In consequence of this law
we
find that a
column
in a
X4
magic square m#y

pair of elements
pair, the latter
contain each of the eight qualities once (as in
the diagonal rows of square
shown
in Fig.
235).
In other cases a
may
be lacking, but be represented by another
outer vertical columns of Fig. 235).
being repeated in the column, (as shown in the two This ability to duplicate some
of the elements in place of others that are omitted leads to an
enormous amplification of the number of possible variations. If all the cells in any column are filled, (or any set of four cells, the summation of which is equal to a column) the remainder
of the square
may
rjpay
This Column
then be completed by the rules previously given. therefore be termed a "basic" row or column.
filled,
There are four plans by which a basic row may be
thus
14!
I,
making four III and IV.
classes of squares
which may be called Classes,
II,
\ For the sake of
brevity, the symbols a, b, c

x, y,
t
and g
will
be termed
the "a" elements,
and
and v the "x" elements.
Class I includes those squares in which the basic
row
is
made
up of
all
of the eight elements used once each.
Class II includes those squares in which one of the elements
used in the
first cell
of the basic
row
is
also used in $ie second
cell.
Fig. 237.
Fig. 238.
Fig. 239.
;, Class III includes those squares in vîich an element of the
first cell in
the basic
row
is
also used in the third cell.

in.
Class
cell in
IV
includes those squares
which elements of the

and third
cells.
first
the basic
row are
also used in the second
Class I
may
be further divided into three Genera as follows
Genus
comprises those squares in which neither the outer nor

6.
inner pair of cells contain either
mean
or an extreme pair of "a"
or "x" elements. Fig. 237 represents a basic
row of Class
I,
Genus A.
a y
142
A MATHEMATICAL ST^DV OF MAGIC SQUARES.
outer cells contain a and g, and

tain b
x and
v,
and the two inner
cells
con-
and
c,
and
an^f y, as
shown
in Fig. 239.
Classes
II,
Ill/and IV have
aU',
but one genus each, and there are
consequently in
six different types.
specimens whicty each genus will yield, row into a complete square.
To we
determine the number of

will
now expand
a basic
Fi\ 240 shows
34X4
and
c
square in the-ripper row of which the

.
elements are written as previously given under Class

Filling the inner pair of cells in the lower
I,
Genus A.
row we
see that these cells
must contain a
c
-j- 3;
+v
-f-
y } but we have the choice of writing
in the right or left-hand cell.

is
the square
then completed by
the.
Choosing the right-hand cell laws previously given, and but

of each cell
slight attentioh is'srequired to

is
show that the contents
forced by these laws.

ele3,
This square will be magic for any values assigned to the ments, and it will be nt>rmaTif they are given the values I, 2,
and
o, 4, 8, 12.
To
find the
number of
possible squares of the above class
and
genus we
reflect that for the first cell
we have we
in
a choice of 16.
For
the fourth cell
we have
t
a choice of only
fiflst
4, since in the example,
having used a and y

either a, y,
in the
cell
are debarred from using

cells,
or
in the fourth cell.
Next, for the two central
we
the
evidently have a choice of 4,
and
fill
completing the square
we
have the choice of two methods to
the lower row.
Multiplying
number of
choices
16X4X4X2512.
and
sible
it is
therefore clear that Class
I,
Genus
will yield
512 pos-
forms of squares. Fig. 241 shows a square

of the lower row,
in
which the basic row of elements are
arranged so as to produce Class I

cells
it is
Genus B.
In
filling
the central
found that the equivalent of (a
3;)
(g
x} must be used, and there are three such

(1) (2) (3)
equivalents, viz.,
+x + (b + x
(a
) }
(g
+ y)
(& +.30
143
(3) ftowever will be found impossible, leaving only (i) and

(2)
available.
Choosing (i)
it
will
be seen that there are two
choices since n
+x
may
be located in either the right or left-hand

if
of the
two
cells.
Similarly
(2)
is
chosen, b
+x
may
be placed
in either of theseycells.
cell,
Hence
:
in, say,
the right-hand central lower
there
may
be placed
(1) a
(2) (3) (4)
as
is
+x g+y
shown
in Fig. 241, and',when
one of these four pairs of elements

It
is
used the remainder of the square becomes fixed.

first cell
therefore
follows that for the

16.
of the basic
row there
is
a choice of
For the fourth
cell
of same
row
there
a choice of 4.
For
the central cells of
same row therg
is
a choice of 4 and for the
lower row there
is
a choice of 4.
Multiplying these choices together
we have
which
/
the possible
16X4X4X4= 1024.
is
number
of variations of Class
I,
I,
Genus B.
Writing a basic
row of Class
Genus C,
as given in Fig. 239,
we
to
find that the equivalents of

fill
(a
+ x}
the central cells of the lower row.
-f- (g -\- v) must be used Because
a+g=b+c
and x
+v=
t -]-
there are no less than sixteen pairs which

to each other.
ma
v
be
made
all
equal
Ten
of these pairs however will be found unavailable,
leaving six pairs to choose from, and since each of these six pairs
may
be located in either of the two
cells,
there
is
a choice of 12
different
ways For the first
in
which the lower row may be

cell
filled.
of the basic row, there of the same
is
naturally a choice of
is
16.
cell
For the fourth
cell
row
there
no choice, as
this
must be
filled
with the complements of the

the basic
first cell.
For the
two middle
cells of
row
there
is
a choice of
4.
Multiplying
these choices together
we have:
144

16
X4X
12
= 768,
I,
which
is
the possible
number of
variations of Class
Genus C.
as
Proceeding
the lower
now
to Class II, a basic
row may be formed
n in Fig. 242.
It is
evident that neither a nor g can be used in

as equivalents of
row of the square, but

(a
+ v) +
(g
:
+ y)
we may
use either of the two couples
and since
either couple
a choice of 4 variations.
first cell
may be placed in either of two cells, To form the basic row, we have
as before.
first cell
there
is
for the
is
a choice of
F$r" the fourth cell there
choice of 6 seeing that one of the elements of the

.located therein, coupled with
must be
ele-
any One of the three remaining
Fig. 243.
ments of the opposite group.

choice of
2.
For the two inner
cells
there
is
Hence
16
for Class II
we have
X 6 X 2 X 4 = 768
row
varieties.
Class III has a basic

will
constituted as
shown
in Fig. 243.
It
basic
be found impossible to construct a magic square from the above row along the lines hitherto followed. Nevertheless, four
varieties of squares
may
be constructed on every basic row of this
class, on account of certain relations between the two groups of elements, which have not as yet been considered. The squares may
be
made
as herein before shown, but
when completed they appear

which
illustrate
to be, imperfect, as will be seen in Figs. 244-247,
These squares, although seemingly imperfect, are not actually so on account of a fuliar relationship between the numbers i, 2, 3, 4 and o, 4, 8, 12.
four /squares built up on the foregoing basic row.
Class III has for the
first cell
of the basic
row a choice of
16,

for the third cell a choice of 6, for the second cell a choice of 2, and
of each of the above forms there are 4 variations. 16

in this classk
Hence we have:
X 6 X 2 X 4 = 768
row
as
varieties
/
"has a basic
Class
IV
shown
be
in Fig. 248,
and the two
middle
couples
cells of the
lower row
may
filled
with either of the two
\
t)
tr;
Fig. 244.
Fig. 245.
Fig. 246.
Fig. 247.
thus permitting a choice of 4.

cell
of the basic
Having a choice of 16 for the first row, and a choice of 4 for the two inner cells of this
16
row,
we have
as a total:
X 4 X 4 = 256.
This square however has a peculiar property, owing to each
146
Summarizing the preceding

are in
results
it
will be seen that there
Class
T,
Genus
A MATHEMATICAL STUDY OF MAGIC SQUARES,
To
and
tP\e
complete the square, there are at least four available plans

resulting squares
may
be designated as Classes,
I, II,
III
and
IV
respectively.
writing the symbols of the "a" grcfup of columns across the square, in one direction, diagonal say from leftto right, and the symbols of the 'V grotfp also in
Clas\
I
is
made by
elements
ifk
diagonal columns, but in the opposite direction as shown in Fig. 251.

It will
be
\en
that the "a" elements occupy
Ijfe
right-hand
diagonal columns \and the "x" elements the lefVriand diagonal columns. Class I is only available when two elejhents in the end
cells
happen to be
Class
II.
ifj.
The Squares
in this class are
the elements in the basic-
row move by
a
JC
MATHEMATICAL STUDY OF MAGIC SQUA

different' sizes
cftv squares
that haveNbeen consider
increases
NOTES ON NUMBER SERIES USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF MAGIC SQUARES.

It
has long been

series
from
jf
magic squares may be constructed of numbers which do not progress in arithmetical

that
will
known
order.
Experiment
show, however, that any haphazard series
cannot be used for this purpose, but that a definite order of sequence
is
necessary which will entail certain relationships between different

the series.
'
members of
It will
therefore be our endeavor
a -v =s
-d

result.
It
therefore follows that the numbers composing a magic
square are not
made up
of a single group, but necessarily of
more
than one group.

Since
groups,
we have
eocn that the term "a" forms a part of two
write both groups as shown in Fig. 255, one horiand the other perpendicularly. zontally Next, by rule No. 5, it is shown that "the sum of the two end
we may
terms of any inside column (either horizontal or perpendicular)

equal to the
is
sum
of the two middle terms in the other parallel col-\-
umn."
It
therefore follows that v
=k+o
or v
b.
Using the term v as the initial number, we write this series perpenIn the same way it is seen that dicularly as shown in Fig. 256.
/
+g=n
-\- o,
or
=n
g, thus
forming the second hori-
zontal
column
in the
square (Fig. 257).
Next p
-\-
m=h
-{-
k or
Fig. 258.
Fig. 259.
Fig. 260.
Fig. 261.
=h
is
forming the third horizontal column and
in this
simple manner the square

It
may
be completed as shown in Fig. 258.
therefore evident that a 4

series of
X4
magic square may be
to permit
formed of any them
numbers whose
interrelations are such as
to be placed as
I
shown
in Fig. 258.
The numbers
struction
to 16
may
io
be so placed in a great variety of
ways, but the fact must not be lost sight of that, ao far ao the conof magic squarcc
concerned^ they only incidentally
possess the quality of being a single series in straight arithmetical

order, being really
in a
composed of as many groups as there are column of the square. Unless this fact is remembered, a ^^
mi
f-the series cannot be formed.
cells
clear
'
^>
conception of tho q
In illustration of the above remarks, three diagrams are given

in Figs. 259-261.
Figs. 259 and 260
show arrangements of
the

from which the diverse squares Figs. 262 and 263 are formed by the usual method of construction. Fig. 261 shows .1-lip nrrnnqrcmcnt o an irregular series of sixteen
I
numbers
to 16
numbers, which, when placed in the order of magnitude run as

follows
:
2-7-9-10-11-12-14-15-17-18-19-20-21-26-30-33
The magic square formed from this series is given in Fig. 264. In the study of these number series the natural question presents itself: Can as many diverse squares be formed from one series as
from another ?
This question opens up a wide and but
little
ex-
plored region as to the diverse constitution of magic squares. This idea can therefore be merely touched upon in the present article,
examples of several different plans of construction being given illustration and the field left at present to other explorers.
/
in

dicular
any
series of
yield
and diagonal all have the same summation, viz., 66. Hence numbers that can be arranged as shown in Fig. 258 will magic squares as outlined. But that it shall also produce
squares having the qualificationo that are termed "ptfilujB." may or may not be the case accordingly as the series may or may not be
capable of
still
further arrangement.
if
Referring to Fig. 254,
we amend our
definition
by now
call-
y
I
I
4 -///=/y-2
M
II II
II
29
/-3/=36-4
I i i i
46
22
Z/
*7
Fig. 266.
Fig. 267.
ing
it
a "poifoct" square,
we
at
once introduce the following
continuous equation:
we make our diagram of magic square producing numbers conform to these new requirements, the number of groups will at
and
if
once be greatly curtailed.

/o
38
2,4-
2?
8
/J"
//"*
/<f
zz
2/
/O
2.0
Z/
22
2S 28
J2 J?
Fig. 268.
/s
29
'7
29
Fig. 269.
The
diagram
multiplicity of algebraical signs necessary in our

is
amended
complete
so great that
it
can only be
studied in detail, the
diagram being a network of minus and equality signs.
The
result will therefore only be given here, formulated in the

all
following laws which apply in large measure to

I.
"perfect" squares.
series or
Perfect magic squares are

cells in
made
of as
many
groups
of numbers as there are
a column.

II.
Each
series or
group
is
composed of as many numbers as
there are groups.

III.
series
series.
two adjoining numbers of a must obtain between the corresponding numbers of all the
differences between any
initial
The
IV. The
do the second,
terms of the series compose another third, fourth terms and so on.
series, as
V. The differences between any adjoining numbers of these secondary series must also obtain between the corresponding terms
of
all
the secondary series.

illustrated
The foregoing rules may be square shown in Figs. 259 and
by the
series
and perfect
262.
Following and consequent upon the foregoing interrelations of these numbers is the remarkable quality possessed by the "perfect"
magic square producing

If the entire series
series as follows
is written out in the order of magnitude and between the adjacent numbers are written below, the differences the row of differences will be found to be geometrically arranged on each side of the center as will be seen in the following series
taken from Fig. 266.

3
-
4 -13-14-18-19-21-22-28-29-31-32-36-37-46-47
(6)
1914121
squares whether odd or even.
1214191
In the above example the number 6 occupies the center and the other numbers are arranged in geometrical order on each side of it.
It is the belief of the writer that this rule applies to all "perfect"
The
following example will suffice to illustrate the rule as
applied to a 5
magic square, Fig. 268 showing the
series
and
Fig. 269 the square.
1.4.7.8
.10.11.13.14.15.17.18.20.21.22.24.25.27.28.29.31.32.34.35.38.41
33I2I2I I2I2IJI2I2I I2I2I33

The diagram shown
it
in Fig.
270
is
given to impress upon the
the idea that a natural series of continuous numbers
may
be arranged in a great variety of different magic square producing be produced with any conseries. perfect
9X9
square^-tway-

ceivable values that
may
r^
1><
be assigned to the symbols
a, b, c,
d and
g,
used
in this
diagram.
c
symbols,
*^-tia^
qua
SLlLLlki-^jfthe ^nt-moi r l n 1^
is
numbers
i,
i, 3, 9,
27 for theseXj
It is
a must equal
i.
then
evident that for 2 there
a choice of four retts, as this

-\-
number may
-\-
be either a-\-b, a-\-
c,
d or a
-f-
g.
Selecting a
for 2,
makes
this
& =
i.
There
will
is
then a choice of three

-\-
oollo for 4,
3.
and for
number we
choose a
d,
making d
choice of
a
6

exactly the
same
plan,
and using the same breakmoves
the varia-
tions, radical as they
may
appear to be, are only so because different

series,
it
series of the
same numbers are employed, of which
has
been shown, there are at least twenty-four.

If the student will take Fig.
making "b"
(successively)
3, 9,
270 and fill in number values, and 27, he will acquire a clear
idea of the part taken in magic squares by the series conception.
The work
magic squares
o^f
determining the possible number of perfect

-fee-
9X9
of
may now
greatly simplified, for all elements are

i.
thus determined saving one,

progression.
e.,
the
number
of possible
modes
29
72 32
J/
20
6* S2 6s
6s
2<f
36 23 6 *
22 30 26
7s
77
76 /2
2S
V
60 "7
7*
79
46
/3
sc /o
66 S3
JO '7
62
Fig. 271.
may
be located in any of 80
variants
cells
and progress may be made

Theresquares will be at least
in
x ways, and 24
may
be constructed in each case.
fore, the possible
number
80
of different
9X9
1920,1-.
24
single
example
will serve to illustrate the possibilities
open
to x, the numerical value of
which
will
be
left for
let
the present for
others to determine.
As
previously given,
i i
b= d= g=

Then
Fig. 271
will
represent a 9
X9
i
square based on the

i
i
arrangement of symbols given in Fig. 270.

ii
Ii 1
f r*o n cf \T vl cY*r\ a, 1 1
order thesconstruction of this square must be governed by iHe fol-
lowing complicated rule:
Regular seeing: Three successive

diagonal.
cells in
upwa/d right-hand
Breakmoves
3 and
tween
4
7 10
13 etc.
Three
9
12
dowir and one to ( Extended'knight's mbve. )

cells
left.
and between
two
c^VIs to the right.
In
viz.
:
facjt,
however, th^ squar\
is
built
up by tie common
in
rule,
Regu
diagonal,
i
spacing :/Nine successive

all
cells
nd
br/akmoves, two Veils to the

in the follow
ig series:
upward right-hand rigr\t, the numbers
to 81 be
ng arranged
28.29.30
-7.8.
IninTim /n nr\T7A As shown/above,
34 35 36
the
55.56.57 58.59.60 61.62.63

i
etc.\
etc.
numbers
to8i may be aranged
in at
least
twenty-four
of such magic square producing series, thus giving
twenty-four Different squares, by the sarr% method of progression, and using tHe same breakmoves.
i
L. S. F.
CHAPTER
VI.
MAGIC SQUARES AND PYTHAGOREAN NUMBERS.

"I have compiled this discourse, which asks for your consideration and pardon not only because the matter itself is by no means easy to be handled, but also because the doctrines herein contained are somewhat contrary to those held by most of the Platonic philosophers." Plutarch.
'
rT^HE
-*-
mysterious relationships of numbers have attracted the

in all ages.
minds of men
The many-sided
scientific,
Franklin, whose 2OOth

literary
anniversary the philosophical,
and
worlds have
recently celebrated, used to amuse himself with the construction
of magic squares and in his memoirs has given an example of his
by showing a very complicated square with the comment that he believes the same to be tne most magical magic
skill in this direction,
square yet constructed by any magician.
That magic squares have had in centuries past a deeper meaning for the minds of men than that of simple mathematical curios we may infer from the celebrated picture by Albert Diirer entitled
"Melancolia," engraved in 1514.
The symbolism
listless
of this engraving
has interested to a marked degree almost every observer.

of the brooding genius sitting
The
figure
and dejected amid her unswaying balance, the flowbell,
completed labors, the scattered
tools, the
ing sands of the glass, and the magic square of 16 beneath the
these and other details reveal an attitude of
mind and a connection
of thought, which the great artist never expressed in words, but

left for
every beholder to interpret for himself.

discovery of the arrangement of numbers in the form of
The
magic diagrams was undoubtedly known to the ancient Egyptians

and
this
may have formed
part of the knowledge which Pythagoras

travels.
brought back from his foreign

ship of
We
into
have no direct evidence
that the Pythagorean philosophers in their studies of the relation-
numbers ever combined them
harmonic
figures, yet the
MELANCHOLY.
supposition that they did so
is
not at
all
improbable.
Such diagrams
and
their symbolic
meanings may
well have formed part of the
arcana of the esoteric school of Pythagoras, for similar facts were
accounted by ancient writers as constituting a part of the aporrheta
"f
of the order and the story
is
told of
an unworthy
disciple
who
re-
vealed the secret of the construction of the dodecahedron inscribed
within a sphere, this being a symbol of the universe.
Among
the best expositions of the Pythagorean philosophy are
and "Republic" of Plato. These dialogues were written after Plato's return from Magna Grsecia, where from contact with Archytas of Tarentum and other philosophers,
sections of the "Timseus"
he imbibed so
much
of the Italian school that his whole system of

ideas.
It is
philosophy became permeated with Pythagorean
even
lost writings
suggested that he incorporated into these dialogues parts of the of Philolaus, whose works he is known to have purchased.
No
portions
of the
dialogues
named have been more
commentators than the vague references to different numbers, such as the number 729, which is chosen to express the
puzzling to
difference between the kingly
man and
the tyrant, or the so-called
number of the
an endless
State in the "Republic," or the harmonic
number of
would be
the soul in the "Timaeus" of which Plutarch said that

toil
*'it
to recite the contentions

his interpreters-"
is
and disputes that have from

Either our text of these pas-
hence arisen
sages
is
among
corrupt or Plato
very obscure, throwing out indirect hints

only to those previously informed. Plato
"all writings are to
which would be
intelligible
states himself in the
"Phaedrus" that
be regarded
purely as a means of recollection for him
who
already knows," and
he, therefore, probably wrote more for the benefit of his hearers
than for distant posterity.

It is
upon the
principle of a
magic square that
wish to
inter-
pret the celebrated passage in the "Republic" referring to the
number
729, proceeding from
this to a discussion of certain other
numbers
efforts in
of peculiar significance in the Pythagorean system.

this direction are to
said,
My
be regarded as purely fanciful
the same
may
be
however, of the majority of other methods of interpretation.
The passage from

Socrates.
the "Republic" referred to (Book IX,
587-8,
Jowett's translation) reads as follows:
"And
if
a person
tells
the measure of the interval

in truth of pleasure,
which separates the king from the tyrant
he

will find him,
when
the multiplication
is
completed living 729 times

this
more
pleasantly,
and the tyrant more painfully by

calculation."
same
interval."
Glaucon.
Socrates.
"What a wonderful
life, if
"Yet a true calculation and a number which
closely
concerns
human
human
life is
concerned with days and nights
and months and years."
The number 729
is
found to be of great importance
all
through
the Pythagorean system.
Plutarch states that this was the number
belonging to the sun, just as 243 was ascribed to Venus, 81 to Mercury, 27 to the
opposite to ours).
moon, 9 to the earth, and 3 to Antichthon (the earth These and many similar numbers were derived
1 :2
:
from one of the progressions of the Tetractys,

:
14 :8
and
1 13
19 127.
The
figures of the above proportions were combined by

i, 2, 3, 4, 9,
Plato into one series,

in his
8, 27.
(Timaeus,
is
35).
Plutarch
"Procreation of the Soul," which
simply a
commentary
upon Plato's "Timaeus," has represented the numbers in the form

of a triangle; the interior
bers, 5, 13,
num-
and
35, representing
the
sums of the opposite pairs, were also of great importance.
The deep
thagoras
significance of the
Tetractys in the
system of Pyinferred from

Fig. 272.
may be
a fragment of an oath contained

in the
"Golden Verses."
Nat
fia
TOV
a/u-e'repov
faxf TrapaSovra rerpaKTov
Ilayav, devaov ^vcrews pt^w/u-ar' fyovo-av.
"Yea, by our Tetractys which giveth the soul the fount and source of ever flowing nature !"
Odd numbers were
especially
favored by the Pythagoreans
and of these certain ones such as 3 and its higher powers were considered to have a higher significance than others and in this way, perhaps, arose the distinction between expressible and inexpressible
or ineffable numbers
(dpifyioi farol KOL app^rot).
Numbers which
expressed some astronomical fact also held high places of honor,

as
may
be seen from a statement by Plutarch
(loc. cit.) in
reference
is
to the Tetractys.
"Now
the final
it is it
member
of the series, which
27, has this peculiarity, that
equal to the
sum
of the preceding
numbers
(1+2+3+4+9+8)
it
also represents the periodical
num-
ber of days in which the
moon
Pythagoreans have made
completes her monthly course; the the tone of all their harmonic intervals."
Fig. 273.
This passage indicates

the
sufficiently the
supreme importance of
the plan of a
number
If
27.
we
construct a magic square
27X27 upon
I
checker-board
arranging the numbers
to 729 first in numerical
order, then shifting the 9 largest squares
(9X9)
into the positions
indicated in the familiar
3X3
square, repeating the process with

the subdivisions of the
at the
-T ^T -
9X9
squares and so on
down
we
will arrive
1 following combination.
It will
be noted that
we have 365
white squares or days and
364 dark squares or nights

days."
a veritable "checkerboard of nights and
The number
365, the days of the solar year, very appro-
priately occupies the centre of the system.

zontals,
The columns,
hori-
and diagonals of the central square
3X3
foot
up 1095, or
the days of a 3 year period, those of the larger center square

foot
9X9
entire
up 3285 the days of a 9 year period, while those of the
combination
27X27
foot
up 9855^ the days of a 27 year period,

corresponding to the Tetractys
in other words, periods of years

i, 3, 9,
27.
We
may
with safety borrow the language of Plato and

''is
say that the above arrangement of numbers
concerned with days
and nights and months and years."
The
public"
interpretation of the other passage referred to in the "Re-
the finding of the
number of
the
State
(Book VIII,
546) has been a subject of the greatest speculation and by consulting the various editions of Plato it will be found that scarcely
any two
lation.
critics
3 agree upon a solution.
As Jowett
remarks,
it
is
a puzzle almost as great as that of the Beast in the Book of Reve-
Unfortunately
;
we have no
this
starting-point
from which to
and the very uncertain meanings of begin our calculations many of the Greek terms have caused many commentators to give up the solution of the problem
a hearer of Plato's, writes as
in sheer despair.
if
Aristotle,
who was
having a full knowledge of the mystery; Cicero, however, was unable to solve the riddle and his
sentiment became voiced in the proverb numeris Platonicis nihil
obscurius.
By
1
taking a hint from our magic square and starting with the
This method of constructing compound magic squares is, so far as I know, original with the writer. It bears some resemblance to the method of the numbers of each Schubert (see "Compound Magic Squares," p. 44) square, however, increase in periods of threes instead of by sequence. "Not only the perpendiculars, horizontals, and diagonals of this large square foot up 9855, but there are an almost indefinite number of zig-zag lines, which give the same footing.
;
3 Schleiermacher, Donaldson, and Schneider suggest 216, and much may be said in favor of this number. Jowett gives 8000 as the possible solution. Others suggest 951, 5040, 17,500, 1728, 10,000, etc.
number
27, I believe
we may
is
arrive at as
good a solution of the
problem as any that I have seen suggested.

pretation of the Greek terms
avt-foeu; 6vvdfj,evai re /cat
The following
inter-
offered.
the square of the
num27
2
dwaarevo/uEvai
pelq (nroGrdctLC,
ber times
its root,
X 1^27=
2187
increased by thrice the

first
terms
(of
the
Tetractys)
opovf ?ia(3ovoat
ofiotovvruv
TE
and four times whole series

of
the
(i_|_2+3+4+9-f-84-27)X4= 216
Kal
dvo-
potowTuv
Kal dvgovTuv
numbers unlike yet bearing the same ratio
Kal (j>6tv6TVu)v
whether increas-
ing or decreasing
(i.
e. i :2
14 :8
or 8:4:
:2 :i It
may
also refer
to the
ascending and descending figures

8, 4, 2, i, 3, 9,
of the triangle.
27)
Trdvra irpoarjyopa Kal

irpbs
d/l/l?7/la
prjTa.
anetyrivav
makes the sum commensurable and expressible in

parts.
(i,
all
its
sum=
i, 2, 3, 4, 5,
2460
e.
2460 is easily divisible by

6, 10, 12
etc.)
this
sum increased by
A
1
2460X1^=
5
3280
3285
ovvyei<;
rpi? avfyOeic
and adding
is
3280+5=
32 8 5X3==
multiplied by 3
This solution of the problem, 9855, it will be noted, brings us again but by a different route to the magic number of our large
square.
The second
part of the passage contains a description of the above calculation
the
number by which
may
be verified.
6vo dp/uovias Trapex f:Tai
(the
number) yields two harmonic parts,

of
rfjv fiev ICTJV Jtrd/af,
one
which
is
square
kKa.TbvTooavTdK.is,
Tr/v 6e laoprjKT)
3X3=
multiplied by too:
*
9X100==
900
pev,
h e other has one side

equal to the square
3
rr?
Trpo^KEi
6e,
and the other oblong
3X2985=8955
sum=
9855
63
The remainder
of the passage describes the length of the ob'

:
long which we have shown above to be 2985

K.arbv
fjLEv
dpt6fj.(Jv
CLTTO
(the
6ia/j.Tpuv Tre/zTrddof,
100 oblong) is times the side of a
rectangle having di-
agonals of
(i.
5.
3
100X3=
and
4.)
e.
having sides of
ojfruv Seofjiivuv ivbq indc-
less of
one each of the

i.
ruv,
expressible parts,
4
e.
and
appTjTuv 6e dveiv,
and
2 of the inexpressi-
300
(5+4+3~f~3)^
285
ble
EK.O.TOV
6e Kvfiuv rpiddos
plus 100 times the cube

3
of 3
(3)
Xioo=
2700
2985
sum=
Plato states that the
metrical figure
r
number of
the State "represents a geo-
w hich has control over the good and evil of births. For when your guardians are ignorant of the right seasons and unite bride and bridegroom out of due time, the children will not be
goodly and happy."
The number
9855, expressing a period of
27 years, might thus represent the dividing line between the ages
when men and women should begin to bear children to the State, 20-27 years for women, 27-34 years for men. ( See also "Republic," Book V, 460). Aristotle in his "Politics" (V, 12. 8) says in
reference to the
number
of the State that

is
when
the progression of
number
the
is
increased by 1 / 3 and 5
added, 2 harmonies are produced

seen from our analysis of
reference to the
giving a solid diagram.

first
This, as
part of the passage,
may be may have

2
number
3285, which, being represented by 3 X36s,
may
be said to have the
dimensions of a
solid.
In his "Reflections on Magic Squares" Dr. Carus gives some
very striking examples of the relationship between magic squares
and the musical figures of Chladni.

tions
would
like to
touch before
concluding upon a closely related subject and
show
certain connec-
which exist between the magic square, which we have constructed, and the numbers of the Pythagorean harmonic scale. This
scale had,
however, more than a musical significance
among
the

Greek philosophers;
in
it
was extended
to
of planetary movements and above
all else
comprehend the harmony to represent the manner

It is especially
which the "soul of the universe" was composed.
in the latter sense that Plato
employs the scale in his "Timaeus."
In a treatise by Timseus the Locrian upon the "Soul of the
World and Nature," we
find the following passage
"Now
all
these
proportions are combined harmonically according to numbers, which proportions the demiurge has divided according to a scale scientifically,
so that a person
is
is
not ignorant of what things and by what
means
combined; which the deity has not ranked after but he made it older by taking the the substance of the body
the soul
,
first
it
of unities which
is
384.
Now
of these the
first
all
being assumed
is
easy to reckon the double and triple; and
the terms, with
their
lation
complements and eights must amount to 114,695."
(Trans-
by Burge.)
is
Plato's account of the combination of the soul

to the above,
first
very similar
though he seems to have selected 192, (384/2) for the number. Plutarch in his commentary makes no mention of
first
2
Timseus, but states that Grantor* was the reason that

it
to select 384, for the

is
represented the product of 8
X6, and
the lowest
number which can be taken

leaving fractions.
seen mentioned, a
is
by eighths without Another very possible reason, which I have not 2 that 384 is the harmonic ratio of 27 /2 or 364.5,
for the increase
closely the days of the year.
:
number which expresses very
243 1256 1364.5
1384.
The proportion 243:256(3 5 :44 ) was employed by the Pyth5 agoreans to mark the ratio which two unequal semitones of the
harmonic scale bear to one another.
Batteux has calculated the 36 terms of the Pythagorean scale starting with 384 and his series must be considered correct, for it
fulfils
the conditions specified by Timseus,
the
numbers
all
footing
treatise
Grantor lived nearly 100 years after Timaeus the Locrian.
The
upon the "Soul of the World and Nature," which bears the
probably belongs to a
5
latter's
name
and
much
later period.
36,
For further references to this ratio see Plato's "Timseus," 18. Plutarch's "Procreation of the Soul,"

up
1
14,695
few of the numbers of
this
harmonic
scale
marking
the "first unity" and several of the semitones will be given.

f
E
C F
384
ist
octave
-j
486
[
,
729
(For
Batteux's full series

of
is
and
the
method
calculation
2nd octave
F
c
!944
.
reader
referred to Burge's translation of Plato Vol. VI.
3 rd
octave
j
(
p. 171).
flat
4th octave
B-flat 4374
it
By
referring to our magic square
will be noted that the
-first
of unities," 384, constitutes the magic
number of
If
the small
3X3
square beginning with the
number
series of
100.
we arrange
the magic
numbers of the 81 squares (3X3)
in the order of their
we
find that they fall into
magnitudes numbers, each series beginning 9
as follows:
I
II
III
IV
816
V
1059
VI
1302
VII
1545
VIII
1788
IX
2031
87
330
573
The
intervals
between these
series are
worthy of note.
INTERVALS.
Between
I I
I I
I
and
"
" " "
II
243
the
first
member
of the ratio 243:256.
III
486
IV
V
VII
729 972
1458 1944
"
IX
C F C F c
of the ist
"
"
" " " "
octave " ist " 2nd
"
"
2nd
3 rd
" "
If in the
we arrange
same way,
the magic numbers of the large squares

it
(9X9)
will be
found that they
fall into
3 series of 3
numbers, each series beginning

I
n
3204
I
in
5391
B-flat of the 3rd octave. " " B-flat " 4th
1017
Interval between
and
II
" 111
= 2187 = 4374
Numerous other
bers, but these
instances might be given of the very intimate
connection between magic squares and various Pythagorean
numin
must be
left for the
curious-minded to develop for
themselves.
Such connections as we have noted are no doubt

respects purely accidental, being due to the intrinsic harmony numbers and therefore not implying a knowledge by the ancients of
some
of magic squares as
we now know
them.
The harmonic arrangement

forms both plane and
by the Greeks of numbers

solid
in geometrical
may, however, be accepted, and Plato's descriptions of various
numbers obscure and meaningless as they were to succeeding generations, may have been easily comprehended by his hearers when
illustrated
6 by a mathematical diagram or model. Differences between the methods of notation
in ancient
and
modern times have

Greeks by
necessarily produced differences in the concep-
tion of numerical relations.

letters of the
The expression of numbers among the alphabet was what led to the idea that every
attribute,
name must have a numerical

letters
but the connection of the
of the
name was
in
many
cases lost, the

itself.
number being
re-
garded as a pure attribute of the object
similar confusion
of symbols arose in the representation of various concepts by geometrical forms, such as the five letters of
tion of health
YrEIA and
the symboliza-
by the Pythagoreans under the form of the pentalpha

star.
or five-pointed
It
was
the great defect of the Greek schools that in their search
for truth, methods of experimental research were not cultivated.
Plato in his "Republic" (Book VII,

piricists,
530-531) ridicules the em-
who sought knowledge by
studying the stars or by comis
paring the sounds of musical strings, and insists that no value

to be placed
upon the testimony of the

is
senses.
"Let the heavens
alone and train the intellect"

If the
his constant advice.
medes
in statics
examples set by Pythagoras in acoustics and by Archihad been generally followed by the Greek philos-
ophers, our knowledge of natural phenomena might have been advanced a thousand years. But as it happened there came to prevail but one idea intensified by both Plato and Aristotle, and handed
down through
8
the scholastics even to the present time, that knowl-
The description of the number of the State in the "Republic" and that of the Soul in the "Timseus" render such a mode of representation almost necessary. Plutarch ("Procreation of Soul," 12) gives an illustration of an harmonic diagram 5X7 containing 35 small squares "which comprehends in its subdivisions all the proportions of the first concords of music."

edge was to be sought for only from within.
Hence came the
flood
of idle speculations which characterized the later Pythagorean and Platonic schools and which eventually undermined the structure of
ancient philosophy.
But beneath the abstractions of these schools
one can discover a strong undercurrent of truth. Many Pythagoreans understood by number that which is now termed natural law.
"Number
As
Such undoubtedly was the meaning of Philolaus when he wrote is the bond of the eternal continuance of things," a sentiphysicist could not express
ment which the modern

the
first
more
fittingly.
study of importance for the youth of his "Republic"
Plato selected the science of numbers; he chose as the second ge-
ometry and as the third astronomy, but the point which he emphasized above all was that these and all other sciences should be
studied in their "mutual relationships that
we may
learn the nature

states, "will
of the bond which unites them."
"For only then," he

be well bestowed."
a pursuit of them have a value for our object, and the labor, which
might otherwise prove

ance! and
fruitless,
Noble
utter-
greater need of this at the present day with our complexity of sciences and tendency towards narrow specialization.
how much
In the
spirit
of the great master
whom we
have just quoted
we may compare
the physical universe to an
Isolated investigators in different
immense magic square. areas have discovered here and

no regard to the
there a few seemingly restricted laws, and paying

territory
beyond their confines, are as yet oblivious of the great pervading and unifying Bond which connects the scattered parts
and binds them into one harmonious system. Omar, the astronomer-poet, may have had such a thought in mind, when he wrote:
"Yes and a single Alif were the clue Could you but find it to the treasure-house And peradventure to the Master too;
;
Whose
secret presence, through creation's veins
Running
quicksilverlike eludes your pains;" etc.

is
When
clue,
Plato's advice
followed and the "mutual relationships
between our sciences" are understood we
and having found
it
may perchance find this be surprised to discover as great a sim-
tsrf
plicity
underlying the whole fabric of natural phenomena as exists
in the construction of a
magic square.
c. A. B.
MR. BROWNE'S
SQUARE AND LUSUS NUMERORUM.

Jr.
is
The 27
27 square of Mr. C. A. Browne,

its
interesting
because, in additon to
arithmetical qualities
commonly possessed
as well as the
first
by magic squares,
it
represents
some
ulterior significance of our
calendar system referring to the days of the
month
days of the year and cycles of years.

sight mystifying, to observe
It is
wonderful, and at
how
the course of nature reflects even

relations
;
to intricate details the intrinsic
harmony of mathematical
and yet when we consider that nature and pure thought are simply the result of conditions first laid down and then consistently carried out in definite functions of a distinct and stable character, we will
no longer be puzzled but understand why science is possible, why man's reason contains the clue to many problems of nature and,
generally
speaking,
why
reason with
all
its
wealth of a priori
sight seems to be
thoughts can develop at
all in
a world that at
first
a mere chaos of particular facts.
The
purely formal relations of
mathematics, materially considered mere nonentities, constitute the
bond of union which encompasses the universe,

motes, the motions of the Milky
binations of chemical
stars as well as
Way
not less than the minute com-
atoms, and also the construction of pure
thought in man's mind. Mr. Browne's square

cause
it
is
of great interest to Greek scholars be-
throws light on an obscure passage in Plato's Republic, referring to a magic square the center of which is 365, the number of
days in a year.
The
construction of Mr. Browne's square

is
is
based upon the
simplest square of odd numbers which
3X3-
But
it
becomes
somewhat complicated by being extended

which
is
to three in the third
power
up
27.
Odd magic
in
squares, as
we have
seen, are built
by a progression
that
fall
staircase
fashion,
but since those numbers
outside the square have to be transferred to their cor-

responding places inside, the
into the knight's
first
**%<
and
last staircases
are changed
move
of the chessboard, and only the middle one
retains
its
original staircase form.
We
so that the central figure, which in a

fall
must construct the square 3X3 square is 5, must always
in
the central
cell.
I
Accordingly,
we must
start
the square
cell
beginning with figure
outside of the square in any middle

it,
immediately bordering upon
from which we may
either proceed
which gives four starting-points from the right or the left, either
upwards or downwards which yields eight possibilities of the 3X3 For the construction of his 27X27 square, Mr. Browne square.
might have taken any of these eight
possibilities as his
pattern.
THE EIGHT POSSIBLE ARRANGEMENTS OF THE 3X3 MAGIC SQUARE.

Fig. 274.
He
selected the one starting

right,
on the top of the square and moving

It is
toward the
and thus he always follows the peculiar arrangethe fourth of the eight arrangewill take the trouble to will find that
it
ment of
this particular square. in Fig. 274.
ments shown
Any one who
trace the regular succession of

is
Mr. Browne's square
a constant repetition of the knight's move, the staircase
move
and again a knight's move on a small scale of 3X3 which is repeated on a larger scale 9X9? thus leading to the wonderful regularity which, according to Mr. Browne's interpretation of Plato, astonished
the sages of ancient Greece.
Any one who
discovers at
random some magic square with
its
ft*
immanent harmony of numbers, is naturally impressed by its apparent occult power, and so it happens that they were deemed supernatural and have been called "magic."
They seem
to be the product
ulterior
of some
secret intelligence
and to contain a message of

necessary and intrinsic.
meaning.
But
if
we have
the key to their regularity

is
we know
that
the harmony that pervades them
Nor is the regularity limited to magic squares. There are other number combinations which exhibit surprising qualities, and
I will
here select a few striking cases.
ing order
ber
write down all the nine figures in ascending and descendwe have a number which is equal to the square of a numconsisting of the figure 9 repeated 9 times, divided by the sum
If
we
of an ascending and descending series of

12345678987654321
all
the figures thus
999999999X999999999
I+2+3+4+5+6+7+ 8+ 9 +8+ 7 +6+5+4+3+2+i*

is
The
secret of this mysterious coincidence

;
that
11X11=121;
I
111X111=12321
1111X1111=1234321,
series
etc.,
and a sum of an
with
is
ascending and descending

equal to the square of
its
which
starts
always
3+4+3+2+1=4X4,
instance of the
highest number. etc., which we will
1+2+1=2X2; 1+2+
illustrate
by one more
same
kind, as follows:
7777777X7777777
i
+ 2 + 3+4+5+6+7+6+5+4+3 + 2 +
regularities.
There are more instances of numerical

All
numbers consisting of
list:
six equal figures are divisible
by
7,
and
also, as a matter of course,
by 3 and n, as indicated
in the
following
111111:7=15873 222222:7=31746 333333 7=476i9 444444:7=63492

:
666666:7=95238
777777:7^=111111
888888:7=126984 999999:7=142857

Finally
we
will offer
two more strange coincidences of a lusus
numerorum.
0X9+1=1
I2X9+3 =I11 123X9+4=1111
123456X9+7= * 1 1 1234567X9+8=1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 12345678X9+9=1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 123456789X9+ 10=1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.
1X8+1=9
12X8+2=98 123X8+3=987
1234X8+4=9876 12345X8+5=98765 123456X8+6=987654
1234567X8+7=9876543 12345678X8+8=98765432 123456789X8+9=987654321.
No wonder
mind.
that such strange regularities impress the
human
A man
who knows only

is
the externality of these results will
naturally be inclined toward occultism.
The world
of numbers as
much
as the actual universe
full
of regularities which can be
reduced to definite rules and laws giving us a key that will unlock
their mysteries
nite conditions.
and enable us to predict certain
results
under
defi-
Here
is
is
the key to the significance of the a priori.

its
Mathematics
a purely mental construction, but
compo-
sition is not arbitrary.
On
the contrary
it
is
tracing the results of
our
own
doings and taking the consequences of the conditions
we
its
have created.
possibilities
Though
the scope of our imagination with
all
be
infinite, t'he results
of our construction are definitely
determined as soon as
we have
laid their foundation,
and the actual
world
is
simply one realization of the
infinite potentialities of being.
Its regularities
can be unraveled as surely as the harmonic relations
of a magic square.

Facts are just as
can but gain a clue

their nature,
much determined as our thoughts, and if we to their formation we can solve the problem of
and are enabled to predict their occurrence and sometimes even to adapt them to our own needs and purposes.
study of magic squares
may have no
practical application,
if
it
but an acquaintance with them will certainly prove useful,
were merely to gain an insight into the fabric of regularities of any

kind.
p. c.
(SOME CURIOUS MAGIC SQUARES AND\:OMBINATIONS.

TV curious and interesting magic squares and combinations <*** have been devised by the ingenious, a selection of which will
TAN Y
be given in the following pages, some of the examples being unrepresented for the
first
time in print.
__
one corner diagonal is composed of. odd numbers and the other corner diagonal of even numbers. It is stated that no square can be made which has a perrig. 275 possesses the unusual feature that
/2
/o
burs.
In this square the numbers
to
16 are arranged in symline.

I
metrical order in relation to the heavy center

Fig. 276
is
peculiar in
having the
I
numbers
and 2
in the
same
row, and Fig. 277 contains

combinations being unusual.
and 3
in the
same row, both of these
The
curious irregularities of tto 6

first
ferred to in the
X -6 magic squares were reand many unsuccessful attempts have chapter,

this order.
been made to construct regular squares of
novel and
174
SOME CURIOUS MAGIC SQUARES AND /COMBINATIONS.
interesting
6X6
square
is
illustrated
work
entitled
Games,
Ancient and Oriental by Geo. Falkene/,* and is here reproduced in It will be seen however/that the two corner diagonals Fig. 278.
of this square do not the
sum HI,
rût
by a jtransposition of some of
corrected, an
figure^
this imperfection
shown
in Fig. 279.
Other transpositions are also possible which

/6
will effect the
same
SOME CURIOUS MAGIC SQUARES AND COMBINATIONS.

3.
175
The
sixteen
2X2
sub-squares have a constant summation
of 130.
4.
Each quarter contains four

of which
3X3
squares the corner numbers
sum
130.
is
5.
Any
has
5X5
its
square which
contained within the
8X8 square
same
corner numbers in arithmetical sequence.

is
very interesting class of squares

pp. 337-338
referred to in the
work on
and 339 as follows:
''The Rev. A. H. Frost, while a missionary for

India, of the
many
years in
Church Missionary
Society, interested himself in his
76
adepts in the formation of such squares from time immemorial, not
only does Mr. Frost give his an Indian name, aad Mr. KooBon^ywci
hia ^Cfti9Btt"a foealitu
1*11
Eaotorn Eui'opc, not only
is
one of these
squares represented over the gate of Gwalior, while the natives of

India wear them as amulets, but
La Loubere, who wrote

is
in
1693,
expressly calls them .'Indian Squares.'
"In these Indian squares
it
necessary not merely that the
summation of the rows, columns and diagonals should be alike, but that the numbers of such squares should be so harmoniously balanced that the summation of any eight numbers in one direction as in the moves of a bishop or a knight should also fre alike."
An
slight
example of one of these squares

it
is
given in Fig. 282 and
examination will show
to be of the
same order as the
6
52
'7
J2
JO
5
20
/o
J/
29
Fig. 283.
26
2*
Fig. 284.
"Jaina" square described by Dr. Carus in a previous chapter (p.

125
ff.),
but having enlarged characteristics consequent on

It will
its
in-
crease in size.
be seen
-that
the extraordinary properties as
quoted above
cell in
in italics exist in this square, so that starting
from any
the square, any eight
numbers that are covered by eight con-
secutive similar
moves
will
sum
260.
In addition to this the
num-
bers in every
2X2
I
sum 130
thus,
i -\-
square, whether taken actually or constructively, 16 61 16 130 and I 52 -f 58 55
130, also
58
+4
+ + +3
1
etc
Furthermore, (as in the
Jaina square) the properties of this square will necessarily remain
unchanged
if
columns are taken from one side and put on the other,

or
if
177
it
they are removed from the top to the bottom, or vice versa,
-being a perfectly continuous square in every direction.
The wonderful symmetry

tion to the
of this square naturally invites atten-
method of
its
construction,
which
is
very simple, as
I
may
be seen by following the natural sequence of the numbers

in Fig.
to 32
half of the series.
283 which shows the disposition of the numbers of the first The second half is simply a constructive repeti-
tion of the first half.
The numbers
similarly
of this square are arranged

located cells
i
symmetrically
in
relation to
in
diagonally
opposite quarters, thus, (referring to Fig. 282)
+ 64 = 65
and
61
=65
etc.
This feature permits the completion of Fig. 283
by
filling in
the vacant cells at
random with
their respective differ-
ences between 65 and the various numbers already entered.
square constructed by the same method Fig. 284 shows and having similar properties, with natural limitations due to its
small
size.
34X4
This square strikingly resembles the Jaina square as
(See Fig. 222, p. 127) the numbers and arrangement of same in the two corner diagonal columns being identical in both squares, while the other numbers are differently
modified by Dr. Carus,
located.
an original square contributed by Mr. L. S. Frierson, which combines to a limited extent some of the curious
Fig. 285
is
8X8
characteristics of the Franklin
and the Jaina or Indian squares.

:
It
possesses the following properties

1.
Considered as a whole
it is
an 8
X8
magic square.
2.
3.
Each quarter
magic square. The four central horizontal columns make two

squares.
is
in itself a
4X4 magic
4. It contains twenty-five
2X2
squares, each having a con-
stant
5.
summation of
130.
It also
contains twenty-four
3X3
squares, the four corner
cells
6. 7.
of which have a constant summation of 130.
Any
In
4X4 square has a constant summation of 520. any 5X5 square the four corner cells contain numbers
rectangular parallelogram which
is
in arithmetical sequence.
8.
Any
concentric with
178

any of the nine sub-centers contains numbers
cells that will
in its corner
sum
130,
excepting when
the diagonals of
side of the
any of the four sub-squares of 4

parallelogram.
9.
X4
form one
Any
octagon of two
cells
on a
side, that is concentric
with
any of the nine sub-centers will have a constant summation

of 260.
10.
No
may
less
than 192 columns of eight consecutive numbers
be found having the constant summation of 260 as

:
follows (See Fig. 286)
/\
/\
>
y /\
X
Fig. 285.
Fig. 286.
Horizontal columns
8 8
(
Perpendicular columns Perpendicular zig-zags

Horizontal zig-zags
to
Ai )
(A
to
A2)
to
8
2
Corner diagonals
Constructive diagonals
(D
Di )
Bent diagonals (as
in
Franklin squares) (T to T\ and

16
to
To)
Columns
partly straight and partly zig-zag (as V toV\) 88 Columns partly diagonal and partly zig-zag (as Pto Dj) 32
Double bent diagonal columns (as
to
N)
16
Total
192
179
Mr
Frierson has also constructed an 8
X8
square shown in
it
Fig. 287,
which
is
still
more curious than {he
last one, in that
perfectly combines the
salient features of the Franklin
and the In-
dian squares,
viz.,
the bent and the continuous diagonals, besides
6o 5 9 y x^y
,
,
JTJ
sz
s/
i^^y
66
62
/6
66
/o
60
ss
SO
39 /O
29
66
60
2-4
33
42
4/
4-7
60
39
46 26
Fig. 287.
2O\4S 66
Fig. 288.
29\Z8\4O yv y
exhibiting
many
other interesting properties,

:
some of which may
be mentioned as follows
1.
Any
2 square has a constant summation of 130,

cells
2.
The corner The corner

The corner
to
of any
3X3
square which
lies
wholly to
the right or left of the axis

3.
cells
of any
AB sum 130. 2X4, 2X6 or 2X8
rectangle
perpendicular to
4.
AB
cells
and symmetrical therewith sum 130. of any 2 X 7 or 3 X 6 rectangle diagonal

12
AB sum
130, as
19 +46 =
5.
+ 50 + 45 + 23 =
5X5
130,
49
+ 16 +
130
etc., etc.
The corner
cells
of any
square contain numbers in
arithmetical progression.
6.
7.
8.
Any Any Any
constructive diagonal column
sums 260.
bent diagonal sums 260.

reflected diagonal
sums
260.
in dotted lines
(NOTE: Reflected diagonals are shown
on Fig. 287.)
By
dividing this square into quarters, and subdividing each
quarter into four
2X2
squares, the
numbers
will
be found sym-
i8o
metrically arranged in relation to cells that are similarly located in
diagonally opposite
65, 57 + 8 = 65
etc.
2X2
squares in each quarter, thus
64
+ =
i
2TL
36
23 24
fS ss
/o
Af
/f
JY /J
/z
3/5
60
JTJ
zo
26
60
/Z 22
to
27 2S
29
fS
J/
'7
J/
Fig. 289.
JJ
Fig. 290.
2.4-
49
Another
which
its
8X8
square by Mr. Frierson

for
its
is
given in Fig. 288
is
alike remarkable
constructive simplicity and for
curious properties.
principal features of the
Like Fig. 287 this square combines the Indian and the Franklin squares in its
bent and continuous diagonal columns.

the remaining numbers
181
may
be
filled in at
random
as explained in
connection with the
8X8
Indian square (Fig. 283).
Two
other examples of the Frierson squares showing inter-
esting constructive features are given in Figs. 289 and 290.
The
/Z7 /03
9Z
/OS
?2 /S
/zs /o?
22,
/Z2
2-4
S30
7>
77
/6
//J
33
<so
/zo
4-$
"7
/o
S'2.
//
/oo //
Fig. 293.
scheme followed
in these squares
may
also be
employed
in
making
magic rectangles, two examples of which are given in Figs. 291 and 292. In Fig. 292 the numbers are arranged in the following
series before they are entered in the rectangle:
l82

1
.
9
IO
ii
13
17
21
25
29 30
31
2
3
6
7
14
15
l8 19
22 23
26
12
16
20
24
27 28
32
Figs. 293 and 294 are ingenious combinations of 4

also devised
X4
squares
by Mr. Frierson.
features.
Fig. 293
It
is
a magic cross which
possesses
many unique
contains the almost incredible
number of 160,144
different
columns of twenty-one numbers which
sum
1471.
Fig. 294.
Some
of the properties found in the magic pentagram Fig. 294
may
162.
be stated as follows:
Each
It
4X4
324,
rhombus
is
perfectly magic, with
summations of
therefore follows that from any point to the next the
num-
bers
is
sum
and also that every bent row of eight numbers which
parallel with the rows from point to point sums 324.
In each
4X4 4X4
rhombus there are
five others
of 2
whose
numbers sum
162, also four others of 3
3,
the corner numbers of
which sum 162.

In each
numbers,
viz.,
rhombus, every number ends with one of two o and I, 2 and 9, 3 and 8, 4 and 7, 5 and 6.

Modifications of the concentric magic squares (described in the
first
chapter) have been devised by Mr. Frierson, two examples of

in Figs.
which are shown
295 and 296.
//
184
eighteen constructive diagonals possess the continuous feature of

the Indian squares, as
^~
shown by dotted
trip
lines, a-nd it-k> possible that

in thr a
by proper trnnnpnnitirm of
tho diagonalo
i
numhm
^ subdivisions
be nude conliuuoua throughout the square:

j**
-^ /y'^^f.ât^f^ **
'2^*^X-0sC^^'
'^&LSi^&^Sf
>
:r^-/>
<
("}
*f<t
CHAPTER
VIM
NOTES ON VARIOUS CONSTRUCTIVE PLANS BY WHICH MAGIC SQUARES MAY

BE CLASSIFIED.
AN
-**
the square
odd magic square must necessarily have a central cell, and \i is to be f*iiWt,1:his cell must be occupied by the
series,
middle number of the
around which the other num(
bers must be arranged and balanced in pairs, the
sum
of each pair
being
n--\-\.
Although
in 5
and larger odd squares the pairs
of numbers are capable of arrangement in a multitude of different
ways
is
relative to each other as pairs, yet
when one number

two numbers
of a pair
located, the position of the other
number becomes
fixed in order
that are
to satisfy the rule that the
metrically equidistant
symfrom the center number must equal twice that
sum
of any
number, or
/r-f-1.
is
In an even magic square, however, there
no central
cell
and
is
no middle number
in the series, so the
method of construction
not thus limited, but the pairs of numbers which
sum
n~-\-\
may
be harmoniously balancqd either around the center of the square,

as in
odd squares, or
in a variety of other
ways.
Mr. L. S Frierson has cleverly

types of even squares
utilized this feature as the basis
for a series of constructive plans, according to which the various
may
be
classified.
He
may
~
has shown
eleven different plansLwhich
with
4X4
squares, nnrl
Tr-
be used in connection
These constructive
plans,
clearly
differential^ the
various types of e*pR
squares,
there being for exa
l86
NOTES ON VARIOUS CONSTRUCTIVE PLANS.

for
another plan
the
Franklin squares, another for the
Indiinr
or continuous squares and so forth, so that a knowledge of these

plans
makes
it
easy to classify
all
X4
squares.
Six of the eleven
plans given by Mr. Frierson cover distinct methods of arrangement,

the remaining
&** plans being made up of various combinations.
PLAN NO.
In this plan, which
is
I.
probably the simplest of
all,
the pairs of
numbers
that
sum n +l
2
are arranged symmetrically in adjacent
/6
i8 7
According to this plan the pairs of numbers are arranged symmetrically on each side of the central axis, one-half of the elements
being adjacent to each other, and the other half constructively adjacent as shown in Figs. 303 and 304. This arrangement furnishes
the Franklin squares
when expanded
to 8
X 8,
providing that the
numbers
in all
2X2
sub-squares are arranged to
sum 130 (See
Figs. 305 and 306).
If this condition is not fulfilled, only half of
JZ
i88
PLAN NO.
5.
The
pairs of
numbers
in this
it
plan are arranged in alternate
cells in the diagonal
columns, and
produces the continuous squares
which have been termed Jaina, Nasik and IndiaH squares. Fig. 309 is the Jaina square as modified by Dr. Carus (Fig. 222, p. 127) and Fig. 310 shows the arrangement of the pairs of numbers. The
Fig. 309.
Fig. 310.
diagram of the Jikliaii square Fig. 282 is a simple expansion of Fig. 310, and the diagram of the Frierson square Fig. 287 shows
a design like Fig. 310 repeated in each of
its
four quarters.
PLAN NO.
6.
Under
rically
numbers are balanced symmet- (\ u around the center of the square, and a^-this arrangement is
this plan the pairs of
common
to
all
fmi full
ulid
squares, tho even
jquuwu oho wing
rr
J*
Fig. 311.
Fig. 312.
Fig. 311 shows
form
of 4
X 4 square, the diagrammatic plan being given
inJPig. 312.
189
PLAN NO.
Magic squares on
this plan
7.
are formed by combining plans
Fig. 313-
Fig. 3I4-
Xos.
314.
to 3, a square
and
its
diagram being shown
in
Figs 313 and
This plan covers another combination^ of plans

Figs. 315
and
3,
and
and 316 show square and diagram.
Fig. 315-
Fig. 316.
PLAN NO.
This
is
9.
a combination of plans 2 and

in Figs.
3,
a square and
its dia-
gram being given
317 and 318.
Fig. 317-
Fig. 318:
190
PLAN NO.
This
is
IO.
also a combination of plans 2
and 3 and
is
illustrated in
Figs. 319 and 320.

/J
Fig. 319.
Fig. 320.
is
square
is
made
in accord-
ance with plan No.
2,
but in the
tewr
half the pairs of

is
numbers
any plan
are located apart by knight's moves, which

hitherto considered.
Tt
ir
different to
imin
Fig. 321.
Fig. 322.
Figs. 321
and 322 show
even squares larger than 4

great diversity of design.
A
f
fun ciiamploo or 6
4 these plans naturally exhibit X 6 squares with
Their respective plans are

clusive, in tt
i
given^m
Figs. 323' -3^, to
\jf
e^c^C^*^ <&pj
if
3^, %g\. inct~> &a^3y/

C<J-**^ e"'

Figs. 337
and 53$ are
identical with
6X6
squares shown on
pages 19 and 24.
All squares of this class have the
same charac-
190
PLAN NO.
This
is
10.
also a combination of plans 2
and 3 and
is
illustrated in
Figs. 319 and 320.

/2

Figs. 337
and 33^ are

24.
identical with
6X6
squares shown on
pages 19 and
All squares of this class have the same charac-
192

in
worthy of notice apart by knight's moves.
having eight pairs of numbers located Figs. 53^ ^&, and igg illustrate another
It will
6X6
square with
its
plan and numerical diagram.
be seen
Z8
23
33
6
8
J/ SO
/6
it IS 19 $0
CHAPTER
IX
THE MATHEMATICAL VALUE OF MAGIC

SQUARES.
THE following from paper

Vol.
quotations bearing on the above subject are cop-
entitled "Magic Squares and Other Problems a ied on a Chessboard" by Major P. A. MacMahon, R. A., D. Sc., F.R.S.,
published in Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain,
XVII, No. 96, pp. 50-61, Feb. 4, 1892. "The construction of magic squares is an amusement of great
;
antiquity
we hear
of their being constructed in India and China
before the Christian era, while they appear to have been introduced
into
Europe by Moscopulus who flourished
at Constantinople early
in the fifteenth century."
"However, what was at first merely a practice of magicians and talisman makers has now for a long time become a serious Not that they have imagined that it study for mathematicians.
would lead them
to anything of solid advantage, but because the
it
theory was seen to be fraught with difficulty, and

possible that
was considered
some new properties of numbers might be discovered

This has
in
which mathematicians could turn to account.

proved to be the case, for
has been found to
fact
from a certain point of view the subject be algebraical rather than arithmetical and to be
and the 'theory
intimately connected with great departments of science such as the

'infinitesimal calculus,' the 'calculus of operations/
of groups.'
'
"No
person living knows in
how many ways
it
is
possible to
fact is form a magic square of any order exceeding 4X4that before we can attempt to enumerate magic squares we must
The
see our
way
to solve
problems of a far more simple character."
THE MATHEMATICAL VALUE OF MAGIC SQUARES.

"To
195
say and to establish that problems of the general nature
of the magic square are intimately connected with the infinitesimal calculus and the calculus of finite differences is to sum the
matter up."
It is
therefore evident that this field of study

if
is
by no means
limited,
and
this
may
be said in connection with magic squares
the statement will naturally apply with a larger
meaning
to the
consideration of magic cubes.
INDEX.
Abraham ben
Acoustic
163.
Ezra, 124.
Chladni,
117-120,
Compound magic
squares, 44ff.
47ff.
;
figures,
Concentric magic squares,

ifications of, 183.
Mod-
Alternation, Squares constructed by,

I02-II2.
Confucius, 123. Constructive plans, Notes on various, i84ff.
Andrews, W. S., Archimedes, 166.

Archytus,
158.
113, 114,
125,
126.
Grantor, 164.
Aristotle, 161, 163, 166.
De
10.
Arrow heads
indicating sequence,
Astronomer Poet (The) Omar,
167.
la Hire's method of constructing odd magic squares, 13-14, 17; even magic squares, 34ff.
Donaldson, i6in. Diirer's picture, Melancholy,

Babylonia, Magic square in, 123. Bachet de Mezeriac's method of constructing odd magic squares, 17-18. Batteux's series of the Pythagorean
156, 157.
Egypt, Magic diagrams Even magic cubes, 76ff.

ff.
;
in,
;
156.
squares by
De
squares, 18 la Hire's method,
harmonic
106,
scale, 164-165.
34ff.
Binate transposition, Alternation by,
Ezra,
Abraham
ben, 124.
in.
;
in odd magic squares, 7 Examples of, 8. Browne, C. A., 168, 169 Magic square (27X27) of, 160, 168.
;
Breakmoves
Falkener, Geo.
Games Ancient and

(o, ro,
i,
Modern, 174. Figures, Order of
ri}, 79,
Burge,
164,
165.
Franklin, Benjamin, 89, 93, 94, 105, 112; Letters and Papers on Philovi, i, 79, 83, 87, 112,
Caissa, 176; Squares of, 175.
Carus, Dr. Paul,
sophical Subjects by, 89; Parton's Life and Times of, 96.
128, 163, 172, 176.
Franklin
Squares, 88,
179,
184,
89ff.,
94,
95,
Chessboard, Magic squares and other
in,
177,
185;
Properties
problems on
a, 193.
of, 96, 98.
China, Magic square in, 122, 125, 193. Chinese Philosophy (Dr. Paul Carus)
in.
Frenicle, 89. Frierson, L. S., 62, 155, 173, 177, 179, 180, 183, 184 ; Magic cross of, 181
;
Chinese Reader's Manual (Mayers),

123.
Pentagram
of,
182;
Squares
of,
Chladni acoustic figures, 117-120,

Cicero, 161.
163.
177-188. Frost, Rev. A. H., 175.
Fuh-Hi,
122.
Collinson, Peter, 89.
Fujisawa, Prof., 124.
198
INDEX.
Magic rectangles, 181. Magic squares, and combinations, 173 ff. and other problems on the chessboard, 193 and Pythagorean
; ;
Games Ancient and Modern (Geo.

Falkener), 174. Golden Verses, 159. Great Britain, Proceedings of the
Royal Institute
of, 193.
numbers,
I02ff.
;
56ff.,
175; by alternation,
44ff.
;
Gwalior, India, 176.
Compound,
;
Concen;
tric, 47ff.
Harmonic Harmonic
164.
figures, 157.
scale,
Concentric modified, 183 Construction of, 14, 54ff., 185 ff.

I
;
Pythagorean,
163,
Definition of,
i;
Earliest record of,

34ff.;
Even,
i8ff.,
Franklin, 88,
Harmony of the spheres, vi. Hire's (De la) method of constructing even magic squares, 34^.; odd magic squares, 13-14, 17Ho, Map of, 122.
8gfi., 94, 95,
in; Franklin analyzed

;
by Dr. Carus,
Frierson, 177; 96ff. Frierson's analysis of, 129; Indian
(La Loubere), 176;

I25ff.,
Jaina, 87, 94,
176,
177;
in
symbols,
of,
;
120;
ff.
;
Mathematical
study
in, 4,
129
Number
India, 123, 125, 176, 193.
series in, I48ff.
Odd,
iff.
Indian magic squares, 176, 177, I79>

185, 187, 188.
Knight's
tions
move
5-7;
Varia-
Jaina, inscription in Khajuraho, India, 124; square, 87, 94, I25ff., 176,
177
square modified by Dr. Carus,
127, 177, 188.
in, 140; with predetermined summations, 54. Map of Ho, The, 122. Mathematical study of magic squares, value of magic squares, 193. i29ff. Mayers, 123. Melancholy, Picture of, by Albert
;
Jones, Sir William, 175.
Diirer, 156, 157.
Jowett, 158, 161.
Mezeriac's
(Bachet de) method of constructing odd Magic squares, 17.

193.
Kensington Museum, South, Kesson, Mr., 176.
175.
Moscopulus,
don),
175.
Museum, South Kensington, (Lon-
Khajuraho (India), Jaina

in 125.
inscription
Kielhorn, Prof., 124, 125.
Nasik squares and cubes,
175.
Knight's
4, 5-7-
move
in
magic squares, The
Number
series,
I48ff.
Odd magic
La Loubere,
..Subjects
89.
cubes, 64ff.
General notes
176.
on, 84ff.
Letters and Papers on Philosophical
Odd magic
17;
squares,
iff.;
Bachet de
(By Benjamin Franklin),
Mezeriac's method of constructing,
Breakmoves
in,
7.
in,
7;
;
Examples
Life and
lin
Times of Benjamin Frank(By James Parton), 96.

122.
v,
of breakmoves
ciples of,
General prinpoet, 167.

i,
Logan, Mr., 89, 91. Loh, The Scroll of, Lusus Numerorum,
Omar, the astronomer

Orders of
figures,
168, 171.
(o, ro,
ri,}
79,
MacMahon, Major P. A., 193. Magic cubes, Characteristics of, 64;

General notes on, 84ff.
;
Parton, James, 96, 100.
Even, 76ff
Pentagram, Magic, 182. "Phaedrus" of Plato, 158.

Philolaus, 158, 167.
Odd,
64ff.
INDEX.
Philosophical Subjects by Benjamin Franklin, Letters and Papers on, 89.
Schilling, Prof., 124. Schleiermacher, i6in.
199
Philosophy, Chinese (Dr. Paul Carus)

in.
;
Pythagorean,
;
158.
Plato, I58ff. 169. Platonic school, 167.
Schneider, 16111. Schubert, Prof. Hermann, 44, i6in. Scroll of Loh, The, 122.
Plutarch, 156, 159, 160, 164, i66n. "Politics" of Aristotle, 103.
Smith, Prof. David Eugene, 124. Soul, Procreation of the, 159, 164,
166.
Predetermined summations, Magic

squares with, 54. Proceedings of the
"Soul
of
the
World and Nature"
Royal Institute
of Great Britain, 193. "Procreation of the Soul" (Plutarch),

159, 164, 16611.
(Timaeus), 164. South Kensington don) 175.

Spheres,
Museum
of the,
vi.
(Lon-
Harmony
Stifelius, 92.
Pythagoras,
v,
123,
124,
157,
166;
Summations, Magic squares with

predetermined, 54. Symbols, Magic squares
Tetractys, 159, 161. "Timaeus" of Plato,
i66n.
in,
Harmonic
of,
scale of, 163-164; School

of,
Philosophy Pythagorean numbers,

157;
158.
120.
i56ff.
Quaternate transposition, Alternation

by, 109.
158,
159,
164,
Queen, The,
175.
Timaeus the Locrian,

Transposition,
112.
164.
Alternation
by,
106-
Rectangles, Magic, 181. Reflections on magic squares, 79, 87,

H3ff.
Various constructive plans, Notes on,

of
Plato,
158, 163, 166,
"Republic"
167, 168.
Ventres, D. B., 86.

of
Royal Proceedings
Scheffler's
Institute
Great Britain,
193.
Verses, Golden, 159.

Virgil, 124.
of,
(Prof.)
method of con14.
Yang and
Yih King,
yin, 122.
122.
structing magic squares,
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1908 - W.S. Andrew - Magic Squares and Cubes

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GIFT OF

SQUARES AND CUBES

THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY.

THE OPEN COURT

an ancient Tibetan magic square.

Odd Magic Cubes

The Franklin Squares

Analysis of the Franklin Squares.

Magic Squares. The Order of Figures

Magic Squares in Symbols The Magic Square in China

The Jaina Square

Mathematical Study of Magic Squares.

A New Analysis A Study of the Possible Number

Magic Squares.. 140 the Construction of Magic

Some Curious Magic Squares and Combinations

The Mathematical Value

peculiar interest of magic squares and

in general lies in the fact that they possess the

preconceived plan produces the impression of intentional design, a

close analogue in nature.

symmetry of mathematics, throwing thereby

upon the order

turn, in the infinitesimally small interrelations of

which, although of a different kind and

domain of the starry heavens, an order still more intricate, is also

traceable in the development of organized

complex domain of human

are a visible instance of the intrinsic

of the laws of number, and

are thrilled with joy at beholding

reflects the glorious

symmetry of the cosmic

at first sight mystifying, but

on a more intimate acquainto be intrinsically necessary; and this

law of number explains the wondrous consistency of the laws of

Magic squares are conspicuous

harmony of number, and so they

nature of mathematics, and, incidentally, the nature of existence

dominated by mathematical regularity. harmony of mathematics as well as the

illustrate the intrinsic

create a universe of figures by the process of

geometry we create another universe by drawing

in the abstract field of imagination, laying in algebra

abstract nature, ex-

cosmic world has been called by Pythagoras "the harmony of

clearly than mathematics,

a ray of the symmetry of the divine

in all things, in the

not less than in the mysterious depths of the

immeasurable immensity of the cosmos human mind.

squares are of themselves only mathematical curios,

but they involve principles whose unfolding should lead the

to a higher conception of the wonderful laws

THE GENERAL QUALITIES

the^ame amounBL These

)DD MAGIC SQUARES.

covers the smallest ag-

gregation of numbers that

magic square arrangement,

also the only possible

be seen that the

of each of the three vertical, the three

two opposite numbers

twice the center