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1

1 Nomenclature
Roman V velocity m.s
1
a acceleration m.s
2
w specic work energy J.kg
1
A area m
2
W work energy J
a speed of sound m.s
1
x dryness fraction -
D diameter m z change of elevation m
D
h
hydraulic diameter m
f Fanning friction factor -
F force N Greek
F view factor - absorptivity -
g acceleration due to gravity m.s
2
volume expansion coecient -
C heat capacity J.K
1
boundary layer thickness m
c
p
const pressure specic heat capacity J.kg
1
.K
1
wall roughness m
c
v
const volume specic heat capacity J.kg
1
.K
1
eectiveness -
COP coecient of performance - emisivity -
e specic energy J.kg
1
eciency -
E energy J ratio of specic heats (
cp
cv
) -
h convective heat transfer coecient W.m
2
.K
1
dynamic viscosity Pa.s
h specic enthalpy J.kg
1
kinematic viscosity m
2
.s
1
H enthalpy J density kg.m
3
k loss coecient - reectivity -
k thermal conductivity W.m
1
.K
1
Stefan-Boltzmann constant W.m
2
.K
4
K bulk modulus Pa or N.m
2
shear streass N.m
2
L length or length scale m transmitivity -
m mass kg T torque N.m
1
M molecular mass kg.mol
1
angular velocity s
1
n number of moles -
n polytropic index - Other
N Avagadros number mol
1
X
1,2,3..etc
location or instantaneous value of X -
p pressure Pa or N.m
2
x, y, z, r, spacial coordinates, radius and angle -
P perimeter m X nite change of X -
q specic heat energy J.kg
1
X innitesimal change of X -
Q heat energy J

X rate of X -
R radius m

X a vector X -
R thermal resistance K.W
1
X

critical value of X -
R specic gas constant J.kg
1
.K
1
X

stagnation value of X -

R universal gas constant (8.314510


3
) J.mol
1
.K
1
X

value of X at STP -
s specic entropy J.kg
1
.K
1
X average of X -
S entropy J.K
1
X

modied value of X -
t time s X
i
inlet value of X -
T temperature K X
e
exit value of X -
u specic internal energy J.kg
1
X
H
hot value of X -
U internal energy J X
C
cold value of X -
U overall heat transfer coecient W.m
2
.K
1
X
f
value of X at saturated liquid -
v specic volume m
3
.kg
1
X
g
value of X at saturated vapour -
V volume m
3
X
fg
change in X between X
f
and X
g
-
2 Material Properties
2.1 Viscosity variation with temperature
Exponential model for liquids:
=
0
10
B
(TC)
(1)
where
0
, B and C are constants.
For water
0
=2.41410
5
Pa.s, B=247.8 K and C=140 K.
2
Poiseuille formula for dynamic viscosity:
=
0
_
1
1 +AT +BT
2
_
(2)
where
0
, A and B are constants and T is the temperature in

C.
For water, the value of
0
is 0.00179 Pa.s, and the values of constants A and B are 0.033368

C
1
and 0.000221

C
2
,
respectively.
2.2 Material properties for air and water
Temp. Water Temp. Air at 1 atm
(10
3
) k c
p
(10
6
) k c
p

C Pa.s kg.m
3
W.m
1
.K
1
kJ.kg
1
.K
1
C Pa.s kg.m
3
W.m
1
.K
1
kJ.kg
1
.K
1
10 1.31 1000 0.59 4.195 -150 8.60 2.79 0.012 1.026
20 1 998 0.6 4.182 -100 11.8 1.98 0.016 1.009
25 0.91 997 0.61 4.178 -50 14.6 1.53 0.020 1.005
30 0.8 996 0.62 4.167 0 17.2 1.29 0.024 1.005
40 0.65 992 0.63 4.175 20 18.2 1.21 0.026 1.005
50 0.55 988 0.64 4.178 40 19.1 1.13 0.027 1.005
60 0.47 983 0.65 4.181 60 20.2 1.07 0.029 1.009
70 0.4 978 0.66 4.187 80 20.9 1.00 0.030 1.009
80 0.36 971 0.67 4.194 100 21.8 0.95 0.031 1.009
90 0.32 965 0.68 4.202 200 25.8 0.62 0.039 1.026
100 0.28 958 0.68 4.211 400 32.7 0.52 0.052 1.068
3 Newtons laws of motion
Newtons laws of motion
First Every object remains in a state of rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by a (nett) force.
Second F = ma
Third For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Equations of linear motion
V
2
= V
1
+at (3)
x
2
= x
1
+V
1
t +
1
2
a (t)
2
(4)
x
2
= x
1
+
1
2
(V
2
+V
1
) t (5)
V
2
2
= V
2
1
+ 2a (x
2
x
1
) (6)
4 Fluid Mechanics
4.1 Fluid Statics
Pascals law
dp
dz
= g (7)
Force on a submerged plane
y
p
=
I
G
A.y
G
+y
G
(8)
where y
p
is the distance to the centre of pressure and y
G
is distance to the centre of gravity, measured along the surface
of the plane. I
G
is the second moment of area about the centroid, A is the area of the submerged plane.
3
4.2 Flow in pipes
Continuity
m = V A (9)
d m
dt
= m
in
m
out
(10)
Hydraulic mean diameter
D
h
=
4 A
P
(11)
The Hagen-Poiseuille equation
V =
1
4
dp
dx
_
R
2
r
2
_
(12)

V =
pR
4
8L
(13)
Steady ow Energy Equation (SFEE)
p
in
+
V
2
in
2
+gz
in
+w
p
= p
out
+
V
2
out
2
+gz
out
+w
f
+w
t
(14)
where w
f
is the volumetric work lost due to friction, w
p
is the volumetric work supplied by a pump and w
t
is the
volumetric work generated by a turbine.
Darcys Equation for losses in long pipes
w
f
= 4f
L
D
V
2
2
(15)
Fanning friction factors
f =
16
Re
laminar ow (16)
f = (0.79ln (Re
D
) 1.64)
2
(17)
1

f
= 1.8log
10
_
6.9
Re
+
_
1
3.71

D
_
1.11
_
(18)
Typical pipe roughnesses given below:
Material Roughness (mm)
Coarse concrete 0.25
Smooth concrete 0.025
Drawn tubing 0.0025
Glass, Plastic, Perspex 0.0025
Cast Iron 0.15
Old Sewers 3.0
Mortar lined steel 0.1
Rusted steel 0.5
Forged steel 0.025
Old water mains 1.0
Loss coecient for piping network components
w
f
= k
V
2
2
(19)
where k is the loss coecient,
values of k are given in table below:
4
Component k
Sharp Entry 0.5
Rounded Entry 0.25
Contraction (50% area) 0.24
Contraction (50% diameter,based on V
2
) 0.35
Expansion (based on V
2
)
_
A2
A1
1
_
180
o
elbow 0.9
90
o
elbow 0.9
45
o
elbow 0.4
Globe valve (open) 10
Angle valve (open) 2
Gate valve (open) 0.15
Gate valve (25% closed) 0.25
Gate valve (50% closed) 2.1
Gate valve (75% closed) 17
Angle valve (open) 2
Swing check valve (open) 2
Ball valve (open) 17
Ball valve (33% closed) 5.5
Ball valve (66% closed) 200
Diaphragm valve (open) 2.3
Diaphragm valve (50% closed) 4.3
Diaphragm valve (75% closed) 21
Water meter 7
Moody Diagram:
5
4.3 Conservation of linear momentum
Force on uid in control volume
F = m
out
V
out
m
in
V
in
(20)
4.4 Lift and drag
Lift force
F
L
= C
L
1
2
V
2
A (21)
where C
L
is the coecient of lift
Drag force
F
D
= C
D
1
2
V
2
A (22)
where C
D
is the coecient of drag
Coecients of skin friction drag for laminar ow over at plate
C
D
=
1.328

Re
_
Re < 10
5
_
(23)
Coecients of skin friction drag for turbulent ow over at plate
C
D
=
0.074
Re
0.2
_
10
5
< Re < 10
7
_
(24)
C
D
=
0.455
(log(Re))
2.58
_
10
7
< Re < 10
9
_
(25)
Coecients of form drag around a cylinder
C
D
=
24
Re
(Re < 1) (26)
4.5 Compressible ow
Isothermal compressible ow in a constant cross section pipe, neglecting change in gravitational potential energy
p
2
2
= p
2
1
+ 2RT
_
m
A
_
2
ln
_
p
2
p
1
_

4fL
D
RT
_
m
A
_
2
(27)
Speed of sound
a =

=
_
RT (28)
Change in velocity with area of nozzel
V
V
=
A
A
1
1 M
2
(29)
SFEE for isentropic compressible ow
1
2
V
2
1
+c
p
T
1
=
1
2
V
2
2
+c
p
T
2
(30)
Adiabatic, isentropic, compressible ow
T
2
T
1
=
_
p
2
p
1
_
(
1

)
T
2
T
1
=
_
v
1
v
2
_
1
(31)
Stagnation conditions
T
T
0
=
1
1 +M
2
1
2
T = T
0
+
V
2
2c
p
(32)
p
p
0
=
1
_
1 +M
2
1
2


1
(33)
6
Critical conditions
T
T
0
=
2
+ 1
(34)
p
p
0
=
_
2
+ 1
_

1
(35)
where T and p are the critical temperature and pressure, respectively.
4.6 Water Hammer
Pressure drop due to water hammer.
p = V a (36)
Augmented bulk modulus (K) for non-rigid pipes.
1
K
=
1
K
+
D
tE
giving a =

(37)
where D is the internal diameter of the pipe, t is the thickness of the pipe wall and E is the Youngs modulus.

=
pD
2t
(38)
where

is the hoop stress, t is the thickness of the pipe wall and E is the Youngs modulus.
5 Heat Transfer
5.1 Thermal expansion
Linear expansion
L = L
1

3
T (39)
Area expansion
A = A
1
2
3
T (40)
Volumetric expansion
V = V
1
T (41)
where

3
is the coecient of linear expansion, sometimes referred to as in other texts.
5.2 1D heat transfer
Conduction

Q = k
A
L
T (42)
Conduction in thick walled cylinder

Q = 2kL
T
1
T
2
ln
_
R2
R1
_ (43)
Convection

Q = hAT (44)
where h can be found using the Nusselt number, given in equation 99.
Resistor analogy for composite surfaces

Q =
T
R
1
+R
2
+R
3
+. . . +R
n
(45)
7
R
cond,planar
=
L
kA
(46)
R
cond,clyind
=
ln
_
R2
R1
_
2kL
(47)
R
convect
=
1
hA
(48)
(49)
Radiation

Q = A
_
T
4
1
T
4
2
_
(50)
where is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, of 5.67051 10
8
W.m
2
.K
4
5.3 Radiation heat transfer view factors
Radiation equation with view factors

Q
ij
= A
i
F
ij

i
_
T
4
i
T
4
j
_
(51)
Reciprocity Relation
A
i
F
ij
= A
j
F
ji
(52)
5.4 Forced convection
For an isothermal at plate
Nu = 0.032Re
1
2
L
Pr
1
3
(53)
valid for Re
L
< 10
5
and 0.6 < Pr < 60.
Nu = 0.0296Re
4
5
L
Pr
1
3
(54)
valid for 10
8
> Re
L
> 10
5
and 0.6 < Pr < 60.
Nu = 0.037Re
4
5
L
Pr
1
3
(55)
valid for Re
L
> 10
8
and 0.6 < Pr < 60.
For an isothermal horizontal cylinder
Nu = CRe
m
D
Pr
1
3
(56)
C = 0.193, m = 0.618 for 4000 < Re < 40000 and C = 0.027, m = 0.805 for 40000 < Re < 400000.
Dittus-Boelter equation for forced convection in pipes.
Nu = 0.023Re
4
5
D
Pr
n
(57)
where n = 0.4 for heating uid and n = 0.3 for cooling uid. Valid for Re 10000 and 0.7 Pr 160
Log mean temperature dierence
T
LM
=
T
1
T
2
ln
T1
T2
(58)
Exit temperature (T
e
) for constant wall temperature pipe
T
e
= T
w
+ (T
i
T
w
) exp
_
hA
mc
p
_
(59)
where T
i
is the inlet temperature and temp
w
is the wall temperature.
8
5.5 Heat exchanger design
Capacity rates ( mc
p
)
C
min
= min(C
H
, C
C
) C
max
= max(C
H
, C
C
) C

=
C
min
C
max
(60)
Correction factor F
q = FUAT
LM
(61)
where F is a function of P and R:
P =
T
tube,o
T
tube,i
T
shell,i
T
tube,i
R =
C
tube
C
shell
=
T
shell,i
T
shell,o
T
tube,o
T
tube,i
(62)
Eectiveness-NTU

Q
max
= C
min
(T
H,i
T
C,i
) (63)
=

Q
act

Q
max
(64)
5.6 Natural convection
Free convection at a vertical wall (Churchill and Chu)
Nu
L
= 0.68 +
0.67Ra
1/4
L
_
1 + (
0.492
Pr
)
9/16

4/9
(65)
for Ra
L
10
9
.
For the horizontal surface with top surface of a hot object in a colder environment or bottom surface of a cold object in
a hotter environment.
Nu
L
= 0.54Ra
1
4
L
10
4
< Ra
L
< 10
7
(66)
Nu
L
= 0.15Ra
1
3
L
10
7
< Ra
L
< 10
11
(67)
(68)
For the horizontal surface with the bottom surface of a hot object in a colder environment or top surface of a cold object
in a hotter environment.
Nu
L
= 0.27Ra
1
4
L
10
5
< Ra
L
< 10
10
(69)
5.7 Combustion
Molar masses of atoms and heats of combustion of fuels
Chemical M (g.mol
1
) Fuel LCV (MJ.kg
1
) HCV (MJ.kg
1
)
H 1 Petrol 44.4 47.3
He 4 Diesel - 44.8
C 12 Ethanol (C
2
H
5
OH) - 29.7
N 14 Methane (CH
4
) 50 55.5
O 16 Ethane (C
2
H
6
) 47.8 51.9
Volume occupied by one mole, from the ideal gas equation
V
n
=

RT
p
(70)
At 1 bar and 25 degrees C, the recommended value is 24.5 litres per mole.
9
6 Thermodynamics
6.1 Laws of Thermodynamics
Zeroth If two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
First Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only change from one form to another.
Second The entropy of an isolated system not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value
at equilibrium.
Third As temperature approaches absolute zero, the entropy of a system approaches a constant minimum.
6.2 Method for Solving Thermodynamics Problems
Draw a simple picture
to represent the system
Decide a naming system
and label the picture
Draw a control volume
Decide if control volume
is open or closed,
steady or transient
Write down any relavent
equations
10
6.3 Conventions for Conservation of Energy
System
Surroundings
1
2
3 n
In nite form
E
1
+E
2
+E
3
+... +E
n
= E (71)
In rate form

E
1
+

E
2
+

E
3
+... +

E
n
=
dE
dt
(72)
6.4 Thermodynamic relations
Ratio of specic heats:
=
c
p
c
v
(73)
Enthaply
H = U +pV (74)
h = u +pv (75)
dh = c
p
dT (76)
Internal energy
du = c
v
dT (77)
Gas constant
R = c
p
c
v
R =

R
M
(78)
where

R = 8.314 kJ.kmol
1
K
1
Polytropic processes
pV
n
= constant (79)
where n is the polytropic constant.
Process n
Isochoric (const volume) n = inf
Isothermal (const temperature) n = 1
Isobaric (const pressure) n = 0
Isentropic (const entropy) n =
Entropy
q = sdT (80)
ds =
dq
T
(81)
s
2
s
2
= c
v
ln
T
2
T
1
+Rln
v
2
v
1
= c
p
ln
T
2
T
1
+Rln
p
2
p
1
(82)
11
Isentropic expansion and compression
T
2
T
1
=
_
p
2
p
1
_
(
1

)
=
_
v
1
v
2
_
(1)
p
2
p
1
=
_
T
2
T
1
_
(

1
)
=
_
v
1
v
2
_
()
v
2
v
1
=
_
T
1
T
2
_
(
1
1
)
=
_
p
1
p
2
_
(
1

)
(83)
The value of the ratio of specic heats, , can usually be considered to be 1.4 for air.
6.5 Gas Laws
Boyles law for a constant temperature (isothermal) process
pV = const p
1
V
1
= p
2
V
2
(84)
Charles law for a constant pressure (isobaric) process
V
T
= const
V
1
T
1
=
V
2
T
2
(85)
Gay-Lussacs law for constant volume (isochoric) process
p
T
= const
p
1
T
1
=
p
2
T
2
(86)
Ideal gas equation:
pV = n

RT (87)
pV = mRT (88)
pv = RT (89)
p = RT (90)
Thermodynamic properties of common gasses at STP.
Gas c
p
(kJ.kg
1
.K
1
) c
v
(kJ.kg
1
.K
1
) R (kJ.kg
1
.K
1
)
Air 1.005 0.718 1.40 0.287
Carbon dioxide 0.884 0.655 1.289 0.189
Hydrogen 14.32 10.16 1.41 4.12
Methane 2.22 1.70 1.30 0.518
Natural Gas 2.34 1.85 1.27 0.5
Nitrogen 1.04 0.743 1.40 0.297
Oxygen 0.919 0.659 1.40 0.260
6.6 Thermodynamic devices
Work done
W
12
=
_
2
1
pdV (91)
Heat engine thermal eciency:

th
=
w
q
H
(92)
where q
H
is the heat energy from the hot source.
Carnot thermal eciency:

th,car
= 1
T
L
T
H
(93)
COP of a heat pump and refrigerator:
COP
HP
=
q
H

W
in
COP
R
=
q
L

W
in
(94)
where q
L
is the heat energy from the cold source.
12
Carnot COP:
COP
HP
=
1
1
T
L
T
H
COP
R
=
1
T
H
T
L
1
(95)
Isentropic eciencies, compressors and turbines

C
=
h
out,s
h
in
h
out
h
in

T
=
h
in
h
out
h
in
h
out,s
(96)
Spark ignition and compression ignition engine thermal eciency.
SPARK :
th
= 1
_
1
r
1
v
_
COMPRESSION :
th
= 1
_
1
r
1
v
_
r

c
1
(r
c
1)
(97)
where r
c
is the cut o ration and r
v
is the compression ratio
7 Dimensionless Numbers
Reynolds number
Re =
UD

(98)
Nusselt number
Nu =
hL
k
(99)
Mach number
M =
V
a
(100)
Prandtl number
Pr =
c
p

k
(101)
Grashof number
Gr =
g
2
(T
S
T
f
) L
3

2
(102)
where is
1
T
for an ideal gas.
Rayleigh number
Ra = Gr Pr (103)
Biot number
Bi =
hL
k
(104)
8 Approximate Values for Quantities
8.1 Mass
10 g a pen
100 g mobile phone
500 g bottle of drink
1 kg house brick
1.5 kg bag of sugar
70 kg person
1000 kg mass of small car
1500 kg mass of family saloon
8.2 Length
8 cm nger
20 cm width A4 sheet
30 cm length A4 sheet
2 m door height
30 m Owen building
13
8.3 Volume
5 ml tea spoon
25 ml shot of whisky
330 ml can of coke
568 ml a pint of beer
750 ml bottle of wine
2 l bottle of coke
2,500,000 l Olympic swimming pool
8.4 Velocity
1.5 m/s walking
3 m/s running
10 m/s sprinter
13 m/s residential speed limit
30 m/s motorway speed limit
45 m/s British train
150 m/s good train
330 m/s speed of sound in air
8.5 Density
1.2 kg/m3 air
700 kg/m3 petrol
800 kg/m3 oil
1,000 kg/m3 water
2,700 kg/m3 aluminium
7,800 kg/m3 steel
13,500 kg/m3 mercury
8.6 Viscosity @ 20

C
110
5
Pa.s CO
2
/Ar/He/N
2
210
5
Pa.s air
0.000 6 Pa.s Petrol
0.001 Pa.s water
0.2 Pa.s oil
2 Pa.s honey
8.7 Power
10 W energy saving lightbulb
100 W electric light bulb (incandescent)
2.5 kW domestic kettle
100 kW Car engine (135 bhp)
5 MW Big wind turbine
4,000 MW Drax power station output
40,000 MW UK power consumption
8.8 Conductivity of solids
0.004 W/mK Cork
0.033 W/mK Styrofoam
0.04 W/mK Fibreglass
0.04 W/mK General insulation
0.05 W/mK Paper
0.055 W/mK Wood (balsa)
0.12 W/mK Wood (pine)
0.14 W/mK Leather
0.15 W/mK Wood (oak)
0.17 W/mK Plasterboard
0.2 W/mK PVC
0.5 W/mK HD Polyethene
0.75 W/mK Asphalt
8.9 Further conductivity of solids
0.004 W/mK Cork
0.033 W/mK Styrofoam
0.04 W/mK Fibreglass
0.04 W/mK General insulation
0.05 W/mK Paper
0.055 W/mK Wood (balsa)
0.12 W/mK Wood (pine)
0.14 W/mK Leather
0.15 W/mK Wood (oak)
0.17 W/mK Plasterboard
0.2 W/mK PVC
0.5 W/mK HD Polyethene
0.75 W/mK Asphalt
1 W/mK Bricks
1.05 W/mK Glass
16 W/mK Stainless Steel
35 W/mK Lead
55 W/mK Carbon Steel
109 W/mK Brass
250 W/mK Aluminium
400 W/mK Copper
14
9 Space for your notes
15
10 Credits
Compiled and edited by Dr Andrew Garrard (a.garrard@shu.ac.uk)
Cover illustration by Jack Good (www.jackgood.co.uk)
All material within this book is held under copyright c 2011 Andrew Garrard, Sheeld Hallam Univesity. Permission is
granted to copy and freely distribute provided credit is given to the original author.
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