Mos Manual PDF Version

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
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PRACTICAL NO.1 EQULIBRIUM OF COPLANAR, CONCURRENT FORCES
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FIGURE:
OBSERVATION TABLE: COMPONENTS FORCE P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 FX= FY= VALUE OF Pi ANGLE i FX= Pi COS i FY=Pi SIN i
= error
=
CALCULATIONS: resultant force is obtained analytically as well as graphically.
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EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR, CONCURRENT FORCES

OBJECT: To verify the polygon law of forces for a system in equilibrium, both analytically and graphically. APPARATUS: A force table with five attached pulleys, weights. THEORY: Concurrent forces in equilibrium can be represented by a closed polygon the respective sides being parallel and proportional to their respective forces. If the forces are not in equilibrium then the closing side of polygon shows the resultant of the system of forces. POLYGON LAW OF FORCES (STATEMENT):
PROCEDURE: Five strings are radiating from a single point. These strings pass over smooth pulleys freely slide able along the circumference of a horizontal force table with graduations for measuring angles. Attach five known weights to five strings arranged at particular angles. Note down the readings when the central ring is at centre of force table. As this system is in equilibrium, the resultant force is obtained analytically as well as graphically which should be negligible in magnitude. Draw space diagram by drawing the angle as measured on force table and show the respective forces. Using Bows notation draw force diagram, which will be the polygon. For the system is in equilibrium. The sides of polygon should be five but due to error polygon remains open & hence the closing side in reverse order will represent the resultant.
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CONCLUSIONS:
ASSIGNMENT: 1. State the law and comment on the verification of law?
2. What are the reasons for these errors?
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PRACTICAL NO.2 EQULIBRIUM OF COPLANAR, NON CONCURRENT & NON PARALLEL FORCES
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FIGURE:
OBSERVATION TABLE: SR NO. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. P1 P2 P3 P4 1 2 3 4
CALCULATION TABLE FOR OBSERVATION NO.SR NO. FORCE(Pi) ANGLE (i) FX= Pi COS i FY=Pi SIN i Moment @ A FX x Y FY x X
1. 2. 3. 4.
=
R (Analytical) = R (Graphical) = & & = =
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EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR, NON CONCURRENT & NON PARALLEL FORCES

OBJECT: To determine the weight of a plate by equilibrium of coplanar, non concurrent, non parallel Forces (Graphically and analytically). THEORY: Force system is having five forces P1, P2, P3, P4, & self weight (W) of the plate. As force system is in equilibrium, resultant (R) of four forces must be equal, opposite & collinear with the weight of the plate, If four forces P1 to P4 represented by sides of polygon the closing side of polygon will give the magnitude & direction of weight of the plate. APPARATUS: Board, sheet of paper, pulleys, strings, mild steel plate of unknown weight, known weights. PROCEDURE: 1) Attach the sheet of paper on a vertical board. 2) Adjust position of pulleys so that the strings passed through them are attached to four corners A, B, C, & D of the plate remains in same vertical plane. 3) Apply different weights at the end of the string to keep the plate in equilibrium at the middle portion of the attached sheet.Note down the magnitude of weights P1, P2, P3, & P4 attached to string passing through corners A, B, C, D and the centre of the plate.
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4) Mark the projections of strings and plate perpendicular to the paper. 5) Remove the sheet, mark angle 1, 2, 3, 4 respectively with horizontal. 6) Find out the value of W analytically as well as graphically. 7) Change the position of lower pulleys and repeat procedure with different weight and changed position of plate. 8) Draw funicular polygon for any one observation. CONCLUSION:
ASSIGNMENT: 1. Comment about graphical value vs. analytical value (calculated)
2. Check Varignons theorem & comment on its verification.
3. Enlist causes due to which error may occur.
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PRACTICAL NO.3 BELL CRANK LEVER
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FIGURE:
OBSERVATION TABLE SR.NO. W (Kg) D cm P1 (Kg) P2 (Kg ) P= P2-P1 (Kg) P.L W.D %
Kg- cm Kg -cm Error
OBSERVATION: Length of short arm L =
cm
CALCULATIONS:
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BELL CRANK LEVER

OBJECT: To verify the principle of moment. THEORY: Principle of moment: If the given system of force is in equilibrium, algebraic sum of moments about any point is equal to zero. APPARATUS: Bell crank lever including spring balance, weights. PROCEDURE: 1) Measure length L of vertical arm of lever. 2) Adjust the screw of the balance and make long arm horizontal 3) Note down the reading P1 of the balance 4) Suspend known weight W at convenient point along the long arm and note its distance from fulcrum (D). 5) Adjust screw of the balance to make long arm again horizontal. 6) Note down the reading P2 of the balance and compute P= P2-P1 7) Similarly change the value of W and D and repeat the same procedure. 8) Verify the principle of moment (P x L) = (W x D) for each case.
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CONCLUSION:
ASSIGNMENT: 1)State and explain principle of Moment.
2)Comment on the verification of the principle of moment?
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PRACTICAL NO.4 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
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OBSERVATION TABLE: APPLIED LOAD (Kg) SR NO. W1 1. 2. 3. 4. W2 W3 OBSERVED REACTIONS R1 R2 DISTANCE OF LOAD FROM SUPPORT (cm) X1 X2 X3
CALCULATION TABLE FOR FORCES: SR NO. 1. 2. 3. 4. R1+ R2 W1+W2+W3+W4 % ERROR IN FORCES
CALCULATION TABLE FOR MOMENTS: SR.NO 1. 2. 3. 4. SUM OF MOMENTS @ SUPPORT 2 MOMENT DUE TO REACTION 1 % ERROR IN MOMENT
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SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

OBJECT: To determine the reactions at supports and verify the condition of equilibrium for a beam simply supported at ends. THEORY: Beam is a structural element carrying transverse loads. Analytical condition of equilibrium 1) Algebraic sum of horizontal forces must be equal to zero. i.e. FX=0 2) Algebraic sum of vertical forces must be equal to zero.i.e FY=0 3) Algebraic sum of moments of forces about any point is zero. Graphical conditions of equilibrium 1) Force polygon should close which indicates that there is no motion of translation. 2) Funicular polygon should close which indicates that there is no rotating motion. PROCEDURE: 1) Note down the self weight of the beam, weight of hook and weight of hangers. 2) Put the known three loads at various point along the length of the beam, so that weights are W1, W2, and W3. 3) Measure the horizontal distances of these loads from one of the support.(X1, X2, X3) 4) Observe the reactions in the compression spring balances provided at each support.
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FIGURE
OBSERVATIONS: 1) Self weight of the beam (Ws) = 2) Weight of the hook= 3) Length of the beam=_
CONCLUSION:
ASSIGNMENT: 1)Explain different types of supports with sketches
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PRACTICAL NO.5 COEFFICIENT OF STATIC FRICTION
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FIGURE
OBSERVATION TABLE: SR.NO TYPE OF THE MOTION WOOD TO WOOD P 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. AVERAGE = AVERAGE = AVERAGE = DOWN THE PLANE UP THE PLANE W WOOD TO BRASS WOOD TO ALUMINIUM P W
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COEFFICIENT OF STATIC FRICTION

OBJECT: To determine the co-efficient of static friction between wood to Wood, wood to Aluminum and wood to brass surfaces. APPARATUS: Inclined plane, Boxes with Wood, Aluminum & Brass bottom Surface and Weights. THEORY: When a body is lined over another body and is gently pushed, it doesnt move. The frictional force prevents the motion. This shows that the force of friction has increased itself, so as to become equal and opposite of the applied force. Thus the force of friction has a remarkable property of adjusting its magnitude so as to become exactly equal to applied force which tends to produce motion. The force of friction cannot increase beyond certain unit. If applied force exceeds this limit, the force of friction cannot balance it and block begins to move in the direction of the applied force. This maximum value of frictional force which comes into play when the body just begins to slide over the surface of the other body is known as limiting friction and the ratio of the limiting friction to the normal reaction between the two bodies is known as Coefficient of static Friction and is denoted by .
Where, F= Frictional force acting upward along the plane when body tends to move down. R= Normal reaction acting at right angle to the plane
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CALCULATION: Case-1: Motion up the plane
Where, = Angle of inclination of plane with horizontal W= Weight of box + Weight in box sliding over surface P= Weight in pan + Weight of Pan
Case-2: Motion down the plane
Case-3: Motion down the plane at angle of repose = tan= tan =
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= Angle of friction, which is also equal to angle of repose (), i.e. angle of inclined plane. PROCEDURE: 1.) Fix the angle of inclined plane and clean the surface. 2.) Put a box on the clean surface whose co-efficient of static friction is required to be found, at the lower end of inclined plane. Connect the box with a string which will pass over the frictionless pulley fixed at higher end. Connect pan with it. 3.) Put a limiting value of weight which causes a uniform upward sliding of the surface box. 4.) Find out the co-efficient of friction by the formula. Draw free body diagram and prove the formulae (A). 5.) Set the angle of inclined plane as higher value, out fixed value of weight pan and vary the weight in the box placed on surface so that minimum value of weight in the box may cause uniform motion of the box down the plane. 6.) Draw the free body diagram for second case (motion down the plane) prove the formula (B). 7.) Remove pan and weight in the pan, put the box on the inclined plane and find the minimum angle of inclination when particular box slide with uniform motion. This angle is called angle of repose () & it is numerically equal to angle of friction (). Draw free body diagram and prove the expression (C) CONCLUSION:
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= WOOD TO WOOD = = WOOD TO BRASS =_ = WOOD TO ALUMINIUM =_
ASSIGNMENT: 1) Write law of static friction.
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PRACTICAL NO.6 SYSTEM OF PULLEYS
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Figure (1)
Figure (2)
Figure (3)
Figure (4)
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SYSTEM OF PULLEYS
OBJECT: To Determine the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio, ideal effort, frictional effort, ideal load, frictional load and efficiency of given system of pulleys. THEORY: lifting machines: In all type of machines, one needs to have maximum efficiency so that with minimum effort maximum output will be available. Efficiency is defined as ratio of output to input.
Where, W= Actual load lifted by machine, P= Actual effort applied on machine X= distance moved by load, Y= Distance moved by effort From the above equation efficiency can also be obtained as ratio of Mechanical Advantage and Velocity Ratio. In Ideal machines, there is no friction; therefore no work is wasted in overcoming the frictional resistance. Let Pi and Wi represent ideal effort and ideal load. Therefore, (PPi) represents effort required to overcome friction and (Wi-W) represents load equivalent to reduce friction. We, know that,
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OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.NO. TOTAL LOAD (W) TOTAL EFFORT (P) MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE MA= W/P IDEAL EFFORT PI=W/VR FRICTIONAL EFFORT PF=P-(W/VR) IDEAL LOAD WI= PVR FRICTIONAL LOAD WF= PVR-W EFFICIENCY = (W/P)VR x 100
OBSERVATION: Velocity ratio for, 1) Differential pulley: V.R. = Distance moved by effort Distance moved by load D = d 2) First system of pulley = V.R. = 2n 3) Second system of pulley = n 4) Third system of pulleys = V.R. = 2n-1 = = d D
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For ideal machine efficiency = 1 therefore W/ P= V.R. but for ideal machine effort required= Pi Hence,
Therefore,
Frictional effort= P-Pi = Also, for ideal machine load lifted= Wi therefore, Wi = P V.R.
Frictional load = Wi- W = (P V.R.) W
The relationship between actual load lifted (W) and actual effort (P) applied is called law of machine and it is given as P = m W+ C Where, m = coefficient of friction represented by slope of graph between W & P C= Constant which represents initial machine friction and is given by intercept of graph on Y- axis.
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System of Pulleys: The most common example of lifting machines is a pulley. To get maximum efficiency, one needs to have maximum M.A. and minimum V.R. To achieve such a condition, pulleys are arranged in different manners, such as, 1) Differential Pulley: Pulleys of different diameter are coupled together. Load is suspended from smaller diameter pulley and effort on large diameter pulley as shown in fig(1). 2) First system of Pulley: Pulleys are arranged together in the manner shown in fig (2). If load moves by distance X then effort moves by 2 n X distance, where n= number of pulleys. Here in this system last pulley is fixed, it is only for changing the direction of effort.
V.R =
Distance moved by effort (2n Distance moved by load X
X)
V.R. = 2n (Here n= 2)
3) Second system of pulleys: As shown in fig (3) it is also known as simple block which consists of fixed (upper) block of pulley and movable (lower) block of pulley to which load is attached. There are two types of arrangement either equal number of pulleys in upper block. There is only one string passing over all the pulleys and effort is connected to it. Sketch the arrangement and free body diagrams for both the types. If X is distance travelled by load, the effort by distance nX
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Where, n= no of portions of the string supporting lower block.
4) Third system of pulleys: The load is attached to a movable platform and each string which is passing over different pulley is attached to earlier pulley. The effort is suspended from string passes through 1st pulley. All the pulleys are movable; no fixed pulley is required as in case of 1st system of pulleys as shown in fig (4). V.R. = 2n-1.
PROCEDURE: (1) Sketch all three types of system of Pulleys (2) Study the motion of effort and load to be lifted. (3) As per free body diagram of system of pulley derive the expression of Velocity Ratio.
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CONCLUSION:
ASSIGNMENT: 1) Explain law of machine.
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PRACTICAL NO.7 WHEEL AND DIFFERENTIAL AXLES
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FIGURE
OBSERVATIONS: 1. Diameter of effort wheel (D). = 2. Diameter of bigger axle (d1) = 3. Diameter of small axle (d2) = 4. Velocity ratio VR= = 2D d1 -d2 5. Weight of load pulley= 130 gms =_
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WHEEL AND DIFFERENTIAL AXLES

OBJECT: To determine the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio, ideal effort, frictional effort, ideal load, frictional load, and efficiency of a given wheel and differential axles. THEORY: The wheel and differential axles act on the differential principle. It is a simple device to achieve very high velocity ratio by keeping very small difference in diameter of two axles. The axle is made up of two cylinders B and C of different diameters. The wheel A and cylinder B and C turn about common axis. One string is wound round the wheel A and to the one end of which the effort P is applied. The second string is wound round the two cylinders in such a way that as the cylinder turn, it unwinds on the smaller cylinders and wind at the same time on the larger cylinder, lifting the load W attached to the pulley. For one revolution of the wheel and axle, the displacement of the effort P is equal to the length of the string that unwinds from the wheel A=y= D The length of the string that unwinds from the smaller cylinder C = d 2 The length of the string that winds on the larger cylinder B= d1 The load string shortens by = d1- d2 Therefore, the displacement of the load W X = d1- d2 2
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OBSERVATION TABLE
CALCULATION: 1. Give sample calculation for all quantities for any one reading of observation table. 1) Maximum mechanical advantage= 1/m= 2) Maximum efficiency= 1/ (m VR) =
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Velocity Ratio=
Y X
D 1 (d1- d2) 2
2D d1 -d2
For a larger velocity ratio, d1 and d2 are made nearly equal. EQUIPMENT: Wheel and differential axle, weights. PROCEDURE: 1) Measure the dimensions of wheel axle, & note total applied load to the system. 2) Increase the effort gradually in such a way that a minimum effort the load just starts, moving upward note the value of effort. 3) Change the applied load and find corresponding effort. 4) Take six sets of readings 5)Plot the graphs of load (W) on X- axis Vs i) actual effort (P) ii) ideal effort (Pi) iii)frictional effort (P-W/VR) iv) Efficiency () on Y axis. Use same scale for all effort curves and different scale for efficiency, it is desirable to draw all graph on same graph paper.
6) Work out the law of machine P= m W+C where, P is actual effort required to raise the load W and m is the slope of the graph, C is the initial effort required to start the machine which is obtained as the intercept on Y- axis.
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CONCLUSION:
Law of machine P=
W+
(write the value of m & C)
ASSIGNMENT: 1) Mention which graph passes through the origin and why?
2) State whether m/c is reversible or irreversible, why?
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PRACTICAL NO.8 SINGLE PURCHASE CRAB
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FIGURE
OBSERVATION: 1. Diameter of wheel (D) =_ 2. Diameter of axle (d) = 3. No. of teeth on spur wheel (Ts)= 4. No. of teeth on pinion wheel(Tp)=_ 5. Velocity ratio (VR)= D x Ts D x Tp OBSERVATION TABLE
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SINGLE PURCHASE CRAB

OBJECT: To determine the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio, ideal effort, frictional effort, ideal load, frictional load and efficiency of a given single purchase crab. THEORY: The single purchase crab is a simple lifting machine in which velocity ratio is achieved using Gearing. EQUIPMENTS: Single purchase crab, weights, caliper, meter ruler etc. PROCEDURE: 1) Measure the required dimensions of machine. Note the total load applied and corresponding effort required to raise the load with slow uniform motion. 2) Take six readings with uniform increase in load and corresponding effort required. 3) Plot the graphs with (i)actual effort (ii) ideal effort (iii) frictional effort and iv) efficiency on Y- axis and load on X- axis. Use the same scale for all effort curves. 4) Work out the law of machine P= mW+C where, P is actual effort required to raise the load W, m and C are constants of a given machine.
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CALCULATION: 1) Give sample calculation for all quantities for any one reading of observation table.
2) For law of machine, P= mW+C P= W+_
3) Maximum mechanical advantage= 1/m=

4) Maximum efficiency= 1/(m VR) =
CONCLUSION:
ASSIGNMENT: 1) Define self locking machine and state whether the machine is self locking or not?
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PRACTICAL NO.9 COMPRESSION TEST ON METALS
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Fig 9.1
Fig 9.2
Fig 9.3
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COMPRESSION TEST ON METALS

OBJECT: To determine the compressive strength and to study the behavior of mild steel and cast iron specimens when subjected to compressive load up to failure.
EQUIPMENT: Universal testing machine with an attachment to test specimen in
compression.
APPARATUS: Vernier caliper MATERIAL: Mild steel and Cast iron
RELATED I.S. CODE IS 1378:1993: HARD METAL- COMPRESSION TEST SALIENT FEATURES There are several materials used in engineering practice that are primarily meant to carry compressive loads. Steel is one such material used as compression member. Relevant mechanical properties are determined by loading a specimen up to failure or a predetermined load. When a specimen is subjected to an axial load on the end surface producing crushing action, an internal resistance is set up against shortening of its length. This resistance is called compressive resistance. The intensity of the resistance is termed as a compressive stress. Thus, compressive stress is a ratio of compressive load (P) to the cross section area (A) resisting it. Fig 9.1 shows a typical stress- strain curves for brittle and ductile materials. Specimen for compression test has tendency to fail by buckling if the length of the specimen is more as compared to the cross-sectional dimensions. Therefore, an
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OBSERVATION TABLE: TYPE OF SPECIMEN DIA (mm) DIMENSIONS BEFORE TEST AFTER TEST HEIGHT ASPECT HEIGHT TOP MIDDLE BOTTOM (mm) (mm) (mm) DIA DIA DIA (mm)
MILD 1. STEEL 2. CAST 1. IRON 2.
CALCULATION:
TYPE OF SPECIMEN MILD STEEL 1. 2. CAST IRON 1. 2.
ASPECT RATIO
MAXIMUM LOAD (N)
MAXIMUM STRESS (N/mm 2)
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attempt is made to obtain the uniform stress distribution of direct stress over the cross-section normal to the direction of the load by limiting the length of the specimen with respect to cross-sectional dimensions, holding the specimen properly and applying truly axial load. Ductile material viz. mild steel when subjected to this test, keeps on expanding in lateral directions (known as bulging) as the load increases. This bulging enables it to resist almost indefinitely large force without fracture. Therefore, for ductile materials, compressive strength is the strength with respect to an arbitrary chosen deformation. This ability of a material to undergo large plastic deformation under compression is called malleability of ductile material. Fig 9.2 shows the behavior of ductile material under compression load with different aspect ratios. Brittle materials such as C.I. usually fails by shearing along the plane inclined (45 + /2)0 with longitudinal axis, where is defined as angle of internal friction and is defined as maximum angle at which the particle of a matter doesnt slip when placed on an incline. Fig 9.3 shows a specimen with its angle of internal friction. SPECIMEN: For uniform stressing of the compression specimen, a circular section is to be preferred over other shapes. An aspect ratio (defined as ratio height to diameter) of 2 is generally adopted to avoid buckling of the specimen. In this test, two 16 mm diameter specimen of aspect ratio 1.25 and 3.75 are adopted to understand the effect, of slenderness of a specimen when subjected to compressive load.
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PRECAUTIONS 1) Specimen should be placed carefully in the centre so that applied load will be exactly an axial load and no eccentricity for the load would occur for the proper transfer of load. 2) End surfaces of the specimen should be perfectly smooth. 3) When the load is nearing its failure value, it is preferable to remain at a safe distance from the machine.
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PROCEDURE: 1) Measure the length and diameter of both M.S. Specimen with the help of vernier caliper. 2) Place the specimen with the aspect ratio 1.25 properly on the lower cross-head and bring the middle cross head to a level just touching the upper surface of the specimen. 3) Adjust the capacity of the machine as per the anticipated value to be applied. 4) Apply the compressive load gradually 5) After reaching to the specified value of load, stop the machine and unload the specimen 6) Repeat steps 1 to 5 for another mild steel specimen with aspect ratio of 3.75. 7) Repeat step 1 to 3 for specimen of C.I. and measure only the maximum load at fracture. 8) Test the specimen up to its fracture 9) Unload the specimen and repeat steps 7 to 8 for another cast iron specimen with aspect ratio 3.75. 10) Examine and study the type of fracture/ deformation characteristics for all the specimens.
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CONCLUSION: Study the fracture/ deformation characteristics of the specimen with respect to 1. Different aspect ratios 2. Different materials used.
ASSIGNMENT: 1) Identify different elements under compression and write a short note on it
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PRACTICAL NO.10 COMPRESSION TEST ON TIMBER
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Figure 10.1
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COMPRESSION TEST ON TIMBER

OBJECT: To determine the compressive strength of the timber specimen and to study its behavior when subjected to load up to fracture. EQUIPMENT: Universal testing machine with an attachment to test specimen in compression APPARATUS: Vernier caliper MATERIAL: Timber RELATED I.S.CODES: I.S. 1708-1986: Methods of testing of small clear specimens of timber. SALIENT FEATURES Wood exhibits, under compressive loading, a behavior peculiar to itself. It is a homogeneous material, being composed of cells formed by organic growth which align themselves to form a series of tubes or column in the direction of grain alignment. As a result of this structure, the elastic limit is relatively low, there is no definite yield point, and considerable set takes place before failure. These properties vary with the orientation of the load with respect to the direction of the grain. For loads normal to the grain, not only the elastic limit is important but also the strength at rupture. Rupture often occurs because of collapse of the tubular fiber structure. Important variables which affect compressive strength of timber are: a) Shape and size of the specimen b) Capping on top and bottom of the specimen c) Speed of testing
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Figure 10.2.a
Figure 10.2.b
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In this test, standard specimens are compressed between two platens under axial load. Figure 10.1 shows the line diagram of the machine. The mechanical properties such as yield strength, ultimate compressive strength, modulus of toughness are determined by studying the behavior of the specimen under load. Since in this experiment the basic aim is to find and compare the strength of timber under different orientation, therefore, importance is given only to find ultimate strength of the specimen. The possible patterns of the failure of the specimen are shown in the figure. Fig 10.2 a and 10.2 b shows the failure of the specimen under adopted orientations. SPECIMEN: The size of the test specimen shall be 50 x 50 x 200 mm or 20 x 20 x 80 mm if it is to be subjected to load parallel to the grain and its size shall be 50 x 50 x 150 or 20 x 20 x 100mm if it is subjected to load perpendicular to the grain. Figure 2.3 a and 2.3 b shows the arrangement of the specimen when subjected to load. The specimen shall be free from defects and shall not have slope of grain more than 1 in 20 parallel to its longitudinal edges. The end plane of the specimen shall be perfectly at right angle to the length of the specimen. PROCEDURE: 1) Check the specimen for any defects and ensure that the ends are plane and fibers are parallel to its longitudinal edges. 2) Measure the cross- section of the specimen and length of the specimen with vernier calipers. 3) Place the specimen in the lower cross-head such that the load is applied parallel to the grain. 4) Apply the load up to failure of the specimen and observe the type of failure.
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Figure 10.3 a
Figure 10.3.b
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5) For second case, place another specimen such that the load is applied perpendicular to the grain. 6) Repeat step 4.
PRECAUTIONS: 1) Specimens should be placed carefully in the centre so that the applied load will be exactly an axial load and no eccentricity for the load would occur for the proper transfer of load. 2) When the load is nearing its failure value, it is preferable to remain at a safe distance from the machine. LIMITATIONS: 1) It is difficult to ensure that the load applied on the specimen is truly concentric and axial. 2) There is always a tendency for bending stress to be set up which may result into slipping of the specimen as the load increases. 3) Friction between the heads of the testing machine and the end surfaces of the specimen due to lateral expansion of the specimen may alter results considerably in comparison to those obtained in the absence of such lateral restraint. 4) The relatively larger cross-section area of the specimen is required to obtain a proper degree of stability of the specimen.
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OBSERVATION TABLE: LOAD CASE LOAD APPLIED CROSS- SECTIONAL AREA (mm2) LOAD AT FAILURE (N) ULTIMATE STRENGTH (N/mm2) PARALLEL TO GRAIN LOAD APPLIED PERPENDICULAR TO THE GRAIN
CONCLUSION: Comment on the nature of fracture and the strength of the specimens.
ASSIGNMENT: 1) Explain effect of moisture on the strength of timber.
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PRACTICAL NO.11 TENSION TEST ON METALS
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Fig 11.1
Fig 11.2
Fig 11.3
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TENSION TEST ON METALS

OBJECT: To study the behavior of metallic materials under the tensile load with the help of stress-strain curve on universal testing machine. EQUIPMENT: Universal testing machine APPARATUS: Vernier- Calliper. MATERIALS: Mild steel and Cast Iron CALIBRATION The machine is calibrated with the help of pivoting ring. The pivot ring is kept on lower cross head and compressive force is applied on it. The deflection of the dial of pivot ring is compared with the standard values provided by manufacturer. If the values so obtained do not fit in desired accuracy of 1%, the counterweight on the pendulum is adjusted to bring the readings within permissible limits. RELATED I.S. CODES IS: 1608-1995: Mechanical testing of metals- Tensile testing IS: 1816-1979: Methods of tensile test for light metals & their alloys SALIENT FEATURES This test is performed on Universal Testing machine. The machine is also used for testing materials subjected to tension, compression, bending and shear; Fig 10.1 shows the line diagram of the Universal testing machine. The test consists of straining a test piece by force, generally to fracture for the purpose of determining one or more mechanical properties viz Percentage elongation,
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OBSERVATION TABLE SR.NO LOAD (N) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 ELONGATION STRESS (mm) (N/mm2) STRAIN
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Percentage reduction in area, modulus of elasticity, Yield stress, Ultimate stress and breaking stress. Metals used in engineering structures are mostly ductile e.g. steel, aluminum, brass, copper, but some metals like cast iron are brittle. When specimen is tested under tensile load, both these types behave differently. Ductile metals undergo comparatively large elongations, along the direction of loading accompanied necessarily, with contraction in the traverse direction. At a certain stress level, the specimen ceases to take any additional load but the elongation continues to a certain level, where after additional load is required to increase the elongation. At fracture, ultimately, the specimen breaks at or very near the narrowest section. The fracture is not along a plane right angle it is along an inclined plane and has an appearance of a cup and cone shape. Fig 11.1 shows a typical fracture of a mild steel specimen. Obviously therefore, fracture is not due to insufficient tensile resistance but due to insufficient shear resistance on inclined planes. Thus the stages which a ductile material undergoes are yield-ultimatebreaking stress. The value of braking if calculated with respect to its original area of the specimen, comes to be lesser than ultimate stress and is known as nominal breaking stress, whereas if breaking stress is calculated taking into consideration the instantaneous cross-sectional area, its value comes to be greater than ultimate stress and is known as actual breaking stress or true stress, since engineering design takes into consideration the loads with respect to yield stress, true stress is generally not plotted in the stress-strain curve. Fig 11.3 shows the behavior of mild steel when subjected to tensile load. Brittle metals have inadequate tensile resistance, they do not undergo any worthwhile elongation, they fracture is comparatively abrupt and the fractured surface
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DIMENSIONS OF THE SPECIMEN BEFORE TESTING SR.NO PARAMETERS 1 2 3 Gauge length (L0) mm Diameter (d0) mm Cross-sectional Area (A0) mm2 MILD STEEL CAST IRON
DIMENSIONS OF THE SPECIMEN AFTER TESTING SR.NO PARAMETERS 4 5 6 Final length (Lf) mm Diameter (df) mm Cross-sectional Area (Af) mm2 MILD STEEL CAST IRON
LOAD AT CRITICAL POINT OF OBSERVATIONS 7. 8. 9. Yield load (Py) N Ultimate load (Pu) N Breaking load (Pf) N
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is a clear right section. In such metals, the maximum load is also the breaking load fig 11.3 shows the behavior of cast iron when subjected to tensile load. Typical fractures of important materials under tension are shown in fig 11.2 SPECIMEN The specimen is specially prepared as per prescribed standard guidelines, which are so framed as to induce failure within the length earmarked for observation called the gauge length. Test piece, the original gauge length of which is related to the original cross sectional area (A0) by the equation L0 = 5.65 A0 are called proportional test piece. The portion in which the specimen is gripped is also highly stressed, but the dimensions are so adjusted that these stresses do not affect failure within the gauge length. Fig 11.1 shows the details of fillet on a specimen. PROPERTIES Test is essentially meant to provide data which can be used for engineering design. PROCEDURE 1. Measure the cross-sectional dimensions of the given specimen and mark gauge length points on the specimen with the help of hammer & punch as per the instructions. 2. Adjust the capacity of U.T.M as per the anticipated value of load at failure of the test specimen. 3. Fix the specimen in machine between the fixed cross head and upper cross head also see that the specimen is symmetrically with respect to its longitudinal axis through out the length. 4. Apply the load gradually so as to avoid sudden shocks. 5. Note the ultimate load and breaking load. Measure the distance between gauge points and reduced diameter of failure.
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6. Observe the type of failure. 7. Plot a graph of load verses deflection and find the value of modulus of elasticity. 8. Determine the stress-strain characteristics and comment on the type of material from the nature of the fracture. 9. Draw a graph of load vs. Deflection for both the materials. CONCLUSIONS
ASSIGNMENT: Comment or compare the following items as obtained in the experiment with their corresponding standard theoretical values: 1. Stress-Strain characteristics 2. The various stress limits 3. Yield and elongation 4. Area under the curve significance 5. Fracture surface
GRADE: SIGNATURE:
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Material Mild steel, Structural steel
Elastic Curve Linear
Yield Point Upper & Lower yield point both distinctly visible
Inelastic curve Yield- ultimatebreaking
Aluminum, copper & their alloys High yield deformed bar Cast Iron Concrete
Linear
Only one yield point
Yield- ultimatebreaking
Linear
Equivalent to proof stress
Yield- ultimatebreaking Ultimate
Linear nonLinear
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CALCULATIONS SR.NO 1 PARTICULARS FORMULA Yield stress(N/mm2) 2 Ultimate stress(N/mm2) 3 Nominal breaking stress (N/mm2) 4 Actual breaking stress(N/mm2) 5 Percentage Ao -Af/Ao x Pf/Af Pf/Af Pu/Ao Py/Ao MILD STEEL CAST IRON
reduction in area 100 %
Percentage elongation %
Lf Lo /L0 x 100 E
Modulus of Elasticity (N/mm2)
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PRACTICAL NO.12 SHEAR TEST
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Figure 12.1
Figure 12.2
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SHEAR TEST
OBJECT: To determine shear strength of given mild steel specimen. EQUIPMENT: Universal Testing Machine APPARAUS: Vernier Caliper SPECIAL TOOL: Shear Attachment Material: Mild Steel RELATED I.S. CODES I.S. 5242-1979: Method of test for determining shear strength of metals. SALIENT FEATURES The test is carried on UTM with the help of a special tool known as shear attachment and is shown in fig 12.1 this test consists of breaking the specimen under single or double shear. This test is essential, as many machine parts and structural members are subjected to shear stress and such static properties in shear play an important role in design. A member is said to be subjected to shear if the line of action of force is parallel to the plane of the cross-sectional resisting it. If only one plane resists, it is called as single shear and if two planes resist shear, it is called as double shear. A shearing stress, acts parallel to a plane, whereas tensile and compressive stresses act normal to the plane. This specimen is tested in the form of a prismatic bar which is held rigidly at one end (in single shear) or at both ends (in double shear) and load is applied through a
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OBSERVATION TABLE SR.NO. TYPE STRESS 1. 2. SINGLE SHEAR DOUBLE SHEAR OF DIAMETER(mm) C/S AREA (mm2) LOAD (N)
CALCULATIONS CASE SINGLE SHEAR STRESS (N/mm2) DOUBLE SHEAR AVERAGE
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metallic piece having a hole through which the specimen passes. The load application is very near the support to avoid the bending of the specimen, the line sketch is shown in fig 12.2 The test consists of gradual application of load till the specimen fail in shear. Maximum load divided by the area under shear is called as the shear strength of the specimen Shear Strength= shear force at failure
Cross-sectional area resisting shear. Following are the important definitions relevant to this test: 1. Complementary shear:
This shear balances the externally applied shear to keep the element in equilibrium. The value of this is equal to externally applied shear and acts in the opposite direction. 2. Pure Shear:
When an element is acted upon by the shear stress, it is said to be in pure shear. The condition of pure shear is difficult to attain. The test carried over here is a theoretical example of an element subjected to pure shear. 3. Punching Shear:
When a body bears on another the type of stress developed in the second one is called punching shear.
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SPECIMEN The specimen is specially prepared and possesses smooth surface and the diameter is just equal to the diameter of dies. It is important to note that there should not be any PRECAUTIONS 1. 2. It is advisable to remain away from the machine when test is being carried out. Loads should be applied at a gradual rate so as pre the requirement of application of static load. 3. Specimen should have diameter just equal to the inner diameter of the dies.
LIMITATIONS 1. It is not possible to calculate the modulus of rigidity owing to impossibility of
measuring strain during the test. 2. The accuracy of the result depends on the hardness and the sharpness of the
edges of the dies used.
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gap left between the inside diameter of the dice and the diameter of the specimen, as it induces bending, and the fracture occurs due to combined effect of bending and shear, which is undesirable. APPLICATIONS The result of this test is useful in designing rivets, crank pins etc which are subjected to shear loads. Also, determination of the shear strength is useful to design the members subjected to combined effect of bending and shear such as machine shaft etc. PROCEDURE: 1. Determine the mean diameter of the specimen with the help of vernier caliper. 2. Place the specimen in the assembly for single/ double shear. 3. Keep the assembly with the assembly with specimen on the lower cross-head and bring the middle crosshead just above the shear attachment. 4. Apply the load gradually till the specimen fails in single/ double shear and note the corresponding load from the dial gauge. 5. Study the type of fracture.
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CONCLUSION
ASSIGNMENT: 1) State the types of shear.
GRADE: SIGNATURE:
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PRACTICAL NO.13 BREINELL HARDNESS TEST
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Figure 13.1
Figure 13.2 PAGE NO.
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BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

OBJECT: To determine the Brinell hardness number of given metal specimens by Brinell hardness test. EQUIPMENT: Brinell hardness testing machine APPARATUS: Microscope MATERIAL: Steel, Brass, Aluminum, Copper, Cast Iron RELATED I.S. CODES IS 3034 -1965: Method for brinell Hardness test for copper & copper alloys IS 1500-1983: Methods for Breinell Hardness test for steel IS 1790-1961: Methods for Breinell Hardness test for light metals & their alloys SALIENT FEATURES Hardness is basically an important mechanical property of the metals and is defined as the resistance given by metal specimen to indentation, scratching or abrasion on its surface. Brinell hardness is a method of finding hardness of given specimen by indentation and was introduced by J.A.Breinell in 1900. This method uses a steel ball gradually. The hardness tester is shown in fig 13.1. The hardness number is then calculated from the depth of the indentation (of diameter d) produced by the load applied. Thus, it is an indirect method of finding hardness. Breinell hardness is defined as the ratio of the load applied to the spherical area of the indentation formed on the specimen surface and is equivalent to kgf/mm2. Fig 13.2 shows the indentation on the metal surface.
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OBSERVATION TABLE SR.NO METAL BALL DIAMETER D (mm) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. MILD STEEL CAST IRON BRASS COPPER ALUMINIUM TEST LOAD DIAMETER OF P (kg) INDENTATION D (mm)
CALCULATIONS SR.NO 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. METAL MILD STEEL CAST IRON BRASS COPPER ALUMINIUM BHN REMARK
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BHN= TEST (kgf) /surface area of indentation (mm2)
Where, h= depth of indentation F=force applied in kgf D= diameter of ball in mm (generally 1, 2, 2.5, 5 and 10 mm) Load to be applied in kgf is shown as follows according to the provisions of Indian standards. PROCEDURE 1. Check the specimen as per I.S.Code specifications. 2. Select the appropriate ball indenter and the corresponding load to be applied on the specimen selected. 3. Place the specimen on the anvil and bring the indenter in the contact with the surface of the specimen selected. 4. Apply the load at a gradual rate till the test load F is attained. The time from the initial application of force until the full test load is reached shall not be less than two seconds nor greater than 8 seconds. The test load shall maintain for ten to fifteen seconds for steel 30 2 seconds for light metal and 15 to 20 seconds for grey cast iron. 5. Unload the specimen by releasing the lever.
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6. Measure the Diameter of the indentations at right angles with the help of the microscope. The average of these readings gives the diameter of the indentation. 7. Calculate the BHN of the given specimen by the formula given in the theory. PRECAUTIONS 1. The surface of the test specimen shall be smooth and even free from oxide scale foreign matter and in particular, completely free from lubricants. 2. Preparation of the test specimen shall be carried out in such a way that any alteration of the surface due to heat or cold working is minimized. Ambient temperature for carrying out the test is 100 to 350 C. 3. The distance between the centre of any indentation and the edge of the test piece shall be at least 2.5 times the mean diameter of the indentation in case of steel, cast iron, copper and copper alloys and at least three times the mean diameter of the indentation in case of light metals, lead, tin and their alloys. 4. The distance between the centres of the two adjacent indentation shall be at least four times the mean diameter of the indentation in the case of steel, cast iron, copper and copper alloys and at least six times the mean diameter of the indentation in case of light metals, lead, tin and their alloys. LIMITATIONS 1. Specimens with lesser thickness viz. blades, if tested by this methods, would not give accurate results as the usual indentation might be greater than the thickness of the specimen and lesser thickness of the specimen shall be at least eight times the depth of the indentation
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2. It is recommended that the steel ball indenter should be used for materials with a Brinell hardness not exceeding 350. For higher up to 630. Indentor of carbide metal should be used. APPLICATIONS This property of the metal has a very large application in the industry, right from a small needle to gigantic aircraft. The quality of the metal to be used for a specific purpose is controlled by this test e.g. the drill shall have hardness greater than the
material to be worked on. Similarly, strength of jobs like forging, alloying of casehardening is determined with this test. LOAD (kgf) 30 D2 30 D2 10 D2 5D2, 10D2, 15D2 5D2 10D2 30D2 MATERIAL STEEL GREY C.I GREY C.I Light metal and alloys Copper and its alloys Copper and its alloys Copper and its alloys REMARKS For HB less than 140 5D2 for HB less than 55 For HB less than 40 For HB 35 to 200 For HB greater than 190
I.S limit for Breinell hardness test on steel is HB 450 and balls of diameter 2.5mm and 1mm should not be used for conducting hardness test on cast metal
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CONCLUSIONS
ASSIGNMENT: 1) Define hardness and state types of hardnes.
GRADE: SIGNATURE:
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PRACTICAL NO.14 IZOD IMPACT TEST
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Figure 14.1
Figure 14.2 GIT GANDHINAGAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PAGE NO.
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IZOD IMPACT TEST

OBJECTIVE: To study the behavior of metals under impact loads. EQUIPMENTS: Izod impact testing machine MATERIALS: Mild steel, Cast Iron, Aluminum and Brass REFERENCES IS: 1598:1997: Methods for Izod impact test on metals. SALIENT FEATURES Components of many structures of machines have to resist dynamic loads which are either impact loads or rapid flucating loads. Impact loads are applied suddenly and this provides information about the behavior of materials under such loads. The predominant consideration in impact resistance is the capacity of rupture. A material to absorb energy which depends on toughness of material (energy required to rupture a material). In this test, toughness is not measured through strain or deflection measurements but it is ascertained by measuring energy to rupture a specimen. Fig 14.1 shows the line diagram of the machine. In such tests, the load may be applied in flexure, tension, compression, or torsion and impact may be delivered through dropping weight, swinging pendulum or rotating fly wheel. In this test, the specified cantilever length of the specimen is projecting out from vise with notch at the base as shown in fig14.2. and swinging pendulum strikes on the edge of the specimen giving a flexural type of loading. Indian standards lay down the following major requirements for the impact testing machines.
GIT GANDHINAGAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
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OBSERVATION TABLE SR. NO. SPECIMEN GROSS ENERGY (Kg-m) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. MILD STEEL COPPER BRASS CAST IRON ALUMINIUM ENERGY LOSSES (Kg-m) IMPACT VALUE (Kg-m) MODE OF FAILURE
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PROCEDURE: 1. Check the specimen measure its dimensions and ascertain that the IS requirements are satisfied. 2. Fix the specimen tightly in the vise and ascertain that the longitudinal axis of the specimen lines in the plane of swinging of the hammer. 3. Plane of symmetry of notch should coincide with the top surface of the grips. The hammer should strike on the same side of the notch. 4. Set the pointer to read the energy of the blow of the pendulum. 5. Release the pendulum and allow it to strike the test specimen. 6. Read the indicator and obtain impact value of the specimen by deducting the energy losses from the reading. 7. Study the type of fracture and correlate it with fracture of specimens of different material. 8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 without specimen the indicator reading shows the energy losses due to friction. Note down this value. 9. The impact value of the material is obtained by subtracting reading obtained in step 8 from step 6. LIMITATIONS To determine the impact resistance, temperature should be 320 to 380 because it has a very marked effect on impact resistance of notched bar.
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REQUIREMENTS
IZOD IMPACT TEST
Distance between the base of notch and 22 mm 0.5 mm point of specimen hit by hammer Angle at tip hammer Speed of hammer Striking energy of hammer Accuracy of graduation of scale 750 3 to 4 m/s 16.56 0.34 kgm 0.14 kg
Specimen used in this test are notched type which causes high localized stress concentration, artificially reduces ductility and tends to introduce a brittle type of fracture. SPECIMEN Specimen with notch at suitable position is used for carrying out the impact test on metals for steel specimen. Requirement is as follows: SHAPE OF THE SPECIMEN Square or round Cantilever beam V notch at base Fig no14.2. TYPE TYPE OFNOTCH REFERENCE
Fixed at notch
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PRECAUTIONS 1. It is not advisable to stand near or in front of machine when the pendulum is to be released. 2. Notch should be exactly in the line of action of the pendulum. 3. When specimen is being fitted, care should be taken that pendulum does not get released. APPLICATIONS The Impact test is basically designed to check the suitability of materials subjected to dynamic loads e.g. vehicles travelling over bridges, hull of ship subjected to waves or hammer falling on nail. The ductile material like steel has more impact value and therefore has wide acceptability in structural and other mechanical applications. CONCLUSION
ASSIGNMENT: 1)Students should observe the systems which are subjected to impact load and try to enlist few of them.
GRADE: SIGNATURE:
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PRACTICAL NO.1 EQULIBRIUM OF COPLANAR, CONCURRENT FORCES

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR, CONCURRENT FORCES

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT: 1. State the law and comment on the verification of law?

2. What are the reasons for these errors?

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

OBSERVATION TABLE: SR NO. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. P1 P2 P3 P4 1 2 3 4

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR, NON CONCURRENT & NON PARALLEL FORCES

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT: 1. Comment about graphical value vs. analytical value (calculated)

2. Check Varignons theorem & comment on its verification.

3. Enlist causes due to which error may occur.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PRACTICAL NO.3 BELL CRANK LEVER

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Kg- cm Kg -cm Error

OBSERVATION: Length of short arm L =

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

BELL CRANK LEVER

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT: 1)State and explain principle of Moment.

2)Comment on the verification of the principle of moment?

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PRACTICAL NO.4 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CALCULATION TABLE FOR FORCES: SR NO. 1. 2. 3. 4. R1+ R2 W1+W2+W3+W4 % ERROR IN FORCES

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT: 1)Explain different types of supports with sketches

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PRACTICAL NO.5 COEFFICIENT OF STATIC FRICTION

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

COEFFICIENT OF STATIC FRICTION

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CALCULATION: Case-1: Motion up the plane

Case-2: Motion down the plane

Case-3: Motion down the plane at angle of repose = tan= tan =

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

= WOOD TO WOOD = = WOOD TO BRASS =_ = WOOD TO ALUMINIUM =_

ASSIGNMENT: 1) Write law of static friction.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PRACTICAL NO.6 SYSTEM OF PULLEYS

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Frictional load = Wi- W = (P V.R.) W

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Distance moved by effort (2n Distance moved by load X

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Where, n= no of portions of the string supporting lower block.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT: 1) Explain law of machine.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PRACTICAL NO.7 WHEEL AND DIFFERENTIAL AXLES

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING