H. Eberle H.

Hermeling

M. Hornberger R. Kilgus

R. Kupke D. Menzer

A. Moll W. Ring

Clothing Technology
....from fibre to fashion
Fifth Edition

VERLAG EUROPA-LEHRMITTEL Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG Dsselberger Strae 23 42781 Haan-Gruiten
Europa-Nr. 62218

Authors: Hannelore Eberle Hermann Hermeling Marianne Hornberger Renate Kupke Dieter Menzer Andrea Moll Werner Ring Director of Studies Dipl.-Ing (FH), Principal Diplom-Modellistin, Lecturer Senior Lecturer Dipl.-Ing (FH) Instructor Dipl.-Ing (FH), Director of Studies Ravensburg Frankfurt Munich Stuttgart Nussloch Darmstadt Metzingen

Editor and Team Leader: Roland Kilgus, Principal, Neckartenzlingen Fashion Drawings: Studio Salo-Dllel, Aufkirchen bei Erding Picture Processing: Design Department, Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Leinfelden-Echterdingen

This book was produced according to the latest German Industrial Standards (DIN-Bltter). Conformance is strictly limited to the DIN-Bltter. The DIN-Bltter are published by: Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Burggrafenstrasse 6, 10787 Berlin.

Ninth German Edition 2007 Print 5 4 3 2 1 All prints of the same edition are interchangeable, excepting correction of printing errors. Fifth English Edition 2008 Translation: Cotton Technology International, 27 Winnington Road, Marple, Stockport SK6 6PD, England http://www.cottontech.co.uk

ISBN 978-3-8085-6225-3

All rights reserved. This work is subject to copyright. Utilisation for any purpose other than those legally permitted must be approved by the publisher in writing. 2008 Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG, D-42781 Haan-Gruiten http://www.europa-lehrmittel.de Cover design: Grafic & Sound, Klaus Gierden, D-50679 Kln, after an illustration by Barbara Spannagel, D-72768 Reutlingen Setting & layout: Satz+Layout Werkstatt Kluth GmbH, D-50374 Erftstadt Printing: B.o.s.s. Druck und Medien GmbH, D-47574 Goch

Preface
9th German Edition

This is a vocational book, directed primarily at students of the clothing industry: cutting, sewing, and assembly for fashion and mass markets. However, it will also be found useful in courses for managers and technologists, and as a general reference work. A key feature of the book is its concise and compact design a prerequisite for summarising such a wide range of material in a single volume. Each page is complete in itself. Particular emphasis has been laid on providing a simple layout and straightforward language, which students will find easy to grasp. Numerous colour diagrams are an effective aid to the comprehension of some of the more difficult topics. These coloured illustrations are a particularly useful feature of the chapters on Fabric Descriptions and the History of Clothing. The book is organised largely according to the different technological sectors, but teaching requirements have also been kept in mind. There are eleven chapters: Fibres, Yarns, Fabrics, Textile Finishing, Fabric Descriptions, Leather and Fur, Clothing Manufacture, Organisation of Clothing Manufacture, Product Design, Product Groups, History of Clothing. The arrangement of topics conforms to the educational guidelines and the current curricula for courses in vocational technology in the German Federal States. An important objective of this publication was to present the extensive body of knowledge as a coherent whole. At all stages, account is taken of the latest scientific findings and the practical experience of the industry, as well as any relevant DIN standards. Improvements for the 9th Edition: The sections on Textile Aftercare, Functional Clothing, Ecology, Seam Types, Health & Safety, and Fusing have been rewritten or extended according to the latest technical developments. Many illustrations have been enhanced by the use of colour or changed to reflect current fashion trends. We would like to give special thanks to the companies and associations listed on page 304 for their assistance in the clarification of questions and for the provision of pictorial material. We are especially indebted to Sonja Langer-Korsch and Susanne Kolb-Wachtel (leather and fur), and Hannes Dllel (fashion drawings) for their helpful suggestions. Many clothing companies today employ offshore manufacturing. Therefore, it is useful to note that Fachwissen Bekleidung has been translated into English (Clothing Technology) and from there into several other European languages. Maybe this can provide some stimulus to intra- and extra-European communication via the language of technology. The new generation will need competence in both language and technology to succeed in an era of global market competition. We would welcome any suggestions for improving or supplementing the material in this book. Metzingen, Summer 2007 Editor and authors

Preface
5th English Edition

Fachwissen Bekleidung is now in its ninth edition and has been a firm favourite in the Germanspeaking area of Europe since it first appeared in 1989. So far as we are aware, the book is unique in its scope and presentation, so it was perhaps natural that a demand should arise for an English-language version. Although this English edition follows quite faithfully the general content and layout of the German, it is not always a precise translation. There are several instances in the original where the treatment of the subject matter naturally has a distinctively central-European bias. In the English, an attempt has been made to present a more international perspective. Wherever possible, ISO or ASTM standards have been referenced rather than DIN. For an international readership, there is always the problem of whether to use British or North American terminology. For this edition, wherever there is a conflict between the British and American traditions, the British has generally been selected, although the American is often acknowledged and occasionally preferred. The German approach to Work Measurement has been retained, as a valid and comprehensive example of the technique. Sections 9.6 to 9.9 of Product Design have been completely rewritten for the English edition. Stockport, Autumn 2008 Allan Heap & Jill Stevens Cotton Technology International

Contents
1
1.1 1.2 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.2.6 1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.5 1.3.6 1.3.7 1.3.8 1.3.9 1.3.10 1.3.11 1.3.12 1.3.13 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.8.1 1.8.2 1.8.3 1.9

Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Natural Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Cotton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Flax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Other Vegetable Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Wool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Hair Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Silk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Man-made Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Composition of Textile Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fibre-forming Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spinning Man-made Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Natural Polymer Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Viscose, Modal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lyocell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cupro, Acetate, Triacetate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Synthetic Polymer Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Polyamide, Nylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Polyester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acrylic, Modacrylic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elastane, Fluoro, Chloro, Olefin, Vinylal . . . . . . . Glass, Carbon, Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 26 27 28 29 31 32 33 34 36 38 39 40

3.2.5 3.2.6 3.2.7 3.2.8 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.5

Crpe Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fabrics with Three Yarn Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . Fabrics with Four or More Yarn Systems . . . . . Piqu Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . Weft Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Warp Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Special Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Open-work Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nonwoven Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stitch-bonded and Tufted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Textile Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80 81 83 84 85 85 86 92 94 94 95 97 98

4
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.4 4.5 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.6

Dyeing and Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coloration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dyeing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dyestuffs, Colour Fastness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 100 101 101 102 103

Intermediate Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Mechanical Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Chemical Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Coating and Lamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Fibre Properties, Fibre Identification . . . . . . . . . . 41 Fibre Blending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Textile Labelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Textile Aftercare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Functions of Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Basic Functions and Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Clothing Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Functional Textiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Ecology and the Textile Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4

Fabric Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Fabric Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Commercial Names of Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Accessories, Trimmings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interlinings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ribbons and Decorations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fastenings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 131 132 133 134

2
2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9

Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Spinning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wool Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cotton Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Spinning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 60 62 63

6
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7

Leather and Fur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Leather Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leather Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leather Garment Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fur Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pelt Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pelt Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . From Pelt to Fur Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 137 138 139 140 141 141

Folded Yarns, Plied Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Fancy Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Textured Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Review of Yarn Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Yarn Numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Yarn Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Sewing Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

7
7.1 7.1.1 7.1.2 7.1.3 7.1.4 7.1.5 7.1.6 7.1.7 7.1.8 7.1.9 7.1.10

Clothing Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Equipment and Methods for Design and Cutting 144 Design, Pattern Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pattern Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Making a Lay Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Lay Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preparation for Sewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drawing and Measuring Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hand Sewing Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cutting Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 145 147 149 150 152 153 154 155 156

3
3.1 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4

Textile Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Woven Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Woven Fabric Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Principles of Cloth Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic Weaves and Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Colour Woven Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 74 75 79

7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.5 7.2.6 7.2.7 7.2.8 7.2.9 7.2.10 7.2.11 7.2.12 7.2.13 7.2.14 7.2.15 7.2.16 7.2.17 7.2.18

Equipment and Methods for Design and Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 158 159 160 161 162 164 166 168 169 170 172 173 174 176 177 178 183 184 185 186 187

10
10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9

Product Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Underwear, Nightwear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Foundation Garments, Swimwear . . . . . . . . . . 234 Babywear, Childrenswear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Mens Shirts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Workwear, Career Apparel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Skirts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Blouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Dresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Knitted Outerwear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

Types of Sewing Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sewing Machines, Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Construction of a Sewing Machine . . . . . . . . . . Moving Parts of a Sewing Machine . . . . . . . . . . Sewing Machine Needles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feeding Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Presser Feet and Fabric Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shuttles, Hooks and Loopers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stitch Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lockstitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chain Stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multi-thread Chain Stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overedge Chain Stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flat Seam Stitches, Covering Stitches . . . . . . . Blind Stitching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seam Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sewing Machine Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ancillary Mechanisms for High-speed Sewing Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.19 Automatic Sewing Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.20 Automated Sewing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.21 Welded Seams, Seam Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.4 7.4.1 7.4.2 7.5

10.10 Trousers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 10.11 Jackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 10.12 Coats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 10.13 Women's Outfits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 10.14 Men's Outfits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 10.15 Formal Dress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 10.16 Sport and Leisure Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 10.17 Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

Problems in Sewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Seam Puckering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Fabric Damage, Sewing Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Equipment and Methods for Pressing and Fusing 190 Pressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Fusing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Health and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

11
11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9

History of Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

Chronological Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Fashion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Ancient Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Ancient Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Germanic Prehistory and Early Times . . . . . . . . 262 Byzantine Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Romanesque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Gothic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

8
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12

Organisation of Clothing Manufacture . . . 202

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Material Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Industry Sectors and Product Groups . . . . . . . 204 Garment Production Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Method Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Systems and Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Company Structure and Organisation . . . . . . . 210 Organisational Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Production Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Work Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Use of Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

11.10 Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 11.11 Baroque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 11.12 Rococo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 11.13 Neo-classicism: English Fashion, Directoire and Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 11.14 Neo-classicism: Biedermeier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 11.15 Romanticism, Neo-rococo, and the Victorian Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 11.16 Belle poque, Reform, Art Nouveau . . . . . . . . . 284 11.17 The Twenties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 11.18 The Thirties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 11.19 The Forties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

9
9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9

Product Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Target Groups and Quality Levels . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Planning a Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Developing a Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Elements of Clothing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Design Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Control Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Body Types, Size Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Size Charts, Size Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

11.20 The Fifties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 11.21 The Sixties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 11.22 The Seventies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 11.23 The Eighties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 11.24 The Nineties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 11.25 The New Millennium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 11.26 Glossary of Special Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Index of Technical Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

10

11

Fibres

1.2.4 Animal Fibres: Wool (2)

1.2 Natural Fibres

Classification of Wool
There are hundreds of different types and breeds of sheep. They are classified according to their wool into five basic types: Fine, Medium, Crossbred, Long, and Coarse. Wool Type Breed (examples) Fineness, Diameter Length Crimp, Waviness
highly crimped normal crimp Argentina, Uruguay heavier, more robust, sporting clothing low crimp, straight New Zealand, Great Britain carpets, traditional furniture coverings

Fine
Merino, Rambouillet finest wools, 15...23 m1)

Medium, Crossbred
Southdown, Corriedale medium fine, 24...30 m

Long, Coarse
Lincoln, Romney, Karakul coarse, over 30 m

50 120 mm

120 150 mm

over 150 mm

Sources (examples) Applications

1)

Australia, South Africa, ex USSR fine outerwear, knitted and woven, shawls, socks

1 m = 1 millionth of a metre = 10 6 m

Apart from its fineness, length, crimp, and breed, wool can also be classified according to:

Shearing: Lambswool is from the first shearing, after six months, whilst Yearling wool is from the first or second shear after 10-12 months. They are fine, soft, not very strong, with fine tips. Six-month, Eight-month, Twelve-month wools are from sheep shorn at intervals of 6, 8 or 12 months. Source: Australian, New Zealand, etc. Cape wool is from South Africa; Shetland is typical coarse wool from Scotland. Extraction: Virgin wool is from living, healthy sheep or lambs. Dead wool, Fallen wool is from sheep that have died from natural causes. Skin wool has been taken from the skins of slaughtered sheep. Spinning: Worsted wool is usually fine Merino, spun into fine, smooth, uniform, combed yarns. The very finest and most expensive wools are made into extra-fine combed yarns designated as super 100s to super 200s. Woollens are heavier, more voluminous yarns prepared on the woollen spinning system. Carpet wool is long, coarse wools for carpet yarns. Recycling: Recovered Wool is wool that has been recovered mechanically by teasing apart production waste and secondhand clothing. Recovered wool is damaged and is of low quality.

protein macromolecule

Construction of the Wool Fibre

bilateral structure

fibrils fibrillar bundles spindle cells

scales

The wool fibre is made of protein molecules (keratin). It is rather similar to human hair. The long-chain protein molecules are formed into fibrils. These combine into fibrillar bundles which form the mass of the spindle cells. This construction gives the wool fibre an extraordinary elasticity. The bulk of the fibre is made from two separate components. These have different chemical constitutions, and they wind in a spiral around each other (bilateral structure). Moisture and temperature have different effects upon the two components, which swell to different extents, causing changes in the overall fibre shape. It is the bilateral structure which causes the fibres to be crimped; finer fibres develop more crimp. Heat and moisture can relax bonds between the protein chains. The bonds are re-formed during cooling and drying, and this is the source of the good smoothing and shaping properties of wool. Wool absorbs moisture (is hygroscopic). It can absorb about 1/3 of its mass of water vapour without feeling wet. The moisture is released only slowly. In spite of the strong affinity for water of the fibre interior, its surface is water repellent (hydrophobic) because it is covered by an extremely thin skin, the epicuticle. This skin causes liquid water to roll up into droplets whilst allowing the passage of water vapour. The scales on the fibre surfaces are capable of hooking onto one another to cause felting, under the influence of water, heat, and mechanical action.

1: Model of the wool fibre

17

Fibres

1.9 Ecology and the Textile Pipeline (3)

Eco-labelling
There is a demand from some consumer groups that textile labels should give information about any potentially harmful substances which may be contained in the product. In various countries, governmental or private organisations have developed sets of criteria which can be embodied in a labelling scheme to satisfy these demands. Typically, such labels guarantee that: no potentially carcinogenic dyestuffs have been used heavy metals are present in such small quantities that their concentration, when dissolved in perspiration, would be lower than the permitted levels for drinking water pesticides are present in concentrations lower than those permitted for foodstuffs formaldehyde shall not exceed a certain concentration the pH value is neutral or slightly acid (like human skin) textiles intended for babies and small children shall not release any dyestuff on contact with saliva. Manufacturers or distributors of textile products can apply to these organisations for the right to use promotional and marketing materials (labels, hang tags etc.) subject to their products being included in a stringent testing regime.

Label

Requirements Eco-Tex Standard 100is a label of the Hohenstein Test Institute, in Germany. It guarantees that the concentrations of potentially harmful chemicals shall not be greater than certain published values. Random samples are submitted to laboratory testing in one of a number of associated institutes. The Eco-Tex Standard 1000 guarantees that the whole manufacturing chain, including working conditions, effluent disposal, environmental management, storage and transportation, all meet certain social and ecological standards. The Eco-Tex Standard 100 plus label guarantees that all products and operations of a given manufacturer, conform to the requirements of both the Eco-Tex 100 and 1000 standards.

Label

Requirements GREEN-COTTON is a trademark of a Danish textile company specialising in environmentally friendly and socially responsible production. The cotton is either certified organic or sustainable. It is hand-picked and contains no pesticide residues. The latest technology is used at all stages of manufacture to minimise environmental impacts. NATURTEXTIL is a label of a German industry association. It embodies strict ecological and social requirements throughout the manufacturing chain. Only natural fibres or animal products that have been produced under strictly organic regimes are allowed. Organic certification is required at all stages. MEDICALLY TESTED is a designation devised by a German research institute, based on a specific series of laboratory tests based on challenging human cells with an extract from the textile to give an assessment of skin tolerance. The EU Flower is a symbol created and supported by the European Union. Any manufacturer may apply to use the symbol to identify products that comply with strict ecological and performance criteria. The label is overseen, and the products are tested, by independent organisations such as Ecolabelling Denmark.

Ecolog is a trademark of a German company that specialises in weatherproof clothing. They have developed garments in which every component fabrics, linings, membranes, zippers, padding, buttons is made from pure polyester. This means that at the end of its life, the garment can be reduced to polyester chips for re-use, e.g. in bottles.

57

Yarns

2.5 Textured Yarns

Texturing
Flat continuous filament yarns made from thermoplastic (heat-formable) materials can be made permanently bulky by various processes. This is called texturing and it results in: increased volume increased extensibility and elasticity lower lustre better thermal insulation due to the enclosed air higher vapour permeability and moisture transport softer and more comfortable fabrics

Important Texturing Processes

False-twist texturing
filaments feed rolls heating zone

The yarn is drawn through a heated zone whilst a predetermined, high level of false twist is inserted followed by cooling and untwisting. The heat softens the filaments and the deformation imparted by the twist is permanently set during cooling. This is the most economical, and therefore the most common process.

twister delivery rolls

Air-jet texturing

yarn feed

The yarn is fed through a turbulent air stream, created by a jet. Usually the air is cold but occasionally hot air or delivery rolls steam may be used. The air jet causes entangled loops to be formed in the filaments. The resulting textured yarn is very bulky with permanent crimps and loops. Can be used for non-thermoplastic filaments. The yarn is fed into a heated chamber where it is compressed. The zigzag deformations are permanently set by subsequent cooling. The filaments can no longer lie close together so the yarn is bulky.

air jet entanglement zone

Stuffer-box texturing

delivery rolls

heated stuffer box

Knit-deknit texturing

The yarn is knitted into a tube on a circular knitting machine. The knitted fabric is heat set and then unravelled. The shape of the knitted loops is set into the yarn, which develops a boucl (crinkle yarn) appearance.

knitting

setting

unravelling

Types of Textured Yarns

Whatever the texturing process used, textured yarns can be classified into three groups: Stretch yarns: Highly elastic yarns with a crimp extension of 150 to 300%. Stabilised yarns: Yarns which have been given an additional setting treatment to reduce their elasticity and crimp extension. Bulked yarns: Voluminous yarns with crimps and loops having normal extensibility and elasticity. The term bulked yarn is often used generally to cover all continuous filament textured yarns and bulked staple fibre yarns. High-bulk yarns Man-made staple fibres can also be made into bulky, voluminous yarns. Such high-bulk yarns are usually made by blending acrylic fibres of high and low potential shrinkage. During a subsequent heat treatment, the high-shrinkage fibres contract causing the other fibres to buckle. A similar effect can be obtained by using bicomponent fibres.

Applications for Textured Yarns

Stockings and tights (panty hose), swimwear, sportswear, outerwear, underwear, carpets, sewing and overedge stitching threads for extensible fabrics. 66

Textile Fabrics

3.3 Knitted Fabrics

3.3.3 Warp Knitted Fabrics (2)

Multiple Guide Bar Fabrics

For most warp knitted fabrics, the basic lapping structures are used in combination. This means that more than one warp sheet and guide bar must be used. Warp knitted fabrics have only a limited range of applications in apparel fabrics. The most important are: leisure and swimwear, foundation and lingerie, extensible linings, laces, ribbons and trimmings. In household textiles, warp knits are used for curtains, bed clothing and furnishings. The widest use of warp knits is in technical fabrics.

Locknit
Locknit (charmeuse) is a combination of tricot and 21 plain stitches. On one side the fabric displays distinct wales of small face loops; the other side shows the zigzag formation of the underlaps. It is made from filament yarns which give the characteristic lustre. Applications: linings, interlinings, lingerie (Figures 1, 2, 3).
1: Locknit, schematic

Warp Knitted Terry

This is made with an extra warp sheet of pile yarns which are caused to form loops, bound into a ground fabric. Applications include furnishings and bed sheets (Figure 4).

Warp Knitted Plush, Velour

2: Locknit, face 3: Locknit, back

In this case, the pile loops are cut to give a fleecy or velvet-like surface. Applications include beach, leisure and sportswear, ladies outerwear (Figure 5).

Raschel Net
Nowadays, net fabric is almost always made on raschel machines. It is a combination of pillar and tricot stitches. Raschel net is most popular in bridal wear (Figure 6).
4: Warp knitted terry 5: Warp knitted plush, velour

Raschel Lace
Raschel lace fabrics are often made on a base of net fabric with a pattern formed from inlay yarns. They are used for foundation and lingerie, bridal and formal wear, and as trimmings (Figure 7).

6: Raschel net

7: Raschel lace

93

Dyeing and Finishing

4.6 Coating and Lamination

Coating
polymer blade

Coating is the application of a layer of natural or synthetic polymer to one side of the fabric, followed by fixation in a curing oven. The polymer film can be applied directly to the fabric (Figure 1). However, if the fabric is an open one, or the material to be applied has a low viscosity, the liquid will first be applied to a carrier paper and then transferred from there to the target fabric (Figure 2). The coating imparts new properties to the fabric, which are a combination of the original material (woven, knitted, nonwoven) and the coating (polyurethane, polyvinylchloride).
paper collection

fabric

curing chamber

1: Principle of direct coating

fabric curing chamber

polymer paper

Coated textiles (Figures 3 and 4) have a wide range of uses from clothing to technical fabrics. In clothing uses, it is advantageous if the coating is permeable to air and moisture vapour.

2: Principle of indirect coating

Applications sporting, protective, working clothing; highly-visible (fluorescent) clothing; shoe uppers, leather cloth; handbags and luggage; furniture and automobile seat coverings;
3: Coated fabric

bookbinding, maps, albums; window blinds, shower curtains, table covers; floor and wall coverings; conveyor belts, tarpaulins, awnings, air-supported structures, inflatable dinghies, textile roofing, etc.

4: Protective clothing

Lamination
blade fabric

Lamination is the superimposition and bonding of two or more fabrics, or a fabric with paper, film, or foam. The bonding can be achieved with an adhesive (Figure 5) or by heat (Figure 6), whereby a polymer film or foam is melted onto the surface of one fabric and then the other fabric is pressed onto it (Figure 7).

polymer fabric

5: Adhesive lamination

flame heating

fabric

foam

6: Foam lamination

7: Foam laminated fabric

109

Fabric Descriptions

5.3 Accessories, Trimmings

5.3.3 Ribbons and Decorations

A garment is made not only from the apparel fabric but also various accessory items. These have to be chosen in such a way that they complement the outer fabric both aesthetically, in terms of decoration, and practically, in terms of ensuring that the garment performs as expected in its intended end use. The manufacture of ribbons, tapes, and decorations is similar to that of textile fabrics; weaving, knitting, braiding, or nonwoven techniques. In many cases, different patterning elements are combined such as fibre and colour effects, structure and finishing. The commercial names for ribbons often follow from the application or the structure, for example piping ribbon, velvet ribbon. Decorative ribbons (trimmings) are also used for ornamentation.

Ribbons and Tapes

Name Trimmings 1: Trimming Scalloping, Rick-rack Elastic tape 2: Scalloping, Rick-rack Buttonhole tape Piping Moir ribbon 3: Elastic tape Seaming tape Welted tape 4: Buttonhole tape Ribbed tape Velvet ribbon Bias binding Stamped tape Taffeta ribbon Galloon Features, Properties, Applications General name for a patterned, woven or knitted ribbon in cotton, silk, wool, or man-made fibre. Narrow bowed, zigzag, or scalloped ribbon, plain or multi-coloured in cotton or man-made fibres for edge trimming of traditional costumes and children's wear. Highly elastic, flat, braided band containing rubber or elastomeric fibres. Broad elastic tape with buttonholes located in the centre. Cotton or linen plain woven ribbon about 1 cm wide, used as a tailoring aid for edges, reveres, and collars. Cotton, silk or man-made fibre ribbon with a moir pattern for hat bands and bows. Cotton or viscose twill woven tape for stabilising seams. Cotton or viscose tape with a narrow welt at the edge. Cotton, silk, or viscose tape with pronounced ribs for decoration or for waistbands. Cotton, silk or viscose narrow-woven velvet; sensitive to handling. Tape cut on the bias (diagonally) in various widths and materials, plain or patterned, either flat or folded for use as binding. Interlining tape with pre-stamped marks to show sewing width and seam allowance. Aids more efficient working. Filament yarn ribbon, plain or check patterned, for ribbon bows. A particularly supple, plain or patterned braided ribbon for piping or binding in outerwear.

5: Welted tape

6: Galloon

Decorations
Fringes Cords A narrow edging of projecting yarns which are not woven into the fabric, in viscose, wool, or silk. Circular braided materials of various thickness in viscose, cotton or synthetics. Used as decoration for clothing, in household textiles, and in sporting goods. Expensive, hand-made articles in silk or viscose. A combination of fringes, cords, and braids. Decorative items used either alone or in combination with ornamental textiles. A mouldable flat braid with two ribs in silk or viscose used for formal clothes. Bunches of wool, silk or synthetics used as trimmings, hanging alone or in groups.

Tassels Rosettes Soutache Pompons 7: Decorations

133

7 Clothing Manufacture 7.2 Equipment and Methods for Sewing

7.2.2 Sewing Machines, Overview

Machine Types Applications Straight seams, zigzag seams (see pages 170 to 173).

1: Lockstitch machine

2: Chain stitch machine

3: Multi-thread chain stitch machine

Blind stitch machines for invisible stitching and hemming Linking machines for attaching collars, cuffs and waistbands on knitted fabrics (see page 177).
4: Blind stitch machine 5: Linking machine

Edge neatening, combined neatening and seam closing, safety stitching (see pages 174, 175).

6: Overedge machine

7: Safety stitch machine

Binding cut edges, flat seams on knitted fabrics (see page 176).

8: Flat seam machine

9: Flat seamer with cylinder bed

Specialised sewing operations (see page 185).

10: Buttonhole machine

11: Button sewing machine

12: Automatic looper

Automatic, complex sewing operations (see page 186).

13: Profile sewer

14: Pocket sewer

159

Organisation of Clothing Manufacture

8.3 Industry Sectors and Product Groups

The clothing industry ranges from small, hand-made (bespoke) operations up to large industrial garment making enterprises. Industrial production is divided according to Target groups (women's, men's, and children's wear), Applications (underwear, shirtings, foundation garments, workwear, and sportswear), Materials (wovens, flat knits, circular knits). Bespoke operations are divided along technical lines into men's tailoring, women's tailoring, shirtings, and underwear.

Comparison between Bespoke and Industrial Production

Bespoke Clothing Production The clothing is made for individual clients, according to individual size and requirements. Particular characteristics of the client, in terms of the body shape, can be taken into account during cutting and sewing. The client selects the material and the design, from sample swatches and fabric collections. The cut and the style is agreed by discussion with the tailor, before cutting begins. Bespoke tailoring involves a much higher investment of time for each garment, and is correspondingly more expensive than industrial manufacture. However, the client is usually rewarded by a more individual design and a higher quality of material and workmanship Industrial Clothing Manufacture Production is geared to an anonymous, statistically and/or demographically and culturally defined target consumer group. Cutting patterns and sizes are based on standard size charts, derived from large numbers of measurements. Garments are produced in a limited range of sizes. Standardised cutting and making procedures mean that all garments have the same shape; allowances for uncommon body shapes can not be made. The consumer has the choice between a wide range of different garment styles but has no direct influence over their design and cut. Large-scale manufacturing techniques allow a wide range of garments to be produced in a fraction of the time required for bespoke tailoring of individual items.

Product Groups with Examples of Product Types (Apparel Fabrics)

Menswear, Boyswear jackets trousers suits formal wear uniforms waistcoats coats traditional costume Womenswear blouses dresses skirts jackets coats trousers & trouser-suits evening wear wedding dresses traditional costume Children's wear babywear jackets trousers coats girls dresses Workwear, Sportswear workwear sportswear leisure wear ski wear jeans protective clothing

Knitted Outerwear pullovers twin-sets jackets & cardigans knitted dresses

Shirtings, Underwear dress shirts casual shirts childrens shirts nightwear underwear lingerie

Foundation wear, Swimwear brassieres corsetry support stockings swim suits bikinis swimming trunks

Accessories socks stockings leggings scarves caps ties handkerchiefs

204

Organisation of Clothing Manufacture

8.4 Garment Production Systems

Types of Production System

There are different ways to organise the production of garments, according to the type, the quantity and the diversity of products to be made. The number of items to be made and the rate of delivery of these items distinguish individual production, batch production and mass production. Individual Production Batch Production Mass Production

With individual production (making through) each product is made only once. The system requires highly skilled, experienced operators and versatile machinery. Example: made-to-measure costume

Batch production is used for larger, though fixed quantities of identical articles either for stock or to order. Examples: blouses, skirts

Mass production means that large quantities of identical products are made continuously. The high utilisation of machinery and labour allows a high level of automation and specialisation. Examples: T-shirts, work trousers

Sharing a job of work between several people is called division of labour. Quantitative division is where the required number of whole items is shared (with each person doing the same work). Qualitative division is where the work required for each item is divided into smaller operations (each person performs a different operation).

Production Organisation Systems

The synchronised, or straight-line system is suitable for large volume production (mass production or large batches). As the name suggests, the work flows in a straight line through a series of workstations, each of which is synchronised to the next by ensuring that the time spent at each station is exactly the same. This represents an extreme form of the division of labour. The system requires that each individual step in the assembly of the product has to be analysed carefully and the steps distributed in a balanced way over the available work stations. Each operator then performs exactly the same operation(s) over and over again on the identical parts of successive garments. Detailed work plans have to be drawn up to facilitate this balancing of the line. Advantages of the synchronised line system include short distances between stations, low volume of work in process, precise planning of production times, highly visible production progress and predictable production quantity. Disadvantages include the need for intensive detailed preplanning, high cost of style changes, sensitivity to disruption by production difficulties or absenteeism, and the dependence of productivity on maintaining a strict rhythm of work. The progressive bundle system is a way of avoiding the rigidity and some of the disadvantages of the synchronised line system. Machines and operatives are organised into sections, each of which specialises either in the production of a major sub-component (collars, cuffs), or the assembly of two or more sub-components. Within and between sections the work is balanced according to the time required for each sub-function. The combination of small bundles and a line system provides the best solution to the problems of frequent style changes, small lot sizes, and short delivery deadlines. Materials transport systems (Figures 1 and 2) distribute the work in progress among the different workstations. 205

1: Straight line system with hanger transport

2: Bundle assembly with wagons

Organisation of Clothing Manufacture

8.9 Production Management (1)

Production management provides all of the tools that are required for the smooth and economic operation of manufacturing processes. It regulates the interaction in space and time between people, equipment, information and resources to achieve the objectives of the manufacturing system (page 209). A principle concern is the flow of work in progress and information. The following tasks are of particular significance. Determining the time sequence of the required processes Timely provision of materials and equipment Timely provision of information Every manufacturing company has a production program to follow. For a garment maker, the production program is embodied in the collection plan. The collection is the range of products that will be manufactured for marketing in a particular season (page 224). The Production department co-ordinates the development of new products, the procurement of materials and their processing, and the control of quality throughout manufacture The Processing (Making-up) department is responsible for the processes that complete the work to be done. It is responsible for production planning and control.

Data Exchange and Data Formulation

Co-ordination between departments, sections and processes is mediated by the exchange of data (information). Data are supplied in the form of detailed work instructions and process-dependent technical information. Data have to be documented. This can be done via a company computer network and also by the use of standard company forms. The way that data are transmitted in a particular company will depend on its structure, its level of technology, the type and range of its collections and other factors. A wide variation is possible. Task Development of new products Product concept Design concept Market orientation (Target group) Fabric concept Style calculation
Sketches, Style concepts Style patterns Technical drawings Parts lists Calculations

Processing Tools
Forms description Making instructions

Data Sources

Style components

Block patterns

Production planning Product Colours Sizes Quality targets

Style specification Materials lists Making plans Balance plan

Cutting lists Cutting instructions

Quality specifications

Material records

Equipment records

Scheduling records

Quality handbook

Production control Process schedule (sequence of subprocesses) Progress control (task-dependent) Quantities Deadlines Quality control Production plan (task-dependent)
Task 1 H&O Maier Khnel Grotz M. Shne Eberle Menzer L&N Progress plan Week 11 2 3

Forms for process-, quantity-, progress control

Quality control plan

Making-up

Progress plan

212

9 Product Design

9.1 Target Groups and Quality Levels

Marketing is a collection of activities that include market research, consumer surveys, and customer service. The objective is to arrive at a collection of products for sale in the future and then to promote this collection in the market. The ultimate goal is a collection that can be produced for minimum risk and maximum return.

Target Groups
A target group is an identifiable sector of consumers with broadly similar characteristics, such as fashion consciousness, buying habits, types of shops used, brand awareness, brand loyalty and quality requirements. A target group can be defined according to the following criteria. Attitude and Lifestyle Womenswear Anti-fashion, no demands Nonconformist Prestige oriented Not to be tempted Careful, unsophisticated Smart, conservative Young, trendy Menswear Trendy fashion follower Younger, confident, demanding Untidy youthful Older, demanding, fashion grouch No particular orientation Conventional, unsophisticated Fashion Awareness and Expectations Womenswear Avant-garde Fashion conscious Jeans type Career woman Modern woman Youthful Cultured Smart Middle of road Bargain hunter Menswear Avant-garde Young fashions Jeans type Career man Modern man Youthful Businessman Formal Middle of road Bargain hunter

Quality Level
Quality level is the other factor that determines the market sector towards which a collection will be aimed. The quality level defines the rank of the product in the total range of offers in the market, so far as its design content and workmanship are concerned. The following factors, for example, have an influence. Fabric quality Workmanship in the interior parts Style and Fit
high Designer

Fashion content Precision of assembly Range of sizes and number of pieces The following quality levels can be distinguished Designer quality characteristics include unique designer labels, small numbers per style, the most exclusive fabrics often with in-house designs extreme fashion leaders, avant-garde designs. High quality or Model fashions are characterised by very high levels of workmanship, exclusive designs and detailing, small series production, limited size range, fashionable. The Upper middle level uses good quality fabrics, provides optimum fit, and follows the latest fashions in style and colour.

High quality

Exclusivity

Upper middle

Middle

The Middle level has strict price constraints, a comprehensive size range, but a limited range of styles.
Bottom, discount store low Quantity
1: Clothing quality levels

The Bottom or Discount level has large quantities of limited styles. Fabric quality and workmanship are geared to low price levels. The style and fit are of comparatively lower importance.

223