Explain behavioral theories of work force motivation and relevant issues.

Discuss their implications for policies and practices in any organization your are familiar with. Ans : Every reward or element or compensation / remuneration has a behavioral objective and seek to fulfill a need (physiological or psychological) and achieve a goal. Luthans argues that motivation is a process that starts with a psychological or psychological deficiency or need that activates a behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal. Reward systems are aimed at compensating people for their skill, effort, responsibility and working conditions and motivating them for higher performance. Behavioral science theories are classified into three categories, content, process, and contemporary theories. A. CONTENT THEORIES The content theories look at what motivates people at work. Maslow, Hergberg and Alderfer contributed significantly to content theories. These are very briefly outlined here: HIERARCHY OF NEEDS : Abraham Maslow proposed a hierchay of five needs: Physiological (food, shelter, clothing which wages can buy), Safety (emotional and physical safety- health insurance, pension), Love (affection and affiliation belongingness, social), Esteem (power, achievement status, etc.), and Self-actualization (personal growth, realization of potential). Individuals may seek fulfillment of higher order needs before their lower order needs are fulfilled. Mashlow suggests that a satisfied need is not a motivator. The exception, however, is the self-actualization need whose gratification increases in growth-motivated individuals. TWO FACTOR THEORIES OF MOTIVATION : Two factor theory of motivation by Friedrich Hergberg classifies reward into two categories : intrinsic and extrinsic. These are also called motivators (satisfiers) and hygiene factors (dissatisfiers). Intrinsic rewards are motivators and satisfiers related to job content. They include achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, job enrichment and job enlargement. Extrinsic rewards are hygiene factors and job satisfiers. These include company policies and administration, supervision, salary, interpersonal relations, working conditions; Hergbergs theory oversimplifies the complexity of motivation. Pay can be satisfying if it is very low, but it can also be satisfying: A poster executives cabin reads thus : I like the pay, not the job! ERG THEORY: Clayton Alderfer formulated his theory based on three groups of needs: Existence (survival or physical well-being), Relatedness (interpersonal) and Growth (personal development) (ERG) theory. These needs are a continuum , not necessarily in the same order, rather a hierarchical or compartmentalized categories. Based on a persons background and cultural environment, one set of needs may precede over others. The works of Maslow, Hergberg and Alderfer are referred to as content theories. They are useful, but have limited implications for policy and practice. Hergbergs theory, however, provides insights for job design.

Organizational Structure How it Works Pre-Bureaucratic Structure These organizations do not involve standardization of tasks and their structural hierarchy is completely centralized. This is, by far, the best example of a flat organization. Bureaucratic Structure These are the typical tall organization structures that enforce standardization of tasks and this structure is best suited for large and complex organizations. Functional Structure Such organizations are divided into specific departments and employees are hired for each department based on their professional skill sets that are best suited for that department. For instance, an accounts graduate would be preferred over an arts graduate for handling the accounts and taxation department. Divisional Structure This kind of structure is also known as "product structure" as each functional unit is grouped as a division. Each of these divisions is equipped with all required resources and functions for the achievement of divisional goals. Divisions can be distinguished on the basis of geographical location, product, services, etc. Matrix Structure This kind of structure is characterized by the grouping of employees on the basis of product as well as function. This way, it imbibes the best of functional as well as divisional structures. For instance, if a company is dealing in 3 different products, it can have separate functional departments for all three, such as separate sales, customer services and troubleshooting departments for each product. A matrix structure can be of three types - weak matrix, balanced matrix and strong matrix. In a weak matrix, a project manager is given limited authority to supervise the cross functional project aspects. In a balanced matrix, the authorities and responsibilities of a project are equally shared by the project manager and the functional managers. In a strong matrix, the project manager is the whole-and-sole authority with functional managers extending technical assistance and resources when approached. Team Structure This is the newest rung in the organization structure evolutionary ladder! We can see many organizations working in teams, which may be vertical or horizontal. The teams can also be decided based on individual processes and functions. Network Structure In these structures, the managers are typically vested with the responsibility of coordinating and controlling external collaborations and relations via electronic media. Virtual Structure This is an extension of the network structure and it enables managers to establish and maintain regular contact with different divisions all over the world without necessitating maintenance of extensive physical and manual infrastructure. This kind of organization is boundary less and its operation is completely/majorly dependent upon the Internet.

Different Types of Organizational Structures Traditional Structures These are the structures that are based on functional division and departments. These are the kind of structures that follow the organization's rules and procedures to the T. they are characterized by having precise authority lines for all levels in the management. Various types of structures under traditional structures are:

Line Structure - This is the kind of structure that has a very specific line of command. The approvals and orders in this kind of structure come from top to bottom in a line, hence the name line structure. This kind of structure is suitable for smaller organizations like small accounting firms and law offices. This is the sort of structure that allows for

easy decision-making and is also very informal in nature. They have fewer departments, which makes the entire organization a very decentralized one. Line and Staff Structure - Though line structure is suitable for most organizations, especially small ones, it is not effective for larger companies. This is where the line and staff organizational structure comes into play. Line and structure combines the line structure where information and approvals come from top to bottom, with staff departments for support and specialization. Line and staff organizational structures are more centralized. Managers of line and staff have authority over their subordinates, but staff managers have no authority over line managers and their subordinates. The decision-making process becomes slower in this type of organizational structure because of the layers and guidelines that are typical to it. Also, let's not forget the formality involved. Functional Structure - This kind of organizational structure classifies people according to the function they perform in their professional life or according to the functions performed by them in the organization. The organization chart for a functional organization consists of Vice President, Sales department, Customer Service Department, Engineering or production department, Accounting department and Administrative department.

Divisional Structures These are the kinds of structures that are based upon the different divisions in the organization. These structures can be further divided into:

Product Structure - A product structure is based on organizing employees and work on the basis of the different types of products. If the company produces three different types of products, they will have three different divisions for these products. Market Structure - Market structure is used to group employees on the basis of specific market the company sells in. A company could have 3 different markets they use and according to this structure, each would be a separate division in the structure. Geographic Structure - Large organizations have offices at different place, for example there could be a north zone, south zone, west and east zone. The organizational structure would then follow a zonal structure.

Matrix Structure This is a structure which is a combination of function and product structures. This combines the best of both worlds to make an efficient organizational structure. This structure is the most complex organizational structure. Some Other Kinds of Organizational Structures

Bureaucratic Structure - This kind of structure can be seen in tall organizations where tasks, processes and procedures are all standardized and this type of structure is suitable for huge enterprises that involve complex operations and require smooth administration of the same.

Pre-Bureaucratic Structure - This structural form is best exemplified in flat organizations where administration and control are centralized and there is very little, if any, standardization of tasks. Network Structure - In this kind of structure, the organization managers are required to maintain and coordinate business/professional relations with third parties such as clients, vendors and associates in order to achieve a collective goal of profitability and growth. Most of the time, these relations are maintained and tasks are coordinated via telecommunications and electronic media and, hence, this type of structure is also known as Virtual Structure. Team Structure - Organizations with team structures can have both vertical as well as horizontal process flows. The most distinct feature of such an organizational structure is that different tasks and processes are allotted to specialized teams of personnel in such a way as a harmonious coordination is struck among the various task-teams. Ad hoc

Ad hoc is a Latin phrase meaning "for this". It generally signifies a solution designed for a specific problem or task, non-generalizable, and not intended to be able to be adapted to other purposes. Compare A priori. Common examples are organizations, committees, and commissions created at the national or international level for a specific task. In other fields the term may refer, for example, to a military unit created under special circumstances, a tailor-made suit, a handcrafted network protocol, or a purpose-specific equation. Ad hoc can also mean makeshift solutions, shifting contexts to create new meanings, inadequate planning, or improvised events Robert H. Waterman, Jr. defined adhocracy as "any form of organization that cuts across normal bureaucratic lines to capture opportunities, solve problems, and get results".[2] For Henry Mintzberg, an adhocracy is a complex and dynamic organizational form.[3] It is different from bureaucracy; like Toffler, Mintzberg considers bureaucracy a thing of the past, and adhocracy one of the future.[1] When done well, adhocracy can be very good at problem solving and innovations[1] and thrives in a diverse environment.[3] It requires sophisticated and often automated technical systems to develop and thrive.[1] dhocracy is a type of organization that operates in opposite fashion to a bureaucracy. The term was first popularized in 1970 by Alvin Toffler,[1] and has since become often used in the theory of management of organizations (particularly online organizations), further developed by academics such as Henry Mintzberg. Characteristics of an adhocracy:

highly organic structure[3] little formalization of behavior[1][3] job specialization based on formal training a tendency to group the specialists in functional units for housekeeping purposes but to deploy them in small, market-based project teams to do their work[3] a reliance on liaison devices to encourage mutual adjustment within and between these teams[3][4] low standardization of procedures[1] roles not clearly defined[1] selective decentralization[1]

work organization rests on specialized teams[1] power-shifts to specialized teams horizontal job specialization[4] high cost of communication[4] (dramatically reduced in the networked age) culture based on non-bureaucratic work[4]

All members of an organization have the authority within their areas of specialization, and in coordination with other members, to make decisions and to take actions affecting the future of the organization. There is an absence of hierarchy.

Management Styles
Managers have to perform many roles in an organization and how they handle various situations will depend on their style of management. A management style is an overall method of leadership used by a manager. There are two sharply contrasting styles that will be broken down into smaller subsets later:
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Autocratic Permissive

Each style has its own characteristics: Autocratic: Leader makes all decisions unilaterally. Permissive: Leader permits subordinates to take part in decision making and also gives them a considerable degree of autonomy in completing routine work activities. Combining these categories with democratic (subordinates are allowed to participate in decision making) and directive (subordinates are told exactly how to do their jobs) styles gives us four distinct ways to manage: Directive Democrat: Makes decisions participatively; closely supervises subordinates. Directive Autocrat: Makes decisions unilaterally; closely supervises subordinates. Permissive Democrat: Makes decisions participatively; gives subordinates latitude in carrying out their work. Permissive Autocrat: Makes decisions unilaterally; gives subordinates latitude in carrying out their work.

Line organizational

Line and staff organizational structure