Contact Forces Anuj is cycling on the road.

He observes that as he stops pedaling, the cycle stops moving after traveling for some distance. Let us see why this happens? Forces acting between two bodies can be classified into two broad categories: Contact force and non-contact force. Let us learn about contact forces in detail.

Contact forces are those that act between two objects, which are in direct contact with each other. The two common examples of contact forces are muscular and frictional. Frictional Force Earlier you had seen that as Anuj stops pedaling the bicycle, it stops after some time. This happens due to the external force acting between the road and tyres of the bicycle. This force is known as the frictional force. The force of friction acts between all moving bodies, which are in contact with one another. The force of friction always acts opposite to the direction of motion. The magnitude of this force depends on the nature of the surface in contact. Frictional force is a contact force. Frictional force always acts between two moving objects, which are in contact with one another. Frictional force always acts opposite to the direction of motion. Frictional force depends on the nature of the surface in contact. Muscular Force The force applied by the action of muscles in our body is termed as muscular force. For example, when you pick up a book placed on the table using your hands, you apply muscular force. For lifting the book from the table using your hands, you had to touch the book. You cannot lift the book without making contact with it. Hence, muscular force is a contact force.

Like humans, animals also use muscular force to perform various activities. For example, birds fly in the air by flapping their wings.

Non-Contact Forces Does force act only when two objects are in contact? To understand, let us perform a small activity. Take a bar magnet and an iron nail. Bring the magnet close to the iron nail, but do not bring them in contact. What do you observe? The iron nail moves towards the magnet. This means that there must be a force that is acting between the magnet and the iron nail. Since the iron piece moves towards the magnet (even when they are not in contact), we can say that the force exerted by the magnet on the iron piece is a non-contact force.

Non-contact forces are those forces that act between two objects, but are not in direct contact with each another. Examples of non-contact forces include magnetic force, electrostatic force, and gravitational force.

Magnetic Force What will happen if you bring the South Pole of a bar magnet close to the North Pole of another bar magnet? The magnets will attract each other. They attract each other with magnetic force.

What will happen if you bring the North Pole of both bar magnets close to each other? The bar magnets will repel each other. The force with which they repel each other is known as magnetic force.

Magnetic force can be attractive as well as repulsive. Magnetic force is a non-contact force. Magnetic force acts between two magnets, or between a magnet and a magnetic material (such as iron). Magnetic force depends on the strength of the magnet used. Magnetic force also depends on the distance between the interacting bodies. Electrostatic Force Take a paper and tear it into pieces. Now, rub a plastic scale against dry hair and bring this scale close to the paper pieces. What do you observe? You will observe that the pieces of paper are attracted towards the scale. This happens because rubbing of the scale against dry hair produces an electrostatic charge. Thus, the scale attracts the pieces of paper by a non-contact force known as electrostatic force.

Electrostatic force is a non-contact force. Electrostatic force can be attractive as well as repulsive. Electrostatic force is the force that exists either between two charged bodies, or between a charged and uncharged body. Electrostatic force depends on the magnitude of charge present in the bodies. Electrostatic force also depends on the distance between the interacting bodies. Gravitational Force Do you know why apples fall towards the ground from trees? Why does water from a tap flow down? The Earth attracts everything (that is near or on its surface) towards its centre by a non-contact force known as gravitational force. It is this force that makes an apple fall towards the ground from the tree and makes the water from a tap flow down.

Gravitational force is a non-contact force. Gravitational force is an attractive force. Gravitational force is the force that is exerted by the earth on every object, which is near or on its surface. Gravitational force depends on the mass of the body. Gravitational force also depends on the distance between the Earth and body. C.G.S. unit of force is dyne and S.I. unit of force is Newton.

1 Newton = 105 dyne Gravitational Unit 1 kilogram-force (or 1 kgf) is defined as the gravitational force exerted on an object of mass 1 kg. Therefore, 1 kgf = Gravitational force on 1-kg mass = mg = 1 kg 9.8 m/s2. = 9.8 N Hence, 1 kgf = 9.8 N Linear Momentum It is a common observation that we require more force to stop a heavier body as compared to a lighter body. If you catch a cricket ball as well as a tabletennis ball, then you will observe that more force is required to catch the cricket ball as compared to that required to catch a table-tennis ball. This happens because the mass of the cricket ball is more than that of the tabletennis ball. Hence, we can conclude that the force required to stop the motion of a body is directly proportional to its mass. Similarly, more force will be required to throw the cricket ball as compared to that required to throw the table-tennis ball. Let us assume that you have two cricket balls of the same mass. You throw one ball with a lesser force and the other with a greater force. What do you expect to happen? The ball that is thrown with the greater force will move with a greater velocity as compared to that thrown with the lesser force. Hence, we can conclude that the effect of force on a body can be described with the help of its mass and velocity. To describe this, Newton defined the term momentum. He defined it as the product of the mass and velocity of a body, i.e., Momentum = Mass Velocity

Or, p = m v Where, p = momentum; m = mass; v = velocity The kind of momentum we have just defined is known as linear momentum as it is about the linear motion of a body. You will learn in later classes about angular momentum which deals with the rotational motion of a body. Let us try to find the momentum of a cricket ball weighing 150 g moving at a speed of 20 m/s. To find the momentum of the ball, we multiply its mass and speed. Mass of the ball = 150 g = 0.15 kg Velocity of the ball = 20 m/s Momentum of the ball = 0.15 kg 20 m/s = 3 kg m/s Thus, the unit of momentum is kg m/s.

Newtons Second Law of Motion

A heavy wooden block is lying on a table. If you give it a gentle push, then it will move with a low velocity. In other words, if we apply a smaller force on the block, then its momentum changes slightly. If you push the wooden block with a greater force, then the change in its momentum will be greater. Hence, we can conclude that the change in the momentum of a body is directly proportional to the strength of the applied force. This brings us to Newtons second law of motion. It is stated as The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the unbalanced force acting on it. The direction of the unbalanced force is the same as the direction of the change of momentum. Real world examples of Newtons second law of motion High Jump During an athletics event, the participants in the high jump event are provided with cushions to fall on after completing a jump. This is done to prevent any kind of injury to the athletes. When an athlete falls on the cushion, it takes him a longer period of time to come to a stop. A small stopping force acts on the athlete because his rate of change of velocity is low. As a result, the athlete does not get hurt. If the athlete would have fallen on a hard surface, then his velocity would have been reduced to zero in a very short time. In this case, a large stopping force acts on the athlete because his rate of change of velocity is high. As a result, the athlete gets hurt. Catching a ball Let us understand see what happen when we catch a ball.

Seat belts A very useful application of this law lies in the use of seat belts in cars. To prevent injuries to passengers in the case of an accident, all cars are provided with seat belts. In the event of an accident, a fast moving car stops suddenly, i.e., its high velocity is reduced to zero in a very short interval of time. The time taken by the passengers to fall gets increased because of the seat belts worn by them. The rate of change of velocity of the passengers gets reduced because of the increase in the time taken by them to fall. Hence, a lesser stopping force acts on them as a result of which, injuries are reduced. Mathematical formulation of Newtons second law of motion Consider a body of mass m. It initially moves with velocity u and accelerates at a constant rate a. It attains a final velocity v after time t. This acceleration is caused by force F. Now, Newtons second law of motion can be mathematically represented as

You know that, Using this, we obtain F = ma = Mass Acceleration

Thus, we can re-state Newtons second law of motion as Force acting on a body is equal to the product of its mass and acceleration.

Torque (moment of force)

The given figure shows a wrench and a nut. When a force, F, is applied to the handle of the wrench, the nut turns in a direction as shown in the given diagram. It is interesting to note that the greater the distance between the nut and the point of application of force (denoted by D in the figures), the easier it will be to turn the nut. Therefore, the turning of the nut depends on two factors: i. The greater the applied force F, the more easily the nut can be turned. ii. The greater the distance d, the more easily the nut can be turned. It is clear from these points that the turning effect can be increased either by increasing F or by increasing d (distance between the nut and the point of application of force F) On account of these points, we define a quantity called torque. Torque () = Force (F) Perpendicular distance (d)

Torque represents the turning force acting on an object. It can either be clockwise or anticlockwise, depending upon how the force is applied. The given figures show clockwise as well as anticlockwise torque.

A clockwise torque tends to turn an object in the clockwise direction. Similarly, an anticlockwise torque tends to turn an object in the anticlockwise direction. Torque is also known as moment of force. Unit of torque Torque () = Force (F) Perpendicular distance (d) Since the unit of force is N and the unit of distance is m, the unit of torque is Nm (Newtonmetre). Translational equilibrium An object is said to be in translational equilibrium if the net force acting on the object is zero. A translational equilibrium corresponds to the state of rest or to a straight-line motion at a constant speed. It means that if an object is in translational equilibrium, the object remains at rest or continues its motion in a straight line at constant speed. The essential condition for translational equilibrium can be given in the form of an equation as: F=0 The given figure shows a block on which two forces are acting.

The net force on this block is 120 N 120 N = 0 N. Therefore, the given block is said to be in translational equilibrium. It means that if the block is already at rest, then it will continue to be at rest after the two forces start acting simultaneously.

Also, it means that if the block was already in motion, it will continue the same type of motion after the two forces start acting simultaneously. Rotational equilibrium An object is said to be in rotational equilibrium if the net torque acting on the object is zero. Consider a drum fitted such that it can rotate around its axis. The given figures show two such drums. Arun and Pankaj tie up ropes, as shown in the given figures and pull the ropes with equal forces.

In which of the given situations will the drum not rotate? Yes, that is right! The drum will not rotate in situation II. Therefore, in situation II, the drum is in rotational equilibrium. The torque exerted by Arun is equal but opposite to the torque exerted by Pankaj. Clockwise and anticlockwise moment Torque is also known as moment of force. The given figure shows a metre scale that can rotate about the fixed point O.

The moment of force F1 is given by: 1 = F1 d1 This tends to turn the metre scale in the clockwise direction. Hence, it is a clockwise moment. Similarly, the moment of force F2 is given by:

2 = F2 d2 It is an anti-clockwise moment. It tends to turn the metre scale in the anticlockwise direction. For an object to remain in remain in rotational equilibrium: Clockwise moment = Anticlockwise moment Example Let us consider a light rod AB of negligible mass with centre at C. Two parallel forces, each of magnitude F, are applied at the ends such that the forces are perpendicular to the rod, as shown in the figure below.

Here, total force on the rod = F F = 0. This is because the forces act in opposite directions. The net force on the rod is zero. Therefore, the rod is in translational equilibrium. The moments of both forces about C are equal (= aF) but they are not opposite. They act in the same direction and cause the anticlockwise rotation of the rod. Thus, the rod is not in rotational equilibrium.

Principle of Moments

According to the principle of moments, a body will be in rotational equilibrium if algebraic sum of the moments of all forces acting on the body about a fixed point is zero. Example Take an ideal lever comprising of a rod AB of negligible mass pivoted at a point O.

Here, F1 and F2 are two parallel forces. For translational equilibrium, net force should be equal to 0. R F1 F2 = 0

R = F1 + F2 (i) For rotational equilibrium, the algebraic sum of moments of forces about O must be zero. If AO = d1 and OB = d2, then F1 d1 F2 d2 = 0 (ii) [Anticlockwise moments are taken as positive and clockwise as negative] From equation (ii), F1d1 = F2d2 (iii) In case of the lever, force F1 is usually some weight to be lifted (called load) and its distance from the fulcrum (AO = d1) is called the load arm. Force F2 is the effort applied to lift the load and its distance from the fulcrum (OB = d2) is called the effort arm. From equation (iii), we have Load Load arm = Effort Effort arm The ratio F1/F2 is called mechanical advantage (M.A.) of the lever i.e.,

Usually, M.A. > 1 i.e., F1 > F2 i.e., a small effort is applied to lift a heavy load. Centre of Gravity

The centre of gravity of a body is the point at which the bodys whole weight is said to act from. The concept of centre of gravity makes it easy to do calculations for objects having extended size. Generally, it turns out that the centre of gravity is also the centre of mass. The centre of mass of an object is the point where the whole mass of the object is said to be concentrated. The Centre of gravity of a body of irregular shape can be determined by the following method.

Suspend the body from some point such as A.

Draw the vertical line AA1. This line AA1 passes through Centre of Gravity, which lies somewhere on this line. Similarly, draw vertical lines BB1 and CC1 by suspending the body from some other points B and C, etc. The point of intersection of these verticals gives us the position of Centre of Gravity (G) of the irregular body. Example Consider the motion of a body that is rotating as well as translating, as shown in the given figure.

Let the mass of this irregular object be M and the net force acting on the object be F. Each of the particles of the object follow complex paths as the object is rotating as well as translating. It is, therefore, difficult to apply the equation f = ma on each particle. But it is possible to use this equation if the whole mass M of the object is considered to be concentrated at the centre of gravity of gravity (G) of the object. During the journey of the shown object, it is the point G that does not revolve. All other particles of the object revolve around the point G. Even though it is not possible to easily track the motion of individual particles, it is possible to track the motion of point G using the equation F = Ma, where, a is the acceleration of the centre of mass (G). Hence, the concept of centre of mass makes it easy to track the motion of an object by tracking its centre of gravity (G) with second law (F = ma) applied to this point.

Work Consider the following day-to-day activities: Reading, speaking, singing, writing, thinking etc. We require energy to perform these activities, which we derive from the food we eat. Did you know that actually no work is involved in performing these activities? Do you think that a weightlifter does work while standing with weight over his head, as shown in the given figure?

Even if you push a wall with the maximum force that you can apply, the wall will not move. It will be interesting for you to note that even in this case, you are not doing any work at all! Do you know why?

Work is not done in all the above activities because there is a basic difference between the term work and the term which we use for our daily activities. Scientifically, work is defined as the work done by a force that causes a displacement in an object. If you push a book placed on a table with a force, then it will move to a certain distance. Scientifically, we will say that some work has been done on the book. Can you name the force against which work is done? In this case, work is done against frictional force, which exists between the book and the surface of the table.

If you lift the book to a certain height, then a force is exerted against gravity, which displaces the book to a certain height. Hence, one can say that work is done on the book against the force of gravity.

If you push a trolley full of books, then it will move through a certain distance. In this case, the applied force causes a displacement in the trolley. Do you think any work is done on the trolley?

Work Done by a Constant Force

A wooden block is kept on a table. When a force of magnitude F acts on the block, it gets displaced through a distance S in the direction of the applied force, as shown in the given figure.

The magnitude of work done is given by the product of force (F) and displacement (S). Let W be the work done on the block. Work = Force Displacement

Work has magnitude only. It has no direction. Unit of Work To obtain the unit of work, we substitute the SI units of force, i.e. N, and distance, i.e. m, in the equation of work. W=Nm = Nm

Hence, the unit of work is Nm. In the honour of physicist James P. Joule, the SI unit of work is written as Joule (J). Hence, 1 J = 1 Nm 1 Joule is defined as the amount of work done by a unit force such that it displaces an object by a distance of 1 m. Work done against gravity When force is applied on an object in order to lift it above the ground, it is said that work is done against the force of gravity. Assume that a constant force of magnitude F is applied on a block of mass m to lift it to a height h above the ground. In this case, the work done by the force against gravity is given by the product of the weight of the block and the height through which it is lifted above the ground. Work done = Weight Height W = mg h W = mgh Where, g is acceleration due to gravity.

Negative work A soccer player moves backward while stopping a fast moving football. To move backward, he applies a force in the forward direction. Is the direction of displacement and the direction of applied force the same?

Here, the directions of displacement (S) and applied force (F) are exactly opposite to each other. Hence, we can say that the work done by the force is negative. This case can be described with the help of the following figures.

Hence, the work done by force F is given by W = F (S) or W = (F) S In both the cases, the work done will be negative. Zero Work When a body moves through a distance at right angle to the direction of force, the work done by the force on the body is zero.

A book kept on a table moves from point A to point B through a distance S. In this case, the work done on the book by gravitational force is zero because the force is acting at right angle to the displacement of the book.

Power Consider the following situations and try to answer the questions.

I Shamsher takes 5 minutes while Shashank takes 6 minutes to do 50 chin-ups. Who is more powerful if their weights are the same?

II

Anuj takes 10 seconds while Aruna takes 8 seconds to climb a 40-step staircase. Can you say that Aruna is more powerful than Anuj if both have the same weight?

III Amit takes 5 seconds to lift a bucket of water from a well while Ravinder takes only 3 seconds to do so. Who is more powerful?

In each of the above examples, there is a comparison between the times taken by two different persons to do a certain amount of work, i.e., the rate of work done by one person is compared with that of the other. We define this rate of work done as the power of the person. Power is defined as the rate of work done. Power (P) is given by the ratio of work done (W) and the time taken (t) to do that work, i.e.,

Power =

Or This relation shows that for a given work, power is inversely proportional to the time taken. In case I, the time taken by Shamsher is less than that taken by Shashank for the same work (with both having the same weight). Hence, the power of Shamsher is greater than that of Shashank. Hence, Shamsher is more powerful than Shashank. In case II, Anuj takes more time to climb the stairs than Aruna. Hence, Aruna is more powerful than Anuj. Finally, in case III, Amit takes more time to lift a bucket of water from the well than Ravinder. Hence, Ravinder has more powerful than Amit. Whenever work is done, an equal amount of energy is consumed. Hence, we define power as

Power = The SI unit of power is watt (W), in honour of the physicist James Watt.

Kinetic Energy

The world requires a lot of energy. To satisfy this demand, we have natural energy sources such as the sun, wind, water present at great heights, tides, etc. We also have artificial energy sources such as coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc.

Energy exists in various forms such as light, sound, motion, etc.

Forms of energy Some forms of energy are 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Light Sound Heat Mechanical Electrical Chemical Nuclear

In this section, we will consider only mechanical energy.

Mechanical energy It is the form of energy possessed by an object having the potential to do work. It is caused by the motion, or the position and configuration of the object. Mechanical energy is of two types. (i) Kinetic energy (caused by the motion of an object) (ii) Potential energy (caused by the position and configuration of an object) Kinetic energy

A body possesses kinetic energy by virtue of its motion. A moving arrow can be made to go through an object. Hence, it is said that the arrow possesses kinetic energy.

The elastic string of a catapult is stretched to throw a stone. The work done is stored in the stone and the string. After its release, the stone is said to possess kinetic energy.

Take a long cardboard and fold it so that it has two hump-like peaks with a valley in between them (see figure). Mark point I at the top of the hump, and points II, III, and IV at respective distances of 10 cm, 20 cm and 30 cm from point I. Now, allow a ball to roll down from each of these marked points, one by one. Measure the vertical height attained by the ball on the second hump in each case. Compare these heights. What do you observe? You will observe that the ball will reach its highest point when it is dropped from point I. It will reach its lowest height when it is dropped from point IV. What causes the ball to go up? Discuss the results with your friends. A stone dropped from a height has the capability to create a depression in wet ground. Hence, the dropped stone has some amount of kinetic energy. A fired bullet can get embedded in a wall or a wooden block. Hence, it is said that a moving bullet possesses kinetic energy. Can you find out how much energy is possessed by a moving object because of its motion? For this, let us derive a formula for kinetic energy. Formula for kinetic energy Kinetic energy of a moving body is equal to the work required to change its velocity from u to v. Let a body of mass m be moving with a uniform velocity u. Let an external force be applied to it, such that it gets displaced by a distance s, and its velocity becomes v. We have velocityposition relation as v2 = u2 + 2as Where, a = Acceleration of the body during the change of velocity

Or

(1)

Hence, the work done on the body by the force is given by W=Fs F = ma

W=

If the body is initially at rest, i.e., u = 0, then

W Since kinetic energy is equal to the work done on the body to change its velocity from 0 to v, we obtain

Kinetic energy, Hence, the kinetic energy of a body increases with its velocity. Its SI unit is Joule (J). Kinetic energy of a body is directly proportional to (i) Its mass (m) (ii) The square of its velocity (v2) It is the kinetic energy of the wind that is used in windmills for generating electricity.

Potential Energy

So, you have learned that

Potential energy possessed by a body by virtue of its configuration is known as elastic potential energy. Potential energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position with respect to the ground is known as gravitational potential energy.

A body possesses potential energy by virtue of its configuration or position. Where does a keyed toy car derive energy to move? Take a rubber ball and go to the top floor of a building. Now, drop the ball from a height onto the floor where you are standing. The ball will rebound to some height. Observe the height of the rebound. Now, drop the ball onto the ground below and again note the height of rebound of the

ball. You will observe that the ball rebounds to a greater height when dropped on the ground than when it is dropped on the floor where you stand. This is because the energy of the ball while hitting the ground is greater than its energy while hitting the floor. From where does the ball get this large amount of energy?

We know the fact that any object located at a height with respect to a certain reference level is said to possess energy called gravitational potential energy. This energy depends on this reference level (sometimes also referred as ground level or zero level). When a ball is taken to the top floor from the ground floor, it acquires some gravitational potential energy. When this ball is dropped from a height h1 onto the top floor, the zero level is the top floor itself. When the ball is dropped from a height h2 onto the ground, the zero level is the ground. Since the distance covered by the ball is greater in the second case, i.e., h2 > h1, it rebounds to a greater height in the second case. Hence, we conclude from the above discussion that the potential energy stored in a body is directly proportional to its height with respect to zero level. Formula for gravitational potential energy The gravitational potential energy of an object is equal to the work done to raise it through a height from the ground. Let us prove it.

The gravitational potential energy of water stored in a dam is used for generating electric energy in a hydropower plant.

Law of Conservation of Energy

What causes a ball dropped from a height to move? When an arrow is released from a bow, what causes the arrow to acquire kinetic energy? Since a ball at a height and an arrow in the stretched string of a bow possess potential energy (by virtue of their position and configuration respectively), they both acquire kinetic energy. Does this mean that the potential energy stored inside the ball and the arrow is converted into kinetic energy? We observed a number of examples in nature in which a form of energy is converted into another. For example, the chemical energy of food we eat gets converted into muscular energy, which is used to do work such as cycling, walking, lifting a load, etc.

During cycling, the muscular energy of the cyclist is converted into the kinetic energy of the bicycle, thereby causing the cyclist to move forward. One thing to be noted here is that the total energy of the system (Cyclist + Bicycle) remains unchanged, i.e., (Muscular energy + Kinetic energy) remains unchanged during cycling.

Conservation of energy Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be transformed from one form into another. In other words, the total amount of energy in a system always remains constant.

For example, in a burning candle, the chemical energy stored in the wax is transformed into light and heat energy. The total energy, before and after the burning of the candle, remains constant.

Let us look at a simple example of conservation of mechanical energy.

Simple pendulum A simple pendulum consists of a bob suspended by a section of string from a fixed support. It works on the principle of alternative transformation of kinetic and potential energy. At any instant, the total energy of the bob remains the same.

When the bob is raised to point A, it has only potential energy. It has no kinetic energy at this point as it is at rest. When the bob is released from this point, its potential energy gradually decreases and its kinetic energy gradually increases, such that it consists of both potential and kinetic energy at the intermediate position B. At point C, the potential energy of the bob is zero because this point passes through the zero level. When it moves to the other side, its potential energy increases and kinetic energy decreases, so that it again consists of both potential and kinetic energy at point D. At the extreme point E, the bob is again at rest. Hence, it has only potential energy, which is the same as the energy possessed by it at point A. Position A B C D E Energy of the bob Potential energy only Both potential and kinetic energy Kinetic energy only Both potential and kinetic energy Potential energy only SOURCES OF ENERGY Characteristics of a Good Source of Energy We are familiar with the term energy. Everyday, we hear about the scarcity of energy and a looming crisis caused by the rapid depletion of energy reserves. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; hence, the need to conserve energy.

Energy is the ability or the capacity of a physical system to do work. Are there different forms of energy? Can each form of energy be changed into another form? Yes, energy exists in various forms such as kinetic energy, heat energy, chemical energy, etc. We can change energy from one form to another. For example, when a candle is burned, it produces heat and light. Here, we can see that the chemical energy in the candle is converted to light and heat energy. Thus, we can say that a candle is a source of both light and heat. On the other hand, burning of coal produces heat. Does it also produce light? What makes some forms of energy good while others bad? Let us answer the question using candle and coal as examples. Which of the two will you use as a source of heat energy to cook food? You will use coal as a source of heat energy to cook food. But, why coal and not candle? After all, both sources of energy produce heat. This is because the heat from the candle is not sufficient to cook. This implies that specific sources of energy are used for specific purposes, which we refer to as good sources of energy for that particular task. Good sources of energy exhibit some special characteristics that are listed below.

It should possess a high calorific value, i.e., the amount of energy obtained by burning one kilogram of the fuel should be high It should not leave residue after burning, i.e., it should burn completely It should burn without producing too many pollutants It should be easily available and accessible It should be economical It should be easy to store and transport

Coming back to our earlier discussion, When we compare coal and candle as sources of heat energy, we find that both are easily available, economical, and easy to store. However, coal is more efficient than candle, i.e., coal has a higher calorific value. One kilogram of coal will provide more energy as compared to one kilogram of candle-wax. Therefore, we prefer coal to candle when we require heat energy. Let us further understand some characteristics of a good fuel.

In addition to a high calorific value, a good fuel must also have a fairly low ignition temperature. What will happen if the ignition temperature of a substance is lower than the normal room temperature? The fuel will be very difficult to store and transport. Any thermal contact with the atmosphere will ignite the fuel and it may result in an explosion. Calorific value is defined as the amount of heat energy obtained by burning one gram of a substance. The unit of calorific value is kJ/g. The ignition temperature of a substance is defined as the temperature at which the substance starts burning. It is measured in C, F, or K. Calorific values and ignition temperatures of some common fuels are listed in the following table. Fuel Methane LPG Petrol Kerosene Biogas Diesel Coal Wood Ignition temperature (C) 580 400 280 210 580 260 300 300 Calorific value (in kJ/g) 55 50 50 48 35 40 45 25 30 17

Now, can you distinguish a good fuel from a bad fuel? You can see that methane has the highest calorific value but it has a very high ignition temperature. Petrol has high calorific value as well as low ignition temperature. Hence, petrol is the best fuel among those listed in the above table. Now you know why most cars use petrol as a source of energy (fuel). Renewable and Non-Renewable Sources of Energy Based on whether a source of energy can be replenished, it can be classified as a

Renewable source of energy

Non-renewable source of energy

Renewable sources of energy are those that are replenished at a rate faster than that at which they are consumed. About 13 percent of the primary energy comes from renewable resources. Renewable resources of energy are known as inexhaustible sources of energy as they can be easily regenerated at a constant rate. Examples of renewable sources of energy include sunlight, wind, tides, and geothermal energy. Non-renewable sources of energy are those that are consumed at a rate faster than that at which they are replenished. Non-renewable resources of energy are known as exhaustible sources of energy as they can be easily exhausted. Examples of non-renewable resources of energy are fossil fuels, which include coal, petroleum, and natural gas. These resources are widely used. In addition to being an exhaustible source of energy, fossil fuels also release polluting emissions on burning. Disadvantages of Fossil Fuel Fossil fuels are the most commonly used sources ofenergy.Essentially, fossil fuels are hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earths crust. These include liquid petroleum, coal, natural gas, etc. The development of civilization has increased the requirement and demand for energy. Fossil fuels are formed by biogenic processes from the fossils of dead plants and animals in the Earth's crust. These fuels take over millions of years to form. The dead plants on the surface of the Earth were deposited under sediments of sand and clay in low lying swamp areas. In the course of time, as the thickness of this sediment increased, it compressed the dead plants under conditions of high pressure and temperature. This led to the formation of coal. Petroleum, on the other hand, is formed from dead organisms found deep at the bottom of oceans. These organisms were covered by a layer of sediment, which, over the course of time, increased in thickness, thereby causing the dead organisms to compress. This compression of dead organisms under high pressure and temperature, in the absence of oxygen, converted these ancient sea organisms into petroleum. What are the consequences of using fossil fuels? Combustion of fossil fuels produces air pollutants such as major greenhouse gases, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, volatile organic compounds, and heavy metals. Burning of such fuels increases the concentrations of sulphuric, carbonic, and nitric acids in the atmosphere. This results in acid rain. Fossil fuels also contain radioactive materials, mainly uranium and thorium, which are released into the atmosphere.

Let us understand the major environmental effects of using fossil fuels. The greenhouse effect and global warming Before humans started using fossil fuels, there was a uniform recycling of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the atmosphere. Plants absorb carbon dioxide and emit oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. Animals inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide, thus maintaining a balance. However, as humans began burning fossil fuels, more carbon dioxide was emitted into the atmosphere and the delicate balance between oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was destroyed. Greenhouse effect is caused by the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere. A layer of carbon dioxide formed in the atmosphere traps the heat inside it, thereby acting like the glass ceiling of a greenhouse. Greenhouse effect is causing the Earth to slowly get warmer, a phenomenon that is known as global warming. A potential danger of global warming is the melting of the polar ice caps, which is causing the ocean levels to rise. This may lead to flooding of many coastal cities. Apart from the effects on the environment, fossil fuels have other disadvantages. Some of the important disadvantages are listed below.

They are exhaustible sources of energy They are non-renewable sources of energy They take millions of years to form. Hence, their availability is limited They release pollutants such as carbon dioxide, which contributes to global warming They release ash and unburned particles of carbon; they also release oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, which cause acid rain

Inspite of all these disadvantages, fossil fuels are the most commonly used form of energy. As a result of their continuous use, there is an increase in such phenomena as global warming, air pollution, acid rain, and other problems related to the environment.

Thermal and Hydro Power Plants Power plants generate power. You may have seen smoke coming out of the chimneys of power stations. These power stations use coal or petroleum as fuel to produce steam by heating water. The steam is then used to rotate a turbine, which drives a generator. Electric energy thus generated is known as thermal power, and such power stations are known as thermal power plants. Steam is passed through the turbine and is allowed to condense in a condenser. Since a thermal power plants uses coal or petroleum as fuel, it releases huge amounts of smoke from its chimneys. Make your own power station You can make your own, miniature thermal power plant at home using a bicycle dynamo, pressure cooker, turbine, and bulb as illustrated in the figure. Heat is used to make steam from water in the pressure cooker. Steam spins the turbine, which in turn spins the dynamo. The dynamo generates electricity and this lights the bulb. Since it is more convenient to transport electricity rather than fossil fuels such as coal, many thermal power plants are set up near coal or oil fields. Hydro power plants Instead of using steam to spin a turbine, hydro power plants use the potential energy of water accumulated at a height to spin a turbine. When water runs down from a height, the force of the running water (kinetic energy of running water) causes the turbine to spin. This then spins the generator, which

produces electricity. In this manner, the kinetic energy of the water is converted into mechanical energy and finally into electrical energy. In India, most of the hydropower plants are associated with dams. This is because the natural flow of water in our water bodies is not such that it can spin a turbine. Construction of dams over rivers helps to accumulate water and increase its force. A quarter of our energy requirement is met by hydroelectricity. Major hydropower plants in India Hydro power plant Bhakra Hirakud Matatila Tehri Salal Sardar Sarovar Srisailam Tungabhadra Location Punjab Orissa Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand Jammu & Kashmir Gujarat Andhra Pradesh Karnataka

Advantages of hydropower plants

Clean and cheap Do not produce pollutants No waste by-products are produced They do not require transportation of fuels Hydro power is a renewable source of energy

Disadvantages of hydropower plants

Limited geographic potential Causes a change in the course of rivers Sediment accumulates in a dam and eventually reduces its water storage potential Lot of land is submerged under water Fish and wildlife are affected drastically Large dams release methane, which is a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming

Biomass Biomass refers to those living and non living organic materials that can be used as sources of energy in the form of fuel. Some examples of biomass fuels are wood, crops, and organic garbage. The chemical energy in biomass is released as heat on burning. Biomass can also be converted to other usable forms of energy such as methane gas or transportation fuels such as ethanol and biodiesel. It is a renewable source of energy. Wood as biomass The most common form of biomass is wood. For thousands of years people have burned wood for heating and cooking. Until the mid1800s, wood was the main source of energy in the world. It still continues to be a major source of energy in most of the developing countries. Many manufacturing plants in the wood and paper products industry use wood waste to produce their own steam and electricity. Municipal solid waste as biomass Garbage is another source of biomass. This is also called municipal solid waste (MSW). MSW includes food scraps, lawn clippings, leaves, etc. These are also called biomass trash. Biogas Gas made from the anaerobic digestion of agricultural and animal waste is called biogas. When this biomass (agriculture and animal waste) is decomposed in the absence of oxygen, it releases biogas. In India, biogas is commonly known as gobar gas. Biogas is a mixture of methane (75%) and CO2. It is used for cooking, lighting of lamps, generating electricity, etc. In landfills, biomass rots and releases methane gas through the process of biodegradation. Biodegradation is the process of biological degradation of organic matter by bacteria and fungi. Biogas production Biogas technology provides an alternate source of energy in rural India. It is a more efficient and developed form of fuel.

It uses a thick mixture of cattle waste and kitchen garbage. This is fed into an inlet chamber. The micro organisms present in the digester tank are mainly methanogens. These methanogens decompose the organic waste (slurry) anaerobically to produce methane and some carbon dioxide. This process is called biodegradation. Biofuels Biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, are fuels that are made from biomass materials. These are used in transport vehicles. These fuels are usually blended with petroleum fuels such as gasoline and diesel. Biodiesel Biodiesel is a domestic renewable fuel for diesel engines derived from natural oils such as soybean oil. It is typically produced by the reaction of a vegetable oil, or animal fat with an alcohol such as methanol or ethanol in the presence of a catalyst to yield mono-alkyl esters and glycerine. Glycerine is removed from the biodiesel. Biodiesel fuel can be used in diesel engines without making any modifications to the engine. It is a safe, renewable, and biodegradable fuel that produces fewer polluting emissions. Wind Energy Wind energy is the energy harnessed from wind. The kinetic energy of wind is converted into mechanical energy. If this energy is used directly by a machine (such as a grinding stone or a water pump), it is called a windmill. If the mechanical energy is first converted into electricity, then the machine is called a wind turbine. How does wind energy work?

The wind blows on the blades and rotates them The blades turn a shaft inside the nacelle (the box at the top of the turbine) The shaft goes into a gear box and starts producing electrical energy The national grid transmits the power around the country

Wind hour. per large One

turbines operate at wind speeds of about 10 miles an They reach a maximum power output at about 33 miles hour. When a number of windmills are erected over a area, in the same location, it is known as a wind farm. such farm in India is near Muppandal, Tamil Nadu.

Windmills are pollution free. The energy harnessed by windmills can be used in pumps to lift water from wells or for grinding grains. Most of these windmills can be found at high altitudes where there is a continuous wind speed of over 10 mph. The advantages and limitations of wind energy are listed in the following table. Advantages Wind is freely available in nature Air is a renewable and inexhaustible source of energy It reduces the cost of electricity produced Wind energy does not cause any pollution and is eco-friendly Limitations Wind farms can be established only at places where there is a continuous wind speed of over 10 mph A wind farm requires a large area (about 2 hectares) to facilitate a 1 MW generation Lack of energy storage facilities to provide energy backup in the absence of wind The initial cost of setting up a farm is quite high A wind farm requires high quality maintenance facilities Wind Energy Wind energy is the energy harnessed from wind. The kinetic energy of wind is converted into mechanical energy. If this energy is used directly by a machine (such as a grinding stone or a water pump), it is called a windmill. If the mechanical energy is first converted into electricity, then the machine is called a wind turbine. How does wind energy work?

The wind blows on the blades and rotates them The blades turn a shaft inside the nacelle (the box at the top of the turbine) The shaft goes into a gear box and starts producing electrical energy The national grid transmits the power around the country

Wind hour. per large One

turbines operate at wind speeds of about 10 miles an They reach a maximum power output at about 33 miles hour. When a number of windmills are erected over a area, in the same location, it is known as a wind farm. such farm in India is near Muppandal, Tamil Nadu.

Windmills are pollution free. The energy harnessed by windmills can be used in pumps to lift water from wells or for grinding grains. Most of these windmills can be found at high altitudes where there is a continuous wind speed of over 10 mph. The advantages and limitations of wind energy are listed in the following table. Advantages Wind is freely available in nature Air is a renewable and inexhaustible source of energy It reduces the cost of electricity produced Wind energy does not cause any pollution and is eco-friendly Limitations Wind farms can be established only at places where there is a continuous wind speed of over 10 mph A wind farm requires a large area (about 2 hectares) to facilitate a 1 MW generation Lack of energy storage facilities to provide energy backup in the absence of wind The initial cost of setting up a farm is quite high A wind farm requires high quality maintenance facilities Devices That Use Solar Energy We have studied about photosynthesis, a process in which plants absorb solar energy and convert it into chemical energy. Scientists too have developed technologies that enable us to trap solar energy to produce heat energy or electricity. Solar Energy Energy is released from the sun in the form of electromagnetic waves. The energy that reaches the Earths surface consists of about 8% UV radiations, 46% visible light, and 46% infrared radiations. This is what we know as solar energy, which can be used in two ways: heating and electricity. In solar heating, the suns energy is used to warm up rooms, cook food, and heat water. A black-coloured surface is very effective in absorbing solar energy as opposed to a light-coloured or white surface. An example of using solar energy for cooking food is the solar cooker, in which the heat energy of sunlight is captured using a black-coloured box and a reflective device. This device allows sunlight to enter but does not allow it to escape. This trapping of heat is similar to the Greenhouse effect. It increases the temperature inside the box. This is the basic concept behind the functioning of a solar cooker and a solar heater.

Solar electricity is mainly produced by using photovoltaic cells or solar cells. Such cells are made up of semiconductors that convert solar energy directly into electricity. How does a photovoltaic solar cell work? Photovoltaic (PV) cells are made of special materials called semiconductors, such as silicon. When light strikes the solar cell, a certain portion of it is absorbed by the semiconductor material. This means that the energy of the absorbed light is transferred to the semiconductor. This energy loosens the electrons from the atoms in the semiconductor material and allows them to flow freely. This produces direct current (DC) or electricity. The advantages and disadvantages of solar energy are listed in the following table. Advantages It is a renewable source of energy Solar radiations are abundantly available Solar cell panels have no moving parts and hence require little maintenance A solar panel can be set up in any place and requires little or no space on the ground Current applications Solar energy is currently being used in the following ways:

Disadvantages Photovoltaic cells are not cost effective A typical cell develops a voltage of 0.5 to 1 V and can produce about 0.7 W of electricity when exposed to the sun Availability of special grade of silicon used to produce solar cells is limited

Some water heaters use solar panels. Calculators and many toys are powered by solar cells. Traffic signals in most cities are powered by solar energy. In some remote areas, the electricity needs of households are fulfilled by generating electricity using solar energy. Sources of Energy From Sea

Sea water is a highly potential resource of energy. Some forms of energy that can be obtained from sea water are tidal energy, wave energy, and ocean thermal energy. Tidal Energy Tides are the daily rise and fall of ocean levels relative to coastlines. They are a result of the gravitational forces of the moon and the sun on Earth, and also the revolution of the Earth. A large amount of energy is stored in tides. They can be used as renewable sources of energy to generate electricity. Tidal electricity generation involves the construction of a barrage across deltas, estuaries, beaches, or other places that witness increased tidal action. How does it work? The barrage (dam) allows incoming tidal water during high tides, but does not allow it to flow out. This causes water to accumulate at a higher level in the coastal basin. When the tide flows out, the level of water in the sea decreases, and the water which was blocked using the dam is released. The head of this water is then used to spin the turbine of the electric generator. The barrage is equipped with sluices and turbines (similar to hydropower plants). Turbines generate electricity as the water flows out. The vast potential energy of the seas and oceans can make a significant contribution toward meeting the increasing energy needs. Commercially viable technologies to harness tidal power, wave power, and ocean thermal energy are therefore being developed. The advantages and disadvantages of tidal energy are listed below. Advantages

It does not need any fuel Waves are predictable It is available free of cost It is relatively cheap and easy to maintain It produces no greenhouse gases or other polluting wastes

Disadvantages

There are only limited sites that are suitable for constructing tidal barrages

Shipping facility is affected due to the construction of barrages Construction of barrages causes changes in the level of tides, thereby resulting in floods Building a barrage across an estuary is a very expensive affair. It also affects a very wide area. This results in the loss of biodiversity in the particular area. Many birds rely on the uncovering of mud flats by tides for feeding

Wave energy Ocean waves are caused by winds as they blow across the sea. Waves are a powerful source of energy. Electricity can also be produced from wave energy. How is electricity produced from wave energy? At a wave power station, waves cause the water in the chamber to rise and fall, which means that air is forced in and out of the hole located at the top of the chamber. A turbine placed in this hole is turned by the movement of air rushing in and out. The turbine turns a generator to produce electricity. Advantages The energy is free - no fuel is needed, no waste is produced It is not expensive to operate and maintain A wave power station can produce a lot of energy

Disadvantages

It needs a suitable site where waves are consistently strong It is less viable for commercial exploitation in comparison to other traditional forms of energy We are able to harness only a minuscule part of a potentially huge energy resource

Ocean thermal energy Sunlight falls on oceans and seas. This causes the temperature of water on the surface to rise, while the temperature at the bottom remains comparatively cooler. Ocean thermal energy conversion plants use the warm surface-water to boil volatile liquids such as ammonia. Ammonia gas, thus produced, creates pressure and runs the turbine of the generator. This produces electricity. Cold water is pumped up to liquefy the gas. This creates a cycle for generating electricity. Limitations

Power plants can be operated only if there is a temperature difference of 20C between the surface sea water and the sea water at a depth of up to 2 km Commercial exploitation is difficult Geothermal and Nuclear Energy

Geothermal energy is the heat energy in the Earths interiors. The temperature at the centre of the Earth is about 6000C. In some areas, molten rock (magma) is found very close to the surface of the Earth. This hot rock meets underground water and heats it up. This produces steam. Such a place is known as a hot spot. Sometimes, this heated underground water finds an outlet through which it comes out on the surface of the Earth. Such outlets are known as hot springs. Holes are drilled down to the regions through which steam comes up. This flow of steam is used to drive the turbines of generators to produce electricity. One important use of geothermal energy is to heat buildings. The advantages and disadvantages of geothermal energy are listed below. Advantages

No fuel is needed Once a geothermal power station is built, the energy is almost free It does not produce any polluting emissions and does not contribute to the greenhouse effect Since geothermal power stations are not very large, they have a minimal impact on the environment

Disadvantages

Geothermal energy is not commercially viable Sometimes, a geothermal site may undergo depletion and may lose its heat. These geothermal sites then have to be left alone to help them recover their lost heat Hot spots or regions that can generate this energy are limited Hazardous gases and minerals may emerge, which may be difficult to dispose off

Nuclear energy In order to understand nuclear energy we should first understand nuclear fission reaction. What is nuclear fission? When a heavy atom such as U235 is bombarded with a neutron, it absorbs the neutron. This produces an unstable U236 nucleus, which undergoes a continuous fission process known as chain reaction to form a stable nucleus. During this fission process, tremendous heat is produced. Difference in mass (m) between the original nucleus and the product nuclei is converted into energy, E. The amount of energy produced is governed by Einsteins equation, E = mc2 Where c is the speed of light In nuclear power stations, heat is generated by nuclear fission. This heat is then used to produce electricity. How is electricity produced in nuclear power plants? Nuclear power plants consist of nuclear reactors. These reactors use uranium rods as fuel and heat is generated by the process of nuclear fission. Neutrons smash into the nucleus of the uranium atoms, which roughly split into half and release energy in the form of heat. Carbon dioxide gas is pumped through the reactor to take the heat away. The hot gas then heats water to form steam. This steam drives the turbines of generators to produce electricity. Disadvantages of nuclear energy

Construction of nuclear power plants needs huge investments Radioactive wastes such as used uranium are a dangerous hazard to the environment

Nuclear energy can be used for negative purposes. Therefore, there is always a fear of misuse

There is always a danger of leakage of radioactive material and radiations from nuclear power plants

Did you know that during World War II nuclear bombs were dropped on the twin cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan by America? Energy Degradation Energy enters the earth from the sun. Solar radiations pass through the atmosphere. Most of these radiations are absorbed by the Earths surface, which helps in the process of photosynthesis as well as maintaining a temperature suitable for the survival of living organisms. Some solar radiations are reflected by the Earth and its atmosphere. Only 1% of solar energy is captured by the green plants during photosynthesis, and is converted into chemical energy or organic molecules (food). When these green plants are eaten by herbivores, a lot of energy is released as heat into the environment. Energy is also used in life processes such as respiration, growth, and reproduction. Thus, only 10% of the energy of the producers is transferred to herbivores. Similarly, only 10% of the energy of the herbivores is obtained by carnivores. This is known as 10% law of energy transfer.

Therefore, the maximum energy is present in plants, followed by the herbivores, then the carnivores. Hence, the top predator or the tertiary consumer has the least amount of energy.