Chapter 5 THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

Introduction: - The cells that make up our body are so small that you could fit over 200 of them on the full stop at the end of this sentence Before we plunge into the chapter, here are some interesting facts about cells. Read on The word cell is derived from the Latin word cellula which means a little room It was the British botanist Robert Hooke who, in 1664, while examining a slice of bottle cork under a microscope, found its structure resembling the box-like living quarters of the monksin a monastery, and coined the word cells In the year 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, first proposed the idea that all plants consist of cells The Dutch scientist A.V.Leeuwenhoek, in 1674, discovered the minute forms of life such as bacteria and single celled animals in a drop of water In 1839, Theodar Schwann, another German botanist, asserted that all plants and animals are made up of cells In 1831, Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in the cell J.E.Purkinje, in 1840, used the term protoplasm to describe the juicy, slimy gelatinous contents of the cell In 1885, Rudolf Virchow expressed that all cells arise from pre-existing cells In 1932, two German Scientists, Ruska and Knoll, invented the electron microscope Man is estimated to have about 100 trillion (1014) cells in number All living organisms, whether plants or animals, are made up of microscopic units called cells. The cell occupies the same central position in biology as the atom in the physical sciences. All living beings, plants and animals, start their life with a single cell. Some organisms exist as a single cell and carry out the various metabolic life processes such as assimilation, respiration, reproduction, excretion, etc., that are essential for their survival. These are known as unicellular organisms. Example: Yeast, bacteria, chlamydomonas, amoeba Some cells divide and give rise to organisms with more than one cell, these organisms are termed as multicellular. Hence, what is a cell? A cell is the structural and functional unit of all life forms. Cell - A Unit of Life Organisms may be broadly classified into two kinds: Unicellular Multicellular A unicellular organism, also known as a single-celled organism, is an organism that consists of only one cell, in contrast to a multicellular organism that consists of multiple cells
Every multi-cellular organism has come from a single cell. How? Cells divide to produce cells of their own kind. All cells thus come from pre-existing cells.

Cells of onion peel Multicellular life form All living organisms, whether plants or animals, are made up of microscopic units called cells. The cell occupies the same central position in biology as the atom in the physical sciences. All living beings, plants and animals, start their life with a single cell. Some organisms existas a single cell and carry out the various metabolic life processes such as assimilation, respiration, reproduction, excretion, etc., that are essential for their survival. These are known as unicellular organisms. Structure of Cell:- Cells vary in shape and size. They may be oval, spherical, rectangular, polygonal, spindle shaped, star shaped, rod-shaped or totally irregular like the nerve cell. The diversity in cells is in accordance with the role or function it has to perform as part of the tissue or organ system. In general, there is no typical shape for cells.

Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane):- Cell membrane is present in both plant and animal cells. It is living, elastic and made of proteins and lipids (fats). Its function is to provide a mechanical barrier for the protection of the inner cell contents and to regulate the movement of molecules in and out of the cell. Cell wall: -The cell wall is the tough, usually flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is located outside the cell membrane and provides these cells with structural support and protection, in addition to acting as a filtering mechanism. A major function of the cell wall is to act as a pressure vessel, preventing over-expansion when water enters the cell. Cell walls are found in plants, bacteria, fungi, algae, and some archaea. Animals andprotozoa do not have cell walls. The material in the cell wall varies between species, and can also differ depending on cell type and developmental stage. In bacteria, peptidoglycan forms the cell wall. Archaean cell walls have various compositions, and may be formed of glycoprotein S-layers, pseudopeptidoglycan, or polysaccharides. Fungi possess cell walls made of the glucosamine polymer chitin, and algae typically possess walls made of glycoproteins and polysaccharides. Unusually,diatoms have a cell wall composed of biogenic silica. Often, other accessory molecules are found anchored to the cell wall. Nucleus: - The nucleus is a membrane bound structure that contains the cell's hereditary information and controls the cell's growth and reproduction. It is commonly the most prominent organelle in thecell. The nucleus is surrounded by a structure called the nuclear envelope. This membrane separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm. The cell's chromosomes are also housed within the nucleus. Chromosomes contain DNA which provides the genetic information necessary for the production of other cell components and for the reproduction of life. The nucleus is composed of the following structures: Nuclear Membrane : This is a double-layered membrane which separates the nucleoplasm from the cytoplasm. The nuclear membrane has minute pores which allow the selective transfer of material between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm. Nucleoplasm : Within the nuclear membrane, completely filling up the space, is a clear, semi-solid, granular substance or matrix called the nucleoplasm. The nucleolus and the chromatin network lie suspended in the nucleoplasm. Nucleolus : This dense, spherical granule found in the nucleus contains RNA (ribonucleic acid) which is responsible for protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. Chromatin Network : These are very fine thread-like, coiled filaments uniformly distributed in the nucleoplasm. At the time of cell division, the chromatin becomes thick and ribbon like and are known as chromosomes. The chromosomes contain genes, which are composed of DNA (deoxy-ribonucleic acid). Genes are responsible for storing and transmitting hereditary characteristics from one generation to another. A gene is the functional unit of a chromosome. Genes are arranged in single linear order along the chromosome. One gene may be responsible for a single characteristic, or a single characteristic may be transmitted by a set of genes. Within the nucleus is the DNA responsible for providing the cell with its unique characteristics. The DNA is similar in every cell of the body, but depending on the specific cell type, some genes may be turned on or off - that's why a liver cell is different from a muscle cell, and a muscle cell is different from a fat cell. When a cell is dividing, the DNA and surrounding protein condense into chromosomes (see photo) that are visible by microscopy. The prominent structure in the nucleus is the nucleolus. The nucleolus produces ribosomes, which move out of the nucleus to positions on the rough endoplasmic reticulum where they are critical in protein synthesis. Cytoplasm: - The part of the cell between the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane is called the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm consists of the matrix and the organelles. The matrix is a transparent semi fluid substance. When active, it is always in a state of movement. The organelles are found embedded in the cytoplasm. They have definite shape, structure and function. All the metabolic activities of the cell such as synthesis, secretion, digestion and energy generation, are performed by the different cell organelles. Cell organelles can be seen only with the help of an electron microscope. Cell-organelles: - Every cell has a membrane around it to keep its own contents separate from the external environment. Large and complex cells, including cells from multicellular organisms, need a lot of chemical activities to support their complicated structure and function. To keep these activities of different kinds separate from each other, these cells use membrane-bound little structures (or organelles) within themselves.

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells: - The structure of the cell that we have studied so far is that of a eukaryotic cell. How is a prokaryotic cell different from a eukaryotic cell? The main difference between these two cell types is that prokaryotic cells do not have a nuclear membrane. The nuclear material consists of a single chromosome and lies in the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called nucleoid. Membrane-bound organelles are absent. Prokaryotic cells are found in bacteria and cynobacteria (blue-green algae). Following are the Important Cell-organelles: -Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) This is a complex network of tubes, the lumen of which is filled with fluid. Two types of endoplasmic reticula are seen. They are: Tubes with a smooth surface are called smooth endoplasmic reticula. They secrete lipids. Tubes with spherical bodies (ribosomes) attached are known as rough endoplasmic reticula. The functions of the endoplasmic reticulum are to form the skeletal framework of the cell, to provide a pathway for the distribution of nuclear material from one cell to the other and to synthesize fats, steroids and cholesterol with the help of enzymes secreted by the cell. Golgi Apparatus : Also known as Golgi Complex or Golgi Bodies, they consist of tiny, elongated, flattened sacs (cisternae), which are stacked parallel to one another along with some vacuoles and clusters of vesicles. The function of the golgi body is to secrete certain hormones and enzymes. It also forms lysosomes and peroxisomes. The golgi body is usually found close to the nucleus. Lysosomes : These are tiny, spherical, sac-like structures scattered all over the cytoplasm. Their main function is digestion. They contain powerful destructive enzymes capable of digesting all organic material, and hence called digestive bags. Lysosomes: present in white blood cells are capable of digesting bacteria and viruses. During starvation, lysosomes digest proteins, fats and glycogen in the cytoplasm, and supply energy to the cell. They are also capable of digesting worn out cell organelles, or even digesting the entire damaged cell containing them. Hence, suicide bag is a sobriquet that is often used for Lysosomes. Peroxisomes : These organelles are found in the liver and kidney cells. They are small,membrane-bound sacs, and contain powerful oxidative enzymes. Their chief function is to remove toxic substances. Ribosomes : These are spherical, granular particles which occur freely in the matrix or remain attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes contain RNA (ribonucleic acid) and proteins. Their function is to provide the surface for protein synthesis. Centrosome : This is found in the cytoplasm near the outer surface of the nucleus and contains two cylinders called centrioles. The centrosome is found only in the animal cell. The centrosome and the centrioles play an important role by forming the poles of the spindle during cell division. Mitochondria These may be cylindrical, rod-shaped or spherical and distributed in the cytoplasm. Each mitochondrion is bound by a double membrane. The inner membrane is folded into ridges called cristae, which increase the surface area of the membrane. It is in the mitochondria that the sugar is finally burnt during cellular respiration. The energy thus released is stored as high-energy chemicals called ATP (adenosine triphosphate). Hence, mitochondria are termed as the power house or the power plant of the cell. The body cells use the energy stored in ATP for synthesis of new chemical compounds, the transport of these compounds and for mechanical work. Plastids: -These organelles are found only in plant cells. Plastids are of three types: Chloroplasts: They are green and found in leaves. The green colour is due to the presence of chlorophyll. Chromoplasts: They are yellow, orange and red, and found in flowers and fruits. Leucoplasts They are colourless and found in roots, seeds and underground stem The function of the chloroplast is to trap solar energy for photosynthesis. Chromoplasts impart colour to flowers to attract insects for pollination. Leucoplasts: store food in the form of carbohydrates, fats and proteins.