Basics of Magnetism

by Wasikin (revised 1 Juli 2010) Magnetism is a force of attraction or replusion that acts at a distance. It is due to a magnetic field, which is caused by moving electrically charged particles or is inherent in magnetic objects such as a magnet. A magnet is an object that exhibits a strong magnetic field and will attract materials like iron to it. Magnets have two poles, called the north (N) and south (S) poles. Two magnets will be attacted by their opposite poles, and each will repel the like pole of the other magnet. Magnetism has many uses in modern life. Questions you may have include:

What is a magnetic field? What are magnets? How is magnetism used?

This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz near the end of the lesson.

Magnetic field
A magnetic field consists of imaginary lines of flux coming from moving or spinning electrically charged particles. Examples include the spin of a proton and the motion of electrons through a wire in an electric circuit. What a magnetic field actually consists of is somewhat of a mystery, but we do know it is a special property of space.

Magnetic field or lines of flux of a moving charged particle

Names of poles

The lines of magnetic flux flow from one end of the object to the other. By convention, we call one end of a magnetic object the N or North-seeking pole and the other the S or South-seeking pole, as related to the Earth's North and South magnetic poles. The magnetic flux is defined as moving from N to S.

Magnets
Although individual particles such as electrons can have magnetic fields, larger objects such as a piece of iron can also have a magnetic field, as a sum of the fields of its particles. If a larger object exhibits a sufficiently great magnetic field, it is called a magnet. (See Magnets for more information.)

Magnetic force
The magnetic field of an object can create a magnetic force on other objects with magnetic fields. That force is what we call magnetism. When a magnetic field is applied to a moving electric charge, such as a moving proton or the electrical current in a wire, the force on the charge is called a Lorentz force. (See Magnetism and the Lorentz Force for more information.)

Attraction
When two magnets or magnetic objects are close to each other, there is a force that attracts the poles together.

Force attracts N to S Magnets also strongly attract ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel and cobalt. (See Magnetic Materials for more information.)

Repulsion
When two magnetic objects have like poles facing each other, the magnetic force pushes them apart.

Force pushes magnetic objects apart Magnets can also weakly repel diamagnetic materials. (See Magnetic Materials for more information.)

Magnetic and electric fields

The magnetic and electric fields are both similar and different. They are also inter-related.

Electric charges and magnetism similar

Just as the positive (+) and negative () electrical charges attract each other, the N and S poles of a magnet attract each other. In electricity like charges repel, and in magnetism like poles repel.

Electric charges and magnetism different

The magnetic field is a dipole field. That means that every magnet must have two poles. On the other hand, a positive (+) or negative () electrical charge can stand alone. Electrical charges are called monopoles, since they can exist without the opposite charge.

Summary
Magnetism is a force that acts at a distance and is caused by a magnetic field. The magnetic force strongly attracts an opposite pole of another magnet and repels a like pole. The magnetic field is both similar and different than an electric field. Answers to Readers' Questions

Detection of a Magnetic Field

by Wasikin (revised 1 Juli 2010) Any source of magnetism, such as a magnet or electromagnet, is surrounded by a magnetic field. That field can be detected by various devices, which can also give information about the direction of the field and even its strength. A simple compass can detect a magnetic field and demonstrate its direction. Iron filings can be used to show the shape of a magnetic field. At the sophisticated level, a gaussmeter can detect a field and indicate its strength, as measured in gauss units. Questions you may have include:

How does a compass detect a magnetic field? How do iron filings demonstrate a magnetic field? What is a gaussmeter?

This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz near the end of the lesson.

Compass
A compass is simply a thin magnet or magnetized iron needle balanced on a pivot. It can be used to detect small magnetic fields. The needle will rotate to point toward the opposite pole of a magnet. It can be very sensitive to small magnetic fields.

Using a compass to show the magnetic field

When you bring a compass near an item suspected of being magnetized or having a magnetic field, the compass will turn and point toward the appropriate pole of the object.

Compass needle attracted to magnet's N pole A famous experiment showed that a wire with DC electric current running through it created a magnetic field. When the electricity was turned on, a nearby compass moved to indicate a magnetic field was present.

Earth is a huge magnet

The compass was used to discover that the Earth is a huge magnet. The North-seeking pole of the compass needle will always point toward the Earth's North magnetic pole.

Iron filings
By spreading fine iron filings or dust on a piece of paper laid on top of a magnet, you can see the outline of the magnetic lines of force or the magnetic field. The picture below

Iron filings and compasses show the shape and direction of the magnetic field This experiment also shows that magnetism will act through many materials, such as paper. Would the experiment work if a sheet of iron were used to sprinkle the filings? What about aluminum foil?

Gaussmeter
Gaussmeters are used to measure the strength of a magnetic field. They use a electronic chip called a Hall effect device, which gives off a tiny electrical current when exposed to a magnetic field. The current is amplified with electronic circuitry and a meter shows the number of gauss (the units of magnetic field strength). These devices are used to detect and measure magnetic fields in scientific experiments, in industry and even in people's homes.

Summary
Magnetic objects are surrounded by a magnetic field. Devices can detected the field and also give information about the direction of the field and even its strength. A compass can detect a magnetic field and show its direction. Iron filings can show the shape of a magnetic field. A gaussmeter can detect a field and indicate its strength. Answers to Readers' Questions

Moving Electrical Charges Create Magnetic Field

by Wasikin (revised 1 Juli 2010) When an electrical charge is moving or an electric current passes through a wire, a circular magnetic field is created. This can be seen with iron shavings or filings on a card that will align in the magnetic field when a current is passed through a nearby wire. Using standard conventions for the direction of electric current and magnetic lines of force, the direction of the magnetic can be determined by what is called the right-hand rule for magnetic field. The direction of the magnetic field can be demonstrated by using compasses. Questions you may have include:

What happens when electricity goes through a wire? What are the electrical and magnetic conventions? What is the right-hand rule for current through a wire?

This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz near the end of the lesson.

Magnetic field around wire

When a charged particlesuch as an electron, proton or ionis in motion, magnetic lines of force rotate around the particle. Since electrical current moving through a wire consists of electrons in motion, there is a magnetic field around the wire. This field can be demonstrated by placing fine iron filings or shavings on a car and sticking a wire through the middle of the card. When a DC electrical current is passed through the wire, the iron filings align to show the magnetic field.

Iron filings show magnetic field around electric wire

Conventions for electricity and magnetism

Certain conventions are used to determine the direction of the magnetic field with respect to the direction of the current.

Direction of electrical current

Although electrons have a negative () electrical charge and move toward the positive (+) terminal in a wire, the convention is that electrical current moves from positive (+) to negative (). It is an unfortunate choice that was made years ago, but you need to be aware of the convention.

Direction of magnetic field

The convention for a magnetic field is that the lines of force move from north (N) to south (S). We don't know if they move in that direction or not, but it is just a convention that everyone follows.

Right-hand rule for magnetic field

The right-hand rule for determining the direction of the magnetic field is that if you wrapped your right hand around a wire with your thumb pointing in the direction of the electrical current, then your fingers would be in the direction of the magnetic field.

Right-hand rule for electric wire

Verification with a compass

You can verify the direction of the magnetic field by placing one or more compasses on a card and observing their direction.

Compasses show direction of magnetic field Note that the current must be DC (direct current), such as from a battery. Otherwise with AC, the direction of the current and magnetic field will alternate 50 or 60 times a second.

Summary
When electric current passes through a wire, a circular magnetic field is created. Iron filings on a card can demonstrate the magnetic field when current is passed through a nearby wire. Using standard conventions for the direction of electric current and magnetic lines of force, the direction of the magnetic can be determined by what is called the right-hand rule. The direction of the magnetic field can be demonstrated by using compasses.

Factors Determining Magnetic Properties

by Wasikin (revised 1 Juli 2010) There are three main factors that determine the magnetic property of a material. The most basic factor is the configuration of the electrons in the material's atoms. At the next level, the ability of the atoms or molecules in the material to align magnetically is important in determining whether the material responds to a magnetic field. A final factor is the alignment of domains or sections in a solid object. Questions you may have include:

What are electron orientation factors?

What are molecule factors? What are domain factors?

This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz near the end of the lesson.

Electron orientation
Electrons can behave as tiny magnets, each with north (N) and south (S) poles. When an atom's electrons are lined up in the same orientation, with most having their N pole facing one direction, the atom becomes like a magnet, with N and S poles. It is also possible for the electrons to be in various directions, making the atom not magnetic.

Moving electrons create magnetic field

The reason that electrons can behave like tiny magnets is the fact that when electrons move, they create a magnetic field. Placing a compass near a wire carrying DC electrical current can show that a magnetic field is created due to the electrons moving through the wire. A magnetic field is also created when electrons rotate around a nucleus and when they spin while in orbit. (Note that modern theories of the atom no longer accept the Bohr or solar system model. In the new theories, electrons are thought of as clouds or strings. You should be aware that there are new explanations, but for the sake of understanding we will still follow the Bohr model of spinning electrons rotating around a nucleus, similar to planets rotating around the Sun.)

Spinning electrons
Electrons have a property called spin. This spinning creates a magnetic field with N and S poles, just as the spinning Earth has magnetic poles. Note that the N pole on an electron is really a North-seeking pole, just as in a magnet. If electrons in the shells of an atom spin in the same direction, the atom will exhibit a magnetic field and will respond to the forces of a magnet. If half of the electrons spin one way and the rest spin the other way, they will neutralize each other and the material will not be affected by a magnetic field

This atom is barely magnetic because all its electrons are not aligned

Strong and weak electron alignments

Atoms such as iron have most of their electrons aligned in the same direction. Thus, iron or nickel would be attracted to a magnet. Aluminum only has a few electrons aligned, and thus it is only weakly magnetic. An element with half of its electrons oriented one way would not be attracted to a magnet.

Atomic and molecular alignment

Although some atoms may be highly magnetic, they really need to be aligned to make a material magnetic. If magnetic atoms are facing different directions, their fields will cancel out each other.

Solids and fluids

Since the atoms or molecules in a solid are fixed in place, most magnetic materials are solids. This is because once the atoms or molecules become aligned, they tend to stay in place. An example is seen when you magnetize a piece of iron. As a material becomes heated or when it is in its liquid or gaseous state, the atoms or molecules are in rapid motion and are not aligned. Thus, fluids are seldom magnetic. An exception is when a magnetic material such as iron is in its liquid state and is continually rotating around an axis. In such a situation, the atoms can be aligned in one direction, even though they are in rapid motion. For example, the core of the Earth is made of liquid iron. Since the Earth rotates on its axis, the liquid iron is rotating, thus creating the Earth's magnetic field. Also, the Sun rotates on its axis, and the material in its plasma state creates the Sun's magnetic field.

Molecules

If two or more elements are chemically combined to form a molecule, it is quite possible that the compound is not very magnetic because the orientations of the atoms in the molecule work against each other. A good example of this is to compare the magnetic properties of iron as compared to its compounds if iron oxide (rust) and iron sulfide. A piece of iron is highly magnetic, but a hunk of rusty iron is not.

Alloys
Metals of different elements can be mixed when they are in the molten or liquid state to form alloys. These combinations result in materials with slightly different physical and chemical properties than the elements by themselves. If the metals typically respond well to a magnetic field--such as iron and nickel--then their alloy has even a stronger reaction to magnetism. On the other hand, there are some alloys of iron--such as forms of stainless steel--that do not respond well at all to a magnet.

Domains
The final factor in a material being magnetic concern the orientation of its domains in a solid. A group of atoms in a metal may become aligned, but the various groups may be misaligned. These groups are called domains. It is necessary to line up many of the domains in a material like iron in order for it to become a magnet.

Magnetic material with domains misaligned

Aligned domains makes material highly magnetic

Summary

Alignment of electrons, atoms and domains are important in determining the magnetic response of a material and whether it is a magnet. Since the atoms or molecules need to be aligned, gases and liquids are typically not magnetic, and most magnets are solid metals. An exception is in the rotating liquid iron core of the Earth and the rotating plasmas of the Sun. Answers to Readers' Questions