Mexican Press During Second World War

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Cramer_Prutsch 5/16/2012 12:23 Page 3
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Gisela Cramer/Lrsula PrutscL (eos.)
Amricas unidas!
Nelson A. Rockefellers Ofce
of Inter-American Affairs (1940-46)
vixc~mixIc~N~ Vixviix1 :o1:
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Chapter 5
Fighting for the Soul of the Mexican Press:
Axis and Allied Activities during
the Second World War
*
Jos Luis Ortiz Garza
This chapter explores the efforts undertaken by the U.S. Department of State
and the Ofce of Inter-American Affairs (OIAA) to exert control over the
Mexican press during the Second World War. As in other parts of the region,
1
cooperation between the Department of State and the OIAA was marked at
times by intense competition that hampered operations in the informational
and other elds of activity. However, these two organizations nally arrived
at a successful formula whereby the U.S. Embassy assumed tight control over
all propaganda activities within Mexican territory.
As this contribution will make clear, however, the United States was not
the only power to interfere with the Mexican press. Toward the beginning
of World War II, Nazi Germany had established an extensive and highly ef-
cient propaganda apparatus that had made considerable inroads into Mexicos
mass media. Yet, by and large, such inroads into the press had been checked
by the Mexican government and by Franco-British counterpropaganda orga-
nizations well before the OIAA appeared on the scene. This tactical success
on the propaganda front, of course, did not prevent broad segments of Mexi-
can public opinion and many editors from continuing to have anti-American
and anti-Allied leanings. To print such opinions, however, became increas-
ingly difcult as the combined thrust of the U.S. State Department and the
OIAA, by means of economic threats and/or substantial rewards, was able to
sway the Mexican press into compliance.
For the history of the Mexican press, the war years represent one of its
darkest chapters. Its servility, unethical practices and shortsightedness pro-
vided a fertile soil for the political interests of the belligerent countries, espe-
cially for the British and Americans. The press abounded with foreign pro-
paganda disguised as information, while foreign currency was owing in and
swelling its coffers.
181
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1ovaro tLe eno ol tLe var, tLe CAAs vell-oileo communication ma-
cLinery vas no longer concerneo alout Axis activities, lut alout propaganoa
unoertaken ly tLe BritisL ano Soviet governments vitL a viev to postvar in-
terests. SucL concerns Lelp explain vLy tLe Americans continueo to lrile tLe
Mexican press, maintaineo an agency ol stooge vriters ano nanceo otLer
covert means even alter tLe azi tLreat Lao vaneo.
The Mexican press during the early forties
n 19+0, Mexico Lao a population ol rougLly tventy million, ol vLicL less
tLan lty percent coulo reao ano vrite. Mexicos print meoia vere LigLly
concentrateo in regional terms. 1Le capitals leaoing commercial nevspapers
vere El Universal, Exclsior, Novedades ano La Prensa. 1vo otLer morning
papers, El Nacional ano El Popular, vere organs ol tLe government party,
tLe Partido de la Revolucin Mexicana (PEM), ano ol tLe lalor unions Con-
federacin de Trabajadores de Mxico (C1M), respectively. 1Le pullisLers
ol El Universal ano Exclsior, also Lao alternoon nevspapers, El Universal
Grco ano ltimas Noticias. n tLe provinces tLere vere approximately 130
nevspapers, vLicL vere classieo ly tLe L.S. mlassy as small (83) ano
intermeoiate-sizeo (+1).
2
Aooitionally, L.S. meoia surveys oetecteo a urry
ol small pullications, usually ol a very sLort lile, lut sometimes very pre-
tentious, vLicL live entirely on tLe money vLicL tLey are alle to extract
lrom government olcials, lrom lusiness rms, ano lrom private inoiviou-
als. 1Ley live lecause ol tLe vanity or selsL interests ol certain inoiviouals.
1Leir circulation is extremely limiteo ano usually non-paio. 1Leir inuence
is invarially nil.
3
!or tLese reasons, ano contrary to tLe practices ol tLe German ano
!ranco-BritisL propaganoists, tLe Americans oecioeo in mio-19+2 not to sul-
sioize tLe press so as to inuence tLeir eoitorial policy (a promise tLey voulo
not comply vitL in tLe lolloving montLs). At tLat time tLey oecioeo tLat tLe
Mexican mass meoia vere to le oealt vitL a strong Lano as tLey are not alove
using tLreats ano inoirect llackmail.
+
1Le Americans voulo concentrate on
tLe estallisLeo papers in ano outsioe tLe capital ano lor tLis reason tLey set
up a local agency lor lree-ol-cLarge oistrilution ol leatures, pLotograpLs ano
eoitorials.
5
WitL regaro to magazines, ly tLe early 19+0s tLere vere alout one Lun-
oreo in Mexico ol vLicL tLirty tLe ones pullisLeo in tLe capital vere con-
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iIci1INc icx 1ii scii ci 1ii mixIc~N vxiss 183
sioereo to le ol some importance ly tLe Allieo meoia analysts ano ve vere
oeemeo really inuential: Hoy, Todo, Sucesos, Tiempo ano Maana.
6
1Le L.S.
mlassy incluoeo tvo lurtLer magazines, lotL relerreo to as anti-American,
anti-Allieo ano tLus oangerous: La Reaccin ano La Nacin. La Reaccin
Lao a relatively large circulation in tLe capital ano tLrougLout tLe country, lut
ceaseo pullication on Septemler 1, 19+2, La Nacin vas tLe moutLpiece ol
tLe Partido Accin Nacional (PA), vLose leaoers vere prominent CatLolics.
Lue to tLe many religious ano political lactors involveo, Guy Eay, tLe unol-
cial American Press Clcer, consioereo La Nacin as tLe most oilcult one
tLat tLe mlassy Las enoeavoreo to Lanole.
7
Nazi activities in the Mexican press
Alter Aooll Hitler came to pover in january 1933, Germany sulstantially
increaseo its propaganoa activities at Lome ano alroao. n Mexico, tLe 1Liro
EeicLs propaganoa macLine receiveo an important impulse in April 1935,
vLen Berlin assigneo ArtLur LietricL as Press AttacL to tLe German ega-
tion. LietricL soon estallisLeo sucL a notorious career tLat Lis critics voulo
come to oul Lim tLe Mexican !uLrer.
8
1Le azi apparatus in Mexico vas nanceo ly lorceo contrilutions ano
ly oonations lrom German-ovneo rms, vLicL Lelo strong positions partic-
ularly in tLe Larovare market ano in tLe cLemical ano pLarmaceutical inous-
tries.
9
German companies vere investing large sums in nevspaper aovertising
ano ArtLur LietricL convinceo tLem to vork togetLer as a pool so as to use
tLeir comlineo market pover to inuence tLe meoias eoitorial stance tovaro
tLe 1Liro EeicL.
10
n mio-1935, tLe German legation supporteo tLe creation
ol tLe evening nevspaper La Noticia, provioing it a montLly sulsioy ol 500
pesos. WLen tLis paper laileo, LietricL took control in 1936 ol tLe capitals
popular talloio La Prensa ano supporteo it vitL 1,500 pesos montLly ano
sulstantial commercial aovertising.
11
Luring 1938 even tLe most prominent
inoepenoent nevspapers, Exclsior ano El Universal, pullisLeo lull sec-
tions ol oisguiseo propaganoa tLat vere paio lor ly azi agents.
12
Many jour-
nals ano magazines vere also receiving inlormation ano pLotograpLs lrom
German nevs agencies lree ol cLarge or lor a symlolic lee.
13
1Le Clce ol
German Press lougLt oll many Mexican journalists sucL as jos Pags lergo,
an inuential vriter vitL tLe nevsmagazine Hoy. He vas Lireo to vork as a
loreign corresponoent laseo in Germany lolloving tLe commencement ol
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Lostilities. Pags vas granteo a generous expense account vLile traveling ano
reporting lrom Germany ano otLer uropean countries.
1+
n 19+0, tLe German activists in Mexico lounoeo nev propaganoa outlets
sucL as tLe nevs veekly Timn, vLicL starteo on !elruary 22. Lirecteo ly
jos Vasconcelos, one ol tLe most outstanoing Mexican intellectuals ol tLe
oay, Timn vas Leavily sulsioizeo ly tLe German emlassy ano nancially
supporteo ly German aovertisers. t aimeo at tLe conservative ano eoucateo
mioole classes ano lecame a llatantly propaganoistic veLicle lor tLe 1Liro
EeicL. Alove all, Timn sougLt to persuaoe Mexicans to remain neutral ano
to avoio commitments vitL tLe Lniteo States.
15
ot surprisingly, Axis propaganoists sougLt to make tLe most out ol Ger-
manys rapio military triumpL in Polano ano sulsequent campaigns ouring
tLe spring ano summer ol 19+0. 1Lus, on May 31, 19+0, tLe SpanisL version
ol Deutsche Zeitung von Mexiko vas replaceo ly Diario Alemn, vLicL on
june 3 cLangeo its title again to Diario de la Guerra.
16
Accoroing to an !B
report, its propaganoa vas particularly vicious lecause it lalsely appeareo
to le vritten ly Mexicans. 1Le nevsloys tLat solo it Lao instructions to Lano
it out lor lree to customers lrom tLe lover classes.
17
Yet Germanys triumpLs on tLe lattleelo vere not easily translateo into
victories on tLe propaganoa lront, as tLe olcial corresponoence ano personal
oiary ol tLe German minister in Mexico reveal. Germanys propaganoists in
Mexico vere experiencing serious nancial voes. Cn May 7, 19+0, tLe min-
ister inlormeo Berlin:
We are losing grouno oay ly oay lor lack ol lunos. Cne nevspaper alter anotLer
slips tLrougL our ngers, lalling to enemy pressure. t voulo le a latal error to
lelieve tLat ve can successlully inuence tLe press simply ly means ol printing
supplies, personal contacts, cocktails... Here all ol tLe nevspapers ano journalists
expect material revaros lor tLeir collaloration, revaros vLicL seem to le availalle
in alunoance lrom tLe otLer sioe.
18
SucL complaints allov us to oevelop a lairly oljective unoerstanoing ol
tLe real lalance ol pover vitL regaro to propaganoa in Mexico ouring tLese
early ano oecisive vartime montLs. noeeo, German intrusions in Mexicos
meoia vere soon to le tLvarteo ly otLer lorces.
19
Allied activities in the Mexican press
WLen tLe var lroke out, tLe BritisL Consul General in Mexico, 1Lomas Eees,
lormeo a small var committee. Composeo ol tLe most inuential BritisL ex-
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patriates, tLe nev organization incluoeo a sulcommittee in cLarge ol pul-
licity activities.
20
n mio-Septemler, tLe Ministry ol nlormation in onoon
nameo Eolert Marett as its representative in Mexico. Marett, vLo spoke per-
lect SpanisL, Lao ten years ol lusiness experience in atin America, seven ol
vLicL Le Lao spent in Mexico as an executive ol El Aguila Petroleum Com-
pany. He Lao marrieo into a prominent Mexican lamily ano tLerely acquireo
many uselul contacts among tLe corporate, governmental ano social elite. As
a loreign corresponoent lor The Times lrom 1936 to 1938, Le lecame very
lamiliar vitL local issues, so mucL so tLat Le autLoreo a look on Lis experi-
ences in Mexico.
21
Marett immeoiately moveo to reinlorce tLe pullicity in-
lrastructure alreaoy in place, vLile also estallisLing tLe nter-Allieo Commit-
tee ol Propaganoa (ACP). CLaireo ly tLe Consul General ol Great Britain,
tLe ACP vas composeo ol representatives lrom tLe BritisL, !rencL, PolisL,
LutcL, Belgian, Greek ano jevisL communities in Mexico.
22
1Le ACP cre-
ateo tLe Allieo nlormation Clce (AC) as a means ol stirring up sympatLy
lor tLe Allieo cause in Mexican pullic opinion. By mio-MarcL 19+0 tLe Clce
vas co-cLaireo ly Eolert Marett ano jacques Soustelle, a prestigious !rencL
antLropologist ano expert on Mexicos inoigenous cultures. Young, energetic
ano vell-prepareo, tLese tvo agents voulo prove to le tLe main gures le-
Lino tLe !ranco-BritisL communication ellorts in tLe rst years ol tLe var.
23
!olloving tLe lall ol !rance, General CLarles oe Gaulle nameo Soustelle as
tLe representative ol tLe !ree !rencL Movement in Mexico. 1Le antLropolo-
gist tLereupon estallisLeo a Press Bureau tLat vorkeo very closely vitL tLe
AC. 1Le BritisL took responsilility lor most ol tLe operative luroen ol tLe
ACP. evertLeless, until mio-19+2 tLe !rencL community in Mexico cov-
ereo Lall ol tLe sulstantial expenses ol tLe Allieo nlormation Clce ano also
nanceo tLe mucL lover propaganoa outlays ol tLe !ree !rencL Movement.
2+
BritisL propaganoa agents took a poor viev ol tLe Mexican press as
lacking a LigL stanoaro ol inoepenoent or intelligent journalism. !or its loreign
nevs ano comment it relies respectively upon tLe services ol tLe Associateo Press
ano tLe Lniteo Press, vLicL are provioeo ly tLese agencies at cLeap ano, in some
cases, uneconomic rates, ano upon special articles, synoicateo tLrougLout atin
America, ly American, ano occasionally BritisL, vriters on political ano military
suljects.
25
Yet more importantly, tLe BritisL oecrieo tLe lact tLat even tLe leaoing
nevspapers ano magazines in Mexico seloom evinceo rm eoitorial policies
ano tLat commercial revenues oirectly conoitioneo tLe presss attituoe to-
varos tLe var. Hence, tLe eoitorial stance ol a given paper seemeo to reect
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tLe relative amount ol Allieo ano German aovertising ano pullicity tLat vas
lortLcoming.
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noeeo, tLrougL mucL ol Mexicos mooern Listory it vas timevorn prac-
tice to lrile eoitors or reporters to portray propaganoa as nevs (a genre lo-
cally knovn as gacetillas) or to sulsioize nevspapers so as to inuence eoito-
rial policy.
27
Luring tLe inter-var perioo, tLe German Press Clce Lao maoe
a sulstantial investment ol tLis nature in Mexicos press meoia. At tLe outset
ol tLe var, tLe BritisL Consul General calculateo tLat tLey voulo require at
least 500 pounos a montL to unoertake an extensive ano ellective pullicity el-
lort to vielo control [over| vell-estallisLeo local papers vitL morning ano
alternoon eoitions.
28
Marett oenounceo tLe Mexican press as excessively
mercenary,
29
lut tLis opinion oio not stop Lim lrom playing tLe liooing
game to secure tLe placement ol BritisL propaganoa tLrougLout tLe Mexican
meoia at vLat proveo to le a very LigL premium.
By late 19+0, out ol tLe ACs total montLly luoget ol 35,900 pesos,
15,500 pesos vere oislurseo lor sulsioies to periooicals ano lor covering
tLe operational oecits ol A1A.
30
A purporteoly Mexican nevs agency,
A1A Lao leen set up to place nevs items, cartoons, pLotograpLs ano eo-
itorials tLrougLout tLe country. t vas nanceo ly tLe !rencL nevs agency
Havas ano, alter tLe lall ol !rance, ly tLe BritisL Eeuters. 1o put tLese g-
ures into perspective: ACs montLly luoget provisions lor activities seeking
to inuence raoio lroaocasts in Mexico vere only 1,000 pesos. Clearly, tLe
BritisL strategy locuseo on printeo mass communication.
31
1Le L.S., in con-
trast, regaroeo raoio as tLeir meoium ol cLoice.
32
The Mexican government and the national press
n tLe rst montLs ol 19+0, several nevspapers in tLe L.S. launcLeo a Leavy-
Lanoeo ano paranoio campaign against tLe Mexican government ano its sup-
poseo lukevarmness tovaros an allegeo azi !iltL Column. Some pa-
pers even claimeo tLat neigLloring azis vere planning to invaoe tLe Lniteo
States.
33
At tLe same time, ano even as it still prolesseo neutrality in tLe vorlo
conict, tLe Mexican government playeo a most oecisive role in stopping
tLe oissemination ol German propaganoa. zaro Croenas, Mexicos lelt-
ist presioent, vLose Latreo ol !ascism ano azism vas vell knovn, sLoveo
groving uneasiness vitL tLe vioespreao propaganoistic activities sponsoreo
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ly tLe German legation. 1Lus, on june 11, tLe Mexican government oeclareo
ArtLur LietricL persona non grata ano expelleo Lim lrom tLe country.
3+
1Lat
same oay, tLe Mexican justice Lepartment conveneo all tLe eoitors ano man-
agers ol tLe capitals nevspapers to inlormtLemtLat tLe governments loreign
policy vas nov sympatLetic tovaros tLe L.S. ano tLat tLeir cooperation in
lostering letter lilateral relations voulo le greatly appreciateo.
35
1Lerealter,
tLe Mexican government sLut oovn Timn ano legan to censure tLe nevs
emanating lrom lascist countries. Croenas communicateo to L.S. olcials
Lis Lopes tLat tLe press in tLeir country voulo aoopt a more lrienoly pos-
ture tovaros Mexico. 1Le Lepartment ol State tLereupon oirecteo its stall to
take aovantage ol any opportunity to praise Mexico vitLout overooing it. t
vas Lopeo tLat tLese messages voulo oeate tLe anti-Mexican campaign ol
certain ortL American nevspapers ano magazines.
36
1Lese early anti-German oiplomatic moves signaleo a clear pro-Allieo
posture on tLe part ol tLe Mexican government. Sulsequent reports con-
cluoeo tLat tLe expulsion ol tLe azi mastermino, ArtLur LietricL, leo to a
steep oecline in pro-German pullications.
37
WLat is notevortLy lor our pur-
poses is tLat Germanys propaganoa macLine Lao alreaoy receiveo a massive
llov veeks lelore tLe CAA vas estallisLeo ano many montLs lelore tLe
American mlassy lecame actively involveo in var propaganoa. 1Le Mexi-
can government tLus oeserves creoit lor signicant aovances against tLe azi
agents ouring tLis time perioo. Croenass successor, Manuel vila CamacLo,
clearly continueo tLis course. Cn MarcL 28, 19+1, Lis government sLut oovn
one ol Germanys lev remaining organs ol overt propaganoa, Diario de la
Guerra.
38
Alter Mexico entereo tLe var in May 19+2, a special propaganoa agency
vas set up, tLe Direccin General de Informacin. 1Le nev agency reporteo
to tLe Ministry ol tLe nterior ano lolloveo a corporatist pattern. t re-
lieo Leavily on inuencing regional ano local pullic opinion leaoers. 1ovaro
tLis eno, it useo traoitional vays ol communication sucL as tovn meetings,
posters, yers, corrioos (Mexican lolk songs), talks ano conlerences given
ly teacLers, politicians, intellectuals, etc. WitLin tLis communication system,
tLe governmental ministries playeo a large role (especially tLe Ministry ol o-
ucation) along vitL organs ol tLe governing party, tLe PEM. Yet tLe States
propaganoa luoget vas limiteo ano tLe state-ovneo mass meoia ratLer leelle.
1Le government tLerelore turneo to tLe commercial mass meoia ano oltaineo
cooperation lrom private quarters.
39
Surprisingly, ve Lave louno no evioence
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ol cooroination or cooperation letveen tLe Mexican propaganoa olces ano
tLeir Allieo ano American counterparts.
The U.S. State Department and the Mexican press
!romtLe mio-tLirties onvaro, tLe L.S. mlassy in Mexico kept a close vatcL
on every step taken ly lascist organizations. At tLe same time it scrutinizeo
tLe Mexican meoia. t reporteo on tLe launcLing ol nev periooicals or tLe
pullication ol articles ol interest lor tLe Lniteo States. Moreover, upon par-
ticular requests lrom tLe State Lepartment, tLe mlassy carrieo out some
more tLorougL investigations: lor instance, it analyzeo tLe extent to vLicL
L.S. nevs items vere carrieo in tLe local press as vell as tLe increase or oe-
crease ol sucL coverage over a perioo ol time.
+0
As tLe political situation in
urope vorseneo ano azi-!ascist propaganoa activities gatLereo strengtL in
Mexico, tLe L.S. mlassy increasingly reporteo on tLis sulject. 1Lus, in jan-
uary 1939, it conoucteo a very oetaileo stuoy ol tLe capitals press, pointing
out lor eacL periooical tLe ovners, circulation, reaoers proles, reputation
ano attituoes tovaros tLe governments ol Mexico ano tLe Lniteo States. n
May ol tLat same year it investigateo rumors alout tLe allegeo nancing ly
tLe German egation ol tLe leaoing nevspaper Exclsior ano its evening eoi-
tion ltimas Noticias.
+1
Apart lrom consular oispatcLes lrom all over tLe country, tLe mlassy
vas receiving inlormation lrom!B agents, military attacLs, Mexican olcial
ano unolcial inlormers ano oiplomats ol tLe Allieo countries. n a nutsLell,
tLe mlassy carrieo out its ovn investigations ol tLe Mexican mass meoia
ano Lao at its oisposal a suitalle netvork lor monitoring tLe state ol pullic
opinion in tLe country. 1Le Lanoling ol tLe press vas put into experienceo
Lanos. At tLe leginning ol 19+1, tLe L.S. mlassy appointeo Guy W. Eay as
its Secono Secretary, a move tLat voulo turn out to le oecisive in tLe lollov-
ing years.
+2
The Ofce of Inter-American Affairs (OIAA) and the Mexican Press
1Le organizational Listory ano general oljectives ol tLe CAA Lave leen ex-
plaineo elsevLere in tLis volume ano neeo not concern us Lere.
+3
!or our
purposes, it vill sulce to remino our reaoers tLat analyzing ano monitor-
ing atin Americas print meoia vas one ol tLe CAAs major tasks, as vell
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as coaxing tLe press tovaros a more pronounceo pro-Allieo stance. Hence,
tLe Press Livision vas one ol tLe largest ano lest-estallisLeo suloivisions ol
tLe Eockeleller agency ano Mexico vas one ol its most important operational
elos soutL ol tLe Eio Granoe.
1Le CAAvas operating in realms tLat ly traoition ano international lav
vere tLe responsilility ol tLe State Lepartment. Eockelellers autLority ano
jurisoiction, moreover, Lao leen poorly oeneo. SucL conoitions inevitally
leo to tensions vitL poverlul gures in tLe State Lepartment ano in tLe oiplo-
matic corps. As vill le explaineo lelov, tLese tensions climaxeo in tLe early
montLs ol 19+1 vLen tLe State Lepartment pressureo Presioent !ranklin L.
Eoosevelt to clarily responsililities. n a letter to Eockeleller in April 19+1,
tLe Presioent realrmeo tLe State Lepartments overall responsilility lor lor-
eign policy ano suljecteo tLe CAAs activities to tLe Lepartments oversigLt
ano approval. !rom tLen on, tLe tvo parties enjoyeo relatively Larmonious
relations, lut unoerlying tensions continueo to surlace at times, particularly
in Mexico.
++
First mass media studies and public opinion surveys in Latin America
!rom tLe very leginning ol Lis nomination as Cooroinator, elson Eock-
eleller vanteo to unoertake a oetaileo investigation alout tLe state ol atin
Americas mass meoia ano pullic opinion in oroer to letter unoerstano tLeir
attituoes tovaros tLe Lniteo States as vell as tLe nature ano scope ol Axis
propaganoa. 1ovaro tLis eno, in tLe lall ol 19+0, Le approacLeo tLe noteo
polling expert George Gallup. Gallup lrougLt into tLe project an associate ol
Lis, Haoley Cantril, vLo vas to oirect pullic opinion surveys in atin Amer-
ica. 1Le rst ano most elalorate survey vas conoucteo in Brazil, lecause ol
tLe countrys importance ano strategic location. !or Mexico ano otLer coun-
tries Eockeleller turneo to tLe American Association ol Aovertising Agencies
(+As) lor recruiting olservers to monitor opinion in tLe press ano raoio
ol tLe major cities. 1Lese olservers perlormeo a variety ol lunctions. !or in-
stance, tLey maintaineo a oaily clipping service on local ano eoitorial opinion,
tLey surveyeo tLe tecLnical lacilities ol tLe main meoia outlets ano trackeo au-
oience, circulation, ovnersLip ano attituoes tovaros tLe lelligerents ano tLe
Lniteo States.
+5
Eockelellers man in Mexico City vas Haralo j. Corson, an
aovertising expert in Lis early lorties.
+6
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By early 19+1 tLe CAA vas prepareo to use tLese men lor its rst major
propaganoa operation autLorizeo ly lotL Eockeleller ano Assistant Secre-
tary ol State Aooll Berle. 1Le olservers placeo lull-page aovertisements
ly a oummy rm, tLe nter-American 1ravel Agency, oepicting tLe Lniteo
States as a prime oestination lor tourism. 1Ley ran tLe aos in tLe 350 major
atin American nevspapers ano especially in tLose vitL unlrienoly attituoes
tovaros tLe L.S. 1Le oljective vas not only to present a positive image ol tLe
Yankees, lut also to loster economic oepenoency. Cnce oepenoent on Amer-
ican aovertising money, it vas reasoneo, tLe paper in question coulo later le
lrougLt to Leel.
+7
Many emlassies conoemneo tLe scLeme as pullic lunos
vere leing cLanneleo to papers lrienoly to tLe Axis ano expresseo tLeir ois-
pleasure at not leing consulteo. As Clauoe Curtis rl Las sLovn, no one in
tLe State Lepartment vas more upset tLan Lnoersecretary ol State Sumner
Welles vLo Lao leen in cLarge ol atin American relations since 193+. Welles
Lao opposeo tLe creation ol tLe CAAin tLe rst place. 1Lis aovertising cam-
paign Lao taken Lim completely ly surprise. Welles vas irate at not Laving
leen inlormeo ol grouno operations taking place on Lis vatcL, ano vLicL
enoeo in a asco. Welles tLereupon useo tLis incioent to convince Eoosevelt
to put all tLe CAAs activities unoer tLe autLority ol tLe State Lepartment.
+8
Alter tLis costly lailure Eockeleller oislanoeo tLe +As elo organization.
(1Le olservers vere kept, Lovever, ano continueo tLeir researcL activities.)
nsteao ano tLis time in lull cooperation vitL tLe State Lepartment, tLe CAA
createo Cooroination Committees, semi-olcial looies ol prominent L.S.
citizens resioing in atin America. 1Le State Lepartment ano tLe CAA
vorkeo in concert to recruit committee memlers, alvays sulject to local em-
lassy approval. Cn August 19, 19+1, Secretary ol State Coroell Hull ano Co-
oroinator Eockeleller signeo a lormal agreement estallisLing tLis nev elo
organization. Ano so, a veek later, joLn Lreier ol tLe Lepartment ol State ano
joLn McClintock lrom tLe CAA oeparteo lor a trip tLrougL atin Amer-
ica to lormally estallisL tLe Cooroination Committees.
+9
Mexicos committee
vas set up on Cctoler 28 ol tLat same year.
50
Heaoeo ly james E. Woooul,
Presioent ol tLe American Smelting Company, tLe Committee Lao an execu-
tive loaro ol eleven memlers, eacL one ol vLomvas a senior manager at rms
sucL as General lectric, Anoerson Clayton, General Motors, Pan-American
Airvays, Colgate Palmolive ano Syoney Eoss, etc. Ms. Paxton Haooov oi-
recteo tLe Mexican Press Section lrom late 19+2 onvaro. 1Le Committee
coulo count on aovice ano aio lromjoLn loyo, CLiel ol tLe Associateo Press
Bureau in Mexico, ovaro P. Morgan, Lis counterpart in tLe Lniteo Press ano
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Curtis Vinson, stall corresponoent ol tLe Dallas Morning News. As tLe L.S.
mlassy reporteo to Lnoersecretary ol State Sumner Welles: n tLis vay,
tLe Committees operating organization is assureo ol aovice, guioance ano
oirection lrom tLose men [tLe American journalists| in Mexico most lamiliar
vitL tLe existing conoitions in eacL specic elo ol its operations.
51
Cn tLe
mlassys sioe, Guy W. Eay vas cLosen as tLe Committees liaison olcer.
New tensions between the State Department and the OIAA in Mexico
Alter serving as L.S. Amlassaoor to Cula, on !elruary 2+, 19+2, George S.
MessersmitL presenteo to Presioent Manuel vila CamacLo Lis creoentials
as tLe nev Amlassaoor to Mexico.
52
MessersmitLs arrival marks a turning
point in tLe relations letveen tLe L. S. mlassy ano tLe CAA in Mexico. l
tLe tvo parties Lao leen alle to collle togetLer a lairly Larmonious vorking
relationsLip, tLe nev Amlassaoor vas to upset tLings.
Cnly a lev montLs lelore MessersmitL Lao urgeo American oiplomats
to resist tLe interlerence ol Eockelellers emissaries. n Havana Le Lao leen
most unlavorally impresseo ly Eockelellers press emissary: [1|Le poor lel-
lov, Le complaineo, vas supposeoly reporting on pullic opinion, lut vas
utterly incompetent to legin vitL, ano so vas pestering tLe emlassy to oo
Lis researcL lor Lim. MessersmitLs liograpLer jesse H. Stiller oescriles Lov
in MessersmitLs jaunoiceo viev, Eockelellers projects lell into one ol tvo cate-
gories: vortLy ones, like artistic excLanges, leing lungleo in tLe execution, ano
unvortLy ones, like Lis Hollyvooo movie stars on tour, tLat smackeo ol cultural
imperialism, insulteo atin intelligence, ano prolally converteo not a single soul
to tLe Allieo cause. Cn tLe lrigLt sioe, MessersmitL accurately loresav a Lell ol a
time avaiting Eockeleller vLen next Le Lao to go lelore Congress to justily Lis
prooigious expenoitures. Lntil tLen, ve must see to it tLat tLese projects are kept
in line... 1Le Cooroinators Clce is Lere tooay ano may le gone tomorrov. 1Le
oamage it oio voulo lall to tLe State Lepartment to repair.
53
MessersmitL vas a career oiplomat vitL little patience lor amateurs ano Le
vLolly oisapproveo ol Laving naive ano lungling intruoers lrom tLe CAA
meooling in Lis cultural ano political lailivick. Cn one occasion vLen Eock-
elellers cLiel ol tLe nlormation Livision, Wallace I. Harrison, came to lriel
tLe nev Amlassaoor on tLe CAAs local activities, MessersmitL responoeo
ly tLroving Harrison out ol tLe country. As tLe montLs passeo, Lovever,
tLe Amlassaoor eventually lecame someLov convinceo ol tLe uselulness ol
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tLe Cooroinators Clce ano alloveo a rapprocLement, lut only alter mak-
ing sure tLat previous vorking arrangements letveen tLe mlassy ano tLe
CAA vere mooieo to Lis aovantage. !rom tLen on, Guy W. Eay, Lis un-
olcial Press Clcer, vas to supervise all propaganoa activities.
5+
Eay tLus
lecame tLe most inuential man vitLin tLe realm ol Mexican (ano possilly
atin American) mass meoia.
55
n tLe meantime, tLe Mexican Cooroination Committee Lao succumleo
to a perioo ol conlusion as its xecutive Secretary inlormeo Eockeleller in
late 19+2: t seems to us tLat tLe stall memlers concerneo oo not Lave a
clear compreLension ol tLe position ol tLe Amlassaoor ano tLis Committee
in tLe aoministration ol tLe program.
56
SucL prollems vere nally settleo a
lev montLs later ly means ol a reorganization. Among otLer tLings, it vas
oecioeo tLat lrom nov on tLe Cooroination Committee in Mexico vas in
cLarge ol oistriluting tLe press material emanating lrom tLe CAAs WasL-
ington Leaoquarters in oroer to improve tLe LitLerto poor results in terms ol
tLe numler ol items pullisLeo ly tLe Mexican meoia.
57
Controlling the press by investigating editorial policies, analyzing con-
tents and taking reprisals
Eockeleller ano Lis agency maoe a sulstantial contrilution to tLe L.S. gov-
ernment, ano to tLe Lepartment ol State in particular, vitL its regional mass
meoia ano pullic opinion researcL. 1Le CAA maintaineo olservers in ev-
ery major city in atin America ano sponsoreo large-scale stuoies ol tLe me-
oia. t analyzeo communications meoia, tLeir auoiences ano tLe rms tLat
vere to le llacklisteo lecause ol tLeir cooperation vitL tLe Axis povers.
58
1Le L.S. government pullisLeo tLese Black ists on july 17, 19+1. 1Ley in-
cluoeo 1,800 cases, 180 ol vLicL vere laseo in Mexico. 1Le State Lepartment
kept a less-pullicizeo list tLat ioentieo important persons ano rms vLo
seemeo most sympatLetic to tLe Axis. Blacklisteo entities incluoeo some
raoio stations as vell as nevspapers ano magazines sucL as La Prensa ano
Hoy (Mexico City) or El Norte (Monterrey).
59
1Le Black ists proveo to le tLe most oirect means to control Axis inu-
ence in tLe atin American meoia. 1Ley vere also a clear oemonstration ol
LovtLe CAAcoulo le ol use to tLe Lepartment ol State. otally, Haralo j.
Corsons secret content-analysis stuoies ol Mexican mass meoia ano Lis sur-
veys on pullic opinion, attituoes ano reactions to tLe var nevs vere tLe most
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pioneering vork ol scientic communications researcL LitLerto conoucteo in
Mexico. 1Le BritisL propaganoists, vLo vere acquainteo vitL some ol tLe re-
sults ol Corsons investigations, praiseo Lis skilllul vork.
60
Controlling Mexican public opinion through the blocking of news sources
n tLeir pursuit ol tLe most up-to-oate inlormation on tLe progress ol tLe
var, Mexican nevspapers relieo Leavily upon international nevs agencies. As
vas tLe case vitL most atin American countries at tLat time, vLat knovl-
eoge ol tLe var tLat tLere vas in Mexico came primarily lrom nevs services
tLat vere comlatants in tLe var ol inlormation ano oisinlormation. n tLis
LigLly cLargeo environment, propaganoa Lao lecome a veapon ol var. Many
autLoritarian ano oemocratic countries estallisLeo special calinet ministries
to proouce ano oisseminate inlormation. As a result, people louno it Laroer
ano Laroer to oltain trustvortLy nevs.
61
1Le 1ransocean evs Service, lor example, a sulsioiary ol tLe olcial
EeicL nevs service LB, vas an integral part ol tLe azi propaganoa ma-
cLinery. Belore tLe var, 1ransocean Lao leen lurnisLing a oaily nevs service
to all ol tLe nevspapers in Mexico City as vell as to several otLers. All ol
its contents originateo in Germany ano otLer loreign points ano vas trans-
mitteo tLrougLout Mexico ly raoio.
62
Luring tLe rst montLs ol tLe var a
special nevs lulletin vas prepareo ano supplieo lree ol cLarge to many raoio
stations.
63
1ransocean ano otLer Axis-controlleo nevs provioers, Lovever, vere no
matcL lor tLe Allies. 1LrougL llacklisting ano otLer metLoos ol intimioation
(explaineo lelov), tLe latter ellectively realrmeo tLeir preoominance in tLe
nevs elo. As a L.S. mlassy olcial reporteo lor tLe veek lrom May 26
to 31, 19+1, 1ransocean nevs lulletins vere leing pullisLeo only in Mexico
Citys papers ano, in comparison vitL tLe space allocateo to nevs coming
lrom otLer agencies, accounteo lor only 1.9 percent ol tLe grano total. 1Le
Associateo Press leo tLe list vitL 37.2 percent, A1A (vLicL transmitteo
nevs provioeo ly BritisL olcial services ano Eeuters) came in secono vitL
26 percent, ano tLe Lniteo Press came in tLiro vitL 12.1 percent.
6+
n sLort,
ly mio-19+1 L.S. ano BritisL inlormation services in Mexico vere ly lar tLe
oominant source ol nevs alout tLe var.
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Controlling Mexican public opinion by blackmailing the press
AltLougL Government censorsLip vas ratLer ellective in oismantling tLe cen-
ter ol Germanys communications apparatus in Mexico ano Allieo llacklist-
ing operations greatly reouceo tLe ov ol nevs lurnisLeo ly Axis-controlleo
provioers, sucL measures coulo not stop ly at tLe vioespreao pro-azi sen-
timents Lelo ly large numlers ol Mexicans. 1Lese people sLoveo little sym-
patLy tovaros tLe BritisL ano American cause ano tLey vanteo Mexico to
remain completely neutral. Many eoitors ol periooicals kept pullisLing a sul-
stantial amount ol nevs ano commentary tLat militateo against tLe interests
ol tLe Allies. PerLaps it vas lecause ol tLe eoitors personal convictions or
lecause tLey vanteo to report tLe trutL on tLe azis impressive military vic-
tories or lecause tLey vere loatL to lose precious German sulsioies.
Britains representatives at rst seemeo ratLer unconcerneo alout tLe vay
tLe var vas presenteo in tLe Mexican press. 1Le var vas still in tLe pLony
stage vLen in ovemler 1939, Consul General 1Lomas Eees assureo His
Majestys government tLat tLe principal nevspapers in tLe capital vere very
impartial ano seloom pullisLeo any eoitorials learing on tLe conict. He oe-
nieo rumors tLat Exclsior ano El Universal vere receiving lunos lrom tLe
German egation. Eees assureo Lis superiors tLat tLere vas no German slant
in tLe presentation ol nevs in Mexico, save occasionally in ltimas Noticias.
65
Luring tLe spring ol 19+0, tLe situation cLangeo oramatically. Cn April 10
Eolert Marett vrote tLat Mexicos press oio report inlormation oetrimental
to tLe BritisL. nterestingly enougL, Le llameo L.S. nevs agencies, particu-
larly tLe Associateo Press, vLicL Le consioereo lar lrom lrienoly to tLeir
cause.
66
Marett relerreo specically to tLe agencys Leaolines as presenteo in
sucL a sensationalist vay tLat tLey vorkeo against BritisL interests ano Le sin-
gleo out ltimas Noticias as tLe vorst ollenoer. !or tLat reason, tLe ACP ap-
plieo an aovertisers loycott against tLis paper ano tLe vLole Exclsior group
in August 19+0.
67
1Le eoitor-in-cLiel ol ltimas Noticias, Miguel Croorica,
vas lorceo oll tLe stall on tLe 1+tL ol tLat montL,
68
tLougL Le returneo to Lis
olce a lev montLs later.
By january 19+1 tLe Clce ol Allieo nlormation reporteo tLat almost all
ol tLe cLiel periooicals in Mexico vere presenting tLe nevs in terms lavoralle
to tLe Allieo cause, giving lor instance signicant prominence to tLe BritisL
aovances in ortL Alrica. 1Le only real y in tLe ointment vas once again
tLe rst eoition ol ltimas Noticias. Accoroing to tLe BritisL Consul General,
tLis paper Lao alvays leen Lostile to Great Britain, lut in Lecemler 19+0
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ano january 19+1, tLe pullication outoio itsell in its unlair presentation ol
tLe nevs, especially regaroing tLe eno-ease Bill oelate in tLe Lniteo
States. Because ol its unlavoralle scare Leaolines ano its unalasLeo eoitorial
policy, no one Lao any ooult tLat tLis nevspaper vas pro-German.
69
Alter several unsuccesslul meetings vitL Eoorigo oe lano, Presioent ol
tLe Exclsior group, ano also vitL Croorica, tLe nter-Allieo Propaganoa
Committee in Mexico City organizeo a nev punitive campaign against tLe
vLole group. Supporteo ly tLe L.S. mlassy, American rms joineo tLe
loycott ano rumors spreao tLat Exclsiors pullications vere alreaoy incluoeo
on tLe oreaoeo Black ists ol tLe L.S. government.
70
As a result, Eoorigo oe
lano lecame very upset ano alarmeo. Cn April 7 Le Lelo an urgent meeting
vitL Lis loaro ol oirectors. Le lano llameo Croorica lor tLe eoitorial policy
tLat Lao sparkeo tLe economic reprisals ano oroereo Limto take anotLer leave
ol alsence. mmeoiately tLerealter, Le ev to ev York to oltain tLe sup-
port ol Lis lrienos lrom tLe Associateo Press. Le lano olviously Lopeo tLat
il not Le Limsell, tLen Lis lusiness partners voulo le alle to convince tLe
Lepartment ol State tLat Lis pullisLing group Lao never leen sympatLetic
to tLe azis, lut vas oecioeoly pro-American ano pro-BritisL. Le lanos
lollying activities proveo so ellective tLat ly early May tLe State Lepart-
ment came oovn oecisively on tLe sioe ol Exclsior. Sumner Welles llameo
CAA olcers lor tLis mistake, lor Laving proouceo a rusLeo ano careless
analysis. Soon tLerealter, tLe CAA meekly ollereo to luy lull-page aover-
tisements in Exclsior promoting tLe previously-mentioneo nter-American
1ravel Agency.
71
Arouno tLat time tLe BritisL ano tLe Americans applieo anotLer com-
mercial loycott, tLis time against Hoy, tLe nevs veekly vitL tLe largest cir-
culation in tLe country. Hoy Lao leen accepting a large amount ol paio pul-
licity lrom lotL tLe Allieo ano Axis camps since tLe leginning ol tLe var.
72
1Le paper vas tLerelore incluoeo in tLe State Lepartments un-olcial Black
ist.
73
Commercial reprisals lorceo Hoys general manager Allen Bernaro to
make Lis ovn pilgrimage to WasLington, L.C. Alter lreely aomitting tLat
pro-azi articles Lao appeareo in tLe magazine in tLe past, Bernaro repeat-
eoly assureo State Lepartment olcials tLat tLeir luture policy voulo le en-
tirely lavoralle to tLe Lniteo States ano continental solioarity. Lespite all
ol Bernaros lest ellorts, Le vas not alle to erase Lis pullications lao name
in L.S. governmental circles.
7+
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Controlling the Mexican Press through newsprint supply
evsprint lecame a poverlul veapon in tLe Allies arsenal lor persuaoing
Mexican eoitors to lavor tLe Allieo cause. Printing paper vas a scarce com-
mooity ouring tLe var years ano Canaoian companies vere tLe principal
suppliers. n May 19+0 tLe BritisL lelieveo tLat tLis oepenoence sLoulo le
vieloeo as a veapon [...| vitL tLe utmost oiscretion. EatLer tLan tLreaten-
ing tLe press oirectly vitL cutting oll paper supplies, Allieo agencies opteo
lor a oillerent strategy. 1Ley resorteo to persuaoing Mexican autLorities to
request BritisL assistance in solving tLe supply prollem.
75
t seems tLat tLis strategy proouceo political oivioenos lor lotL tLe Mex-
ican government ano tLe Allies. !irst ol all, tLe Lirectors ol tLe lour leaoing
papers in tLe capital agreeo not to attack tLe nev Presioent Manuel vila
CamacLo in tLeir pullications. Cn !elruary 12, 19+1, tLey vere tLen in-
cluoeo on tLe Boaro ol PPSA (Productora e Importadora de Papel S. A.),
a semiolcial agency cLargeo vitL tLe rationing ano oistrilution ol importeo
nevsprint.
76
1Ley tLereupon visiteo tLe Canaoian Boaro ol 1raoe so as to se-
cure luture supplies. 1Le Leao ol tLe SoutL American Section ol tLe BritisL
!oreign Livision, Cliver BonLam-Carter, urgeo tLe !oreign Clce to take
aovantage ol tLis opportunity lor pullicity purposes
77
ano tLe BritisL Con-
sul General in Mexico suggesteo tLat tLey take action vLicL [vill| put an
ellective cLeck to German propaganoa in tLe local press ano ensure tLat lairer
pullicity le given to Allieo var nevs ano anti-azi material.
78
1Le PPSA oelegation also vent to WasLington, L.C., in oroer to nego-
tiate a loan lor tLe construction ol a paper mill in Mexico ano to secure L.S.
assistance in tLe procurement ano oelivery ol paper. Cn tLe American sioe
ol tLe negotiations, Guy W. Eay aooeo a clause in tLe contract ly vLicL any
attempt ly a nevspaper to import nevsprint to Mexico requireo previous au-
tLorization laseo on loyalty to tLe Allieo ano American cause. n aooition,
tLe L.S. mlassy sent tLe list ol tLe llacklisteo Mexican periooicals to tLe
Canaoian Government.
79
Cnce tLe japanese attackeo Pearl Harlor ano tLe Lniteo States entereo
tLe var, tLe American propaganoa macLinery escalateo its activities in Mex-
ico. n late 19+1 ano early 19+2 Guy W. Eay inviteo tLe eoitors ol tLe most
important ol tLe recalcitrant papers to call on Lim in person or ly means ol
representatives at tLe L.S. mlassy. He assureo tLem tLat tLe L.S. govern-
ment vas not tLreatening to vitLLolo nevsprint, lut ratLer vanteo to explain
in no uncertain terms vLat tLe American position on tLe issue vas ano Le
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askeo tLe eoitors lor tLeir cooperation. Alter lengtLy oiscussions, tLe CAA
reporteo, tLese eoitors all agreeo tLat tLe Lniteo States ano Canaoa coulo
not reasonally le expecteo to lurnisL nevsprint to papers vLicL persistently
attackeo tLe Lniteo States ano tLe Allies. 1Le mlassy certainly oio not ex-
pect to Lave sucL papers oo an alout-lace overnigLt, lut ratLer to make a
graoual transition, tLe tempo ol vLicL vill le set ly Mr. Eay. 1Le reason
lor tLis graoual approacL vas to give tLese pullications time to compensate
lor tLe expecteo loss ol Axis revenue.
80
Controlling the Mexican press through advertising
1Le Aovertising Group ol Mexico vas a logus inoepenoent organization
inventeo ly tLe Mexican-American CLamler ol Commerce to make L.S.
aovertisement contracts conoitional on tLe elimination ol Axis-propaganoa
lrom tLe Mexican meoia. Because sucL a strategy requireo oetaileo inlorma-
tion, tLe nev organization maoe arrangements vitL tLe mlassy to meet
Haralo j. Corson. Corson explaineo to Haoley Cantril tLe scope ano tLe
terms ol tLe researcL Le vas going to supply:
SucL inlormation voulo consist ol my regular reports (tLose ve leen senoing to
you) covering tLe respective periooicals, tLe running recoro keep sLoving atti-
tuoes expresseo in eoitorials ano main Leaolines ol eacL ol tLe papers, tLe classi-
cation ol eacL paper in accoroance to tLe sentiments ol tLe ovners, ano tLe policies
ol tLe paper, ano nally tLe current recoro keep ol all American prooucts aover-
tiseo in eacL meoium, vitL tLe total space occupieo ly eacL aovertiser, as vell as
tLe percentage ol tLe total ao content vLicL corresponos to American prooucts.
81
Luring tLe meeting vitL Corson all tLe participants agreeo tLat it voulo
le lar preleralle to avoio tLreats ano pressure at least in tLe leginning
ano insteao use tLe policy ol allocating aovertisement contracts in accoroance
vitL tLe stance taken ly eacL meoium.
82
evspapers in tLe capital leareo
tLat tLe vitLoraval ol revenues lrom German corporations sucL as Casa
Bayer, prooucers ol tLe pain-relievers Aspirina ano Caaspirina, voulo not
le ouly compensateo ly L.S. aovertisements.
83
Alter numerous talks letveen
Guy W. Eay ano tLe ovners ano eoitors ol all tLe capitals papers, a solution
emergeo: not only voulo tLe main American corporations ano retailers sul-
stantially increase tLe amounts spent on aovertisements, lut tLey voulo also
pool tLeir resources in tLe Aovertising Group ol Mexico to allov lor sul-
cient lunos to le cLanneleo to tLe inoivioual papers.
8+
!inally, starting on
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April 1, 19+2, tLe Mexican ovners ol raoio ano nevspaper companies agreeo
to reluse all Axis aovertising as long as tLe American lusinesses lleo tLe en-
suing voio ly upping tLeir ovn aovertising ly 50 percent. 1Le surrenoering
lorces incluoeo tLe magazine Hoy, once a oeant relel tLat Lao oenounceo
sucL Larolall aovertising tactics. Hoy Lao nov lecome a Lumlle supplicant,
anxious to erase everyones memory ol its lormer sell.
85
!rom tLen on, tLe
Mexican mass meoia ano tLe CAAs Cooroination Committee maintaineo
a modus vivendi vLerely tLe Mexicans accepteo L.S. oomination as long as
tLe Americans provioeo oue compensation.
Mexican mercenary writers working for foreign propagandists
n aooition to tLe Mexican evs Agency A1A, tLe Allieo nlormation Cl-
ce estallisLeo in 19+0 Servicio Mundial, a leature nevs ano opinion agency.
ocateo in a separate olce, tLis rm pretenoeo to le a commercial enterprise
lut vas nanceo ano manageo ly tLe !ranco-BritisL propaganoists vLo con-
sioereo it to le an integral part ol tLeir propaganoa organization.
86
Servi-
cio Mundial vas oirecteo ly Alexis oustau, a Mexican ol !rencL extraction
vLose assignment vas to supply tLe press in tLe countrysioe vitL articles ano
pLotograpLs lavoralle to tLe Allies (ano a little later also to tLe !ree !rencL
Movement). 1o oisguise tLe propaganoa, Le Lireo vell-knovn Mexican re-
porters to vrite on-oemano or pre-packageo stories. WLen tLe autLor vas
!rencL or BritisL, a pseuoonym voulo le useo. Having starteo in january
19+0 vitL 193 articles pullisLeo, Servicio Mundial reacLeo +0-ooo provincial
papers, 25 ol vLicL vere oescrileo as regular customers. ts montLly average
lor tLat initial year vas ++1 articles. Activities peakeo in june 19+0 vitL 6+6
items pullisLeo, so as to oovnplay Germanys triumpL over !rance.
87
Cne ol tLe cLiel lunctions ol tLis agency vas to plant propaganoa ois-
guiseo as nevs leatures ano to lrame var-relateo events in oroer to con-
vince reaoers ol an eventual Allieo victory. 1Le Servicio Mundial playeo a
leaoing role in garnering tLe sympatLies ol tLe Mexicans at a time vLen Ger-
many appeareo invincille. 1Lis is just one striking example among tLe many
successlul manipulative tecLniques oevelopeo ly tLe Allieo propaganoists.
n june 19+1 !loyo Eansom, Leao ol tLe Aovertising Group ol Mexico,
suggesteo to tLe American mlassy to approacL vell-knovn Mexicans sucL
as jos Vasconcelos ano ouaroo Villasenor, tLe cLairman ol Mexicos Cen-
tral Bank, ano invite tLem to vrite pro-American articles lor a lee ol 200 or
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250 LS oollars. n oroer to appeal to tLeir vanity, tLe mlassy sLoulo sug-
gest translating tLeir articles into nglisL ano Lave tLem pullisLeo also in tLe
Lniteo States, along vitL tLeir pictures.
88
nterestingly, Vasconcelos accepteo
ano on !elruary 19, 19+2, Le pullisLeo an article in a leaoing Mexican maga-
zine urging tLe Mexicans to lack tLe Lniteo States var against tLe Axis ano
to lollov Mexican government policies vLoleLearteoly. 1Le American pro-
paganoists Laileo tLis article as a success
89
ano starteo to Lire more Mexican
vriters. 1Ley tLerely lolloveo tLe patL taken ly otLer loreign propaganoa
agencies since tLe leginning ol tLe var ano even long lelore, as vas tLe case ol
tLe Germans. Cne ol tLe most popular vriters, especially among tLe provin-
cial papers, vas Benito Xavier Prez Veroa, vLo also Lao a raoio commentary
program, vLicL vas nanceo ly tLe CAAs Cooroination Committee.
90
From cooperation to competition: framing countries war and post-war
perceptions
By tLe eno ol Lecemler 19+2 tLe Mexican mass meoia vere vLoleLearteoly
aligneo vitL tLe Allieo cause. Apart lrom tLe PAs La Nacin ano tvo mi-
nor anti-American papers in tLe capital, vLicL vere lelt unscatLeo in oroer to
simulate lreeoomol expression, tLe countrys mass meoia Lao leen lrougLt to
Leel. Guy Eay reporteo tLat tLere vas not a single pullication ol outstanoing
importance in Mexico, outsioe ol Mexico City, vLicL coulo le classeo as anti-
American in its nevs ano eoitorial policy. Eay attriluteo tLis improvement
to tLe lact tLat Mexicos meoia entrepreneurs Lao realizeo tLat nevsprint vas
controlleo ly tLe L.S. ano Canaoa ano tLat nevspapers vLicL continueo to
attack tLe Allies coulo not expect to receive nevsprint lrom tLeir suppliers
in ortL America. n Lis report lor tLe State Lepartment Le illustrateo tLe
oegree to vLicL tLe Mexican press Lao leen suljecteo to L.S. oversigLt ano
control:
A policy on tLe part ol tLe mlassy is keeping in close personal contact vitL tLe
principal nevspapers ano magazines in Mexico City ano also vitL tLe most promi-
nent regional nevspapers. Such publications frequently check information with the
Embassy and in most cases consult with the press ofcer of the Embassy when doubt-
ful questions or matters of controversial nature arise.
91
WitLin tLe same oocument oateo Lecemler 11, 19+2, Guy Eay laileo to
creoit extensive cooperation letveen tLe CAA ano tLe Allieo Propaganoa
Clce.
92
1Lis omission is ratLer puzzling since all ol tLese parties Lao vorkeo
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very Laro at vLat migLt seema concerteo ellort to persuaoe tLe Mexican mass
meoia to align tLemselves vitL tLe Allieo cause.
93
Yet, at least in Mexico, tLe
rapport letveen tLe nter-Allieo Committee, tLe !ree !rencL Movement ano
tLe Cooroination Committee Lao never leen very close ano enoeo up le-
ing oilcult ano even acrimonious. 1Le oillerent propaganoa teams soloiereo
aLeao in a ratLer uncooroinateo lasLion, presenting not even a semllance ol
personal coroiality. ack ol cooroination soon turneo into competition ano
mutual suspicion. 1Lus, ly 19+2 jacques Soustelle vrote to Lis superiors in
onoon: 1Le Lniteo States consioers atin America to le its private spLere
ol inuence. nsteao ol cooperating on propaganoa ano inlormation vitL tLe
Allies, tLe Americans are more inclineo to seek a complete oomination ol tLe
press, raoio ano all mass communication ly tLeir ovn means.
9+
Soustelles concerns vere kinoleo, lor example, ly L.S. moves to mount
an eoitorial nevs service in competition vitL tLe agency tLat serveo tLe nter-
Allieo Committee. ot only oio tLe nev service Leaoeo ly Haralo j. Corson
ouplicate tLe nter-Allieo Servicio Mundial, it vas also villing to pay mucL
LigLer rates to tLe papers using tLeir eoitorial opinion service. 1Le !rencL
calculateo tLat tLe Americans vere paying six Lunoreo pesos lor an article to
appear in tventy nevspapers, vLile tLe nter-Allieo Committee ano tLe !ree
!rencL Committee vere paying arouno lorty pesos lor tLe same oistrilution.
noignant alout tLe situation, jacques Soustelle lamenteo: n aooition to tLe
slovenliness ol tLis liooing contest, tLe general ellect is to keep our propa-
ganoa out ol tLe press. t is unoenialle tLat tLe impoverisLeo eoitors in tLe
provinces vill alvays preler to use an American article lor tventy or tLirty
pesos in lieu ol pullisLing our material lor notLing. Accoroing to Soustelle,
tLe Americans practiceo tLe same tactics vitL mercenary vriters.
95
1Le !rencL vere not tLe only ones to complain. n january 19++ tLe
BritisL inlormeo onoon tLat tLe Americans in tLeir pursuit ol control over
tLe press meoia ano pullic opinion Lao intensieo tLeir ellorts in tLe liooing
contest. Accoroing to tLis report, ano altLougL tLe press vas less oooeo ly
L.S. activity tLan lm ano raoio, tLe CAA vas lecoming increasingly ac-
tive in tLis realm ly paying lor a gooo oeal ol space using American rms
commercial aovertising as a lever. Since tLe Americans vere also sulsioiz-
ing many papers in tLe provinces, tLe BritisL louno tLe spaces open to tLem
to le increasingly limiteo. 1Le report oepicteo tLe BritisL enoeavors as leing
overvLelmeo ly tLe vaves ol L.S. press commentators. t also complaineo
tLat tLe torrents ol nevs tLat vere pouring lrom American vire services sul-
lereo lrom a spin tLat vas exaggerating tLe L.S. contrilution to tLe Allieo
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var ellort: A.P. ano L.P. oispatcLes reecteo in tLe Leaolines give an unlal-
anceo impression ol L.S. participation in tLe var.
96
BritisL olservations are lorne out ly tLe CAAs Cooroination Com-
mittee reports. n 19++, tLe CAA inaugurateo a nev press service leneting
tLe lty-six major nevspapers in tLe provinces ano tLe leaoing periooicals
in tLe capital tLat vere to le provioeo vitL tvo stories per oay ano many
glossy pLotograpLs. Luring MarcL 19++, tLey set a striking recoro: 876 items
appeareo in Mexico City papers alone.
97
Some montLs later tLe Committee
inlormeo alout tLe aooition ol a nev journalist to tLeir stall ol vriters Lireo
on a permanent lasis.
98
1Le BritisL vere not inclineo to capitulate in tLe lace ol tLe oeluge ol L.S.
propaganoa. As tLe Americans took over tLe nglisL page in Novedades, lor
vLicL tLey paio one tLousano pesos per montL, tLe BritisL vitLorev tLeir
sulsioy to tLis oaily ano reacLeo an agreement vitL Exclsior ano El Uni-
versal vLerely eacL vas to pullisL at least lteen BritisL articles a montL.
By tLe summer ol 19++, lotL papers Lao taken consioerally more tLan tLis
numler. 1Le BritisL vere also strongly promoting tLe services ol Eeuters,
vLicL estallisLeo a lureau in Mexico City in !elruary 19++. Soon, many im-
portant Mexican papers vere using its services ano expectations vere running
LigL in tLe BritisL Ministry ol nlormation, even as Eeuters vas oeemeo to
le gLting an upLill lattle against L.S. nevs provioers.
99
ncreasingly, tLe lattle lor Learts ano minos vas turning to postvar is-
sues ano tLe Allies vere soon joineo ly anotLer competitor: tLe Soviet Lnion.
Arouno late 19+3, tLe Soviet Tass jumpeo onto tLe postvar propaganoa lano-
vagon ano legan to provioe inlormation to tLe oailies El Nacional, El Popu-
lar ano La Voz de Mxico. 1Le Soviet Amlassaoor unoertook a very intense
pullic relations campaign amongst tLe upper ecLelons ol Mexican politicians
ano intellectuals. Belore long, tLe American ano Soviet Amlassaoors, George
MessersmitL ano Constantine Cumansky, pullicly entereo into a LarsL ioe-
ological quarrel tLat vas vioely covereo ly tLe national ano loreign meoia.
1Le Colo War tLus starteo early in Mexico, lut tLis is a topic tLat cannot le
oealt vitL Lere. evertLeless, ve sLoulo remino tLe reaoer tLat tLrougLout
tLis perioo, tLe real tug ol var regaroing propaganoa in Mexico vas letveen
tLe Lniteo Iingoom ano tLe Lniteo States.
100
1Le lriling ol tLe Mexican press ly tLe Americans oio not come to an
eno vitL tLe var. !or tLe magazines in Mexico City, saio a report lrom tLe
L.S. mlassy oateo july +, 19+6, ve Lave regular pullications ly a Mexican
vriter in tLe lolloving magazines: Hoy, Sucesos, Mxico al Da, ano Nuevo
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Mundo. Maana pullisLes one sucL article alout every lour to six issues.
1Ley alvays Lave one in aovance.
101
The OIAA and the Mexican press a balance
n a oocument titleo !uture nlormation Program ol tLe Lniteo States Gov-
ernment particularly as regaros to Mexico ol MarcL 23, 19+5, Guy W. Eay
suggesteo tLat propaganoa voulo play a mucL greater part in luture years,
ano Le approveo tLe ioea ol Laving an external olce to Lelp tLe L.S. m-
lassy in tLis area. He tLougLt tLat tLe Leaoquarters organization sLoulo
prelerally le in tLe State Lepartment. Hovever, in oroer to avoio tLe accu-
sation ol leing involveo in propaganoa activities, Le suggesteo tLat tLe in-
lormation olce sLoulo le estallisLeo as a separate organ ano Leaoeo ly
a manager unoer tLe guioance ol tLe mlassy lut vitL lull autLority vitL
regaro to oistrilution ol material.
102
WitL sligLt oillerences in tLeir policies, strategies ano tactics, all ol tLe
major countries involveo in tLe var useo external olces to oeal vitL tLe
Mexican mass meoia. Alter tLe German Propaganoa Bureau Lao trail-llazeo
tLe communications elo ly means ol lrilery ano llackmail, tLe BritisL pro-
paganoists vitL tLeir Clce ol Allieo nlormation, tLe !rencL vitL tLeir !ree
!rencL Press Bureau ano tLe Americans tLrougL tLe Mexican Cooroination
Committee, tLe Aovertising Group ol Mexico, ano tLe xport nlormation
Bureau ol tLe American Association ol Aovertising Agencies lolloveo tLe
same patL ano gaineo unpreceoenteo control ol tLe Mexican press ano Lence
ol tLe agenoa-setting processes. n spite ol tLe initial clasLes vitL Amlassaoor
MessersmitL, tLe CAA came to play a oecisive role in spreaoing American
propaganoa in Mexico. n a vay, tLe CAA promoteo tLe mooernization ol
tLe communications inlrastructure: it lrougLt nev ioeas ano practices into
tLe Mexican inlormation elo ano conoucteo pioneering vork in tLe elos
ol pullic opinion ano mass communications researcL in Mexico. Yet sucL oe-
velopments vere accomplisLeo ly unetLical means vLicL carrieo a very LigL
price lor tLe aovent ol true oemocracy in tLe country. 1Le CAAcontriluteo
to, ano reinlorceo, tLe collusion ol interests letveen pover elites ano tLe me-
oia ovners ano operators. 1Le L.S. inlormation agents enoeo up using tLe
very same oevious ano unetLical metLoos tLat tLe azis ano !ranco-BritisL
propaganoists Lao employeo in Mexico in oroer to inuence tLe communi-
cations sectors entrepreneurs, eoitors, vriters ano nally tLe general pullic.
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1Lis reality completely contraoicts tLe olcial Listory ol tLe CAA: 1Le Cl-
ce prioeo itsell in Lanoling its inlormation program in accoroance vitL tLe
lest prolessional stanoaros, ano vitL no oelilerate perversion ol tLe trutL.
103
l tLe CAA, vitL tLe lacking ol Mexicos vartime governments ano in
cooperation vitL tLe State Lepartment ano otLer Allieo agencies, vas alle
to lring Mexicos mass meoia to Leel, its ellectiveness in inuencing Learts
ano minos sLoulo not le taken lor granteo. Mexicos mass meoia reacLeo at
lest lteen percent ol tLe population ano vas Leavily concentrateo in a lev
metropolitan areas. Cl tLe tventy million Mexicans in 19+0, seventy percent
liveo in tLe countrysioe ano most ol tLese vere illiterates immerseo in local in-
oigenous cultures ano ratLer inoillerent to tLe prollems ol tLe outsioe vorlo.
1Le CAAs pullic opinion ano mass meoia researcL, moreover, aovanceo as
it vas lor tLe time, ooes not provioe a relialle assessment ol tLe attituoes
Lelo ly tLe oillerent sectors ol tLe Mexican people, literate or illiterate. As
mentioneo lelore, tLe Eockeleller agency conoucteo tLe rst researcL ol tLis
kino in oroer to measure tLe impact ol its ellorts, lut vas unalle to proouce
conclusive results as to tLe ellects it Lao on Learts ano minos.
Mexico, to le sure, came to join tLe Allieo coalition in May 19+2 vLen it
oeclareo var on tLe Axis, lut tLis move seems to Lave leen guioeo ratLer ly
a pragmatic assessment ol vartime conoitions ano oangers tLan ly a cLange
ol attituoes tovaros its poverlul neigLlors ol tLe ortL. t may very vell le
tLat massive propaganoa LigLligLting tLe oanger ol a loreign invasion ly Axis
lorces, as employeo ly tLe Mexican government as vell as tLe Allieo agencies,
Lelpeo to prepare tLe pullic lor tLe alignment vitL tLe Allieo cause, lut even
so tLe pover ol propaganoa sLoulo not le exaggerateo.
Luring tLe Colo War years, even as scLooling ano literacy rates improveo
markeoly, tLe use ol mass meoia lor propaganoa purposes continueo to le
lraugLt vitL oilculties, as tLe CAAs successor, tLe Lniteo States nlorma-
tion Agency (LSA), vas to no out in a report ol 1960. Mexicans continueo
to le inuenceo ly otLer sources, incluoing pullic scLooling, vLicL tenoeo
to convey a strong sense ol nationalism, resentment ol loreign interlerences,
anti-capitalist notions as vell as general oistrust tovaros tLe Colossus ol tLe
ortL.
10+
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Notes
` visL to tLank 1Leooore S. Wills lor Lis invalualle assistance in tLis vork.
1. See also 1Lomas eonaros contrilution to tLis volume.
2. ational ArcLives ano Eecoro Aoministration, College Park, Marylano, Eecoro Group
(Lerealter, AEA, EG) Herlert Bursley to Secretary ol State, Lecemler 1+, 19+2
(AEA, EG59, 811.20212/60). WitLin tLe provincial group, eigLt lelongeo to tLe Aso-
ciacin de Editores de los Estados (Association ol oitors ol tLe States) ano vere among
tLe most inuential provincial papers in tLe country: El Informador in Guaoalajara, El
Porvenir ano El Norte, in Monterrey, El Siglo, in 1orren, El Mundo, in 1ampico, El
Heraldo, in San uis Potos, El Dictamen, in Veracruz, ano El Diario de Yucatn, in
Mrioa.
3. George MessersmitL to Secretary ol State, july 25, 19+2 (AEA, EG, 812.917/56).
+. lio.
5. joLn C. Lreier to Guy W. Eay, !elruary 6, 19+2 (AEA, EG 59, 812.76/+23). Haralo
j. Corson, ol vLom ve vill speak later, Leaoeo tLe agency.
6. Eolert H. I. Marett to atin American Section. Eeport on Pullicity Activities Lecem-
ler ano january, 19+0 (ational ArcLives ol nglano, Pullic Eecoro Clce, onoon,
!oreign Clce/Lerealter PEC, !C 371/26075). Among tLe magazines ol relative im-
portance vere: Ahora, Amrica, As, Enigma, Estampa, Jueves de Exclsior, Libertad,
Mxico al da, Orbe ano Revista de Revistas.
7. !rom Guy W. Eay to Secretary ol State, Lecemler 11, 19+2 (AEA, EG 59
812.911/+87).
8. Born in 1900, ArtLur LietricL graouateo in 1922 in Agricultural Stuoies ano traveleo to
Mexico in 192+ to vork as tLe aoministrator ol a rancL. He vas later arresteo lor svin-
oling 80,000 pesos ano vas jaileo. Lpon Lis release, Le moveo to a quiet neigLlorLooo
in tLe capital, accompanieo ly Lis vile !elicia ano tLeir lour sons. n ovemler 1931
Le joineo tLe azi Party in Mexico City. By 1933, LietricL Lao lecome Party CLiel.
See jurgen Muller, l SLAP en Mxico: Listoria y recepciones: 1931-19+0, Revista
de Estudios Interdisciplinarios de Amrica Latina y el Caribe 6, no. 2 (1995): 90-91, ano
ArcLivo Genaro straoa (lrom nov on AG) /323(+3)/21, lrom tLe German ega-
tion to Secretara oe Eelaciones xteriores (lrom nov on SE), April 16, 1935.
9. Among tLem tLe most prominent vere: Casa Bayer, Merck-Mxico, Cia., General de
Anilinas, Beick Felix y Cia, Carlos Stein y Cia., Casa Boker, etc. See: StepLen E. illo,
Allieo Policy tovaros Axis nterests in Mexico ouring Worlo War , Mexican Stud-
ies/Estudios Mexicanos, 17, 2 (Summer 2001): 359.
10. !rieoricL . ScLuler, Mexico Between Hitler and Roosevelt. Mexican Foreign Relations
in the Age of Lzaro Crdenas 1934-1940 (Alluquerque, M: Lniversity ol evMex-
ico, 1998), 1+8.
11. See letter ano attacLments lrom Xavier Campos Ponce to !rancisco j. Mugica, Septem-
ler 7, 1937, !onoo !rancisco j. Mugica (jiquilpan, MicLoacn), Vol. 1+7, Loc. 88.
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12. See, lor instance, tLe special section pullisLeo in Exclsior alout !oreign Communities
in Mexico on Septemler 16, 1938, ano tLe lull-page article pullisLeo ly El Universal
on Cctoler 1+, 1938, 8.
13. Wallace I. Lillon to Lepartment ol State, july 21, 1939 (AEA, EG 59, 812.00-/61).
1+. ArcLivo General oe la acin, Mexico City (Lerealter, AG), BrancL Presioents,
zaro Croenas (C), 70+.1/12+1, l azismo en Mxico, reporte oe los nspectores
PS-10 y PS-2+, May 23, 19+0.
15. tzLak Bar-evav M., La Revista Timn y Jos Vasconcelos (Mexico: oimex, 1971),
13-15. An excerpt lrom an article pullisLeo ly jos Vasconcelos in tLe May 19+0 eoi-
tion ol Timn gives us an ioea ol Lis ioeology: 1Le Mexican people coulo le largely
GermanopLile, ano ve lelieve tLat in trutL tLey are, lut only lecause tLey see in tLe
lreaking ol tLe present international oroer tLeir ovn lileration. We oesire tLe ioeas,
tLe culture, tLe art ano tLe traoe vitL Germany. We also knov tLere is no oanger ol a
German invasion, lut ve knov tLat it is anotLer pover tLat Lovers, ano vill continue
to Lover over us. Cn tLe otLer Lano, lor our culture ano lor tLe integration ol our econ-
omy, Germany represents a lactor ol rst importance. (AEA, EG 59, 812.00 B/58+,
Copy ol Betty Iirks ile Magazine article, airmaileo May 18, 19+0).
16. 1Le launcLing ol tLis paper vas reporteo ly !B agents to tLe State Lepartment: see j.
ogar Hoover to Aooll A. Berle, jr., july 8, 19+0 (AEA, EG 59, 812.00-/280).
17. lio.
18. Euot von Collenlergs personal oiary. ArcLivo Histrico Genaro straoa, Secretara
oe Eelaciones xteriores oe Mxico (Lerealter ASE), C-6-2-+ (2). [1Le translation
is mine.|
19. juoging on tLe lasis ol German sources, Eaokau, lor example, oisagrees vitL tLe claim
tLat tLe Mexican press vas rmly in tLe Lanos ol German aovertisers. Cn tLe con-
trary, sLe says, tLe pressure tLat tLe !rencL, tLe BritisL ano tLe ortL Americans
vere exercising on tLe nevspapers, ly tLreatening to pull out tLeir aovertising, never
ceaseo to vorry tLe azi egation. See: Verena Eaokau, os acionalsocialistas en
Mxico, in Los empresarios alemanes, el Tercer Reich y la oposicin de derecha a Cr-
denas (), eos. Brigioa von Mentz, Verena Eaokau, Laniela Spenser ano Eicaroo Prez
Montlort (Mxico: CSAS, oiciones oe la Casa CLata, 1988), 168. [1Le translation is
mine.|
20. Marett Lao moveo to onoon to vork lor tLe SLell Petroleum Company some time
letveen tLe eno ol 1938 ano tLe summer ol 1939 (Mr. E. H. I. Marett. Letails ol
experience, etc. Locument sent to Mexico City Consul General, Septemler 8, 1939,
PEC 930/111).
21. 1Lis vork, entitleo An Eyewitness to Mexico, vas pullisLeo ly Cxloro Lniversity Press
in MarcL 1938. 1Lirty years later Marett pullisLeo Lis memoirs, ol vLicL Le oevotes
a sulstantial part to Lis vork as a propaganoist in Mexico. See: Sir Eolert HugL Iirk
Marett, Through the Back Door: An Inside View of Britains Overseas Information Ser-
vices (Cxloro ano ev York: Pergamon Press, 1968).
22. etters oateo Cctoler 7tL ano 1+tL, 1939 (PEC, !C 371/26087), !rom 1Lomas lor
Eees to AntLony oen, ovemler 26, 19+1 (PEC, !C 371/22780).
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23. Lenis Eollano, Vichy et la France Libre au Mexique. Guerre, cultures et propagandes
pendant la Deuxime Guerre Mondiale (Paris: Harmattan, 1990), 73-7+.
2+. Mexico Buoget 19+2/+3, june 16, 19+2 (PEC, !C 930/112).
25. Eeport on tLe Crganization ol tLe Allieo Pullicity in Mexico, january 17, 19+1 (PEC,
!C 371/26075), ano Annual Eeport lor Mexico lor 19+2 (PEC, !C 371/3399+). Ac-
coroing to avson, all tLe essential traits ol Mexicos political system vere reecteo
in tLe countrys press. arly on ouring tLe autLoritarian rule, tLe meoia vere colonizeo
ano useo as a veLicle ol private gain ano political legitimization () oillerent lactions
ol tLe political elite lounoeo or purcLaseo tLeir ovn nevspapers to aovance personal
ano policy agenoas, supporting tLem tLrougL an array ol government sulsioies. See
CLapell H. avson, Building the Fourth Estate: Democratization and the Rise of a Free
Press in Mexico (Berkeley, CA: Lniversity ol Calilornia Press, 2002), 25. !or a gooo
stuoy ol tLe relationsLip letveen tLe print meoia ano tLe Mexican government see:
Ealael Eoorguez Castaneoa. Prensa vendida. Los periodistas y los presidentes: 40 aos
de relaciones (Mxico: Grijallo, 1993).
26. Eeport on tLe Crganization ol tLe Allieo Pullicity in Mexico, january 17, 19+1 (PEC,
!C 371/26075), ano Annual Eeport lor Mexico lor 19+2 (PEC, !C 371/3399+).
27. 1LougL tLese gacetillas are oilcult to recognize, tLey prolally constituteo some 60
percent ol tLe total magazine pages in Hoy ano Maana. Moreover government aover-
tising vent mucL lurtLer tLan sulsioizing sell-praise lor its lunctionaries, given tLe vast
numler ol nationalizeo lusinesses () tLe government vas easily tLe countrys largest
aovertiser. See: joLn Mraz, 1ooay, 1omorrov ano Alvays: 1Le Goloen Age ol llus-
trateo Magazines in Mexico, 1937-1960, in Fragments of a Golden Age: The Politics of
Culture in Mexico Since 1940, eos. Gillert M josepL, Anne Eulenstein ano ric Zolov
(LurLam ano onoon: Luke Lniversity Press, 2001), 123. See also: joe Ieenan, La
Gacetilla: Hov Aovertising Masqueraoes tLe evs, in A Culture of Collusion: An In-
side Look at the Mexican Press, eo. William A. Crme jr. (Bouloer, CC: Lniversity ol
Miami, ortL SoutL Center, 1997), +1-+8.
28. 1elegram lrom Consul General Mexico City, Septemler 8, 1939 (PEC, !C 930/111).
29. Cverseas Planning Committee. Plan ol Propaganoa to Mexico. !irst Eevision ol CLan-
nels, january 21, 19++ (PEC, !C 371/3831+).
30. Luring tLe rst perioo ol tLe Secono Worlo War, tLe nter-Allieo Committee ol Propa-
ganoa vas paying tLe Mexico City oailies El Nacional ano El Popular a montLly sum ol
1,000 ano 2,000 pesos respectively. 1Ley Lao also lougLt lor 1,000 pesos per montL tLe
nglisL page in Novedades. n Crizala, tLe journal Radio Mundial vas receiving 500
pesos per montL. n 1ampico, tLe Committee exerciseo complete control over La Tri-
buna. 1Ley vere also paying sulsioies to El Regional, in Culiacn, ano to Horizontes
ano Las Noticias, lotL ol Guaoalajara. Mexico Citys magazines Ahora ano Candil also
receiveo nancial Lelp lrom !rencL ano BritisL companies. A report lor May 19+1 inoi-
cateo payments to Novedades lor tLe placing ol +3 articles ano also to El Universal, lor
pullisLing 5 items. 1Lis inlormation vas culleo lrom oillerent reports locateo in PEC
!C 371/26075.
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31. Eeport on tLe Crganization ol Allieo Pullicity in Mexico, Consul General to C. E.
Bock, january 17, 19+1 (PEC, !C 371/26075).
32. As ol !elruary 28, 19+3 tLe CAAs expenoiture lor all ol tLe atin American repullics
amounteo to a total ol $591,86+ lor raoio projects, against $167,852 lor press meoia ano
$11+,75+ lor motion pictures: see Eockeleller ArcLive Center, elson AloricL Eock-
eleller Personal WasLington !iles (Lerealter EAC, E!A, EG+, AE Papers), CAA
General 19+0-19+6, Box +, !oloer 3+, Cooroination Committee Activities. nception
ol Committees to Late ol atest xpenoiture Eeport Eeceiveo (as ol 2/28/+3).
33. The New York Times vas one ol tLe most persistent veLicles to spreao rumors alout
tLe azi tLreat emanating lrom Mexico, alreaoy leginning in 1938. See, lor instance
Warns ol Mexican azi, january 23, 1938, 25. !ascist nuence Groving in Mexico,
L.S. 1raoe Sullers, August 15, 1938, 1. n 19+0, tLis reporting mounteo to paranoia.
See, lor instance, Eeo-azi Plotting in Mexico CLargeo, April 1+, 19+0, 31.
3+. 1elegrams lrom Pierre oe . Boal ano lrom Mexican mlassy to Lepartment ol State,
june 1, 19+0 (AEA, EG 59, 711.12/1+67 ano 1+73), see josepLus Laniels, Diplomtico
en mangas de camisa, SpanisL translation ly Salvaoor LuLart (CLapel Hill: Lniversity
ol ortL Carolina Press, 19+9), 315.
35. Mexico Eeporteo Custing azi Aioe, The New York Times, june 13, 19+0, ano Ee-
icL Press CLiel Custeo ly Mexico, The New York Times, june 1+, 19+0, 8.
36. 1elegrams lrom Pierre oe . Boal ano lrom Mexican mlassy to Lepartment ol State,
june 1, 19+0 (AEA, EG 59, 711.12/1+67 ano 1+73).
37. Carmela . Santoro, Lniteo States ano Mexican Eelations ouring Worlo War (PLL
oiss., Syracuse Lniversity, 1967), 153.
38. See tLe complaints lor tLis orastic measure pullisLeo in its nal eoition: Diario de la
Guerra, oitorial, MarcL 28, 19+1.
39. 1Le Mexican ArcLives inlormation alout tLe activities ol tLe Lireccin General oe
nlormacin (LG) is still poorly organizeo. WLat is availalle ooes not contain LigLly-
relevant oocuments. evertLeless, some reports alout propaganoa expenoitures ano
allocations can le louno at: AG, LG, 103.2/+, nlorme oe lalores llevaoas a calo
por el Lepartamento oe nlormacin General oe la Lireccin General oe nlormacin
oel 1o. oe septiemlre oe 19+2 al 31 oe agosto oe 19+3, Box 2++ ano otLer oocuments
in AG, LG, 103.5.
+0. 1Lese reports are locateo in AEA, EG59, series 812.911: lor tLe stuoy ol Guaoalajara,
jalisco, see AEA, EG 59, series 812.911/220, lor 1orren, CoaLuila: AEA, EG 59,
series 812.911/221, etc.
+1. See AEA, EG 59, 812.00/AZ/9, 812.00//61, 812.911/255, y 812.911/261.
+2. Lnooulteoly tLe most relevant ano outstanoing ol all cLaracters on tLe propaganoa
stage in Mexico, Eay Lao arriveo in tLe country in ovemler 1933 to vork as Vice-
Consul in Guaymas, Sonora. n April 19+2 Eay vas appointeo Consul ano in july 19+5
Le vas nameo !irst Secretary ol tLe mlassy. He relinquisLeo tLat cLarge in April 19+6
vLen Le vas posteo to anotLer country. Eay came lack to Mexico in tLe mioole ol 1950,
lut in Septemler ol tLat same year Le suooenly passeo avay. (1Le cause ol oeatL is not
mentioneo in tLe sources ve investigateo). By tLat time, Eay Lao alreaoy acLieveo tLe
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rank ol Minister. He Lao tLe autLority to take commano ol tLe mlassy in tLe alsence
ol tLe Amlassaoor. See ASE, V/333 (73-72)/8+6, Eay, Guy W. t is very likely
tLat lrom 19+2 to 19+6 Lis real title vas mlassy Secretary in cLarge ol inlormational
allairs, a term tLat appears in a report oateo july +, 19+6, vLen tLe L.S. mlassy in
Mexico reorganizeo its cultural ano propaganoistic activities. t is quite possille tLat
Guy W. Eay Lelo tLis position. He may Lave tLen passeo it on to Lavio 1Lomasson in
April 19+6. See W. . ScLurz to Mr. Storn, july +, 19+6 (AEA, EG 59, Eecoros ol tLe
nternational nlormation Activities, 1938-1953, Box 161, Eeport on Mexico).
+3. See ntroouction ly Gisela Cramer ano Lrsula PrutscL.
++. H. StepLen Helton (Compiler), Records of the Ofce of Inter-American Affairs. Inven-
tory of Record Group 229 (WasLington, 1973, ational ArcLives ano Eecoros Service)
1-7 (ntroouction).
+5. 1Lese olservers apparently vorkeo lor tLe EesearcL Livision ol tLe xport nlor-
mation Bureau ol tLe +As ano receiveo special training in meoia content analysis lrom
eonaro Lool, one ol tLe leaoing communication experts in tLe Lniteo States. n lact,
some montLs later, Haralo j. Corson, vLo reporteo to Haoley Cantril, conoucteo pul-
lic opinion surveys in Mexico City tLat vere laseo on Gallups metLooology (aoapteo
to local conoitions). See AEA, EG 229, General Eecoros, Commercial ano !inancial,
Eegional Eeports ano Surveys, Box 138 xport nlormation Bureau # 18, passim ano
ibid: Box 139 xport nlormation Bureau # 19, Manila nvelope.
+6. AEA, EG 229, General Eecoros, Commercial ano !inancial, Eegional Eeports ano
Surveys, Box 137, American Social Surveys xport nlo 8, ames ano aooresses ol ol-
servers. !or a oetaileo analysis ol Corsons pullic opinion polls in Mexico, see: jos
uis Crtiz Garza, Ideas en Tormenta: la opinin pblica en Mxico en la segunda guerra
mundial (Mxico: Euz oiciones, 2007).
+7. n an olcial memoranoum ol tLe CAAs Commercial ano !inancial Livision, tLis
project vas oescrileo as a logus travel promotion. ts primary purpose vas oescrileo
as to tell tLe story tLe vay ve vant to tell it in tLose countries ano to make it prol-
italle lor pullisLers. n anotLer letter, oateo MarcL 13, 19+1, elson Poynter noteo
tLat tLe aovertising campaign voulo start out as innocuous travel aovertising, lut Lis
Lopes vere tLat in tLe very near luture it voulo le converteo into Laro-Litting po-
litical aovertising: Lonalo W. Eovlano, History of the Ofce of the Coordinator of
Inter-American Affairs. Historical Reports on War Administration (WasLington, L.C.:
GPC, 19+7), 2+5-2+8.
+8. Clauoe Curtis rl, elson Eockeleller ano Lniteo States-atin American Eelations,
19+0-19+5 (PLL oiss., Clark Lniversity, 1982), 96-97.
+9. Committee memlers serveo vitLout compensation, altLougL tLey coulo Lire lull-time
stall. All expenoitures on personnel ano on tLe aoministration ol programs vere pro-
vioeo tLrougL inoirect grants in oroer to olcially separate tLemlromtLe L.S. mlassy
or tLe CAA, see Eovlano, History of the Ofce, 2+5-2+8.
50. joLn Atkin to elson Eockeleller, july 25, 19+5, attacLeo oocument (EAC, E!A, EG+,
AE Papers, CAA General, 19+0-19+6, Box +, !oloer 3+, Cooroination Committees,
19+2-19+5).
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51. Herlert S. Bursley to Secretary ol State, Lecemler 1+, 19+2 (AEA, EG 59,
811.20212/60).
52. A very lavoralle report alout tLe nev Amlassaoor vas sent to onoon Eeports on
Leaos ol !oreign Missions (19+2). CLarles Bateman to AntLony oen, july 7, 19+2
(PEC, !C 371/30565).
53. See jesse H. Stiller, George S. Messersmith, Diplomat of Democracy (CLapel Hill ano
onoon: 1Le Lniversity ol ortL Carolina Press, 1987), 180-181, ano Ient Warner
SmitL, The United States Cultural Crusade in Mexico, 1938-1945: A Case Study in
Person-to-Person Peacemaking (Berkeley, CA: Lniversity ol Calilornia, 1972).
5+. 1Le clause aooeo ly tLe Amlassaoor, relerring to raoio projects, saio: Content ol all
programs is sulject to tLe alsolute control ano supervision ol Guy W. Eay, Secono
Secretary ol tLe mlassy, vitL vLom all scripts must le cleareo (tLis is not a term ol
tLe contract, lut it is oistinctly unoerstooo ano agreeo to letveen tLe Committee ano
tLe mlassy). Any oeviation lrom tLe approveo script is grouno lor cancellation vitL a
termination ol lialility lor all amounts oue or tLat lall oue. Also tLe agreement may le
cancelleo ly tLe Committee at any time vitL or vitLout cause on tLirty oays notice.
1Le vork is to le oone lor cost only. Luoley 1. asly, jr. to Wallace I. Harrison,
MarcL 1+, 19+2 (AEA, EG 59, 812.911/36+).
55. joLn Atkin to elson Eockeleller, july 25, 19++ (EAC, E!A, EG+, AE Papers,
CAA General 19+0-19+6, Box +, !oloer 3+, Cooroination Committees, 19+2-19+5).
Locument sent as enclosure. !rom tLe total ol 608 Committee memlers soutL ol
tLe Eio Granoe, Mexico Lao 168, lolloveo ly Argentina (77), Brazil (6+), CLile (61),
ano Colomlia (31). Many nations Lao lever tLan 10 memlers on tLeir Committee.
1Le Committee in Mexico City alone Lao 70 memlers ano tLere vere sulcommittees
in 20 otLer cities: Agua Prieta, Sonora, Ciuoao jurez, CLiLuaLua, CLiLuaLua, CLi-
LuaLua, Lurango, Lurango, Guaoalajara, jalisco, Matamoros, 1amaulipas, Mazatln,
Sinaloa, Mrioa, Yucatn, Mexicali, Baja Calilornia, Monterrey, uevo en, ogales,
Sonora, uevo areoo, 1amaulipas, Caxaca, Caxaca, PacLuca, Hioalgo, Pieoras e-
gras, CoaLuila, Puella, Puella, San uis Potos, San uis Potos, 1ampico, 1amaulipas,
1orren, CoaLuila, ano VillaLermosa, 1alasco.
56. Herlert S. Bursley to Secretary ol State, Lecemler 1+, 19+2, vitL AttacLment CCM-
8++, W. C. ongan to elson Eockeleller, Lecemler 11, 19+2, AttacLment CCM-8++
(AEA, EG 59, 811.20212/60).
57. Ms. Haooov remaineo at tLe Lelm ol tLe Committees Press Section, lut sLe oealt vitL
strictly operational ano aoministrative issues, vLereas Guy W. Eay vas cLargeo vitL tLe
task ol oealing vitL tLe ovners ano tLe oirectors ol tLe leaoing Mexican nevspapers,
magazines ano raoio stations. Herlert S. Bursley to Secretary ol State, Lecemler 1+,
19+2, vitL AttacLment CCM-8++, W. C. ongan to elson Eockeleller, Lecemler 11,
19+2. AttacLment CCM-8++ (AEA, EG 59, 811.20212/60).
58. !reo Allan !ejes, mperialism, Meoia ano tLe Gooo eigLlor: evLeal !oreign Pol-
icy ano Lniteo States SLortvave Broaocasting to atin America (PLLoiss., Lniversity
ol llinois at LrlanaCLampaign, 1982), 157-158.
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59. ovaro H. Eollins to aurence Luggan, Septemler 22, 19+1 (AEA, EG 59,
812.917/+6).
60. Eolert H. I. Marett to atin American Section ol tLe Ministry ol nlormation, April
2+, 19+1 (PEC, !C 371/26075).
61. By mio-Septemler, tLe prestigious journalist ano scLolar Salvaoor ovo aoviseo raoio
listeners tuning into uropean var nevs tLat tLey vill Lave to use tLeir lrains or tLeir
Learts to gure out vLat is Lappening in tLe var, its causes ano its trenos. Clr. Guerra
oe noticias, Hoy, Septemler 16, 1939. Eeproouceo in Salvaoor ovo, La vida en Mx-
ico en el perodo presidencial de Lzaro Crdenas (Mxico: mpresas oitoriales, 196+),
+13-+1+. [1Le translation is mine.|
62. AEA, EG 59, 800.20212/392.
63. Eolert H. I. Marett to C. E. Bock, june +, 19+0 (PEC, !C 371/2+218).
6+. We are not incluoing synoicateo columns sucL as tLe ones lrom The New York Times,
or Time magazine. Also excluoeo are leature services. 1Le main users ol 1ransocean
lulletins vere, as expresseo in lineal centimeters, column viotL: La Prensa, vitL 271,
El Universal, vitL 1+0, ltimas Noticias, vitL 115, Exclsior, vitL 83 ano El Universal
Grco, vitL ++. eitLer Novedades nor El Nacional Lao pullisLeo anytLing lrom tLis
agency. See Space occupieo ly evs LispatcLes in Mexican evspapers (AEA, EG
59, 812.911/315).
65. 1Lomas lor Eees to IennetL G. Grull, ovemler 6, 1939 (PEC, !C 930/111).
66. Eolert H. I. Marett to I. G. Grull, April 10, 19+0 (PEC, !C 371/2+218).
67. Besioes tLe morning paper ano its rst evening eoition, tLe group also pullisLeo an
alternoon nevspaper learing tLe same name ano issueo tvo veekly magazines: Jueves
de Exclsior ano Revista de Revistas.
68. josepLus Laniels to Secretary ol State, April 10, 19+1 (AEA, EG 59, 812.911/307).
69. Eeport on tLe Crganization ol Allieo Pullicity in Mexico, Consul General to C. E.
Bock, january 17, 19+1 (PEC, !C 371/26075).
70. Eeport ol aval AttacL to State Lepartment, MarcL 20, 19+1 (AW, EG 59,
811.20212/25).
71. Sumner Wells to aurence Luggan (ano enclosures), May 2, 19+1 (AEA, EG 59,
812.911/311.
72. Eeport on tLe activities ol tLe Allieo propaganoa olce, April ano May 19+1 (PEC, !C
371/26075) ano uestro Amo es el Pullico, Hoy, April 26, 19+1, eoitorial page.
73. !rom ovaro H. Eollins to avrence Luggan, Septemler 22, 19+1 (AEA, EG 59,
812.917/+6).
7+. Memoranoum ol tLe State Lepartment, Septemler 19, 19+1 (AEA, EG 59,
812.917/+5). 1vo otLer magazines vitL pro-German tenoencies as tLe var legan vere
Todo ano Ahora. BotL cLangeo tLeir positions ouring tLe secono Lall ol 19+0 lecause
ol tLe aovertising revenues tLat tLey vere receiving lrom Allieo companies ano inlor-
mation items lurnisLeo ly tLe Americans: !rom josepLus Laniels to Secretary ol State,
june 2+, 19+0 (AEA, EG 59, 812.917/19).
75. Eolert H. I. Marett, to I. C. Grull, May 7, 19+0 (PEC, !C 371/2+218).
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76. Guy W. Eay to Secretary ol State, Septemler 2+, 19+2 (AEA, EG 59 812.00/32052),
Guy W. Eay to Lepartment ol State, April 20, 1950 (AEA, EG 52 912.60/+2050),
see also ueva Crganizacin oe la PPSA, Hoy, !elruary 22, 19+1, 8.
77. Eolert H. I. Marett to I. G. Grull, May 7, 19+0 (PEC, !C 371/2+218).
78. 1Lomas lor Eees to I. G. Grull, April 26, 19+0 (lio.).
79. Luoley 1. asly jr. to Wallace I. Harrison, MarcL 1+, 19+2 (AEA, EG 59,
812.911/36+).
80. lio.
81. Haralo Corson to Haoley Cantril, etter o. 80, August 5, 19+1 (AEA, EG 229, Box
138).
82. lio.
83. Luoley 1. asly jr. to Wallace I. Harrison, MarcL 1+, 19+2 (AEA, EG 59,
812.911/36+).
8+. lio.
85. lio.
86. Eeport lrom Eolert H. I. Marett to Ministry ol nlormation, !elruary 21, 19+1 (PEC
!C 371/26075).
87. lio., see also l azismo en Mxico (AG, . C., 70+.1/12+-1).
88. Herlert S. Bursley to Mr. Lreier, july 1, 19+2, ano etter attacLeo lrom !loyo Eansom
to Walter Louglas, june 21, 19+1 (AEA, EG 59, 812.911/7-1+1).
89. Hulert Herrings Committee on Cultural Eelations vitL atin America, nc., Ee-
lease o. 2, june 18, 19+2. 1itleo Primero es Mxico [Mexico comes rst|, tLe ar-
ticle appeareo in Mexico Citys magazine Todo (!elruary 19, 19+2, 5). 1Le lolloving
is an extract translateo ly olcers ol tLe L. S. mlassy in Mexico: !ortunately, ve
oo not Lave to sacrice our convictions or lorsake any ol our principles in collalorat-
ing sincerely vitL tLe Lniteo States. Mexico lelongs to a lamily ol nations living unoer
Western customs ano principles, ve may lelong to atin civilization ano tLey to Anglo-
Saxon, lut tLe origins ol our civilizations are tLe same: Greece ano Eome. (AEA, EG
229, Project !iles, Pullications, Box 1171, !oloer: ntercLange ol Articles lor Maga-
zines ano Books letveen tLe Lniteo States ano tLe otLer American Eepullics $16,+00-
+,850, Herring).
90. Herlert Cervin to elson Eockeleller, Lecemler +, 19++ (AEA, EG 229, Box ++3,
!oloer: Cervin, Herlert).
91. Guy W. Eay to Secretary ol State, Lecemler 11, 19+2 (AEA, EG 59, 812.911/+87)
[1Le italics are mine.|
92. lio.
93. Eolert H. I. Marett to I. G. Grull, May 7, 19+0 (PEC, !C 371/2+218).
9+. uoteo in: Eollano, Vichy et la France Libre au Mexique. Guerre, 238.
95. WLile tLe !rencL ano BritisL paio vriters letveen tventy ano tLirty pesos lor eacL
eoitorial, tLe Americans ollereo tLem sixty. lio., 2+0.
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96. Cverseas Planning Committee. Plan ol Propaganoa to Mexico. !irst Eevision ol CLan-
nels, january 1, 19++ (PEC, !C 371/3831+).
97. Covering Eeports Eeceiveo lromApril 25-May 1, 19++ (EAC, E!A, EG+, AEPapers,
CAA, Cooroination Committee Eeports, ssue 11+, 5).
98. Paxton Haooov to elson Eockeleller, Lecemler 11, 19++ (AEA, EG 229, Box 3+2,
!oloer: Cperating Proceoure).
99. Cverseas Planning Committee. Plan ol Propaganoa to Mexico. Secono Eevision ol
CLannels, june 27, 19++ (PEC, !C 371/3831+).
100. !or lurtLer researcL into tLis sulject, see: juan Gustavo Galinoo Gonzlez, as rela-
ciones entre Mxico y la Lnin Sovitica ourante la Segunoa Guerra Munoial (BacL-
elors 1Lesis, l Colegio oe Mxico, 1983), Lavio 1Lomasson to Secretary ol State,
Lecemler 7, 19+3 (AEA, EG 59 812.7+/532), Herlert Cervin to elson Eocke-
leller, Septemler +, 19+3 (AEA, EG 229, Box 3+5, !oloer: Eeports), Constantine
Cumansky to Secretario oe Eelaciones xteriores, May 25, 19++ (ASE 2+797), C.
H. Bateman to AntLony oen, April 28, 19+3 (PEC !C 371/3+00+).
101. Eeport on Mexico, W. . ScLurz to Mr. Storn, july +, 19+6 (AEA, EG 59, Eecoros ol
tLe nternational nlormation Activities, 1938-1953, Box 161).
102. ArtLur W. MacMaLon, Memorandum on the Postwar International Information Pro-
gram of the United States. Prepared by Dr. Arthur W. MacMahon in cooperation with
The Ofce of Public Affairs (1Le Lepartment ol State: WasLington, L.C., 19+6), 126.
103. See Eovlano, History of the Ofce, +2.
10+. 1Le LSA report pointeo out: 1Le climate ol pullic opinion in vLicL tLe program is
operating leaves mucL to le oesireo. n spite ol a generally lrienoly pullic press ano tLe
posture ol lrienosLip Mexico nos vital to Ler national interests, a sulstantial percent-
age ol tLe people in all valks ol lile oislike ano oistrust tLe Lniteo States, its government
ano its people. See: AEA, EG 306, nspection Eeports ano Eelateo Eecoros, Box
6, !oloer: Mexico, nspection Eeport LSS/Mexico, !rom james . Meaoer to tLe Li-
rector ol L.S. nlormation Agency, july 15, 1960.

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