IndianHistoryImportantevents HistoryofIndia.Anoverview:ThepeopleofIndiahavehadacontinuouscivilizationsince2500B.C., whentheinhabitantsoftheIndusRivervalleydevelopedanurbanculturebasedoncommerceand sustainedbyagriculturaltrade.Thiscivilizationdeclinedaround1500B.C.,probablyduetoecological changes. DuringthesecondmillenniumB.C.,pastoral,Aryanspeakingtribesmigratedfromthenorthwestinto thesubcontinent.AstheysettledinthemiddleGangesRivervalley,theyadaptedtoantecedent cultures. ThepoliticalmapofancientandmedievalIndiawasmadeupofmyriadkingdomswithfluctuating boundaries.Inthe4thand5thcenturiesA.D.,northernIndiawasunifiedundertheGuptaDynasty. Duringthisperiod,knownasIndia'sGoldenAge,Hinducultureandpoliticaladministrationreachednew heights. IslamspreadacrosstheIndiansubcontinentoveraperiodof500years.Inthe10thand11thcenturies, TurksandAfghansinvadedIndiaandestablishedsultanatesinDelhi.

lhi.Intheearly16thcentury, descendantsofGenghisKhansweptacrosstheKhyberPassandestablishedtheMughal(Mogul) Dynasty,whichlastedfor200years.Fromthe11thtothe15thcenturies,southernIndiawasdominated byHinduCholaandVijayanagarDynasties.Duringthistime,thetwosystemstheprevailingHinduand Muslimmingled,leavinglastingculturalinfluencesoneachother. ThefirstBritishoutpostinSouthAsiawasestablishedin1619atSuratonthenorthwesterncoast.Later inthecentury,theEastIndiaCompanyopenedpermanenttradingstationsatMadras,Bombay,and Calcutta,eachundertheprotectionofnativerulers. TheBritishexpandedtheirinfluencefromthesefootholdsuntil,bythe1850s,theycontrolled mostofpresentdayIndia,Pakistan,andBangladesh.In1857,arebellioninnorthIndialedbymutinous IndiansoldierscausedtheBritishParliamenttotransferallpoliticalpowerfromtheEastIndiaCompany totheCrown.GreatBritainbeganadministeringmostofIndiadirectlywhilecontrollingtherestthrough treatieswithlocalrulers.

 Inthelate1800s,thefirststepsweretakentowardselfgovernmentinBritishIndiawiththe appointmentofIndiancouncilorstoadvisetheBritishviceroyandtheestablishmentofprovincial councilswithIndianmembers;theBritishsubsequentlywidenedparticipationinlegislativecouncils. Beginningin1920,IndianleaderMohandasK.GandhitransformedtheIndianNationalCongresspolitical partyintoamassmovementtocampaignagainstBritishcolonialrule.Thepartyusedboth parliamentaryandnonviolentresistanceandnoncooperationtoachieveindependence. OnAugust15,1947,IndiabecameadominionwithintheCommonwealth,withJawaharlalNehruas PrimeMinister.EnmitybetweenHindusandMuslimsledtheBritishtopartitionBritishIndia,creating EastandWestPakistan,wheretherewereMuslimmajorities.Indiabecamearepublicwithinthe CommonwealthafterpromulgatingitsconstitutiononJanuary26,1950. Afterindependence,theCongressParty,thepartyofMahatmaGandhiandJawaharlalNehru,ruled IndiaundertheinfluencefirstofNehruandthenhisdaughterandgrandson,withtheexceptionoftwo briefperiodsinthe1970sand1980s. PrimeMinisterNehrugovernedIndiauntilhisdeathin1964.HewassucceededbyLalBahadurShastri, whoalsodiedinoffice.In1966,powerpassedtoNehru'sdaughter,IndiraGandhi,PrimeMinisterfrom 1966to1977.In1975,besetwithdeepeningpoliticalandeconomicproblems,Mrs.Gandhideclareda stateofemergencyandsuspendedmanycivilliberties.Seekingamandateatthepollsforherpolicies, shecalledforelectionsin1977,onlytobedefeatedbyMorajiDesai,whoheadedtheJanataParty,an amalgamoffiveoppositionparties. In1979,Desai'sGovernmentcrumbled.CharanSinghformedaninterimgovernment,whichwas followedbyMrs.Gandhi'sreturntopowerinJanuary1980.OnOctober31,1984,Mrs.Gandhiwas assassinated,andherson,Rajiv,waschosenbytheCongress(I)for"Indira"Partytotakeherplace.His governmentwasbroughtdownin1989byallegationsofcorruptionandwasfollowedbyV.P.Singhand thenChandraShekhar. Inthe1989elections,althoughRajivGandhiandCongresswonmoreseatsinthe1989electionsthan anyothersingleparty,hewasunabletoformagovernmentwithaclearmajority.TheJanataDal,a unionofoppositionparties,wasabletoformagovernmentwiththehelpoftheHindunationalist BharatiyaJanataParty(BJP)ontherightandthecommunistsontheleft.Thisloosecoalitioncollapsedin

November1990,andthegovernmentwascontrolledforashortperiodbyabreakawayJanataDalgroup supportedbyCongress(I),withChandraShekharasPrimeMinister.Thatalliancealsocollapsed, resultinginnationalelectionsinJune1991. OnMay27,1991,whilecampaigninginTamilNaduonbehalfofCongress(I),RajivGandhiwas assassinated,apparentlybyTamilextremistsfromSriLanka.Intheelections,Congress(I)won213 parliamentaryseatsandputtogetheracoalition,returningtopowerundertheleadershipofP.V. NarasimhaRao.ThisCongressledgovernment,whichservedafull5yearterm,initiatedagradual processofeconomicliberalizationandreform,whichhasopenedtheIndianeconomytoglobaltrade andinvestment.India'sdomesticpoliticsalsotooknewshape,astraditionalalignmentsbycaste,creed, andethnicitygavewaytoaplethoraofsmall,regionallybasedpoliticalparties. ThefinalmonthsoftheRaoledgovernmentinthespringof1996weremarredbyseveralmajorpolitical corruptionscandals,whichcontributedtotheworstelectoralperformancebytheCongressPartyinits history.TheHindunationalistBharatiyaJanataParty(BJP)emergedfromtheMay1996national electionsasthesinglelargestpartyintheLokSabhabutwithoutenoughstrengthtoproveamajorityon thefloorofthatParliament.UnderPrimeMinisterAtalBihariVajpayee,theBJPcoalitionlastedinpower 13days.Withallpoliticalpartieswishingtoavoidanotherroundofelections,a14partycoalitionledby theJanataDalemergedtoformagovernmentknownastheUnitedFront,undertheformerChief MinisterofKarnataka,H.D.DeveGowda.Hisgovernmentlastedlessthanayear,astheleaderofthe CongressPartywithdrewhissupportinMarch1997.InderKumarGujralreplacedDeveGowdaasthe consensuschoiceforPrimeMinisterofa16partyUnitedFrontcoalition. InNovember1997,theCongressPartyinIndiaagainwithdrewsupportfortheUnitedFront.New electionsinFebruary1998broughttheBJPthelargestnumberofseatsinParliament182butfellfar shortofamajority.OnMarch20,1998,thePresidentinauguratedaBJPledcoalitiongovernmentwith VajpayeeagainservingasPrimeMinister.OnMay11and13,1998,thisgovernmentconductedaseries ofundergroundnucleartestsforcingU.S.PresidentClintontoimposeeconomicsanctionsonIndia pursuanttothe1994NuclearProliferationPreventionAct. InApril1999,theBJPledcoalitiongovernmentfellapart,leadingtofreshelectionsinSeptember.The NationalDemocraticAllianceanewcoalitionledbytheBJPgainedamajoritytoformthegovernment withVajpayeeasPrimeMinisterinOctober1999.