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Annexure A (Cover Page)

Webuniv Infotech Ltd (Code-02957) Gurgaon - Railway Road 220/11 Shiv Puri, First Floor, Old Railway Road, Near Sector 4 & 7 Circle, Near Aryan Hospital. Phone - (0124) 3228000, 4388000. Editor-Reader comparison studies By POOJA

A Project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Journalism and Mass Communication Of Skkim manipal University, India

Sikkim Manipal University of Health, Medical and Technological sciences Directorate of Distance Education Syndicate House Manipal 576104

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Annexure B (Student Declaration)

I hereby declare that the project report entitled (Editor-Reader Comparison Studies) Submitted for partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of journalism and Communication.

To Sikkim-Manipal University, India, is my original work and not submitted for the award of any other degree, diploma, Fellowship, or any other similar title or prizes

Place:- Gurgaon Date:- 24.07.2012

(Pooja) 521053935

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Annexure C (Examiners Certification)

The Project Report of POOJA (Editor-Reader Comparison Studies) Is approved and is acceptable in quality and form

Internal Examiner Name :- Mr. Sanjeev Dhama Qualification:- B-Tech, MBA Designation:- Director

External Examiner Name Qualification

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Annexure D (University Study Centre Certificate) This is certify that the project report entitled (Editor-Reader Comparison Studies) Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of journalism and Communication of Sikkim-Manipal University of Health, Medical and Technological Sciennces (POOJA) Has worked under my supervision and guidance and that no part of this report has been submitted for the award of any other degree, Diploma, fellowship or other similar title so prizes and that the work has not been published in any journal Magazine. Reg No. Certified (Mr. Sanjeev and B-Tech, MBA )

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Introduction of Editor and Reader

We live in an environment where we used to communicate with people around us. This is something so natural that we dont even realize that we are communicating with other people. If the communication is with people close to us then an informal way of communication is also acceptable and is primary used. However if we had to communicate with people beyond our personal circle then we need to be perfect in our communication so that the message should be clean and properly understood by the audience. The relationship between the communicate and the receiver depend upon the medium which is used for communication. Method of communication can be used verbal, written and through audiovisual etc. Out of these three ways of communication the oldest and the best way of communication is verbal. However with the verbal communication the challenge is that we can only communicate with people around us. If we need to reach masses from we need to switch mode to written or audio- and video mode of communication. The mass media are all those media technologies that are intended to reach a large audience by mass communication. Broadcast media (also known as electronic media) transmit their information electronically and comprise television, film and radio, movies, CDs, DVDs and some other devices like cameras and video consoles. Alternatively, print media use a physical object as a means of sending their information, such as a newspaper, magazines, brochures, newsletters, books, leaflets and pamphlets. The organizations that control these technologies, such as television stations or publishing companies, are also known as the mass media. Internet media is able to achieve mass media status in its own right, due to the many mass media services it provides, such as email, websites, blogging, Internet and television. For this reason, many mass media outlets have a presence on the web, by such things as having TV ads that link to a website, or having games in their sites to entice gamers to visit their website. In this way, they can utilize the easy accessibility that the Internet has, and the outreach that Internet affords, as information can easily be broadcast to many different regions of the world simultaneously and cost-efficiently. Outdoor media is a form of mass media that comprises billboards, signs, placards placed inside and outside of commercial buildings and objects like shops and buses, flying billboards (signs in tow of airplanes), blimps, and skywriting. Public speaking and event organizing can also be considered as forms of mass media.

Definitional Issues
In the late 20th Century, mass media could be classified into eight mass media industries: books, newspapers, magazines, recordings, radio, movies, television and the internet. With the explosion of digital communication technology in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the
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question of what forms of media should be classified as "mass media" has become more prominent. For example, it is controversial whether to include cell phones, video games and computer games (such as MMORPGs) in the definition. In the 2000s, a classification called the "seven mass media" became popular. In order of introduction, they are: 1. Print (books, pamphlets, newspapers, magazines, etc.) from the late 15th century 2. Recordings (gramophone records, magnetic tapes, cassettes, cartridges, CDs, DVDs) from the late 19th century 3. Cinema from about 1900 4. Radio from about 1910 5. Television from about 1950 6. Internet from about 1990 7. Mobile phones from about 2000 Each mass media has its own content types, its own creative artists and technicians, and its own business models. For example, the Internet includes web sites, blogs, podcasts, and various other technologies built on top of the general distribution network. The sixth and seventh media, internet and mobile, are often called collectively as digital media; and the fourth and fifth, radio and TV, as broadcast media. Some argue that video games have developed into a distinct mass form of media.[citation needed] While a telephone is a two way communication device, mass media refers to medium which can communicate a message to a large group, often simultaneously. However, modern cell phones are no longer a single use device. Most cell phones are equipped with internet access and capable of connecting to the web which itself a mass medium. A question arises of whether this makes cell phones a mass medium or simply a device used to access a mass medium (the internet). There is currently a system where marketers and advertisers are able to tap into satellites, and broadcast commercials and advertisements directly to cell phones, unsolicited by the phone's user. This transmission of mass advertising to millions of people is a form of mass communication. Video games may also be evolving into a mass medium. Video games convey the same messages and ideologies to all their users users. Users sometimes share the experience with each other by playing online. Excluding the internet however, it is questionable whether players of video games are sharing a common experience when they play the game separately. It is possible to discuss in great detail the events of a video game with a friend you have never played with because the experience was identical to you both. The question is if this is then a form of mass communication. MMORPGS such as Runescape provide a common gaming experience to millions of users throughout the globe. It is arguable that the users are receiving the same message, i.e., the game is mass communicating the same messages to the various players.

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Five characteristics
Five characteristics of mass University's John Thompson:

communication

have

been

identified

by Cambridge

"[C]omprises both technical and institutional methods of production and distribution" This is evident throughout the history of the media, from print to the Internet, each suitable for commercial utility. Involves the "commodification of symbolic forms", as the production of materials relies on its ability to manufacture and sell large quantities of the work. Just as radio stations rely on its time sold to advertisements, newspapers rely for the same reasons on its space. "[S]eparate contexts between the production and reception of information" Its "reach to those 'far removed' in time and space, in comparison to the producers". "[I]nformation distribution" - a "one to many" form of communication, whereby products are mass produced and disseminated to a great quantity of audiences.

Mass vs. Mainstream


"Mass media" is sometimes used as a synonym for "mainstream media", which is distinguished from alternative media by the content and point of view. Alternative media are also "mass media" outlets in the sense of using technology capable of reaching many people, even if the audience is often smaller than the mainstream. In common usage, the term "mass" denotes not that a given number of individuals receives the products, but rather that the products are available in principle to a plurality of recipients.

Mass vs. Local


Mass media is distinguished from local media by the notion that whilst the former aims to reach a very large market such as the entire population of a country, the latter broadcasts to a much smaller population and area, and generally focuses on regional news rather than global events. A third type of media, specialty media, provides for specific demographics, such as specialty channels on TV (sports channels, porn channels, etc.). These definitions are not set in stone, and it is possible for a media outlet to be promoted in status from a local media outlet to a global media outlet. Some local media, which takes an interest in state or provincial news can rise to prominence due to their investigative journalism, and to the local region's preference of updates in national politics rather than regional news. The Guardian, formerly known as the Manchester Guardian is an example of one such media outlet. Once a regional daily newspaper, The Guardian is currently a nationally respected paper.

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Print Media:Book
A book is a collection of sheets of paper, parchment or other material with a piece of text written on them, bound together along one edge within covers. A book is also a literary work or a main division of such a work. A book produced in electronic format is known as an e-book.

Magazine
A magazine is a periodical publication containing a variety of articles, generally financed by advertising and/or purchase by readers. Magazines are typically published weekly, biweekly, monthly, bimonthly or quarterly, with a date on the cover that is in advance of the date it is actually published. They are often printed in color on coated paper, and are bound with a soft cover. Magazines fall into two broad categories: consumer magazines and business magazines. In practice, magazines are a subset of periodicals, distinct from those periodicals produced by scientific, artistic, academic or special interest publishers which are subscription-only, more expensive, narrowly limited in circulation, and often have little or no advertising. Magazines can be classified as: General interest magazines (e.g. Frontline, India Today, The Week, The Sunday Times etc.) Special interest magazines (women's, sports, business, scuba diving, etc.)

Newspaper
A newspaper is a publication containing news and information and advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper called newsprint. It may be general or special interest, most often published daily or weekly. The first printed newspaper was published in 1605, and the form has thrived even in the face of competition from technologies such as radio and television. Recent developments on the Internet are posing major threats to its business model, however. Paid circulation is declining in most countries, and advertising revenue, which makes up the bulk of a newspaper's income, is shifting from print to online; some commentators, nevertheless, point out that historically new media such as radio and television did not entirely supplant existing.

Outdoor media
Outdoor media is a form of mass media which comprises billboards, signs, placards placed inside and outside of commercial buildings/objects like shops/buses, flying billboards (signs in tow of airplanes), blimps, and skywriting. Many commercial advertisers use this form of mass media when advertising in sports stadiums. Tobacco and alcohol manufacturers used billboards and other outdoor media extensively. However, in 1998, the Master Settlement Agreement between the US and the tobacco industries prohibited the billboard advertising of cigarettes. In a 1994 Chicago-based study, Diana Hackbarth and her colleagues revealed how tobacco- and alcoholbased billboards were concentrated in poor neighbourhoods. In other urban centers, alcohol and

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tobacco billboards were much more concentrated in African-American neighborhoods than in white neighborhoods.

Editor:A person who edits written material for publication. A person in charge of one section of a newspaper or periodical the sports editor. Television Radio a person in overall control of a programmed that consists of various items, such as a news or magazine style programmed. The editing process often begins with the author's idea for the work itself, continuing as a collaboration between the author and the editor as the work is created. As such, editing is a practice that includes creative skills, human relations, and a precise set of methods

Print media
There are various editorial positions in publishing. Typically, one finds editorial assistants reporting to the senior-level editorial staff and directors who report to senior executive editors. Senior executive editors are responsible for developing a product to its final release. The smaller the publication, the more these roles overlap. The title of the top editor at many publications may be known as the editor in chief, executive editor, or simply the editor. A frequent and esteemed contributor to a magazine may acquire a title of editor at-large or contributing editor. Mid-level newspaper editors often manage or help manage sections, such as business, sports and features. In U.S. newspapers, the level below the top editor is usually the managing editor. In the book publishing industry, editors may organize anthologies and other compilations, produce definitive editions of a classic author's works (scholarly editor), and organize and manage contributions to a multi author book (symposium editor or volume editor). Obtaining manuscripts or recruiting authors is the role of an Acquisitions Editor or a commissioning editor for a publishing house Finding marketable ideas and presenting them to appropriate authors are the responsibility of a sponsoring editor. Copy editors correct spelling, grammar, and align writings to house style. Changes to the publishing industry since the 1980s have resulted in nearly all copy editing of book manuscripts being outsourced to freelance copy editors At newspapers and wire services, copy editors write headlines and work on more substantive issues, such as ensuring accuracy, fairness, and taste. In some positions, they design pages and select news stories for inclusion. At U.K. and Australian newspapers, the term is sub-editor. They may choose the layout of the publication and communicate with the printera production editor. These editors may have the title of layout or design editor or (more so in the past) makeup editor.

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Executive Editor
The top editor sometimes has the title executive editor or editor-in-chief. This person is generally responsible for the content of the publication. An exception is large newspapers, who usually have a separate editor for the editorials and opinion pages to separate news reporting and editorial content. The executive editor sets the publication standards for performance, and motivates and develops the staff. The executive editor is also responsible for developing and maintaining the publication budget. In concert with the publisher and the operating committee, the Executive Editor is responsible for strategic and operational planning. The Executive Editor is effectively the head of the newspaper and has considerable influence on its content.

Periodicals
Editors at newspapers supervise journalists and improve their work. Newspaper editing encompasses a variety of titles and functions. These include: Chief or supervising editors, who may be called editor in chief, executive editor, or sometimes just editor Managing editors and assistant or deputy managing editors (the managing editor is often second in line after the top editor) News editors, who oversee the news desks Editorial page editor who oversees the coverage on the editorial page. This editor often sits on the editorial board and assigns writing of editorials. The editorial page editor may also oversee letters to the editor or to the op-ed page. Alternately, these duties are assigned to separate letters or op-ed editors. Department or section editors and their assistants, such as for business, features, and sports Photo or picture editors Copy editors Readers' editors or public editors, sometimes known as the ombudsman, who field complaints from readers and respond to them Wire editors, who choose and edit articles from various international wire services, and are usually part of the copy desk

The term city editor is used differently in North America and South America, where it refers to the editor responsible for the news coverage of a newspaper's local circulation area (also sometimes called metro editor), than in the United Kingdom, where it refers to the editor responsible for coverage of business in the City of London and, by extension, coverage of business and finance in general.
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Scholarly books and Journals


Editors of scholarly books and journals are of three types, each with particular responsibilities: the acquisitions editor (or commissioning editor in Britain), who contracts with the author to produce the copy, the project editor or production editor, who sees the copy through its stages from manuscript through bound book and usually assumes most of the budget and schedule responsibilities, and the copy editor or manuscript editor, who performs the tasks of readying the copy for conversion into printed form. The primary difference between copy editing scholarly books and journals and other sorts of copy editing lies in applying the standards of the publisher to the copy. Most scholarly publishers have a preferred style guide, usually a combination of Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary and: (a) either the Chicago Manual of Style, the MLA Style Manual, or the APA Publication Manual in the US; or (b) the New Hart's Rules in the UK. The New Hart's Rules are based the "Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers" published by Oxford University Press in 1893. Since scholars often have strong preferences, very often a publisher will adopt different styles for different fields. For instance, psychologists prefer the APA style, while linguists might prefer the MLA style. These guidelines offer sound advice on making cited sources complete and correct and making the presentation scholarly.

Technical Editing
Technical editing involves reviewing text written on a technical topic, and identifying usage errors and ensuring adherence to a style guide. Technical editing may include the correction of grammatical mistakes, misspellings, mistyping, incorrect punctuation, inconsistencies in usages, poorly structured sentences, wrong scientific terms, wrong units and dimensions, inconsistency in significant figures, technical ambivalence, technical disambiguation, correction of statements conflicting with general scientific knowledge, correction of synopsis, content, index, headings and subheadings, correcting data and chart presentation in a research paper or report, and correcting errors in citations. In large companies, experienced writers are dedicated to the technical editing function. In organizations that cannot afford dedicated editors, experienced writers typically peer-edit text produced by their less experienced colleagues. It helps if the technical editor is familiar with the subject being edited, but that is not always essential. The "technical" knowledge that an editor gains over time while working on a particular product or technology does give the editor an edge over another who has just started editing content related to that product or technology. But essential general skills are attention to detail, the ability to sustain focus while working through lengthy pieces of text on complex topics, tact in dealing with writers, and excellent communication skills.

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Business Editing
Businesses and nonprofit organizations often use editors, who may be employees, individual contractors, or contractors from a specialized copywriting agency. Working with writers inside or outside the business, such editors provide services such as proofreading, copy editing, line editing, developmental editing, editing for search engine optimization (SEO), etc.

Reader: A person who reads and assesses the merit of manuscripts submitted to a publisher. a person employed to read proofs and indicate errors by comparison with the original copy; proofreader.

Traditional method
A proof is a typeset version of copy or a manuscript page. They often contain typos introduced through both human error and bugs in programming code. Traditionally, a proofreader looks at an increment of text on the copy and then compares it to the corresponding typeset increment, and then marks any errors (sometimes called line edits) using standard proofreaders' marks. Thus, unlike copy editing, proofreading's defining procedure is to work directly with two sets of information at the same time. Proofs are then returned to the typesetter or graphic artist for correction. Correction-cycle proofs will typically have one descriptive term, such as bounce, bump, or revise unique to the department or organization and used for clarity to the strict exclusion of any other. It is a common practice for all such corrections, no matter how slight, to be sent again to a proofreader to be checked and initialed, establishing the principle of consistent accuracy for proofreaders.

Alternative methods
Copy holding or copy reading employs two readers per proof. The first reads the text aloud literally as it appears, usually at a comparatively fast but uniform rate of speed. The second reader follows along and marks any pertinent differences between what is read and what was typeset. This method is appropriate for large quantities of boilerplate text where it is assumed that the number of errors will be comparatively small. Experienced copy holders employ various codes and verbal short-cuts that accompany their reading. The spoken word digits, for example, means that the numbers about to be read aren't words spelled out; and in a hole can mean that the upcoming segment of text is within parenthesis. Bang means an exclamation point. A thump made with a finger on the table represents the initial cap, comma, period, or similar obvious attribute being read simultaneously. Thus the line of text: (He said the address was 1234 Central Blvd., and to hurry!) would be read aloud as: in a hole [thump] he said the address was digits 1 2 3 4 [thump] central [thump] buluhvuhd [thump] comma and to hurry bang. Mutual understanding is the only guiding principle, so codes evolve as opportunity permits. In the above example, two thumps after buluhvuhd might be acceptable to proofreaders familiar with the text.
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Double reading.
A single proofreader checks a proof in the traditional manner, but then passes it on to a second reader who repeats the process. Both initial the proof. Note that with both copy holding and double reading, responsibility for a given proof is necessarily shared by two individuals.

Scanning,
Used to check a proof without reading it word for word, has become common with computerization of typesetting and the popularization of word processing. Many publishers have their own proprietary typesetting systems,[1] while their customers use commercial programs such as Word. Before the data in a Word file can be published, it must be converted into a format used by the publisher. The end product is usually called a conversion. If a customer has already proofread the contents of a file before submitting it to a publisher, there will be no reason for another proofreader to re-read it from copy (although this additional service may be requested and paid for). Instead, the publisher is held responsible only for formatting errors, such as typeface, page width, and alignment of columns in tables; and production errors such as text inadvertently deleted. To simplify matters further, a given conversion will usually be assigned a specific template. Given typesetters of sufficient skill, experienced proofreaders familiar with their typesetters' work can accurately scan their pages without reading the text for errors that neither they nor their typesetters are responsible for.

Style guides and checklists


Before it is typeset, copy is often marked up by an editor or customer with various instructions as to typefaces, art, and layout. Often these individuals will consult a style guide of varying degrees of complexity and completeness. Such guides are usually produced in-house by the staff or supplied by the customer, and should be distinguished from professional references such as The Chicago Manual of Style, the AP Stylebook, The Elements of Style, or Gregg. When appropriate, proofreaders may mark errors in accordance with their house guide instead of the copy when the two conflict. Checklists are commonly employed in proof rooms where there is sufficient uniformity of product to distill some or all of its components to a list format. They may also act as a training tool for new hires.

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Editing Objective:We define "editing" as making revisions to and suggestions about the content of a document, focusing on improving the accuracy of language, flow, and overall readability, as well as checking for grammar and spelling. In other words, editing involves a detailed review of a paper. When performing an edit, our editors are looking for consistency in your fiction or academic writing and clarity in your thoughts. This applies to all types of documents, including technical/scientific papers and arts/humanities submissions. Helping you "find your voice" is a part of this. We want you to come across as sounding like you know your topic inside and out and are comfortable writing from an English language perspective. It's easy to get bogged down with details and lose focus, especially if it's 3:00 a.m. and you're still typing. Our mandate is to gently bring you back around to the task at hand, grammatically!

It takes talent to be a good editor


Editing requires not only a background in English language skills but also a measure of intuitionknowing what looks right or wrong on the pageto gain a "feel" for your project's meaning and intention. A good editor will be able to look at your academic or fiction writing in an unbiased fashion. A professional editor will always apply his or her knowledge of English grammar conventions to help make your paper look and sound its best.

Proofreading Objective:"Proofreading," on the other hand, is the process of correcting grammatical, spelling, and typographical errors in a document. Proofreading must also go beyond simply using a "spell check" feature on our computers, as this technique is not as reliable as many of us would like to believe. Anomalies, such as different language sets (i.e., American English versus Australian or British English), faulty assumptions about grammar and sentence structure (made by the program), embedded information, and field-specific terminology, mean that we must review a document thoroughly, without relying on spell or grammar checks to do it for us. A final spell and grammar check provides "quality assurance" for your paper, but should be undertaken only after your document has been edited.

We are not a document writing service


Although our editors can offer suggestions about what may sound more appropriate, clients must keep in mind that editing does not equal rewriting. It's
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easy to fall into the mindset of, "Oh, man, I just can't write this on my own. I think I'll send it to Scribendi.com and have their editors do the work for me!" Scribendi.com is not an essay writing service; we will not, under any circumstance, completely rewrite your document. As editors, we must make a clear distinction regarding the difference between editing and doing your work for you. We want to help, but we also want to ensure that your work remains your own and retains your original ideas. Order the service that's right for you Editing and proofreading are often confused, primarily because their goals tend to overlap a bit. It's fairly easy for our editors to look at a document that specifies only proofreading and be tempted to alter sentence structure, address formatting issues, and clarify thoughts to help our clients sound their best. Our editors must, however, follow the guidelines of the client's order request, even if it calls for proofreading only. If you need more information before deciding whether your document requires editing or proofreading, you can always contactor Customer Service Department, or take a few moments to review our web site for order specifications.

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Review of Literature:Editing :1. Check the Story for Accuracy. 2. Makes Corrections of grammar. 3. Eliminates verbosity in newspaper copy. 4. Eliminates libelous statement. 5. Simplifies the story. 6. Eliminates editorialized matter in news stories. 7. Check all stories of adequacy. 8. Sometimes trims of shortens a story. 9. Makes the story conform to the newspapers style. 10.Attempts to polish and improve the story 11.Writers identifying labels and instructing notes.

Proofreading:1. Accuracy is your top priority- Speed must come second. 2. Plan the proofreading each document at least three times. It may sound like a lot. But you will catch all the errors and avoid costly corrections. 3. When you proofreading number read loud digit by digit 4. Place a straightedge (ruler, Piece of paper) below the line you reading avoid to skipping words or line of rent. 5. Distance yourself from any document your jus composed, if is common miss mistake in work you produced. Whenever possible put time between the writing and the proofreading stage. When you return to correct your work. You will be more objective. 6. Double space document draft from easy proofreading.

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ACHIEVING ERROR FREE DOCUMENT


Visual Proofreading 1. To Check the Alignment if your document use three techniques Hold the Document at arm Length. Turn it Up site down. Lay a straightedge on the left and Right Margins.

Newspaper Organizational Structure

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METHODOLOGY:Statement of Hypothesis:Editing :RNA editing generates RNA diversity through the post-transcriptional modification of single nucleotides in pre-mRNA (Maas et al. 2003). Adenosine (A) to inosine (I) modification by adenosine deaminases (ADARs), with inosine acting as guanosine (G) during translation, appears to be the most common type of nuclear RNA editing in eukaryotes (Bass 2002). Several recent studies have reported that A-to-I editing occurs widely in the human transcriptome (at least 2% of publicly available mRNAs), and most editing sites reside in Alu repetitive elements, which are typically 300 nucleotides (nt) long and comprise >10% of the human genome (Athanasiadis et al. 2004; Kim et al. 2004; Levanon et al. 2004, 2005;Eisenberg et al. 2005). Because the vast majority of edited nucleotides are within intronic or untranslated regions (UTRs), the functional consequence of RNA editing is often hard to infer. To date, except for a few well-studied cases (Higuchi et al. 1993; Burns et al. 1997; Rueter et al. 1999), the biological role of much A-to-I editing is still under debate. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous 22-nt noncoding RNAs that can play an important role in the regulation of gene expression by pairing to the messages of protein-coding genes, thereby specifying mRNA cleavage or repression of productive translation (Ambros 2004; Bartel 2004; Zamore and Haley 2005). In vertebrates, miRNA genes are one of the most abundant classes of regulatory genes ( 1% of all the genes) (Lim et al. 2003, 2005; Bartel 2004; Bartel and Chen 2004). Recent studies have indicated that target recognition by one miRNA is mainly achieved by pairing to the nucleotides at positions 27 of the miRNA (the so-called miRNA seed), and often a single mutation in the miRNA seed match of the target site can lead to total abolishment of effective repression (Lewis et al. 2003;Bartel 2004; Brennecke et al. 2005; Stark et al. 2005). In fact, several computational methods have been developed to predict miRNA target genes based on this principle, suggesting that 20%30% of protein-coding genes are under selective pressure to contain conserved 7-nt matches to mi RNA seed regions, and that these regions are likely to be mi RNA targets (Lewis et al. 2003, 2005; Rajewsky 2006). Very recently, a study further suggested that nonconserved 7-nt matches are also able to mediate repression when exposed to the mi RNA, implying a widespread impact of mi RNAs on gene expression (Farh et al. 2005). (For simplicity, throughout the rest of this paper we often refer to these 7-nt matches as mi RNA target sites, recognizing that they are necessarily biological target sites.) Recently, A-to-I editing of mi RNA precursor molecules has been reported (Luciano et al. 2004; Blow et al. 2006); however, the potential role of the editing on mi RNA target genes remains unexplored. Given the wide occurrence of both A-to-I editing and mi RNA target sites in
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3-UTR regions, we wonder whether some editing events can interrupt (or create) functional target sites, thus adding another layer of control to mi RNA-mediated repression. Therefore, by integrating sequence and mi RNA tissue specificity data, we developed a computational pipeline to predict mi RNA target sites subject to RNA editing. Intriguingly, we found that some edited positions lie in putative mi RNA target sites. Our work calls attention to the layers of complexity that govern human gene regulation, and more experimental work is needed to further elucidate the functional effect of these RNA editing events.

Proofreading:Rapid technical advances in genomics and proteomics have catalyzed an extraordinary proliferation of experimental data. This offers an unprecedented opportunity to understand how organisms function, but also requires new analysis techniques. Existing methods encounter problems dealing with multiple data types, so we develop and present an event-based representation that overcomes these difficulties and also represents biological systems in a way that is compatible with notation used by experimental biologists. Given an ontology for a specific biological system, we define and characterize the space of possible regulatory hypotheses that can be made about that biological system. Taking inspiration from Stone Spaces, we show how the hypothesis space can (minimally) support the structure of a pre-topology. We present additional, biologically-motivated structure for the hypothesis space and show how to form classes of variant hypotheses that can be generated from a starting hypothesis by, for instance, tweaking its parameters, borrowing analogous portions from other biological systems, or bridging gaps in the explanation offered by the initial hypothesis. We introduce a control theory specifically designed for biological systems, and introduce and characterize the notion of discoverability of regulatory events. We characterize the decidability and discoverability properties of hypotheses and of variants generated by the perturbation operators, and show how to use them as part of a hypothesis proofreading system. We show how to model the hypothesis composition and proofreading process as a two-player game, and how algorithms can be developed to aid the human player in formulating and revising hypotheses. We develop a software prototype for such a hypothesis proofreading system and deploy the prototype for galactose metabolism in yeast. For this software, we use a novel contradictionbased approach that is more capable of handling large data sets than existing modeling approaches. To demonstrate this scalability, we expand our efforts to data from the human reactome. We show how to use the mathematical machinery we have developed to proofread the reactome, including testing it for consistency, completeness, precedence, enabling and supply.

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Statement of Null Hypothesis:Editing:-

Overview
statistics, a null hypothesis is a hypothesis set up to be nullified or refuted in order to support an alternate hypothesis. When used, the null hypothesis is presumed true until statistical evidence in the form of a hypothesis test indicates otherwise. In science, the null hypothesis is used to test differences in treatment and control groups, and the assumption at the
In

outset of the experiment is that no difference exists between the two groups for the variable being compared.

Introduction
The null hypothesis proposes something initially presumed true. It is rejected only when it becomes evidently false. That is, when the researcher has a certain degree of confidence, usually 95% to 99%, that the data does not support the null hypothesis. An Example For example, if we want to compare the test scores of two random samples of men and women, a null hypothesis would be that the mean score of the male population was the same as the mean score of the female population: H0 : 1 = 2 where: H0 = the null hypothesis 1 = the mean of population 1, and 2 = the mean of population 2. Alternatively, the null hypothesis can postulate that the two samples are drawn from the same population, so that the variance and shape of the distributions are equal, as well as the means. Formulation of the null hypothesis is a vital step in testing statistical significance. Having formulated such a hypothesis, one can establish the probability of observing the obtained data or data more different from the prediction of the null hypothesis, if the null hypothesis is true. That probability is what is commonly called the "significance level" of the results. That is, in scientific experimental design, we may predict that a particular factor will produce an effect on our dependent variable this is our alternative hypothesis. We then consider how
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often we would expect to observe our experimental results, or results even more extreme, if we were to take many samples from a population where there was no effect (i.e. we test against our null hypothesis). If we find that this happens rarely (up to, say, 5% of the time), we can conclude that our results support our experimental prediction we accept our alternative hypothesis.

Lack of Directionality
The null hypothesis does not have direction. That is, if we formulate a one-tailed alternative hypothesis that application of Drug A will lead to increased growth in patients, the null hypothesis remains that application of Drug A will have no effect on growth in patients. It is not merely the opposite of the alternative hypothesis that is, it is notthat application of Drug A will not lead to increased growth in patients. To explain why this should be so, it is instructive to consider the nature of the hypotheses outlined above. We are predicting that patients exposed to Drug A will see increased growth compared to a control group who do not receive the drug. That is, H1: drug > control where: = the patients' mean growth. The null hypothesis is H0: drug = control It is not H0incorrect: drug <= control This is because, in order to gauge support for the alternative hypothesis, classical hypothesis testing requires us to calculate how often we would have obtained results as extreme as our experimental observations. In order to do this, we need to be able to model the sampling distribution characteristic of the null hypothesis. We are unable to create this model if it is imprecise: as Fisher, who first coined the term "null hypothesis" said, "the null hypothesis must be exact, that is free of vagueness and ambiguity, because it must supply the basis of the 'problem of distribution,' of which the test of significance is the solution." Thus the null hypothesis must be numerically exact it must state that a particular quantity or difference is equal to a particular number. In classical science, it is most typically the statement that there is no effect of a particular treatment; in observations, it is typically that there is no difference between the value of a particular measured variable and that of a prediction. (However, many statisticians believe that it is valid to state direction as a part of null hypothesis (for example see http://davidmlane.com/hyperstat/A73079.html). The logic is quite simple: if the
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direction is omitted, then if the null hypothesis is not rejected it is quite confusing to interpret the conclusion. Say, the null is that the population mean = 10, and the one-tailed alternative: mean > 10. If the sample evidence obtained through x-bar equals -200 and the corresponding t-test statistic equals -50, what is the conclusion? Not enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis? Surely not! But we cannot accept the one-sided alternative in this case. Therefore, to overcome this ambiguity, it is better to include the direction of the effect if the test is one-sided.)

Limitations
A null hypothesis is only useful if it is possible to calculate the probability of observing a data set with particular parameters from it. In general it is much harder to be precise about how probable the data would be if the alternative hypothesis were true. If experimental observations contradict the prediction of the null hypothesis, it means that either the null hypothesis is false, or the event under observation occurs very improbably. This gives us high confidence in the falsehood of the null hypothesis, which can be improved in proportion to the number of trials conducted. However, accepting the alternative hypothesis only commits us to a difference in observed parameters; it does not prove that the theory or principles that predicted such a difference is true, since it is always possible that the difference could be due to additional factors not recognized by the theory. For example, rejecting of a null hypothesis that predicts that the rates of symptom relief in a sample of patients who received a placebo and a sample who received a medicinal drug will be equal allows us to make a non-null statement (that the rates differed); it does not prove that the drug relieved the symptoms, though it gives us more confidence in that hypothesis. The formulation, testing, and rejection of null hypotheses is methodologically consistent with the model of scientific discovery formulated by Karl Popper and widely believed to apply to most kinds of empirical research. However, concerns regarding the high power of statistical tests to detect differences in large samples have led to suggestions for re-defining the null hypothesis, for example as a hypothesis that an effect falls within a range considered negligible. This is an attempt to address the confusion among non-statisticians between significant and substantial, since large enough samples are likely to be able to indicate differences however minor. The theory underlying the idea of a null hypothesis is closely associated with the frequency theory of probability, in which probabilistic statements can only be made about the relative frequencies of events in arbitrarily large samples. A failure to reject the null hypothesis

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is meaningful only in relation to an arbitrarily large population from which the observed sample is supposed to be drawn.

Publication Bias
In 2002, a group of psychologists launched a new journal dedicated to experimental studies in psychology which support the null hypothesis. The Journal of Articles in Support of the Null Hypothesis (JASNH) was founded to address a scientific publishing bias against such articles. According to the editors, "other journals and reviewers have exhibited a bias against articles that did not reject the null hypothesis. We plan to change that by offering an outlet for experiments that do not reach the traditional significance levels (p < 0.05). Thus, reducing the file drawer problem, and reducing the bias in psychological literature. Without such a resource researchers could be wasting their time examining empirical questions that have already been examined. We collect these articles and provide them to the scientific community free of cost." The "File Drawer problem" is a problem that exists due to the fact that academics tend not to publish results that indicate the null hypothesis could not be rejected. That is, they got a statistically significant result that indicated the relationship they were looking for did not exist. Even though these papers can often be interesting, they tend to end up unpublished, in "file drawers." Ioannidis has inventoried factors that should alert readers to risks of publication bias . Controversy Null hypothesis testing is controversial when the alternative hypothesis is suspected to be true at the outset of the experiment, making the null hypothesis the reverse of what the experimenter actually believes; it is put forward only to allow the data to contradict it. Many statisticians have pointed out that rejecting the null hypothesis says nothing or very little about the likelihood that the null is true. Under traditional null hypothesis testing, the null is rejected when P(Data | Null) (where P(x|y) denotes the probability of x given y) is very small, say 0.05. However, researchers are really interested in P(Null | Data) which cannot be inferred from a p-value. In some cases, P(Null | Data) approaches 1 while P(Data | Null) approaches 0, in other words, we can reject the null when it's virtually certain to be true. For this and other reasons, Gerd Gigerenzer has called null hypothesis testing "mindless statistics" while Jacob Cohen describes it as a ritual conducted to convince ourselves that we have the evidence needed to confirm our theories. Bayesian statisticians normally reject the idea of null hypothesis testing. Given a prior probability distribution for one or more parameters, sample evidence can be used to generate an
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updated posterior distribution. In this framework, but not in the null hypothesis testing framework, it is meaningful to make statements of the general form "the probability that the true value of the parameter is greater than 0 is p".

Proofreading :The activation of a T cell requires the formation of a long-lived attachment to an antigenpresenting cell (APC). APCs present peptide on their surfaces, held by a majorhistocompatibility complex (MHC). A given T cell carries receptors (TCRs) specic for a particular MHC-peptide group, along with other less specic adhesion and costimulatory molecules. The stable region of close apposition (immunological synapse) may facilitate signal transduction, by concentrating the TCR and MHC- peptide together and allowing long-lived bond formation. A TCR will become activated if it can form a suciently long-lived bond to allow multiple biochemical changes to occur (the kinetic proofreading hypothesis). We have developed a mathematical model to examine the TCR-MHC-peptide inter-action within the stable region. Here we present results regarding the competing eects of serial engagement (sequential activation of TCR by one MHC-peptide) and kinetic proofreading. In conjunction with the model, recent experimental data indicates that activated TCR must remain active for a period after dissociation from MHC-peptide.Recent extensions of the model to deal with other situations are also presented. 1 Introduction In the immune system, T cells are activated by the interaction of their T cell receptors (TCR) with specic foreign peptide - major histocompatibility complexes (pMHC) on the surface of antigen presenting cells (APC). Each APC presents an array of dierent peptides on its surface, most of which are self-peptides. The task for the T cell is to nd APC displaying the foreign peptides recognized by its receptors while ignoring the majority it does not recognize. Peptides are classied as agonist (fully activating), partial agonist (partially activating), null (no eect) and antagonist (inhibiting activation). Small changes in the peptide composition can make a big dierence in its eect on a T cell. A series of experiments in which the aggregation of TCR, pMHC and adhesive and costimulatory molecules was directly visualized by uorescent labeling [6{8] revealed that the composition and geometry of the contact area (often termed the SMAC (supra-molecular activation complex) or immunological synapse) change signicantly during the cell-cell contact.The immature synapse, with adhesion molecules in the center and TCR-pMHC complexes
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E-mail: coombs@lanl.gov, cxw@lanl.gov, bxg@lanl.gov 1in an outer ring, matures over a few minutes so that TCR-pMHC become located in aninner region surrounded by adhesion molecules. In recent experiments where naive T cells interact with APC, the immature synapse persists for a longer period (15{30 min) and early signaling events occur before the mature synapse forms [8]. Theoretical work [9] suggests that formation of a stable synapse is controlled by the binding properties of the specic peptide-MHC with TCR. Recent studies have shown that there is an optimal lifetime for the pMHC-TCR bond. T cell activation and internalization rise as a function of this lifetime, go through a maximum, and then decline. This was predicted by Lanzav ecchia et al because of competition between the following two efects: Statement of sampling procedure:-

Editing Sampling Procedures:1. Choose Logistics Quality management Quality planning Basic data and then Sample Sampling procedure Change. 2. On the initial screen for changing the sampling procedure, enter the identifier of the sampling procedure that you want to change or delete and choose Sampling procedure. On the initial screen, by choosing Display change logs, you can display the change history for all existing sampling procedures. To do this, you must have set the parameter rec/client in Customizing. 3. On the assignments screen, make the required changes and choose Continue. To delete the sampling procedure, choose Sampling procedure confirm the deletion.

Delete and

You can delete a sampling procedure on the assignments screen and on the special conditions screen. You cannot delete a sampling procedure if it is currently being used. (That is, if the system has set the indicator Use in insp. plan on the assignments screen).

By choosing Administrative data on the assignments screen, you can display when the sampling procedure was created and changed. 4. On the special conditions screen, make the required changes and save your data.

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Proofreading:Proofreaders use common notations and symbols, although some may differ slightly from publisher to publisher (more so between North American and British publishers). If your publisher provides instructions on specific proofreading symbols, be sure to follow them closely. The following downloadable PDF file shows common proofreaders' marks as applied to portions of medical text.

Sampling Technique and size:Editing :it is an overstatement for any one person involved in filmmaking to claim that his or her role is the exclusive source of creativity in the filmmaking process. Filmmaking requires collaboration; it requires the skills of an army of people. When filmmaking works best, each contribution adds to the totality of our experience of the film. The corollary, of course, is that any deficit performance can be ruinous to the film. To put the roles into perspective, its easiest to think of each role as creative and of particular roles as more decisive, for example, the producer, the writer, the director, the cinematographer, the actors, and the editor. Sound people, gaffers, art designers, costumers, and special effects people all contribute, but the front-line roles are so pervasive in their impudence that they are the key roles. The editor comes into the process once production has begun, making rough assembly of shots while the film is in production. In this way, adjustments or additional shots can be undertaken during the production phase. If a needed shot must be pursued once the crew has been dispersed and theset has been dismantled, the cost will be much greater. The editors primary role, however, takes place in the post-production phase. Once production has been completed, sound and music are added Introduction during this phase, as are special effects. Aside from shortening the film, the editor must find a rhythm for the film; working closely with the director and sometimes the producer, the editor presents options, points out areas of confusion, and identifies redundant scenes. The winnowing process is an intuitive search for clarity and dynamism. The film must speak to as widen audience as possible. Sound, sound effects, and music are all added at this stage. The degree of freedom that the editor has depends on the relationship with the director and the producer. Particular directors are very interested in editing; others are more concerned with performance and leave more to the editor. The power relationship between editor and director or editor and producer is never the same; it always depends on the interests and strengths of each. In general terms, however, editors defer to directors and producers. The goals of the editor are particular: to
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find a narrative continuity forth visuals and the sound of the film, and to distill those visuals and sound shots that will create the dramatic emphasis so that the film will be effective. By choosing particular juxtapositions, editors also layer that narrative with metaphor and subtext. They can even alter the original meaning by changing the juxtapositions of the shots. An editor is successful when the audience enjoys the story and forgets about the juxtaposition of the shots. If the audience is aware of the editing, the editor has failed. This characterization should also describe the directors criteria for success, but ironically, it does not. Particular styles or genres are associated with particular directors. The audience knows an Alfred Hitchcock film or a Steven Spielberg film or an Ernst Lubitsch film. The result is that the audience expects a sense of the directors public persona in the film. When these directors make a film in which the audience is not aware of the directing, they fail that audience. Individual directors can have public persona not available to editors. Having presented the limits of the editors role in a production, I would be remiss if I didnt acknowledge the power of editors in a production and as a profession. The editor shares much with the director in this respect. Film and television are the most powerful and inertial media of the century. Both have been used for good and for less-than-good intentions. As a result, the editor is a very powerful person because of her potential innocence. Editing choices range from the straightforward presentation of material to the alteration of the meaning of that material. Editors also have the opportunity to present the material in as emotional a manner as possible. Emotion itself shapes meaning even more. The danger, then, is to abuse that power. A set of ethical standards or personal morality is the rudder for all who work in film and television. The rudder isnt always operable. Editors do not have public personae that force them to exercise a personal code of ethics in their work. Consequently, a personal code of ethics becomes even more important. Because ethics has

Proofreading Techniques
What is proofreading Proofreading is a way of catching errors in your paper before you hand it in so that your paper will be clearer, more correct, and more acceptable to your instructor and to anyone else who reads it. 3. When should I proofread my paper? In general, any time is a good time to proofread your paper before you hand it in. Here are some specific times when proofreading would be a good idea: a. If you write multiple rough drafts, select the last rough draft to be the one that you proofread carefully. b. You could proofread each sentence after writing it, or you could wait until you finish a whole paragraph and then go back and proofread the entire paragraph. c. Each time you edit or add any words to your paper, (even if it is only one or two words), check over the revised part to make sure that it is correct. d. Most importantly, however, be sure to proofread your entire paper just before you print it out. Proofreading your whole paper carefully should always be the very last thing you do before printing out the final draft. Remember to double-check any lastminute
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changes for correctness before you print out the final version of your paper. In fact, it is often a good idea to proofread your final paper again after it has been Printed out. Theres no such thing as too much proofreading! 4. How do I proofread my paper? Here is a summary of some of the more famous tried-and-true techniques for Proofreading your paper: a. First, if time permits, proofread your paper after being away from it for several hours or even for a few days. Take a break before proofreading your paper. After some down time of rest or doing other activities, then come back to your paper and begin proofreading it. Youll be more refreshed and better able to catch your errors. B. Next, print out your paper before you begin proofreading it. Studies have shown that trying to proofread a paper while it is still on the monitor screen is not nearly as effective as proofreading it in hard-copy form. Youll miss a lot of errors by trying to catch them on the screen, so print out a hard copy of the paper before you begin proofreading it. C:-. When you begin to proofread, have a pen or pencil in hand to mark the errors or Rough spots as soon as you find them. Mark your paper freely and quickly as you proofread. Dont be shy about circling words, checking awkward-sounding phrases, or putting question marks beside unclear passages. These markings will help you when you go back over your paper to fix up things. D:- Read your paper aloud, slowly and carefully. When you discover a word that you have accidentally skipped, youll catch the omission if you are reading your paper aloud. Youll also be better able to determine if a word or sentence sounds right if you hear the sound of each word as you say it slowly and carefully. E:- Give your paper to someone else to proofread. Often the author of a paper is too familiar with his or her paper to catch errors like a skipped word or an awkward-sounding sentence. Someone elsea friend, a roommate, or the likewill be more distant from your paper and will therefore be more objective toward it and thus be better able to detect minor errors in it. However, do not let that person make any written changes without your approval. Ask the reader to give you only a verbal assessment of your paper, which should be your
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work, not someone elses, and should reflect only your ideas expressed in your words. F. Proofread your paper backwards! This sounds crazy, but it actually helps to detect correct word order and to catch missing words. F:- Use the spell check. Although it is not perfect, a good spellchecker will usually catch most typos and misspelled words. So, while your paper is still in the computer, run a spell check. Many modern spellcheckers will even ask if you are using the correct form of a homonym, like to, too, or two or there, their, and theyre. H:-. Use the grammar check with great caution and reservation! Many students rely too much on grammar checks. Contrary to what some students seem to believe, computers cannot actually think. They are merely machines that have been programmed to react to certain electronic stimuli. Although most spell checks are very useful for detecting misspelled words, many grammar checks actually misinterpret grammatical situations and even tell students to do the wrong thing to correct an error in grammar or mechanics. Use grammar checks rarely if at all, and, when you do use them, dont believe everything they tell you. You might be better off using a grammar handbook or asking your instructor for help. 5. What are some typical errors to watch out for when I proofread? Among the more commonly made errors in students papers are the following: Sentence errors (fragments, run-ons, comma splices) Commas (misplaced, incorrectly use, missing) Incorrect homonym use Misspelling Typos Transposing letters (from vs. form) Confusing similar words (affect vs. effect, then vs. than) Incorrect use of capitals or omitting correct capital letters Although it takes extra time and effort, good proofreading is a valuable skill for a writer and should be used frequently to help produce an excellent paper.
Proofreading requires concentration, patience, and a bit of time. Keep in mind, first, that the page proof stage will be your last opportunity to eliminate errors before the document goes to print. Second, revisions to page proofs can be expensive. For this reason, publishers usually have specific guidelines about what types of corrections are permitted.
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Statement of tools for data collection


1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Editing fact and fiction Reporting and Editing Creative Editing Powerful proofreading skills The MG Craw-hills Desk reference for Editors, writer, proofreader. Journalism as a profession News writing

Questionnaire, Interview Schedule, Interview guide, Content Category.


Editing for content

Ask yourself who, what, when, where, why, and how when reading for content. Does the text answer all the questions you think it should? Highlight the sentences that best answer these questions, just so you can see if the facts flow in logical order. Does the math, do the math, and then do the math again. Somewhere between the screen and the printer 2+2 often becomes 3. Make a list of "bugaboo" words and do a search for them before final proof. Include every swear word, words related to product terminology, and other words that pop up on occasion. Then do a "find" for all these words. Actually do every step in procedures to make sure they are complete, accurate, and in correct order. Count the number of steps a list promises to make sure they are all there. Check that figure numbers match their references in the text and are sequential. Check that illustrations, pictographs, and models are right-side up.

Proofreading or Editing

Write at the end of the day; edit first thing in the morning. (Usually, getting some sleep in between helps.) Listen to music or chew gum. Proofing can be boring business and it doesn't require much critical thinking, though it does require extreme focus and concentration. Anything that can relieve your mind of some of the pressure, while allowing you to still keep focused, is a benefit.

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Don't use fluorescent lighting when proofing. The flicker rate is actually slower than standard lighting. Your eyes can't pick up inconsistencies as easily under fluorescent lighting. Spend a half-hour a month reviewing grammar rules. Read something else between edits. This helps clear your head of what you expect to read and allows you to read what really is on the page. Make a list of things to watch fora kind of "to do" listas you edit.

Interview guide:If a speaker is involved only through a few comments during the interview, use the with comments by format in the heading, instead of listing each speaker as a full participant. Jane N. Hanson Narrator, with comments by John Smith James E. Fogerty Minnesota Historical Society Interviewer February 8, 1988 at the James J. Hill House Saint Paul, Minnesota Jane N. Hanson - JH John Smith - JS James E. Fogerty - JF Interviews conducted on multiple dates: Indicate the dates in the heading and the text. For example, in the heading: Interviewed on February 8, 12, and 18, 1988 In the text: February 12, 1988 JF: Ms. Hanson, last week you told us about your... Undecipherable words: When a word or phrase is undecipherable, leave a space and type [unclear]. This can be filled in during the auditing and editing process. Reassuring remarks or monosyllables: These are generally made by the interviewer while the narrator is telling a story. They should be eliminated. Examples include yes, sure, and I see. 5 EDITING GUIDELINES Reference for editing: The Chicago Manual of Style (Chicago: University of Chicago
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Press, 1982, 13th Edition) is the authority used for editing oral history transcripts at the Minnesota Historical Society. False starts: If the narrator begins with several words and then reorganizes his or her thoughts and resumes, delete the false start. For example, EB: Ernie wasnthe didnt,wellIll tell you a story about Ernie. should read, EB: Ill tell you a story about Ernie. Stumbles: If the narrator has trouble organizing his or her thoughts, delete the stumbles. For example, WW: If you start to think, well, if you were to start to think, to think of the courses of interest, of current interest, to the business community... should read, WW: If you were to start to think of courses of current interest to the business community... Extraneous remarks: Conversation made while setting up or turning off the equipment that is not part of the interview can be eliminated. For example, MM: Okay. As I was telling you, what I would like to do is tois to start. Oops, the mike is pointing the wrong way. Okay, there, now you can start now. Are you a native of Minnesota? EB: Yes, I was born in Appleton, Minnesota. Dear, you can just put down that tea tray while we are talking. Where were we? Yes, my parents were farmers... should read, MM: Are you a native of Minnesota? EB: Yes, I was born in Appleton, Minnesota. My parents were farmers... 6 Tape changes: Eliminate any notations in the final transcript regarding tape changes, such as (tape 1, side 1) or (end of tape 2, side 2). Spacing: Final transcripts should be single-spaced. Paragraphing: Paragraphs should be used to break up long passages. A good rule to follow is to insert paragraphing when a passage is longer than a screen or page of text. Paragraphs are flush left, with no indentation, and are indicated with a double space. Simultaneous speech: If one speaker interrupts the other in mid-sentence, but the first
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speaker completes his or her thought, finish that sentence in the transcript first. For example, MM: They couldnt afford it in Iowa, and they could get it cheaply here. If they irrigate... EB: ...John Cairns was sitting with Tom today. I think he has five of those big irrigators... MM: ...or practice good farming, they would be productive... EB: ...out there. should read, MM: They couldnt afford it in Iowa, and they could get it cheaply here. If they irrigate or practice good farming, they would be productive. EB: John Cairns was sitting with Tom today. I think he has five of those big irrigators out there. Ellipsis points: Ellipsis points should be used when a statement is unfinished (trailing off), faltering or fragmented and it appears that the narrator is confused or uncertain. EB: Phil, you know . . . turned . . . I think it was . . . MM: I . . . I . . . think he was . . . conservative. 7 EM dashes: Dashes should be used to offset parenthetical expressions, such as an aside or remark interjected by the speaker. Do not insert spaces between the dashes and the text. CK: He was just as afraid of the Foreign Service in OttawaI think maybe even more sothan he was afraid of anything that the United States might do. Dashes should also be used for showing an interruption of one speaker by another. CK: It gave him a sense of independence and VF: Independence, yes, and that would give him confidence as well. Word division: Avoid dividing proper names with a hyphen. Correct non-standard word division. For further guidance, consult The Chicago Manual of Style. Tape interruptions: Interruptions should be indicated only if an interview is affected by them. For example, if a phone rings during the interview and the interruption causes the
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narrator to begin a new train of thought, indicate by DH: That was John Olson who just called. He reminded me to tell you about the time that... Habitual qualifiers: Eliminate most qualifiers (for example, I think and I guess), but do not eliminate all of them. This is a judgment call. For example, WM: I guess it depends on who is in the legislature to fight for it. I think it depends on how active your environmental groups are going to be. I think the chances of stopping it in the future are fairly good. could read, WM: It depends on who is in the legislature to fight for it. It depends on how active your environmental groups are going to be. I think the chances of stopping it in the future are fairly good. 8 Habitual connectives: Eliminate most connectives that occur between sentences (and, so, but, well), but do not eliminate all of them. This is a judgment call. For example: WM: And if a polluter is polluting an area, it allows the state to come in and clean it up. And if the state cleans it up, they can put a lien on the property. So eventually probably the state will be reimbursed for the clean-up. And I think that is a step in the right direction. should read, WM: If a polluter is polluting an area, it allows the state to come in and clean it up. If the state cleans it up, they can put a lien on the property. Eventually, the state probably will be reimbursed for the clean-up. I think that is a step in the right direction. Crutch words: If the narrator has a habit of saying such things as yeah, you see, you know, or like, eliminate some, but not all of these, as appropriate. This is a judgment call. For example: WM: Those days are over, you know. But that policy did linger on for quite a few decades, see? Thats the kind of thing that you had to overcome, see? Thats an exploitation philosophy, you know, with, like, no concern for the future. should read, WM: Those days are over, but that policy lingered on for quite a few decades. Thats the kind of thing you had to overcome, see? Thats an exploitation philosophy with no concern for the future.
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Numbers: Whole numbers from one through ninety-nine are spelled out in ordinary text, as are any of these numbers followed by the words hundred, thousand, and million. For all other numbers, figures are used. For example, Twenty-four candidates from eighteen different institutions applied for the three positions. -- The new libraries will house more than eighty thousand books. -- The central library alone will contain 42,824 volumes. When using percentages, follow similar rules. For example, -- twelve percent and 178 percent For further reference, consult The Chicago Manual of Style. 9 Brackets: Brackets should be used to complete a name or to supply information which is not on the tape but which is necessary for clarity. Brackets are also used to describe the way something is said or the reaction of the listener, such as [Laughing]. The first letter of the word is capitalized, and there are spaces before and after the brackets. If possible, and if appropriate, avoid interrupting the text until after the speakers sentence is complete. For example: CK: I had been able to do enough work on the farm, [Laughter] so I didnt need that. should read, CK: I had been able to do enough work on the farm, so I didnt need that. [Laughter] If both the narrator and the interviewer are laughing, indicate by [Both laugh] Use these types of indications very sparingly. Also, use [Pause] only for lengthy pauses. Similar notations can be employed as stage directions to make a narrators actions in relation to his or her speech more clear. RL: [Shows map] Well, if we did this, this would be the project land use with current zoning. Footnotes: Use footnotes for information necessary for clarity but not brief enough to be put in brackets. Footnotes are numbered sequentially through the text, rather than renumbered for each page. They are indented from the left margin. WKB: No, I represented everyone else in that merger. The Dorsey 1 firm represented United, and they were more oriented to that side of the industry. Underlining and exclamation points: These markings should only be used to indicate very emphatic words or sentences. Slurred words: Use proper spelling of slurred words (yeah is yes, gonna is going to). The word yes should be used for variants such as uh-huh. Generally,
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contractions should be used as spoken. Dorsey & Whitney, a Minneapolis law firm. 10 Proper names: If a name does not appear in full the first time it is mentioned, use bracketsfor example, [Representative Willard] Munger and I thought so. Do this only the first time that a name is mentioned. However, when the full name is clearly understood in the context of the interview, brackets are not necessary. For example, when someone is discussing the Reagan legacy, it is not necessary to add, the [President Ronald] Reagan legacy. Similarly, when an acronym is used for the name of an organization, write out that name using brackets. Only do this the first time the name is mentioned. For example, . . . in following the activities of the PCA [Pollution Control Agency]. When initals are part of an persons commonly used name, do not space between the initials (E.B. White, A.A. Milne). Book titles: Underscore book titles, such as Timber and Men. Do not underline the spaces between the words (A Land Set Apart, not A Land Set Apart). For other bibliographic citations, follow the rules set in The Chicago Manual of Style. Concluding the interview: Interview transcripts end with the narrators final comments and the interviewers thanks. RL: However, not all townships are like that. Some of them are pretty adept at dealing with permits, too. MR: Thank you, Mr. Lappegaard. Biography: Where possible, the transcript should include a brief biography of the narrator before the text of the interview. The full name of the narrator should be used in the first citation; honorifics should not be used in other references (Dr. Miron L. Bud Heinselman; then Heinselman, not Dr. Heinselman). Set margins and spacing in the same manner as the interview text. Allow space for a photograph, if available. If the photograph is to be credited, allow a double space between credit line and text. The credit should be flush left:

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PROCESSING OF ORAL HISTORY PROJECTS


Documentation: A copy of the original transcript and any copy corrected by the narrator should be retained in the interview file, along with the original release signed by the narrator and other documents created or copied during research for the interview. Intermediate transcripts that are generated for proofing between the original transcript and the final version should be kept until all work is completed. After completion, the intermediate copies may be destroyed. If an oral history project comprises interviews with several narrators, a file for each narrator should be maintained, and all files for the project should be stored together. Handling of tapes: The original recording of an interview is duplicated, and the duplicate tape is used in transcribing the interview and for general listening. The original, or master, copy is kept in storage and not used except when needed for producing another copy. All tapes should be exercisedwound and rewound before recording. This includes new tapes being used for the original recording of the interview, as well as tapes being used in making copies. Each tape should have a typed label affixed to its face and another label on the spine of the tape case. The face label (and the cases spine label, if possible within space limitations) should supply the following information: --Name of the narrator (and the projects name, if any) --Date of the interview --Origin of the tape. In most cases the choice will be either original or duplicate. If the original has been lost, the best available duplicate should be labeled master duplicate and treated as the original. Duplicates that are created at standard tape speed should be noted as real-time duplicates, using the abbreviation RT. Duplicate tapes created on high-speed duplicating machines should be labeled as such; for example, a duplicate created at double speed should be labeled 2x. --Number of tapes used in the interview. For example, for a single interview that spans two tapes, the tapes should be labeled Tape 1 (of 2) and Tape 2 (of 2).

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SAMPLE ORAL HISTORY AGREEMENT FORM


I, [name of narrator], a participant in an interview recorded on [date], hereby give and deliver to [name of institution] all the incidents of ownership in that interview, including copyright, from this time forward.

Signed (donor): Address: Date: Signed (interviewer):

SAMPLE RESTRICTED ORAL HISTORY AGREEMENT FORM


I, [name of narrator], a participant in an interview recorded on [date], hereby give and deliver to [name of institution] all the incidents of ownership in that interview, including copyright, from this time forward, with the single exception that access should be given until [date] only to those persons having the written permission of [name of narrator], his or her heir(s), or his or her designee(s), as specified below. Signed (donor):

Address: Date: Signed (interviewer): Specified heir(s) or designee(s): SAMPLE TAPE-LABEL FORMATS For interviews cataloged within larger projects: Minnesota Artists Oral History Project Borreson, Elaine Scott

1994 2 (of 2) Original AV 1995.205


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for interviews cataloged individually: Heffelfinger, Elizabeth Interview 1978-79 6 (of 10) Duplicate (RT) AV 1993.162 SAMPLE DESCRIPTION SHEET Tepfer, Gloria 1989

INTERVIEW: YEAR:

MINNESOTA HISTORICAL SOCIETY ORAL HISTORY INTERVIEW NAME: DATE: PLACE: INTERVIEWER: PROJECT SERIES: Gloria Tepfer April 11, 1989 Tepfer home, rural Danube, Minnesota Margaret Robertson Minnesota Farm Economy Oral History Project

BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION: Gloria Tepfer spent her childhood years in Appleton, Minnesota. Her family moved to Danube, when she was a senior in high school, and she was graduated from there. She married Wayne Tepfer in l955. Following her husbands two-year tour of duty in the armed services in l958, they moved to a farm near Danube and started a dairy/farming operation. Gloria Tepfer has been a full-time partner with her husband, sharing both the physical and financial responsibilities for their business. She has been involved in school, 4-H, and community affairs, and during the farm crisis, played an active role in the Groundswell organization, the Renville County Farm Bureau, and political rallies and protests in support of the farmers. Since l985, following economic reversals in their dairy business as a result of the rural crisis, she has been employed outside the farm. The Tepfer farm is now owned and operated by Wendy and Ron Kluver, their daughter and son-in-law. Wayne Tepfer works for the local Sugarbeet co-operative, and the Tepfers now live in Renville.

SUBJECTS DISCUSSED: Information on family life and a family dairy farm operation, farm management and record keeping; loans, foreclosure and auction sales; negotiations with the Farm Home Administration, the Federal Land Bank, and American State Bank; mediation procedures; the Groundswell organization, Renville County Farm Bureau, and the Renville County extension program; farm protest activities; reaction to the farm crisis by the media, the Twin Cities area, and small-town businesses; the future of family farming; environmental issues
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including ground water contamination and herbicides; the status of women in farming; corporate farming and the farm activist movement.
COMMENTS ON INTERVIEW: Wendy Tepfer Kluver offers an occasional comment.

VIDEO TAPE: Beta:

VHS : SOUND RECORDINGS: Original: LENGTH OF INTERVIEW: RESTRICTIONS ON USE: TRANSCRIPT: ACCESSION NUMBER:

5 20-minute videos with time code 3/4": 2 duplicate videos with time code 4 sub-master videos 1 user copy User copy: 2 60-minute audio cassettes 2 60-minute audio cassettes 2 hours none 43 pages AV 1988.167.07 (audio) AV 1992.145 (video)

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Common Errors and Correction Strategies


Spelling
Don't forget to use your word processor's spell-check feature to identify spelling mistakes. Do a quick visual check for squiggly lines, run the actual spell-check function, and then do a closer check for misspellings or wrong word choices that the spell-checker missed. Although spellchecking is important and should not be skipped, a real-live human can often catch errors that computer software will miss because people are more capable of understanding words in context. For example, spell-check software can't always tell whether their, there, or they're fits in a specific sentence, but a person can always figure it out by looking at the definitions for these homonyms. Don't forget the low-tech solution: always use a dictionary to confirm any word you're unsure about. Although the built-in dictionary that comes with your word processor is a great timesaver, it falls far short of a college-edition dictionary in paper or CD form. So, if spell-check suggests bizarre corrections for one of your words, it could be that you know a word it doesn't. When in doubt, check a dictionary to be sure.

Punctuation
This section will provide useful information on Standard American punctuation: its usage, pitfalls, etc.

Fragments
By definition, a fragment is a group of words that is punctuated like a sentence, but that lacks either a subject or a verb. For example: "Full five year warranty and free oil changes!" People use fragments like this in advertisements all the time, but when you are writing for an academic audience, which is far less forgiving of purposeful fragments, your readers may assume that you just don't know the sentence is a fragment. They may conclude that if you got that wrong, you might be wrong about your content too. So, how can you do find fragments in your own writing? First, find the main verb. Then, find the subject for that verb. You could correct the example sentence in the following way:
Original: Full five year warranty and free oil changes! Add verb: Receive a full five year warranty and free oil changes! Add subject and verb: New customers receive a full five year warranty and free oil changes!

Built-in grammar-checkers are fairly good at spotting fragments, but occasionally go overboard and mark a sentence as a fragment when it is not. Use your own judgment and read each one independently while asking the questions provided above.

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Subject-Verb Agreement
Below are some examples of errors with subject/verb agreement. Take some time and see if you can figure out what the error is in these sentences. Original: The dog need to go on a walk. Revised: The dog needs to go on a walk. The subject in the original sentence (dog) is singular. The verb (need) is plural. The verb needs to be changed from plural to singular form in order to agree with the subject. Original: Chris and Molly goes for walks often in the evening. Revised: Chris and Molly go for walks often in the evening. In this case the verb started out as a singular form. It needed to be changed to plural to fit with Chris and Molly (plural subject). A quick way to check for subject/verb agreement is to circle the verb and underline the subject of each sentence. Make sure that if the subject is plural, you use a plural form of the verb. If you cannot identify subjects and verbs this method will not be practical, and you should seek guidance online, at your school's writing center, or from an instructor first. One last source for finding tips on correcting common errors is online tutors and workshops. Use internet searches to help you with anything you might be struggling with! More If it feels like you keep repeating the same words throughout your writing, pull out a thesaurus for ideas on different, more creative choices. A thesaurus can add just enough color and depth to a piece that otherwise seems mundane. Be careful, though, that the word you substitute has the intended meaning. Thesauruses provide words with similar meanings, not identical meanings--so if you are unsure look up the new word in the dictionary!

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Operational Definitions
Proofreading vs. Editing
While the terms proofreading and editing are often used interchangeably, they do differ slightly. Editing is typically completed throughout the writing processespecially between draftsand often suggests contextual changes that affect the overall meaning and presentation. The focus is on changes that affect style, point-of-view, organization of content, audience, etc. Proofreading occurs later in the writing process, usually just after the final editing and before the final draft that will be presented for publication (or turned in to a professor). The focus is on correcting errors in spelling, syntax, grammar, punctuation, and formatting. While some editing will inevitably be done during the proofreading process and vice versathe writing process is not perfectly linear, after allfocusing on proofreading too early in the writing process is often inefficient because with each revision new errors are introduced. In other words, one does not want to spend a lot of time correcting sentences and paragraphs that may soon be rewritten or even deleted completely.

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Concept and constructs defined reliability and validity.


Editing Strategies
It's easiest to approach editing as a multi-step process that starts with sentences in clusters and moves to smaller elements of the text (e.g., commas and apostrophes). Generally, you can follow the steps below in the order they're listed here. But if you know you have trouble with some of the steps, plan to leave yourself enough time to work through that step more than once before you turn the paper in or send it to your reader.

Always Think About Your Target Audience Start with Sentences Consider Words Check Grammatical Details Don't Forget Punctuation and Spelling

Proofreading Strategies
The "finished" paper always takes effort; sometimes it takes sweat and tears. But never fear to make changes, major changes during revision or minor changes during proofreading. The best papers are those that we give our best thoughts to and those that show we can reject our lessthan-best writing. Proofreading is the very last step in preparing a final draft. Just because it's the last step, though, don't assume that it will go quickly. Sometimes it take two or more additional "passes" through a paper to be sure you've found all the remaining typographical errors, misplaced pieces of punctuation, or inaccurate words.

Start with Problem Areas Read from the End to the Beginning Look Just for Typos (even if you use a spell-checker) A Proofreading Checklist Final Advice

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Statement of Analysis Procedure:Type of editing


Many writers hire professional editors to go over their manuscripts before submission. This is especially true during the preliminary stages of a writer's career; every grammatical error and spelling mistake can mean a rejection letter. What you might not know, however, is that there are three basic types of editing, and you'll need to determine which of those your manuscript needs.

Proofreading The first type of editing for which you might hire an editor is proofreading. This is the simplest form of editing and is also usually the cheapest. Proofreading is for writers who don't need help with sentence structure or the content of the book itself, but need someone to simply go over the text for basic grammatical and spelling errors. Editors typically charge less than $0.05/word for proofreading, and it usually takes an editor about two weeks to proofread a full-length manuscript. The purpose of proofreading is to have someone who has never read your manuscript go over each word for errors that might have escaped your attention, which will happen at least a few times in a full-length manuscript. Line Editing The second type of editing most editors offer is line editing, which is a little more detailed than proofreading. If your manuscript has plot holes, limited characterization, factual errors or syntactical problems, line editing is probably more your style. It costs more than proofreading, but a manuscript with structural errors won't get past a literary agent or publisher. Line editing will probably cost you between $0.05 and $0.25 per word, depending on the editor. I would advise you to shop around for line editing to find the best price, as there are plenty of "professional editors" who will try to cheat you out of your money. The purpose of line editing is to tie together loose ends in your manuscript and to make sure that the story flows properly. For non-fiction, line editing will catch factual errors and will also help to separate chapters and paragraphs so that they make more sense. Substantive Editing The final service most editors offer is substantive editing, which is even more detailed than line editing. A substantive edit can cost up to $0.75 per word, and involves the rearranging, deleting,

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adding and rewording of entire pages and chapters. Some editors call substantive editing a "Ghostwriting/Editing Blend". What Type of Editing Does Your Manuscript Need? When you manuscript is finished and ready to be shipped off to an editor, it is best to have an idea for the type of editing required. Even if the editor feels your manuscript needs substantive editing, you are well within your rights to request only proofreading and to leave it at that. Never allow an editor to pressure you into spending more money than your budget. To help you determine what type of editing your manuscript needs - proofreading, line editing or substantive editing - use the following questions: Has your manuscript been rejected before for substantive reasons? If you have a drawerful of rejection letters from agents which basically say the same things underdeveloped plot, poorly developed characters, etc. - then you might want to consider substantive editing. The editor can help with your manuscript as a whole and make the necessary adjustments. Do you find that your major flaw is in spelling and grammar? If you are able to craft wonderful plots and characters, but your grammar needs a bit of work, consider requesting proofreading only. This will leave the syntax of your story in tact, but will correct the grammatical and spelling errors. Does your dialogue sound stilted and forced? One of the major points that line editing focuses on is dialogue. The editor will tweak your characters' words until they sound natural. If dialogue is your only issue, line editing will probably be your best bet.

Type of proofreading

The skill of proofreading is necessary whether you are a student, a professional writer, or someone who creates lots of office memos. No matter the context in which you are writing, there are systematic procedures that you can follow to ensure you produce the best work possible.

Here are three types of proofreading: Comparison Content Format


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A comparison proofread may not be applicable to every project you do. It applies to projects in which you have an original document you are copying from. This 'original document' could be your own handwritten notes, they could be a typed document that needs to be re-typed because a file was lost, or they could be a document with changes scrawled by hand all across the pages. A comparison proofing requires a word for word, character for character comparison of the new document and the old document. The purpose of this reading is to make sure that the exact same words and punctuation are in both documents. A comparison proofread is the first type of proofing that will take place.

For a content proofread, you may put aside the original document and focus on the new document. At this stage you will be looking for correct sentence structure, logic, spelling, punctuation, and factuality. You will also be looking for consistency. If your memo says, "(s) he would be in violation of company policy and then later states " he/she would need to report the incident to the appropriate supervisor", there is a consistency error. A change should be noted to use either "he/she" or "(s) he" consistently. The purpose of the content read is to make sure the document is correct and reads well. A format proofing is just what it sounds like. You are looking for a correct format and consistent format in the document. There are certain formatting conventions that are followed when typing, for example, a business letter. There may also be specific formatting rules when typing a memo for company. An easy way to start a format proofread is to 'scan the edges' of the document and look for anything that sticks out and doesn't look right. Then look at the overall page: Does it look balanced? For example, is the text consistently justified or consistently left aligned? Now scan the document and pay attention to the spaces instead of the words. Take out any extra spaces you find within the text. Finally, this is the time when you will check page numbers and footnotes, if applicable. Give yourself ample time to go through each of these three types/stages of proofreading for the cleanest most professional resulting document. The following tips will help you do a more accurate proofing at any stage: Always proof from a hard copy. Do not try to proof a document from your computer screen; you will miss many errors this way.

When marking the document, try using proofreader marks. If you are unsure of the proofreader mark for a particular correction, write out the change you want to make. Be clear and specific about your corrections; do not simply circle the errors.

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When possible, do not proofread your own work. You know what you mean to say, so you are more likely to skim over errors. If you are able, get more than one person to proofread your work. Everyone has different strengths and they will find different errors.

Break down your tasks. When you are doing a content proofing, the number of things you need to look out for may overwhelm you. It is best to break it down into quicker, more specific proofreads rather than one big proofread. For example, do one proofing for spelling and punctuation, next proof the document for grammatical errors, then do a third content proofing for factuality and consistency.

When you are doing a comparison proofread, use a straight edge (such as a ruler or piece of paper) as a guide. If you carefully move the straight edge from line to line on the original document, you are less likely to miss omitted text in the new document.

During a proofing for spelling, try reading the document backwards. When each individual word is looked at, outside the context of a sentence, you are less likely to miss spelling errors.

After corrections have been made, don't forget to proof the revised document. First check to see that all the corrections were made, then read over the document one more time to make sure you didn't miss something the first time around

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The Basics or Proofreading in Graphic Design and Universal Proofreading Symbols


Why learn universal proofreading symbols?
One of the first things I had to learn when embarking on my graphic design career was how to proofread, and how to interpret universal proofreading symbols. Much of the work I was involved with when I started out (and still am today) was book design and page makeup. I would lay the books out, print hard copies for the editor and proofreader, and they would return the proofs to me 'dripping with ink'. In the publishing world, enormous numbers of textual and layout alterations are made, often by more than one person on the same proofs. The editor might make their proofreading marks, followed by the proofreader, followed by the author... and so on. By the time the proofs get back to the designer they often need a total re-design - usually because authors and editors tend to write and re-write as they go! Universal proofreading symbols make it possible for the graphic designer to understand exactly what changes need to be made, no matter how many different people have worked on a set of proofs, all with different handwriting and often from different countries. If you have ever tried to mark up a closely typed piece of text with corrections, you'll know that it can get pretty messy, very quickly. Often the page ends up with long arrows poining to a possible insertion point, showing where reworked text should go. It only takes two or three of these sort of corrections before the page becomes utterly unintelligible. By using universal proofreading symbols and a pre-determined method of displaying them, any number of textual corrections becomes a piece of cake. Below is a great example of a couple of neatly marked-up passages to demonstrate just some of the most common proofreading marks.

If you would like to see some of the commonest universal proofreading symbols, take a look at our proofreading marks chart

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Descriptive analysis or inferential analysis including statistical tests


IS EDITING THE SAME THING AS PROOFREADING? Not exactly. Although many people use the terms interchangeably, editing and proofreading are two different stages of the revision process. Both demand close and careful reading, but they focus on different aspects of the writing and employ different techniques.

SOME TIS THAT APPLY TO BOTH EDITING AND PROOFREADING

Get some distance from the text! Its hard to edit or proofread a paper that youve just finished writingits still to familiar, and you tend to skip over a lot of errors. Put the paper aside for a few hours, days, or weeks. Go for a run. Take a trip to the beach. Clear your head of what youve written so you can take a fresh look at the paper and see what is really on the page. Better yet, give the paper to a friendyou cant get much more distance than that. Someone who is reading the paper for the first time, comes to it with completely fresh eyes. Decide what medium lets you proofread most carefully. Some people like to work right at the computer, while others like to sit back with a printed copy that they can mark up as they read. Try changing the look of your document. Altering the size, spacing, color, or style of the text may trick your brain into thinking its seeing an unfamiliar document, and that can help you get a different perspective on what youve written. Find a quiet place to work. Dont try to do your proofreading in front of the TV or while youre chugging away on the treadmill. Find a place where you can concentrate and avoid distractions. If possible, do your editing and proofreading in several short blocks of time, rather than all at onceotherwise, your concentration is likely to wane. If youre short on time, you may wish to prioritize your editing and proofreading tasks to be sure that the most important ones are completed.

EDITING
Editing is what you begin doing as soon as you finish your first draft. You reread your draft to see, for example, whether the paper is well-organized, the transitions between paragraphs are smooth, and your evidence really backs up your argument. You can edit on several levels: Content Have you done everything the assignment requires? Are the claims you make accurate? If it is required to do so, does your paper make an argument? Is the argument complete? Are all of your claims consistent? Have you supported each point with adequate evidence? Is all of the information in your paper relevant to the assignment and/or your overall writing goal? (For additional tips, see our handouts on how to read an assignment and argument in academic writing.) Overall structure
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Does your paper have an appropriate introduction and conclusion? Is your thesis clearly stated in your introduction? Is it clear how each paragraph in the body of your paper is related to your thesis? Are the paragraphs arranged in a logical sequence? Have you made clear transitions between paragraphs? One way to check the structure of your paper is to make an outline of the paper after you have written the first draft. (See our handouts on introductions, conclusions, constructing thesis statements, and transitions.) Structure within paragraphs Does each paragraph have a clear topic sentence? Does each paragraph stick to one main idea? Are there any extraneous or missing sentences in any of your paragraphs? (See our handout on paragraph development.) Clarity Have you defined any important terms that might be unclear to your reader? Is the meaning of each sentence clear? (One way to answer this question is to read your paper one sentence at a time, starting at the end and working backwards so that you will not unconsciously fill in content from previous sentences.) Is it clear what each pronoun (he, she, it, they, which, who, this, etc.) refers to? Have you chosen the proper words to express your ideas? Avoid using words you find in the thesaurus that arent part of your normal vocabulary; you may misuse them. Style Have you used an appropriate tone (formal, informal, persuasive, etc.)? Is your use of gendered language (masculine and feminine pronouns like he or she, words like fireman that contain man, and words that some people incorrectly assume apply to only one genderfor example, some people assume nurse must refer to a woman) appropriate? Have you varied the length and structure of your sentences? Do you tends to use the passive voice too often? Does your writing contain a lot of unnecessary phrases like there is, there are, due to the fact that, etc.? Do you repeat a strong word (for example, a vivid main verb) unnecessarily? (For tips, see our handouts on style and gender-sensitive language.) Citations Have you appropriately cited quotes, paraphrases, and ideas you got from sources? Are your citations in the correct format? (See theUNC Libraries citation tutorial for more information.) As you edit at all of these levels, you will usually make significant revisions to the content and wording of your paper. Keep an eye out for patterns of error; knowing what kinds of problems you tend to have will be helpful, especially if you are editing a large document like a thesis or dissertation. Once you have identified a pattern, you can develop techniques for spotting and correcting future instances of that pattern. For example, if you notice that you often discuss several distinct topics in each paragraph, you can go through your paper and underline the key words in each paragraph, then break the paragraphs up so that each one focuses on just one main idea. PROOFREADING Proofreading is the final stage of the editing process, focusing on surface errors such as misspellings and mistakes in grammar and punctuation. You should proofread only after you have finished all of your other editing revisions.
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Why proofread? Its the content that really matters, right? Content is important. But like it or not, the way a paper looks affects the way others judge it. When youve worked hard to develop and present your ideas, you dont want careless errors distracting your reader from what you have to say. Its worth paying attention to the details that help you to make a good impression. Most people devote only a few minutes to proofreading, hoping to catch any glaring errors that jump out from the page. But a quick and cursory reading, especially after youve been working long and hard on a paper, usually misses a lot. Its better to work with a definite plan that helps you to search systematically for specific kinds of errors. Sure, this takes a little extra time, but it pays off in the end. If you know that you have an effective way to catch errors when the paper is almost finished, you can worry less about editing while you are writing your first drafts. This makes the entire writing proccess more efficient. Try to keep the editing and proofreading processes separate. When you are editing an early draft, you dont want to be bothered with thinking about punctuation, grammar, and spelling. If your worrying about the spelling of a word or the placement of a comma, youre not focusing on the more important task of developing and connecting ideas. The proofreading process You probably already use some of the strategies discussed below. Experiment with different tactics until you find a system that works well for you. The important thing is to make the process systematic and focused so that you catch as many errors as possible in the least amount of time.

Dont rely entirely on spelling checkers. These can be useful tools but they are far from foolproof. Spell checkers have a limited dictionary, so some words that show up as misspelled may really just not be in their memory. In addition, spell checkers will not catch misspellings that form another valid word. For example, if you type your instead of youre, to instead of too, or there instead of their, the spell checker wont catch the error.

Grammar checkers can be even more problematic. These programs work with a limited number of rules, so they cant identify every error and often make mistakes. They also fail to give thorough explanations to help you understand why a sentence should be revised. You may want to use a grammar checker to help you identify potential run-on sentences or too-frequent use of the passive voice, but you need to be able to evaluate the feedback it provides.

Proofread for only one kind of error at a time. If you try to identify and revise too many things at once, you risk losing focus, and your proofreading will be less effective. Its
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easier to catch grammar errors if you arent checking punctuation and spelling at the same time. In addition, some of the techniques that work well for spotting one kind of mistake wont catch others.

Read slow, and read every word. Try reading out loud, which forces you to say each word and also lets you hear how the words sound together. When you read silently or too quickly, you may skip over errors or make unconscious corrections.

Separate the text into individual sentences. This is another technique to help you to read every sentence carefully. Simply press the return key after every period so that every line begins a new sentence. Then read each sentence separately, looking for grammar, punctuation, or spelling errors. If youre working with a printed copy, try using an opaque object like a ruler or a piece of paper to isolate the line youre working on.

Circle every punctuation mark. This forces you to look at each one. As you circle, ask yourself if the punctuation is correct.

Read the paper backwards. This technique is helpful for checking spelling. Start with the last word on the last page and work your way back to the beginning, reading each word separately. Because content, punctuation, and grammar wont make any sense, your focus will be entirely on the spelling of each word. You can also read backwards sentence by sentence to check grammar; this will help you avoid becoming distracted by content issues.

Proofreading is a learning process. Youre not just looking for errors that you recognize; youre also learning to recognize and correct new errors. This is where handbooks and dictionaries come in. Keep the ones you find helpful close at hand as you proofread. Ignorance may be bliss, but it wont make you a better proofreader. Youll often find things that dont seem quite right to you, but you may not be quite sure whats wrong either. A word looks like it might be misspelled, but the spell checker didnt catch it. You think you need a comma between two words, but youre not sure why. Should you use that instead of which? If youre not sure about something, look it up.

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The proofreading process becomes more efficient as you develop and practice a systematic strategy. Youll learn to identify the specific areas of your own writing that need careful attention, and knowing that you have a sound method for finding errors will help you to focus more on developing your ideas while you are drafting the paper.

Think youve got it? Then give it a try. This handout contains seven errorsmaybe you already spotted themwhich our proofreader should have caught: three spelling errors, two punctuation errors, and two grammatical errors. Try to find them, and then check a version of this page with the errors marked in red to see if youre a proofreading star. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES We consulted these works while writing the original version of this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handouts topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find the latest publications on this topic. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial. Especially for non-native speakers of English: Ascher, Allen. Think about Editing: A Grammar Editing Guide for ESL Writers. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1993. Lane, Janet and Ellen Lange. Writing Clearly: An Editing Guide. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1993. For everyone: Einsohn, Amy. The Copyeditors Handbook. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000. Lanham, Richard. Revising Prose. 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan, 1992. Tarshis, Barry. How to Be Your Own Best Editor. New York: Three Rivers Press, 1998.

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Limitations of the study


To really see what's going on in the following examples, try selecting more... (above) and Wiki Markup View on this wiki, to see the actual contents of the wikis used for these examples. The regular wiki view comment (gray) boxes are also helpful, but if you are confused, the Wiki Markup View may help.

Important Notes 1. Wiki markup constructs that are not in the following list are not supported. 2. Only MS Word 2003 and 2007 are supported 3. Suns JDK-1.5 or Higher must be installed on the client computer.

Forced Line Break


Example: Hello World! To reproduce this in MS Word: Use the Enter key to start new paragraphs. Wiki Markup: __Hello\\World! __

Links
Example: This is a link to the Codebeamer home page . To reproduce this in MS Word: 1. Select some text.
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2. Make right click on selection. 3. Click the Hyperlink option in the pop-up menu.

Wiki Markup:
__This is a link to the [Codebeamer home page|http://codebeamer.com] home page. __

Interwiki references like [WIKIPAGE:1037] or [My page|WIKIPAGE:1037] can

be created in same way.

Headings
Example: Not shown here, as headings would distort the Table of Contents of this page. Click You must login to see this link. Register now, if you have no user account yet. for an example of headings. To reproduce this in MS Word: 1. Select some text. 2. Select Heading1, Heading2 or Heading3 style in the Styles section. Wiki Markup: !!!Heading 1 !!Heading 2 !Heading 3

Text effects
Example: Here is some bold, italic, and monospaced text. To reproduce this in MS Word:
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For bold and italic: select some text and click Bold or Italic in the Font section. For monospaced: select some text and change the font to Courier.

Wiki Markup:
Here is some __bold__, ''italic'', and {{monospaced}} text

Bulleted list
Example:

Item 1
o o

Item 2 Item 3

To reproduce this in MS Word: Select some text and click the Bulleted List icon in the Paragraph section.

Wiki Markup:
*Item 1 **Item 2 **Item 3

Numbered list
Example: 1. Item 1 1. Item 2 2. Item 3 To reproduce this in MS Word: Select some text and click the Numbered List icon in the Paragraph section.

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Wiki Markup:
#Item 1 ##Item 2 ##Item 3

Preformatted text
Example: This is the first line. This is the second line with a space char in the first position. This is the last line with 2 space chars in the start positions. To reproduce this in MS Word:

Create dotted border around some text paragraphs using Borders and Shading option in Paragraph section. Wiki Markup: It uses three consecutive curly braces ({) to open a block, and three consecutive curly braces (}) to close a block.

Info boxes
Example: information box warning box error box comment box

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To Reproduce this in MS Word:


1. Select some text 2. In the Paragraph section select Borders and Shading, and set solid border of the appropriate color: red for error box, yellow for warning box, blue for information box and gray for comment. Wiki Markup: %%information information box %% %%warning warning box %% %%error error box %% %%commentbox comment box %%

Tables
Example: Table heading cell 1 cell 2

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cell 3 To reproduce this in MS Word: To create a new table switch to the Insert tab and select Table. After the table has been created, you can merge its cells by selecting them and clicking Merge Cells in the pop-up menu. To add a heading, simply fill the heading cells with any color.

Wiki Markup:
[{Table ||Table heading|< |cell 1|cell 2 |cell 3|^ }]

Colored text
Example: This is a red text and this is a text with lime background

To Reproduce this in MS Word:

Select some text and use Font Color and Text Highlighting options in Font section to set text foreground and background color. Wiki Markup: %%( color: red) this is red text%% and %%( background-color: line) this is text with lime background%%

Pictures
Example: file or clip art. The picture is included as an attachment to the wiki, in the Properties.

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To Reproduce this in MS Word:

Choose Insert picture from File. When the picture is inserted, do not resize it. Any resizing should occur in the properties of the picture itself, as performed by an image editor. The upload/convert will attach the picture in the Properties comments and attachments. For a step-by-step example of using Edit in Word to insert and upload pictures into your wiki, see Pictures in EiW.

Limitations of Editing in MS Word


Limitations inherent in this wiki-RTF-wiki double conversion include:

MS Word pictures are automatically uploaded and inserted into the wikis, and vice versa. However, vector graphics (eg, graphics created in MS Word) are not supported. Pictures can also be separately uploaded to the Code Beamer server and linked inline. Pictures that are inserted in MS Word and then resized will not reflect the resizing when displayed in the wiki. That is, the pictures may be too large or too small. Table of Contents: Use the Wiki markup plug-in definition [{Table Of Contents}] , not the MS Word Table of Contents, as the MS Word Table of Contents will not import into the wiki. Similarly, complex Tables and other more complex MS Word constructions, that have wiki equivalents, should be defined in the MS Word document using wiki markup-type commands, or the simpler table commands as shown above. Symbols or uncommon fonts or formats: Testing has been limited to English and German with common symbols only. Problems may occur with uncommon fonts or symbols. Although the wiki converts to RTF, use copy and paste from other RTF files (into the Wiki in Edit in Word) with great caution. Very large RTF files (for example, RTF files that contain pictures) will not convert properly. Colors: a limited number of colors convert from RTF to wiki Font Sizes: relative font sizes are not converted, unless they are part of formatted markup-style headings.

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Comparison:-

Proofreading Versus Copy Editing

In publishing there is a significant difference in proofreading versus copy editing. However, in the world of business writing and copy writing, the lines between proofreading and copy editing gets a little blurred. To help clear up the matter, here is an explanation of proofreading versus copy editing. Copy editing defined Copy editors look at content in manuscript form, or rather, when its still in a word document and before its been formatted for printing/publication. During copy editing, the editor either uses track changes (sometimes called redline) in a word processing program or the copy editor will look at the content on hard copy. In this second scenario, the copy editor uses a series of specific copy editing marks to indicate errors or concerns. During the copy editing phase, the author and the editor work closely to ensure accuracy and consistency throughout the document. Sometimes there are several rounds of edits to accommodate text changes made during previous revisions. Its not the copy editors job to write the manuscript or change the meaning of any one sentence. Rather, its the role of the copy editor to suggest changes to the content so that it is as wellwritten as possible while maintaining the authors voice. Copy editors are instructed to edit content according to the five Clear Correct Concise Comprehensible Consistent

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The same rules apply to copy editors of books and copy editors of business and marketing materials. Copy editors dont write, they refine. Proofreading defined It is the role of the proofreader to compare a manuscript to the galley proofs, or the pages that will be sent to the printer and turned into the actual book. A proofreader is not looking to make serious changes to the text, the proofreader only wants to check for errors that might have been missed by the copy editor or that might have been incorporated by the typesetter (the person who turns the manuscript into the galley proofs). A proofreader is not responsible for major changes to the text. Rather, the proofreader checks for things such as correct paragraph and page breaks, formatting, typos, and so on. Copy editing versus proofreading not one in the same In publishing, copy editors and proofreaders are not one in the same. But in business, some do use these two words interchangeably and thats okay as long as you know what you are asking for. Here is how the No. 2 Pen differentiates between proofreading and copy editing. 1. A copy editor will suggest substantial changes to content of any length. 2. A copy editor suggests edits to ensure there are no errors in your content as it appears in a word document. 3. A proofreader reviews your content for minor text and formatting errors. 4. A proofreader double checks to make sure your document is ready for publication. So, who do you need? A copy editor or a proofreader? When deciding between proofreading versus copy editing, think about the level of change you are looking for. Do you want a second set of eyes to review the content just to be sure there are no errors? Then, a proofreader is your choice. Do you want someone to make sure the meaning and the mechanics of your writing is correct? If so, and you are ready to make significant changes to your content, then a copy editor is right for you.

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Bibliography:1. Reporting and Editing 2. Editing Fact and Fiction 3. Editor on Editing 4. The Expert Editor 5. Frugal Editor 6. Powerful proofreading Skills: - Tips, Techniques and Tacties 7. Proofreading and Editing

References:1. www.writing.colostate.edu. 2. www.owl.englishpurdure.edu. 3. www.licence2write.com 4. www.5earch.com 5. www.google.co.in 6. www.wikipedia.org 7. www.scibd.com

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