Vector control of cage induction motors: a physical insight

A.Hughes J.Corda D.A.Andrade

Indexing terms: Flux linkage, Locked-rotor model, Transient torque control

Abstract: Understanding the inside workings of the cage induction motor is helpful for electrical machines engineers in stripping away much of the mystique surrounding vector control. Attention is focused on how the rotor currents and flux linkages behave, and in particular on what must be done to the stator currents to achieve sudden step changes in torque. These questions are answered in a way which prompts a clear physical understanding of both the steady-state and transient behaviour. It turns out that the conditions are very simple, and that they can be quantified in terms of only two parameters, i.e. slip frequency and rotor time constant.

or= rotor angular speed, radls os= angular frequency of stator currents, radls os, angular slip frequency, radls = o = angular frequency, radls
1

Introduction

List of principal symbols F = magnetomotive force (MMF), A turns i = current, A I = current amplitude, A J = moment of inertia, kg m2 k = coupling coefficient L = self inductance, H M = mutual inductance, H N = number of turns R = resistance, s2 r = suffix for rotor (secondary) quantities s = suffix for stator (primary) quantities t = time, s T = torque, N m v = voltage, V V = voltage amplitude, V z = rotor (secondary) time constant, s 4 = rotor (secondary) power factor angle, rad 8 = position (angle), rad y~ = flux linkage, Wb Y = flux linkage amplitude, Wb
0 IEE, 1996 IEE Proceedings online no. 19960203

The most striking feature of vector control [l-31 is that it enables the cage induction motor to challenge the armature-controlled DC motor in terms of rapid control of torque. The fact that torque can be increased suddenly without the unwelcome transients traditionally expected from an induction motor is particularly impressive, but at the same time suggests that the underlying mechanism is simpler than much of the literature might suggest. The key to understanding how vector control works [4-71 emerges as a result of exploring two questions. First, how does a cage rotor react when subjected to a stator MMF pattern which can alter its amplitude, relative velocity and relative position instantaneously; and secondly, what has to be done to the stator MMF pattern to cause the developed torque to change in a specified way? These questions are answered without recourse to complicated mathematics, in a way which promotes a clear physical understanding of both the steady-state and transient behaviour. The study begins by looking in detail at the behaviour of a pair of mutually coupled stationary coils, one of which is short circuited, while the other is supplied from a current source. Attention is focused on how the primary current must be controlled to force the secondary current to jump instantaneously from one steady state to another. It emerges that the essence of the vector control technique can be appreciated from the stationary coil analysis. This is a surprising but welcome finding. The coupled circuit results are then applied to the locked rotor model of the induction motor, and the mechanisms of transient torque control are explored. Finally, the results are extended to deal with torque control when the motor runs at constant speed. 2
Behaviour of coupled coils

A. Hughes and J. b r d a are with the Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK D.A. Andrade is with the University of Uberlbndia, Brazil
IEE Proc-Electr. Power Appl., Vol. 143, No. 1, January 1996

2. I Outline of approach The rudimentary transformer model Fig. 1 is often used to introduce the theory of the induction motor, but it is usually analysed with the primary supplied from a constant voltage and frequency source to reflect the traditional pattern of operation. However, vector
59

control schemes always use closed-loop stator current control, so it makes sense to treat the input current as the independent variable from the outset. An approach based on self and mutual inductances is followed in preference to the traditional approach via magnetising and leakage reactances. The last is well suited to the analysis of tightly coupled circuits fed from a voltage source because it avoids the requirement to specify the coupling coefficient to a high precision [8]. In the current-fed case, however, the coupling coefficient is not a critical parameter, as shown.
------+e
IS

The primary voltage (vs) is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage (v,), i.e.

Eqns. 8-11 are shown in Fig. 2.

Ir

? 1s

U
M
Fig. 1 Currentfed coupled coils

2.2 System equations In Fig. 1, suffices s (stator) and r (rotor) are chosen for the primary and secondary in anticipation of the later use of the model to represent the induction motor. The equations governing the coupled circuits are
$ = L,i, ,

Fig.2

I t Behaviour of coupled coils for step change in primary current

(3) dt With current is treated as the independent variable, the dependent variables in the s-domain are given by

+Mi, = Mi,+ L,i,

= -Ri,

(1)

(2)

where

2.3 Step change of primary current An important assumption underpinning all of the discussion is that the primary current is can be stepped instantaneously. This assumption is so important that we must show it is justified in practice, so we focus on the voltage required to create a step of primary current. When the input current is a step (I$) obtain we

i, = -!!!I,,-+ L T

() 8

Considering the secondary first, note that a step in is is accompanied by a (negative) step in i,, but there is no sudden change in the secondary flux-linkage v,.. This accords with the fact that a short-circuited inductive circuit cannot have an instantaneous change of flux linkage, so the sudden appearance of the flux linkage (MI,) is immediately countered by a self flux linkage (L&). Thereafter, the secondary current and flux linkage adjust to their steady state values at a rate determined by the secondary time-constant (LIR). Turning now to the primary, an impulsive voltage of area IJs(l - k2) volt-seconds is required to cause a step in the primary current. The term Ls(l - k2) represents the effective or leakage inductance as seen at the primary side under transient conditions. For a step in primary current, the area of the impulse is proportional to the leakage inductance, so if the coils are loosely coupled (k is small) a large impulse is required to impose a step in current. However, in the context of the induction motor, k is typically 0.98 [8], so the leakage inductance is only 4% of the self inductance. This means that the impulse for a given step in is is quite small. In a typical current-controlled environment, such as a variable-frequency induction motor drive, sufficient voltage will normally be available to achieve a close approximation to such an impulse, and it will be possible to achieve an almost instantaneous change in the primary current. The conclusions to be drawn from this analysis are first that sudden changes in the secondary current can be obtained by forcing step changes in the primary current; secondly, the natural behaviour of the secondary circuit prevents any instantaneous change in the secondary flux linkage; and thirdly, if the coils are tightly coupled, only a small volt-second impulse is required to
IEE Proc -Electv Power Appl, Vol 143, No 1, January 1996

60

achieve a step change in the primary current.

Hence from eqns. 13 and 14, with constant resultant rotor flux linkage, the normalised currents are given by

2.4 Frequency response: constant amplitude of primary current

With the stator current given by
i s = I, sinwt, or in phasor presentation
= ISLO (12)

Ld-;
IS,

L W Iro

(17)

substitution into eqns. 4 and 5, under steady-state conditions (s =Jw), yields

The most important point to note is that with Y, constant the secondary current is directly proportional to frequency.

where The polar plot for secondary flux linkages is shown in Fig. 3. The first component (MI,, the secondary opencircuit flux linkage) represents the flux linkage produced at the secondary by the primary current. The second (LJ, the secondary self flux linkage) is the flux linkage in the secondary due to its own current. And finally, Y, is the resultant flux linkage in the secondary. The locus of Y, against frequency is semicircular: at low frequencies it is almost in phase with Is,whereas at very high frequencies it becomes very small and in quadrature with I,.

2.6 Sudden transition in secondary current Now examine how to control the primary current to make the secondary current change instantaneously from a steady state at one amplitude and frequency to a steady state at another amplitude and frequency, while the amplitude of the resultant secondary flux linkage is maintained constant. We see later that this is an essential requirement for instantaneous torque control. Suppose that for t < 0, the secondary current is
(18) Under steady-state conditions the corresponding primary current and resultant secondary flux linkage are given from eqns. 2 and 3 as (19)
=

i,l = Irl sin(w1t

+ a)

RITi cos(w1t + a )
w1

It is assumed that the amplitude and frequency of the secondary current are to be changed at t = 0 so that for t > 0 the secondary current is
Zr2 = I72 sin(w2t P) (22) The steady-state solutions for the primary current and resultant secondary flux linkage are

w=llt

Fig. 3 Polar plot for secondary flux linkages

Two important observations picked up later are: the resultant rotor flux linkage Y is always in quad,' rature with the rotor current I, - the area of the flux linkage triangle is a maximum at the frequency w = UT,i.e. when @ = 7d4.
-

where

z,= ~

Je 42
;
4 2 - w2

= tan-'

w2Lr

(25)

2.5 Frequency response: constant resultant secondary flux linkage

The coupled circuit model is used later to derive torque, so we need to recognise that in practice it will be desirable to operate the motor so that its magnetic circuit is fully utilised. In the coupled-circuit model this corresponds to keeping the resultant secondary (rotor) flux linkage at rated value at all frequencies. It is convenient to normalise the currents by defining two current references. For the primary, I,, is the current to produce rated resultant secondary flux linkage under DC conditions, i.e. with the secondary open circuited. Similarly, I,, is the current in the secondary to produce rated secondary flux linkage if the primary was open circuited. The reference currents are thus

From eqns. 20 and 24 note that for YJ, to remain constant the secondary currents must be proportional to the frequency, i.e.: (26) Ir1 WI Since there must be no discontinuity in the flux linkage at t = 0, it follows from eqns. 20 and 24 that p = a. Hence, the necessary conditions for obtaining an abrupt transition of the amplitude of the rotor current from I,, to I,, are: (a) The supply frequency must be abruptly changed in the ratio of the secondary currents, as indicated by eqn. 26 (b) The amplitudes of the primary current must be related by the equation

IEE Proc-Elect,. Power Appl., Vol. 143, No. I , January 1996

61

(e) The phase of the primary current must change abruptly by an angle (A@) given by

2.7 Experimental verification

These findings have been verified on a three-phase slipring motor with the rotor locked in the position of alignment between stator and rotor phases. The rotor current waveforms shown in Figs. 6 6 relate to a sudden change in the stator frequency from 0.8 to 4Hz. In Fig. 4, there is no change in the amplitude or phase of the stator current, and consequently the rotor current displays its characteristically long transient. In Fig. 5, the amplitude of the stator current is changed as indicated by eqn. 27, but there is no change in phase, so again the rotor current displays a long transient. But in Fig. 6, the phase is also abruptly changed (as given by eqn. 28) and the rotor current jumps immediately into its new steady state (with five times its previous amplitude and frequency) with no evidence of any transient.

2.9 Summary It has been shown that if the primary current is abruptly changed with the correct amplitude, frequency and phase, the secondary current jumps immediately to its new steady state while the resultant secondary flux linkage remains unchanged. The ability to suddenly change the secondary current from one steady state to another is the key to vector control of torque, as will now be shown.
I

1 sb

%-

Fig.7 Two-phase model for cage induction motor

3 Locked-rotor analysis under balanced stator current-fed operation

Fig.4 Rotor current response: Frequency control only

I 1
Fig.5

1 I

14 A)div]

3.7 Motor model The simplified model (Fig. 7) draws on two well-established methods for easing the treatment of the threephase motor with a cage rotor. First, the three stator windings are replaced by a two-phase equivalent, consisting of two identical sinusoidally distributed windings in electrical space quadrature. And secondly, the cage rotor is replaced by a two-phase wound rotor, comprising two identical sinusoidally distributed windings in space quadrature. It is well known that this model correctly represents the real motor, except in relation to second-order effects such as space harmonics which are not of interest here. The rotor has no saliency, so all four self inductances are constant and may be written as
Ls, = Lsb

Rotor current response: Frequency and umplitude control

Ls; LT,= LTb = L,

(29)

The mutual inductances between the two stator windings and the two rotor windings are zero because both sets are in space quadrature. The mutual inductances between stator and rotor windings vary sinusoidally with rotor position, and with the conventions indicated in Fig. 7, they are

Msa,a = +M cos e,

Msb , = +M cos ,
Fig. 6 Rotor current response: Frequency, amplitude and phase control
62

The voltage equations for the rotor windings are

IEE Proc.-Electr. Power Appl., Vol. 143, No. I , January 1996

current is to make a sudden jump from one steady state to another. The variation of I, and I, to ensure constant rotor flux linkage is given by eqn. 17, and under these conditions the torque expression (eqn. 39) becomes impressing in the stator a balanced set of sinusoidal currents given by

is, =I, cos(w,t); or in phasor form E= LO I,

i,b

T = q,Ir (40) As the resultant rotor flux linkage (YJ is kept constant, the torque expression can be written in normalised form as 9 2 T - = w,r; where To = 2 = ( M I s o ) I T o (41) T O Lr The normalised torque To represents the product of the resultant rotor open-circuit flux linkage (rated value) and the rotor current which would produce the same flux linkage if the stator was open circuited. Eqn. 41 shows that the variation of torque with normalised frequency ( 0 , ~ ) constant resultant rotor flux at linkage is a simple linear function of frequency. Note that this is an exact expression which is valid for all frequencies, and should not be confused with the approximately linear torque/frequency relationship for voltage-fed operation, which is only valid for small values of slip frequency. The similarity between eqn. 40 and that for torque in a DC machine makes clear why, when the induction motor is operated so that the resultant rotor flux linkage is kept constant it has the same steady-state torque characteristics as a DC machine with armature current control. (It is not obvious at this point that the dynamic torque can be controlled in the same way as for an armature-controlled DC machine, but this is shown subsequently.)
4

= I , sin(w,t); or in phasor form

z= I,

L -2

7r

(32)

Solution of eqn. 31 yields the corresponding steadystate rotor currents as

3.2 Steady-state torque/frequency relationship

The torque is given by

(35)
Applying this to the model in Fig. 7 and using the mutual inductance eqn. 30 gives the torque as
T = -M(Z,,i,,

+ i s b i r b ) sin@, + M(is&,

is=&)

cos@, (36)

Space phasors under locked rotor conditions

In practice, the steady-state locked-rotor torque is independent of the rotor position, and this finding can be verified by substituting the expressions for stator and rotor currents given by eqns. 32 and 33 in eqn. 36. We therefore choose to study the behaviour when 0, = 0, i.e. with the rotor and stator windings directly aligned, without loss of generality. The torque expression then simplifies to

T = M(isbira -isairb) (37) The solution for the currents also becomes much easier with the stator and rotor windings aligned, because the pairs of statodrotor windings are then decoupled from each other, and all the results obtained in Section 2 can be applied directly. With balanced two-phase currents given by
is, = I , cos(w,t);
zsb

To strengthen our physical insight we now move from a circuit viewpoint and develop an alternative picture of behaviour under locked-rotor conditions by utilising the well established concept of space phasors. Space phasors can provide an accurate picture of the instantaneous spatial relationships between distributed quantities which vary sinusoidally in space inside the machine, such as the ampere conductor distribution of a sinusoidally distributed winding, or a sinusoidal flux density wave. With care they can also be used to represent integrated quantities such as flux linkage, but if the winding in question and the associated flux density are not sinusoidally distributed in space we resort to the notion of an equivalent sine-distributed winding with the same flux linkage as the actual winding.

= Is sin(w,t)

(38)

4. I Ampere-conductor distribution and MMF space phasors

When balanced sinusoidally distributed windings are fed with balanced sinusoidal currents the resultant amperexonductor distributions (and MMFs) of stator and rotor consists of waves of constant amplitude which rotate at synchronous speed with respect to the stator. The steady-state relationship between the associated rotor and stator MMF space phasors will now be explored. At an angular position 0, in the air gap with respect to the axis of the stator winding sa (Fig. 7), the resultant stator MMF is
F, = Nsi,,cos6,+Nsis~ sin@,= N,I, cos(w,t-0,)
(42)
63

the torque becomes sin(w,t

ws MIS
-

4)

+I, cos(w,t) 7 cos(w,t - d ) ]

It was shown in Section 2 that it is necessary to maintain constant resultant rotor flux linkage if the rotor
IEE Proc-Electr. Power Appl., Vol. 143. No. I , January 1996

or in space-phasor notation Fs -- N s I s & l ( w a t - @ s )

(43) where N, is the effective number of turns per stator winding. The corresponding resultant rotor MMF, at an angular position a, (a, = 0,-8,) in the air gap with respect to the rotor phase winding ra (Fig. 7), is F, = Nrzracos a, + N r i r b sin a ,
= N r I r cos w,t

4.3 Torque from rotor flux-linkage space phasors

The rotor flux-linkage space-phasor diagram (Fig. 8) is identical to the time-phasor diagram for each phase which is represented by Fig. 3. The area of the triangle is 1/2Y&J,., and referring to eqn. 40 we make the important observation that the torque is proportional to the area of the flux-linkage triangle. In addition, we make some illuminating observations about the mechanism of steady-state torque production by reflecting on the physical significance of the space phasors.

8,

7r 4 - -) 2

(44)

or in space-phasor notation
-

(45) where Nr is the effective number of turns per rotor winding. It is evident from eqns. 43 and 45 that the spatial angle between the space phasors of stator and rotor MMFs is $+7c/2, and it is defined only by the frequency and rotor time constant. Notice that the rotor MMF, and consequently the rotor ampere-conductor distribution, do not depend on the rotor position.

F,=NI

&3 (w,t-&

-$-

5)

4.2 Space phasors for flux linkages Using the space-phasor notation, the resultant rotor flux linkage is given by
-

xPT = L,r+MMI, (46) In this equation the term MZs represents the space phasor of the rotor open-circuit flux linkage when the stator windings carry balanced sinusoidal currents. The magnitude and spatial position of this phasor depend only on the stator currents, and it rotates at a speed determined by the supply frequency, i.e. it is in phase with the stator MMF space phasor (Fs) and is given by

Fig.9 Resultant rotor flux-linkage and ampere-conductor distributions

MC

Fs = MIse3(Wst--83); where I - - N,
-

(47)

The space phasor LrZrrepresents the self flux linkage produced in the rotor windings owing to their induced currents I, as given by eqn. 34. This phasor is co-linear with the rotor MMF space phasor (Fr)and is

Lr T =L I r
T

$(W"t-es-+-%);

where

z= , N
F r

(8 4)

The space phasor Y , is the resultant rotor flux linkage and is obtained from eqn. 46 as
Q/ r - qre3(Wgt--8.-#9

(49)

where

Under steady-state conditions at any frequency the rotor ampere-conductor distribution is seen to remain in space phase with the resultant rotor flux linkage Y r (Fig. 9). But Y r is notionally attributable to the resultant radial flux density wave at the rotor windings, and it follows that since torque can be expressed in terms of the integration of the rotor '3IZ' product over the periphery, the torque is simply proportional to the product of Y, and I,. Hence when the machine is operated so that the rotor flux linkage is kept constant, the rotor current wave is in the optimum position as far as torque production is concerned, and torque is directly proportional to rotor current (and slip), just as in a DC machine. This confirms eqn. 40 derived previously. This picture contrasts sharply with that which arises from the conventional voltage-fed analysis, where torque is pictured in terms of the interaction between an air-gap flux density wave and an induced rotor ampere-conductor wave, which, even at low slips, are never quite in space-phase.

It is important to notice from eqns. 48 and 49 that, as shown in Fig. 8, the resultant rotor flux-linkage space phasor is in space quadrature with the space phasor of rotor MMF.
Mi,

Fig. 10 'Torque' and 'jZux' components of rotor flux-linkage due to stator

current
__.. .._ .._.._.._._~~~~~~.___... --..-...
,_I_

4.4

Fig. 8 Rotor flux-linkage space-phasor diagram

64

Flux and torque components of stator current

IEE Proc -Electr Power Appl, Val 143, No 1, January 1996

By resolving the stator flux-linkage phasor MIs into its

components perpendicular and parallel to the resultant rotor flux-linkage phasor Y r (Fig. lo), the significance of the terms flux component and torque component of stator current (which are used widely in the literature of vector control) can be seen clearly. The torque component MI,, (which is directly proportional to the rotor current) can be regarded as being responsible for nullifying the demagnetising effect of the rotor (torque producing) current, leaving the flux component MIsy to set up the resultant rotor flux linkage.
5

den increase in the amplitude and speed of the stator MMF wave, together with an instantaneous forward jump in its position.

Dynamic (vector) torque control

5.1 Locked rotor We have already shown how the secondary (rotor) current in one pair of coupled coils can be caused to jump from one steady-state condition to another by appropriate control of the stator currents. We have also shown in Section 3.2 that the locked-rotor torque is directly proportional to the rotor current if the resultant rotor flux linkage is kept constant. Hence, to cause a step change in the locked-rotor torque, one simply has to change the amplitude, frequency and phase of stator currents simultaneously in the manner indicated in Section 2.6 so as to cause the required jump in the rotor current. For example, let the motor be in the steady state at the frequency mSl and producing torque Tl and let the corresponding rotor flux-linkage phasor diagram be represented by triangle OABl in Fig. 11. Suppose we now want the torque to suddenly increase to a new value T2 which is twice the old torque. To double the torque (while keeping the resultant rotor-flux linkage constant), we need to double the rotor current (eqn. 40), so from Section 2.6 we see that we must simultaneously make the following abrupt changes: (U) double the stator frequency, i.e. increase it in the ratio of rotor currents (Ir2/Irl) (b) increase the amplitude of the stator currents in the ratio of rotor impedances (Zr2/Zrl) corresponding to new (oS2) old (ql) frequency, and and stator (e) increase the phase of the stator currents from corresponding to frequency (mSI) to @2 corresponding to the new frequency (as2).
...............................................

5.2 Constant speed In this Section we apply essentially the same ideas as for locked rotor to the running condition. We again regard the stator space phasor (MIs)as the independent variable and the remaining two space phasors (&Ir and Y r )are again derived from it. But whereas with the rotor stationary all three variables are at supply freand quency (as) all three space phasors rotate at synchronous speed (us), when the rotor is rotating at a the constant angular speed (or) relative velocity of the stator space phasor as seen by the rotor is cos,,, os= or, the slip velocity. i.e. As far as the rotor is concerned, all three flux linkages vary at the slip frequency. Hence all the relationships governing rotor behaviour developed so far (in particular the torque) can be obtained simply by replacing the supply frequency by the slip frequency. (This contrasts sharply with the voltage-fed machine analysis, where it is not possible to follow such a simple line of reasoning because the stator MMF is not independent of the rotor speed.) Establishing the conditions for step change of torque under running conditions now becomes easy. For example, if the motor is running with a slip frequency of msr at torque T, and a step change to a new torque T = y T i s required, we apply the results from Section 2.6 to deduce that the following simultaneous changes must be made in the stator currents: (a) The frequency must be changed so that the slip frequency changes to yoSr, i.e.
I

iJ,,=y
us,

(51)

(b) The amplitude must be changed in the ratio of rotor impedances corresponding to frequencies y , and a , o ,, i.e.

Lr 1

...................

..................................................

L I .........................
r rl

(e) The phase must be changed by an amount equal to the difference between the rotor power factor angles corresponding to frequencies yo,, and o ,i.e. s,

Fig. 11 Rotor flux-linkage iriungles representing step change in torque

With these changes, the new rotor flux-linkage phasor diagram jumps to that shown by the triangle OAB, in Fig. 11, the area of the flux-linkage triangle suddenly doubles, and the torque therefore doubles in an ideal stepwise fashion. In terms of the stator MMF, the doubling of torque shown in Fig. 11 is achieved by a sudIEE Proc -Electr Power Appl, Vol 143, No. I , January 1996

Of course, these changes will only yield a step increase of torque from one steady state to another if the rotor speed remains constant. If the rotor accelerates, it will clearly be necessary to alter the stator frequency and amplitude to maintain the torque constant, as the slip frequency will be changing. The currents and torque for an induction motor in which the stator currents are changed, are obtained by using a conventional d-q-axis machine model, are shown in Figs. 12-14. These results relate to a threephase four-pole cage induction motor with L, = L, = 61.lmH, M = 59mH and R, = 0 . 4 Q rotating at speed of 300rev/min. The perfect step increase in torque confirms the validity of the space-phasor approach followed in this work.
65

20'01
I

10.0

frequency as in Figs. 12-14, but without the change in phase. Comparison of the torque responses in Figs. 14 and 17 clearly indicates the superiority of vector over scalar control.

*O'Ol
10.0

-1 0.0

4 -20.0 -0.5
time, s

0.5

- 10.0

Fig.12 Time variations of stator currents when all conditions for step
change of torque are fulfilled

-20.0
-0.2 0.8
time, s

10.0

Fig. 15 Time variations of stator currents when step changes in amplitude

and frequency (but not phase) of stator currents are imposed

100

4
-1 0.0

-0 5
time, s

0.5

Fig.13 Time variations of rotor currents when all conditions for step
change of torque are fulfilled

-100 -0.2
time, s

0.8

6.01 1 05
4.0-

Fig.16 Time variations of rotor currents when step changes in amplitude

and frequency (but not phase) o stator currents are imposed f

7 0-

6.0-

3 0E z
2.0

5.0L.0I

3.0-

5.3 Scalar torque control It has been stressed in the discussion that three conditions (magnitude, frequency and phase) must be satisfied by the stator currents to achieve ideal step changes in torque. This is equivalent to controlling the magnitude, speed and instantaneous position of the stator MMF wave. It is the inclusion of instantaneous position in the trio of conditions which gives rise to the term 'vector' control, and which differentiates it from scalar control. For the sake of interest Figs. 15-17 show the effect of making the same sudden changes in amplitude and
66

-0 2
time, s

0.8

Fig. 17 Time variations of torque when step changes in amplitude and frequency (but not phase) of stator currents are imposed

Experimental verification

Three separate PWM current controllers were built to provide independent control over the stator currents of a standard three-phase, 3.0kW, 240/415V, 11.216.5A, 1420revlmin cage induction motor. Digitally stored sinewaves were used so that it was possible to make
IEE Proc.-Electr Power A p p l , Vol 143, No I , January 1996

almost instantaneous changes to the magnitude, frequency and phase of the three current reference signals, and the power output stage was provided with a 500V DC link so that the loop-gain of each current controller was high and very rapid changes could be obtained in the stator currents. This is verified by Figs. 20 and 21, which show that the risetimes of the step changes in the stator currents are negligible.

Accordingly, all the tests were carried out with the rotor at rest (but not locked), and with torque applied by means of weights as shown in Fig. 19. One weight is attached to the motor shaft via a stiff rope, and

6. I Steady state The rotor time constant was obtained from a lockedrotor, variable-frequency test with a constant stator current of 3A (RMS) per phase, the torque being measured with a torque transducer. The peak torque occurs when the normalised frequency is unity (0.71Hz), so the rotor time constant is 225ms. A series of steadystate tests with constant resultant rotor flux linkage were carried out under locked rotor and running conditions. The aim was to show that torque depends only on slip and rotor time constant, and hence to verify that under current-fed conditions the absolute speed of the rotor is unimportant. To avoid complications due to saturation, the resultant rotor flux linkage was limited to 75% of rated value, tests being conducted at speeds of 750 and 1500rev/min and with the rotor locked. The speed was held constant with a synchronous machine coupled to the motor shaft, and the stator current at each frequency was adjusted according to eqn. 17 to keep the resultant rotor flux-linkage constant. The results of these experiments are shown in Fig. 18, from which it is clear that, as predicted, the torque depends only on the slip, and not on the absolute speed of the rotor. (The minor variations which occur are probably due to the change of rotor resistance with temperature.)
3 1
I

Fig. 19 Experimental arrangement for step change in torque

applies a constant load torque. (It was important to minimise system inertia, so a large weight near to the axis was desirable.) The other weight is suspended by an electromagnet from the end of a horizontal arm fixed to the motor shaft. The current in the magnet is set so that this weight is only just suspended, so that when the current in the magnet is switched off, the weight immediately falls away and there is a sudden step reduction in the total load torque. The test procedure involves adjusting the motor current so that the motor torque is exactly equal to the total load torque, and then simultaneously de-energising the electromagnet and switching the amplitude, frequency and phase of the stator currents to the values calculated to balance the new (lower) torque. Ideally, the result of this experiment should be no movement of the rotor, because the torques before and after switching should exactly balance the load torques. To detect any acceleration (which will be proportional to net torque), an accelerometer [9] was fitted to the shaft. Typical results which correspond to sudden reduction in the load torque from 7.4" to 2 " are shown in Figs. 20 and 21. These plots show the stator current in one phase, and the resultant torque (Tr) as derived from the accelerometer signal.

- 0.5

0.5

1.5
Wsr 'c

2.5

Fig. 18 Normalised stator current and torque against slip frequency under
constant resultant rotor flux-linkage conditions
0 Rotor speed Orevimin (locked) 0 Rotor speed 750rev/min x Rotor speed 1500revimin

Fig.20 Time variations of resultant rotor torque (acceleration) and sta-

6.2 Open-loop torque control The ultimate test of the theoretical findings is to show that the motor produces sudden step changes from one steady-state torque to another. Measurement of torque under dynamic conditions is difficult, mainly because o f the relatively low bandwidth of most torque transducers, but here we were able to take advantage of the fact that torque has already been shown to be independent of speed and therefore we can investigate dynamic torque control with the motor stationary.
IEE Proc.-Electr. Power Appl., Vol. 143, No. 1. January 1996

tor current when only amplitude and frequency o stator current are sudf denly changed i: 2A/div.; T: 2.4Nddiv.

In Fig. 20 the amplitude and frequency of the stator currents are switched to the correct new values (to balance the new lower load torque after switching), but there is no sudden change in the phase. This is an example of scalar control and the motor torque therefore oscillates before settling down to its new steadystate value because there is no instantaneous change in the position of the stator MMF space phasor.
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In contrast, in Fig. 21 the amplitude, frequency and phase of the stator current are all changed instantaneously to their new steady-state values, so that a transient-free step of the motor torque occurs at the instant that the load torque suddenly changes. This is confirmed by the fact that the rotor stays at rest, i.e. the acceleration signal remains at zero. This ideal (vector control) condition involves an instantaneous jump in the position of the stator MMF space phasor.

obtaining step changes in torque have been quantified in terms of two parameters. In essence, the stator MMF wave must be made to change its magnitude, slip and position instantaneously whenever a sudden change of torque is called for, thereby causing the rotor current to jump to a new steady-state value. Simple analytic formulas have been obtained for the changes which must be made to the stator currents to produce given step changes in torque. These results are not in themselves new, but have been presented in a way which should make understanding of the underlying mechanisms clear to those who find complex mathematics difficult.

References
LEONHARD, W.: Control of electric drives (Springer-Verlag, 1985) YAMAMURA, S.: Spiral vector theory of AC circuits and machines (Clarendon Press - Oxford, 1992) HO, E.Y.Y., and SEN, P.C.: Decoupling control of induction motor drives, IEEE Trans., 1988, IE-35, (a), pp. 253-262 ENSLIN, N.C., and VAN DER MERVE, F.S.: Improving the open-loop torque step response of induction motors, ZEE Pvoc. B, November 1987, 134, (6), pp. 317-323 HUGHES, A., CDRDA, J., and ANDRADE, D.A.: An inside look at cage motors with vector control,Proceedings of IEE conference on Electrical machines and drives, September 1993, Oxford, pp. 258-264 ANDRADE, D.A.: Dynamic control of inverter-fed cage induction motors. PhD thesis, Electronic & Electrical Engineering Dept., University of Leeds, April 1994 DIANA, G., and HARLEY, R.G.: An aid for teaching field oriented control applied to induction machines, ZEEE Trans., 1990, PWRs-4, (3), pp. 1258-1261 JONES, C.V.: The unified theory of electrical machines (Butterworths, London, 1967) STEPHENSON, J.M.: Frequency-responseanalysis and parameter measurement of a DC-excited drag-cup tachogenerator, Prac. IEE, 1970, 117, (12), pp. 2301-2305

Fig.21 Time variations of resultant rotor torque (acceleration) and stato? current when amplitude, frequency and phase are all suddenly changed z 2AId1v1 T 2 4idlv

The way in which a cage induction motor can be made to produce sudden step changes in steady-state torque has been explored in ways which are intended to appeal to machines engineers who find the complexities of vector control schemes daunting. By considering the problem of open-loop torque control, the conditions for

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IEE Proc.-Electr. Power Appl., Vol. 143, No 1, January 1996