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Christos Kalavrytinos
ABSTRACT
This project concerns the design and analysis of a lightweight enclosed trailer to be used for transporting the universitys Formula Student race cars. The main aim of this work is to achieve the most crucial design criteria: performance, weight, aesthetics and low-cost.
The methodology followed was based on a Quality Functional Deployment design process and proved fluid enough to adapt to sudden changes of specifications. The design approach helped in achieving the outcome of a functional product that satisfies the initial requirements.
More specifically, the trailer did not exceed the 750 kg laden weight limit or towing capacity of the universitys people carrier. The estimated weight of the whole trailer with its cover was approximately 670 kg.
A Finite Element Analysis was performed on the frame of the vehicle in order to ensure the performance characteristics were met. The results showed that the trailer was designed with a safety factor of 3.9. This factor was chosen due to the lack of theory to back the dynamics of towed vehicles.
Moreover, a dynamics analysis was not possible, as suspension specifications, such as stiffness and damping ratios, could not be obtained through research.
The manufacturing cost was also kept low, less than one sixth of the retail car trailers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I cannot thank my supervisor, Alan Pendry, enough, for his constant support and guidance during the development of this project. Moreover, I would like to express my gratitude to David Jones, whose experience in the automotive industry played a major role in the design of the trailer. Thanks, also, to workshop staff Martin Reeves and Steve Webb for their help concerning manufacturing and assembly, as well as, all the Formula Team members for their time and effort. Finally, I would like to thank my mother, my grandparents Dina and Christos, George Devouros and, last but not least, Madalena for their unconditional support.
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................... I CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................... II LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ........................................................................................... IV 1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 PROBLEM DEFINITION ........................................................................................................ 1 1.2 SCOPE .............................................................................................................................. 1 1.3 RATIONALE ........................................................................................................................ 2 1.4 AIM ................................................................................................................................... 2 1.5 OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................... 2 2.0 REVIEW OF EXISTING KNOWLEDGE .............................................................................. 4 2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 4 2.2 INITIAL LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................... 4 2.3 DESIGN TOOLS .................................................................................................................. 4 2.3.1 Product Design Specifications (PDS) ...................................................................... 4 2.3.2 Computer Aided Design ........................................................................................... 7 2.3.3 Finite Element Analysis (FEA) ................................................................................. 7 2.4 VEHICLE DYNAMICS ........................................................................................................... 9 2.5 ROAD REGULATIONS ........................................................................................................ 10 2.5.1 Trailer Categories .................................................................................................. 10 2.5.2 Individual Vehicle Approval (IVA) .......................................................................... 11 2.6 MATERIALS ...................................................................................................................... 14 2.6.1 Trailer Frame ......................................................................................................... 14 2.6.2 Cover...................................................................................................................... 15 2.6.3 Floor ....................................................................................................................... 15 2.7 FACTOR OF SAFETY ......................................................................................................... 15 3.0 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................................................... 17 3.1 PERFORMANCE ................................................................................................................ 17 3.2 W EIGHT .......................................................................................................................... 18 3.3 COST .............................................................................................................................. 18 3.4 FUNCTIONALITY ............................................................................................................... 18 3.5 AESTHETICS .................................................................................................................... 18 3.6 MANUFACTURE ................................................................................................................ 18
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Design & Analysis of the Formula Student Trailer LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8 Fig. 9 Fig. 10 Fig. 11 Fig. 12 Fig. 13 Fig. 14 Fig. 15 Fig. 16 Fig. 17 Fig. 18 Fig. 19 Fig. 20 Fig. 21 Fig. 22 Fig. 23 Fig. 24 Fig. 25 Fig. 26 Fig. 27 The Caterham 7 classic Finite element mesh Example of ANSYS analysis Simplified model of vehicle IVA process flowchart Complete Design Process Long trailer with tyre rack Concept with storage on cover Aerodynamic concept a/b Rubber torsional axle Trailer Frame Cover sub-frame Frame and cover assembly Detail of coupling and jockey Detail of axle and hub Imprint faces Contact regions (bonded) Default Mesh Forces and constrains setup Stress results Strain results Deformation results 2010 formula setup 2010 formula stress results 2010 formula strain results Deformation results Safety actor achieved 5 8 9 10 13 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 28 29 29 30 32 32 33 34 34 35 36 36 37 37 38
Trailer Categories for IVA IVA technical requirements 1 IVA technical requirements 2 Material Properties Cost
12 14 15 31 39
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The subject of this project is the Design Process and Analysis of an enclosed trailer for the 2010 and 2011 Formula Student vehicles of Birmingham City University.
The reason for this project development is the need of a lightweight trailer that can accommodate the Formula Student race cars along with spare tyres and tool equipment. The trailer will be used to transport the race cars to competition events such as the Formula Student events held in the Silverstone race track.
The trailer had to be designed within the constraints of cost, materials, parts availability, manufacturability in the TEE faculty and weight. In addition, emphasis was given to the aesthetics of the trailer as it could be used to advertise the Formula Team.
1.2 Scope
The project involved the design of the trailer frame, floor and enclosure cover and was focused on the following areas:
The design of the basic frame structure at the specified dimensions using Computer Aided Design (CAD) software.
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1.3 Rationale
The project was undertaken in order to support the BCU Formula Team by providing a practical solution to the problem of the race car transportation. Furthermore, to broaden the design and manufacture knowledge of the author and improve his design and FEA skills.
1.4 Aim
Therefore, the aim of the project was to design and analyse the Formula Student race care trailer and achieve a safe, functional, practical and low cost solution to the transportation and tyre storage problem.
1.5 Objectives
So as to successfully achieve the aim of the design project, the following objectives have to be met:
Review existing knowledge on trailer types, road regulations and suspension systems.
Implementation of a design process that includes concept generation, evaluation, selection and development.
Analysis of strength performance of the selected design by means of Finite Element Analysis.
Determination
of
acceptable
safety
factors
and
application
of
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Selection of materials and standard parts to be used, in order for a cost analysis to be carried out.
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2.1 Introduction
One of the most important aspects of this project is the design process undertaken in order to develop a trailer that satisfies several basic design specifications. In this section, the different approaches to a design process, and tools used during it, are reviewed. Moreover, it covers the standards (e.g. road regulations) which the trailer must comply with as well as environmental issues (e.g. recycling). Furthermore, the stress factor selection is analysed.
Aesthetics
structure might not be visible to the user. A common vehicle steering assembly, for example, is developed with functionality as a basis and since it cannot be seen from the exterior of a car the way it looks (i.e. colour, shape etc.) is not important. However, in the case of the Caterham illustrated in Fig. 1, the steering assembly is clearly visible therefore more care has been taken to produce an aesthetically pleasing product.
Ergonomics The physical abilities and characteristics of the users of products must also be taken into consideration during the design process. The interface between the person and the product must be comfortable and functional without requiring much effort or inducing a danger of health. Anthropometrics is a basic tool of ergonomics and it ensures a comfortable operating environment for the majority of users.
Environmental conditions In other words, the operating environment of the product which varies with factors such as temperature range, humidity and acidity. For Christos Kalavrytinos Page 5
Functions They can be categorised as mechanical, electrical, thermal, chemical etc. Products can have a main function, such as, drying the clothes for the dryer, and maybe even a secondary such as sanitising clothes.
Reliability According to Clausing D. (1998), this is the number of times a product can be used before its performance starts to degrade. However, Hurst K. (1999) goes further to define reliability as the required design life and time between failures or need for maintenance. A number of operating cycles is determined, most of the times by past experience, and an acceptable amount of random failures or operation halts is specified within that lifecycle. Hursts theory gives a better and more precise understanding to the factor of reliability which is directly linked with fabrication and maintenance.
Quality Over the past decades, many companies have invested in following a robust design strategy by focusing on partially achieving most specified requirements instead of successfully accomplishing only a few. (Clausing D., 1998)
Loads It is a very important factor in the design of vehicles. They can be divided into primary and secondary. Loads acting on a structure which result from the use of the product to provide its main function are called primary loads. In the case of the Formula Team trailer, the primary load derives from the race car being transported. Secondary loads can be from the operating environment (e.g. heat), vibration induced, shocks etc.
Weight It can play a major role in the design process and is directly linked to material properties. A lightweight trailer design, which does not sacrifice safety and reliability, can have a positive impact in fuel consumption, ease of use (i.e. attaching to hitch) and maximum allowed load capacity. Ex-Works Cost The production cost of the product (Hurst K., 1999). Put differently, the total cost of the product before it leaves the manufacturer. This value of cost is to be used by the designer in the Product Design Specification document. Christos Kalavrytinos Page 6
Materials Specification of the materials used for a product and, if applicable, its packaging. Hardness, weight, corrosion resistance, recyclability, flammability, availability and cost, are the main criteria considered during the material selection phase.
Assembly This part of the PDS document comments on the method of assembly of the product such as manual, automatic, use of machines etc.
Standards There is a regulation for how most products are manufactured, be it company, national or international standards and regulations. They should be included in the PDS document.
Maintenance Ease of maintenance, reassembly, interchangeable parts and tools needed should be specified.
2.3.2 Computer Aided Design Computer Aided Design software, are tools used for producing 2 and 3-dimensional models of various parts and components. Nowadays, the most common applications of CAD software are creating 3-dimensional solid models of parts and assemblies which can be used for concept creation and visualisation purposes as well as for producing detailed drawings for manufacturing. In this project, Catia is used in order to create solid models of the main trailer components as well as for drawings production. An important feature of CAD software is that when a model is modified, the whole assembly is updated. Moreover, the solid models can be then transferred to other software in order to be analysed using different methods.
2.3.3 Finite Element Analysis (FEA) Finite Element Analysis is a mathematical approach of calculating how components react under stress. Especially when the geometry of a component or assembly is too complex for use of hand calculation or when testing a component until destruction proves expensive, digital FEA software is used. The most well known FEA packages are NASTRAN (NASA Structural Analysis) and ANSYS (Analysis System). They can be used to simulate component testing for static, dynamic, thermal and other types of Christos Kalavrytinos Page 7
The analysis can be performed in order to obtain values for stress, elastic strain and directional or total deformation. Maximum values or values at specific points can be acquired. Figure 3 illustrates the results of a static structural analysis on the car jack component mentioned earlier. The colour distribution represents the low and high stress points on the component. Software such as ANSYS can be used to predict stress in a component in order for improvements to be devised to the original design and also help to achieve a required factor of safety. An effort should be made to validate the results with hand calculations or, if the component exists in reality, performing experimental test (i.e. strain gauge tests).
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Static load of stationary vehicle Braking Acceleration Cornering Torsion Maximum load on front axle Maximum load on rear axle Asymmetrical longitudinal loads from unequal adhesion of the right and left hand wheel tracks under braking (Beermann H. J., 1986)
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The reactions of the vehicle under cornering, braking, accelerating and travelling over rough road (e.g. bumps) can be analysed.
If the gross weight of the towing vehicle is 3.5 tonnes or less, then the maximum permissible width and length are 2.55 metres and 7 metres respectively. In both cases the overall length of the towing vehicle and trailer must not exceed either 18m or 18.75m depending on the type of towing vehicle.
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The requirements for trailer lighting can be found in The Road Vehicles Lighting Regulations 1989 as amended with a reference number of SI 1989 No. 1796.
2.5.2 Individual Vehicle Approval (IVA) The Individual Vehicle Approval (IVA) is a UK national approval scheme and pre-use inspection for motor vehicles and trailers imported, assembled or manufactured in very small numbers or as individual vehicles. Every vehicle has to be inspected by an examiner at an approved site, either by the Vehicle and Operator Services Agency (VOSA) in Great Britain or by the Driver Vehicle Agency in Northern Ireland.
The IVA scheme checks that vehicles have been designed and constructed to modern safety and environmental standards, based broadly on the European Community requirements that apply to European mass-produced vehicles. Once a vehicle passes an IVA inspection, the examiner issues an Individual Approval Certificate which, for most motor vehicles involved in the scheme, is then used to register the vehicle with the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency. (http://www.dft.gov.uk, Accessed on 28/11/10)
This kind of approval is needed for a trailer manufactured in the university workshop. Since it is only one vehicle, it needs to comply with the IVA regulations for trailers in category O1. Trailer categories are shown in Table 1. Figure 5 illustrates the IVA application flowchart. (http://www.dft.gov.uk, Accessed on 28/11/10). The department of transport states that the trailer can be legally towed to an IVA station in order to be tested and therefore there is no need for transportation. Moreover, Tables 2 and 3 show the technical requirements of each trailer category. Note that the project is concerned with an O1 category trailer.
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2.6 Materials
During the development of the project, several materials for fabricating the main components of the trailer, such as the frame and cover, have been considered. The differences between the material properties and construction elements are analysed below. 2.6.1 Trailer Frame The frame of the trailer is the most important component of the assembly as it carries the static and dynamic loads and serves as the basis of the structure. All secondary components are attached to it so simple designs consisting of hollow section metal beams have been considered. The beams should be as strong and light as possible, while retaining a low cost and volume to allow for a compact frame.
Aluminium is well known for its lightness and elasticity compared to carbon steel. However, in order to achieve the required load capacity, a bigger cross sectional area of beam is needed. Additionally, aluminium is generally more expensive than steel and requires a surface treatment, such as iodisation or paint to reduce corrosion. Therefore, the weight advantage is a trade-off with a resulting high price and increased frame dimensions.
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As a result, an aluminium sub-frame with aluminium sheets riveted on was chosen as a cover design. The main reasons being ease of manufacturing in the workshop with existing equipment, low cost, availability of materials and manufacturing time. Interchangability of the sheet metals in case of damage is also a positive aspect of this approach. 2.6.3 Floor A strong track for where the wheels of the race car will travel on is needed. The material must be easy to attach to the frame and able to withstand static and dynamic loads as well as loading and unloading of the race car. Sheet metal is used in the trailer design as it is easy to weld on the frame and also acts as a structural element, increasing rigidity. The centre of the floor carries no significant load and for this reason a lighter and cheaper material such as plastic is considered.
More specifically, applying a safety factor of 2 for the steel wire would result in a design load of 140 MPa. Often, the safety factor is misinterpreted as a components ability to withstand twice the design load. The relation between stress and design load is not always linear. Therefore, in order to calculate the safety factor of a component, the maximum strength (i.e. yield or tensile strength) is divided by the maximum load defined by its specifications under normal operation. According to Phelan R. M. (1970): ...the choice of an appropriate factor of safety is one of the most important decisions the designer must make. Since the penalty for choosing too small a factor of safety is obvious, the tendency is to make sure that the design is safe by using an arbitrarily large value and overdesigning the part.
Phelan also states that if a product is going to be unique or the number of products being manufactured is low, over-designing might result in a lower cost as well as being the safest solution. Large scale economics strategies followed by high volume manufacturers, can definitely benefit from a lower safety factor due to a decrease of material used.
Reliability of material supply ensuring an even quality of material throughout the structure or component.
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A very complex dynamics analysis needs to be conducted in order to predict the loads that govern the maximum allowed stress on the trailer. The values of the dynamic forces should be used during the FEA and the fatigue stress on the structure should be also predicted due to cyclic loads.
However, the research on specifications of trailer suspension systems (e.g. stiffness, damping etc.) produced no useable results. Without these values, a dynamics analysis in software like MCS Automatic Dynamic Analysis of Mechanical Systems (ADAMS) is not possible.
Furthermore, the margin for misuse (e.g. incorrect loading and weight distribution of the trailer), uniqueness of the Formula race car and possible endangerment of property and human life in case of failure in the motorway, point in the implementation of a safety factor which is high relative to the automotive industry. Taking all the above into consideration, along with the fact of an innovative approach of FEA applications on trailer structures, the safety factor considered ranges from 3,5 to 4.
3.1 Performance
The most basic performance characteristics of the trailer have to do with the safe transportation of the race car from the university to race competitions. Moreover, protection of the vulnerable components of the race car (e.g. ignition module etc.) as well as extra wheel and toolbox accommodation are important features of the design. Christos Kalavrytinos Page 17
Reducing the weight, also results in improved fuel efficiency, ease of coupling, manual manoeuvring and loading of the trailer as well as reduced tyre wear.
3.3 Cost
So as to reduce the manufacturing cost of the trailer, several standard parts can be bought new or used. Components such as the coupling, lights, hinges and lifting gas struts, as well as the axle should be bought. The overall cost should be kept to a minimum.
3.4 Functionality
Both the 2010 and 2011, as well as, future Formula race cars should be able to fit in the trailer and allow space for extra wheels and toolboxes. In addition, allowing access for the loading and unloading of the race car at the back, as well as, side access for the driver and unloading of the tyres is very important. Fastening points to ensure the car and wheels are properly secured can also benefit the design. Maintaining a low trailer loading bed height, as well as, an adjustable angle wheel jockey in the front, reduce the length of the required ramps which are essential due to the low ground clearance of the race car.
3.5 Aesthetics
An aesthetically pleasing design can also act as advertisement for the Formula Team and the University. Care is taken to provide for flat surfaces on the cover so that the attachment of stickers with the university and sponsors logo will be easy.
3.6 Manufacture
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4.0 METHODOLOGY
A specific design methodology for the design of a custom-built trailer does not exist. Thus, it can include multiple layers of iteration and refinement of the design instead of being clearly linear and sequential.
An efficient methodology that reduces time consuming changes of parameters is appropriate for this project. The spectrum of the design is wide, as it consists of a functional and qualitative output, constrained by physical factors (e.g. weight) as well as time cost and manufacturability issues. The lack of knowledge on the project topic, forces the use of a high safety factor along with quick FEA methods in order to achieve a robust outcome.
A PDS document was produced, so as to help focus the specifications and requirements that need to be met, which will help in supporting the Formula Team and ensuring a solution to the problem.
The design process was subsequently divided into two stages. During the first stage, several concepts were produced, evaluated and, finally, the best fit for the purpose was chosen. The second stage included the detailed development of the design, addressing emerging problems, and analysing the result.
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In addition, a dynamics analysis could not be carried out as a result of the lack of suspension specifications. This lack greatly limits the ability to predict dynamic loads and therefore forces the implementation of a high safety factor.
Changes in the design of the 2011 Formula race car, such as the addition of aerodynamic radiator protectors between the front and back axle, also proved
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The use of a hinge at the front of the frame as well as a sub-frame to support the cover and spare wheels has a negative impact on weight as well as an increased centre of gravity. Moreover, this design is not versatile and could fail to accommodate future race cars without modifying the cover.
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Design & Analysis of the Formula Student Trailer 5.4 Concept evaluation and selection
Due to the last modifications of the 2011 Formula Student race car, the concept selection was biased in order for a design that is versatile enough to accommodate the changes in wheel storage space to be chosen.
6.2 Suspension
The type of suspension used is an independent rubber torsion axle, illustrated in Fig. 11. The axle comprises of four rubber elements located inside a square section beam and two individual torsion bars on which the hubs are attached. The rubber absorbs the vibrations and acting as a damper. This axle provides a low trailer bed height, useful for easily loading and unloading the trailer in contrast with leaf-spring suspensions. The reason for that is that this axle can be directly mounted on the frame without leaving space for the leaf-springs. The braked axle can be custom made to the demands of the trailer dimensions, is rated for a maximum laden weight of 850 kg and weighs 62 kg.
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6.3 Cover
The cover of the trailer needs to be lightweight and easy to attach to the frame. Therefore, a sub-structure supports the cover and provides room for locks at each door to be attached. The material used for the sub-frame is 6mm thick aluminium braces on which the aluminium metal sheets that form the external surface are riveted. The result is a sporty look and a lightweight cover on which stickers to advertise the university and sponsors can be applied.
6.4 Floor
Two strips of sheet metal have been added at either side of the trailer where the wheels of the formula rest. In the middle, a low weight plastic or composite sheet, such as GRP, will be added in order to keep the weight to a minimum.
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A detail of the coupling and wheel jockey can be seen in Fig. 14, and a detailed view of the axle and hub is shown in Fig. 15. The drawings of the main components can be found in the Appendix section.
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After the model has been imported, the material properties are defined as shown in Table 3. Figure 17, shows the connections used between the parts and Fig. 18 shows the default mesh.
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8.0 DISCUSSION
8.1 FEA Results
ANSYS Workbench was used in order to establish the safety factor and design loads. Under a static loading, the trailer frame exhibits a safety factor of 3.9 as illustrated in Fig. 27. The stress figures are 60 MPa for the new Formula and 88 MPa for the 2010 race car. This can be attributed to the fact that the trailer was designed optimally for the new Formula race car and the future Formulas, which, according to formula team members, are going to be much shorter than the 2010 one.
Moreover, the spare wheels load distribution also played a major role in determining the stress and deformation of the trailer frame. When the tyres were placed near the axle, the force acting on the frame was supported by the axle and that helped keep stress and deformation to a minimum.
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8.3 Cost
A simple cost analysis has been carried out, so as to list the cost of each component of the vehicle. Some parts are not included since they can be sourced at the university workshop. Prices for enclosed car trailers range from 6,000 to 8,500 GPB. This cost analysis shows that the design proved low cost and there would be a benefit of manufacturing the trailer instead of buying one or renting a more powerful towing vehicle.
Cost Component (GBP) Coupling 130 Jockey 30 Mudguards 60 Axle 250 Winch 20 Lights 30 Steel Sections 250 Aluminium Sheets 100 Locks 10 Gas Struts 60 Total 940 Table 5, Cost
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The weight limit of 750 kg was not exceeded, therefore resulting in improved fuel economy, ease of loading and unloading and less parking space requirements.
Cost wise, the specific design proved very economical at a fraction of the price of a retail trailer.
The safety factor used for the design was 3.9, due to the lack of suspension specifications and the inability to perform a dynamics analysis. Moreover, since the Formulas are one of a kind, emphasis was given in order to ensure their safe transport.
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Aerodynamic improvements
Space utilisation
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Clausing, D., 1994. Total Quality Development, a step by step guide to world class concurrent engineering. ASME Press Cross, N., 2000. Engineering Design Methods, strategies for product design. 3rd edition. Wiley & Sons
Hurst, K., 1999. Engineering Design Principles. Arnold. Phelan, R. M., 1970. Fundamentals of Mechanical Design, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Websites:
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