Dwight Rose: BIOL 189, Philosophy of Science

Philosophy
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? Thought about purpose (Knight 1998) Thinking about what you are doing and why you are doing it. (Knight 1998, 4) Derived from the Greek words philien (love) and sophia (wisdom), means love of wisdom. (NB: to love wisdom does not make one a philosopher) Organized system of knowledge resulting from the persistent attempt of man's intellect to understand and describe the world in which we live. Effort to solve fundamental problems Gaining a comprehensive view of the universe Finding answers to questions on the origin, nature, and destiny of matter, energy, life, mind, good and evil. The study of questions. Reflecting on the method used to gain knowledge (collected and organized information about the universe) -Dwight Rose Method - the process of asking and re-asking questions until answers are obtained. Questioning and thinking critically. It involves all of the activities of a philosopher (examination, analysis, synthesis, speculation, prescription, and evaluation). Testing thoughts against reality. Methodology - reflection on what you do (method). You must be able to explain why you did what you did (why, when, how, what you did). Defending what you did - consciousness. Principles driving your method of usage. Knowledge - the answers/facts derived through use of your method. Body of information/beliefs used to ask questions and to think. AWARENESS - Reality experience. ISSUES INVOLVED (Knight 1998, 5) The nature of reality (metaphysics) The meaning and sources of knowledge (epistemology) The structure of values (axiology) PHILOSOPHY AS AN ACTIVITY How is this philosophy thing accomplished? How do we do it? 1. Examination: (before thought) looking at the evidence(s). It requires examination of the full range of evidence (comprehensiveness). True for both external and internal introspection of one's thoughts or emotions. 2. Analysis: focusing on human language or use of it in an attempt to clarify our understanding of problems and how they might be solved. Scrutinizes logic in an argument to evaluate varying contexts. Misunderstandings Problems. 3. Synthesis: philosophers seek to unite and integrate specialized knowledges into a unified view of the world (consistent and comprehensive view of life). Combining identified pieces together to make a whole. 4. Speculation: (based on limitations of human knowledge) permits movement from known to unknown; undefined alternative = doubt. 5. Prescription: establishing standards for evaluating values in conduct and art (e.g., mode of conduct). Termswhat is meant by good, bad, right, wrong, beautiful and ugly. The aim is to determine the most worthwhile actions and qualities (discovery and illumination). The alternative is to face every decision-making situation as unique. 6. Evaluation: making judgments about the adequacy of a "philosophic" project (a set of criteria). Varies by philosopher. Many philosophers tended to avoid the synthesizing, prescriptive and speculative activities of philosophy in the mid-20th century.

What you know!

Dwight Rose: BIOL 189, Philosophy of Science PHILOSOPHY AS AN ATTITUDE: Philosophers bring certain ways of thinking to their tasks. The characteristics of a philosophically minded individual are as follows: Self-Awareness: commitment to being as honest as possible with one's self in regard to personal biases, assumptions and prejudices. NO ONE IS NEUTRAL! Signification involves interpretation and communication. Comprehensiveness: inclination toward collecting as much relevant data on a subject as possible from a wide spectrum of sources rather than being satisfied with a narrow sample. WHOLENESS! Penetration: a desire that leads a person to go as deeply into a problem as skill, time and energy will allow (basic principles, issues and solutions). Flexibility: ability to perceive old problems in new ways. Willingness to restructure ideas in the face of sufficient evidence and the ability to envision viable alternatives to a viewpoint. PHILOPHY AS CONTENT: Questions related to the nature of reality, truth, and value. Some of the major questions are: 1. METAPHYSICS: the study of questions concerning the nature of reality. What is ultimate reality? 2. EPISTEMOLOGY: the study of the nature of truth and knowledge and how these are attained. What is true? 3. AXIOLOGY: the study of questions of value. Humans desire some things more than others (preferences). Value systems are not universally agreed upon. METAPHYSICS - "beyond physics" (Greek). The brand of physics that deals with the nature of reality. What is ultimately real? What is the reality of the chair on which you sit? Solid surface (some smooth) Colour (orange, blue, gray, brown) Composed of identifiable material (wood, plastic, nylon, metal) It supports your weight (limit). Physicist: Chair molecules atoms (electrons, protons, neutrons) electrical energy. A chair is therefore a hotbed of molecular activity. Chemist: Chair polymers (hydrocarbons) - Nylon subject to environmental influences (hot, cold, wetness, dryness, and oxidation). Aspects of Metaphysics: The complete verification of any particular answer to these questions in beyond the realm of human demonstration. Metaphysical constructs lie at the foundation of modern sciences. Metaphysics represents the speculative and synthesizing activities of philosophy. Framework: Theories of science theories of reality. Philosophy of science underlies scientific experimentation. To go beyond experimental facts is to assume the role of a metaphysician. Types of Metaphysical questions: Cosmology - the study of theories about the origin, nature, and development of the universe as an orderly system. Design (Creation) Accident (Evolution) Purpose of the universe (answers are teleological: End to earth's history = second advent of Christ). Randomness. Nature of time and space. Theology - the part of religious theory that deals with conceptions of and about God. Is there a God? How many? Attributes of God? Why does evil exist? Do supernatural beings (angels, Satan, Holy Spirit) exist? Atheism - there is no God. Pantheism - God and the universe are identical - all is God and God is all. Deism - proponents view God as the maker of natural and moral laws, but assert that God exists apart from, and is not interested in, humanity and the physical universe.

Dwight Rose: BIOL 189, Philosophy of Science Theism - the belief in a personal creator God. Polytheism - belief in many gods. Monotheism - belief in one God

Anthropology - the study of human beings (humanity). When people philosophize about humanity, they are speaking about themselves. Relationships between mind and body (interaction)? Which is more fundamental (which depends on which)? Morals? Humanity Good vs. evil/morally neutral? Freedom? Soul? Positions on these questions are reflected in political, social, religious, scientific and educational practices. Ontology - the study of the nature of existence, or what it means for anything to be. Reality matter or physical energy (the world we can sense) or reality is spirit or spiritual energy. Composition of reality Matter or spirit or both. Order versus orderable. Fixed or stable/changeable Friendly, unfriendly, or neutral to humanity.

EPISTEMOLOGY - the branch of philosophy that studies the nature, sources, and validity of knowledge. "What is truth?" "How do we know?" Dependability of knowledge Validity of methods Dimensions of knowledge: o Can reality be known? Link between metaphysics and epistemology Skepticism - the position claiming that it is impossible to gain knowledge and that any search for truth is vain (Eccl. 1:9 - "there is nothing new under the sun") Agnosticism - a profession of ignorance, especially in reference to the existence or nonexistence of God, rather than a positive denial of any valid knowledge. o Is Truth relative or absolute? Is truth subject to change (true today false tomorrow)? "Relative" Absolute Truth - the truth that is eternally and universally true irrespective of time or space. o Is knowledge subjective or objective? (Positions on objectivity of knowledge) Knowledge comes from "outside" and is inserted into our minds and nervous systems in much the same way as bauxite is loaded/dumped into a ship (Mathematicians and Physical scientists). Knowers contribute something in this engagement of themselves with the world in such a way as to be partially responsible for the structure of their knowledge (Social and Behavioural sciences). We exist as "pure subjects" who become the manufacturers of truth rather than its recipients or participants (Art, Literature, and Music). o Is there truth independent of human experience? (Viewed in terms of a priori and a posteriori knowledge) a priori knowledge - truth that some thinkers claim is built into the very fabric of reality. Independent of human knowers and always true (whether/not humans accept it). It exists prior to human experience and is independent of human awareness (e.g., relationship between diameter and circumference of a circle [pi]) a posteriori knowledge - knowledge posterior to human experience of it and dependent on human awareness (e.g. being stuck with a pin and feeling pain) Sources of Knowledge: no single source of knowledge is used. o The Senses (Empiricism) - people form a picture of the world around them by seeing, hearing, smelling, feeling, and tasting. I "know" because I see! Ideas formed in accordance with observed data. Sensory knowledge - immediate and universal (basis for most knowledge) Senses are incomplete and undependable (ill health may distort senses).

Dwight Rose: BIOL 189, Philosophy of Science Instruments aid in sensory perception (not dependable). Sensory knowledge is built upon assumptions that must be accepted by faith in the dependability of our sensory mechanisms. The senses can be replicated for public examination. Revelation - God's communication concerning His Divine Will (religion). This form of knowledge has the distinct advantage of being an omniscient source of information that is not obtainable through other epistemological methods. TRUTH Absolute and Uncontaminated. Human interpretation -- causes distortions in truth Must be accepted by faith and cannot be proved or disproved empirically. Authority - knowledge accepted as true because it comes from experts or has been sanctified over time as tradition Classroom - textbooks, teacher or reference work. Saves time and enhances social and scientific progress As valid as its fundamental assumptions. Reason - view that reasoning, thought, or logic is the central factor in knowledge (rationalism). The sensations and experiences, which we gain through our senses, are the raw materials of knowledge. Senses (mind/organized) system knowledge. May lack relevance to the external world Based on premises. Intuition - The direct apprehension of knowledge that is not the result of conscious reasoning or of immediate sense perception. Immediate feeling of certainty Sudden flash of insight Personal way of knowing The weakness is that it does not appear safe when used alone. It leaps over the limitations of human experience

Validity of Knowledge: What is true may be false later on. How do we differentiate between false/true o Tests for truth: Correspondence Theory - a test that uses agreement with "fact" as a standard of judgment. Judgment = facts True; if not False. Scientists usually hold this view. Some criticisms are as follows: How can we compare our ideas with reality (we only know experiences) It assumes sense data to be clear and accurate It is inadequate - ideas are not concrete outside human thought Coherence Theory - states that a judgment is true if it is consistent with other judgments that have previously been accepted as true. (Critics state that false and true systems can be consistent) Pragmatic Theory - this view states that the test of truth is in its utility, workability, or satisfactory consequences. There is no such thing as static or absolute truth People know only their experiences Rejects coherence and correspondence theories Truth is viewed as unique (one for you and one for me). o Concerns - there is no sense of an ultimate proof - All of us live by faith. o Acceptance of a particular position is a "faith choice" - commitment to a way of life. o All live by faith in their chosen beliefs

AXIOLOGY The branch of philosophy that seeks to answer the question, "What is of value?" o We are valuing beings o Value systems are not universally agreed upon o Views are built upon conceptions of value and truth.

Dwight Rose: BIOL 189, Philosophy of Science Value - the notions of what a person of a society conceives of as being good or preferable. Conflict arises when the same society or person holds two different conceptions of good or value. o Conceived values - verbalized but not actualized values - "Bag of mouth" o Operative values - values acted upon. The classroom is an axiological theater in which teachers cannot hide their moral selves. Branches of Axiology o Ethics - the study of moral values and conduct. Ethics is concerned with providing right values as the foundation for right actions. Science and technology are morally neutral, but the uses to which they are put involve ethical considerations. People differ in their ethical biases. o Aesthetics - the realm of value that searches for the principles governing the creation and appreciation of beauty and art. What is beautiful? Involves the theoretical aspects of art (in the broadest sense) A realm of theory that relates closely to imagination and creativity (personal and objective) Part of daily experiences (impossible to avoid) Attributes: Heightened sense of perception (affective domain - feelings and emotions) Ability to apprehend new meanings Elevation of feeling Broadened sensitivity (cognitive domain - senses)

WORLDVIEW
A worldview is a coherent frame of reference (modus operandi) for all thought and action created by the fashioning of universes using words and concepts together. - Few people have an articulate philosophy - Everyone has a worldview - we use our worldview (frame of reference) when we think about anything. Forms of thought are: - Casual thought - thought that involves use of basic information (Where did I leave my watch? What time is it? Did I lock my door? What am I going to do today?) - Profound Question - thought involving deep thinking and pondering of information (it also involves a large amount of speculation). [Who am I? Where did I come from? Does God exist?] - It is the assumption of a worldview (whether basic or simple) that allows us to think at all. - To discover one's worldview is a significant step toward self-awareness, self-knowledge and selfunderstanding. Worldview (definition): A set of presuppositions (assumptions which may be true, partially true, or entirely false), which we hold (consciously or subconsciously, consistently or inconsistently) about the basic makeup of the world (Sire 1997, pp. 16-17). - All Worldviews assume that something is there rather than that nothing is there - before thought we assume existence. IT IS! - The apprehension that something is there is the beginning of "Conscious Life". This involves: - Metaphysics (the study of being/reality) - Epistemology (the study of knowing). - Once you recognize that something is there, you have not necessarily recognized what that something is. This leads to divergence in worldviews. - Some people assume that everything is ultimately one thing (matter, Spirit or Soul, or nonmaterial substance). - Our worldview is generally unquestioned. Concepts are brought to mind when a foreigner challenges us from another ideological universe (p. 17).

Dwight Rose: BIOL 189, Philosophy of Science It is important to discover and understand your worldview because it explains your thought process and explains your actions. Your worldview also helps you to accept the answers that are found in your search (temporary or absolute). It leads to self-awareness, self-knowledge and self-understanding. - Thinking requires an adequate worldview, therefore thinking critically requires knowledge of your worldview - I think, therefore I am! Characteristics of an adequate worldview (Sire 1997, 195-198) 1. The author suggests that we should adopt a position of "Humility" to develop a worldview (p. 196). - Human beings tend to adopt positions that yield power (whether true or not). - Humility is not skepticism (we must assume that we can know something). 2. The worldview must be able to comprehend the data of reality (data of all types). This data can be: - Gleaned through personal experiences (daily life). - Supplied by critical analysis and scientific investigation. - Reported to us from the experiences of others. All data requires evaluation - if data stands the test, we must be able to incorporate it into our worldview: - If a man was resurrected from the dead before your eyes, your system must explain why. For example, there was a man who was walking through a cemetery late at night and he fell into an open grave. After trying for a few minutes to climb out, and failing miserably at it, he exclaimed, "Now how am I going to get out of here?" Instantaneously a hand touched him on the shoulder and a voice exclaimed, "I was thinking the same thing!" Of course, you can use your worldview to tell the remainder of the story (What would you do next if you were that guy?) - LACK OF COMPREHENSION FALSEHOOD/INADEQUACY. 3. An adequate worldview should explain what it claims to explain. - If naturalism provides an adequate explanation for existence of the universe, then all of the aspects of naturalism should be clear in your mind, and inconsistencies should be minimal or nonexistent. Evolutionists claim that life forms evolve into complex life forms; where are the fossil records of the transitional forms (e.g. human-ape) they claim exist? - There are several critical questions that one must ask of a worldview to check validity: - How does it explain the fact that human beings think but think haltingly, love but hate too, are creative but also destructive, and are wise but often foolish? - Does it explain our longing for truth or personal fulfillment? - Why is pleasure, as we know it now rarely enough to satisfy completely? - Why do we usually want more: money, love, or ecstasy? - How do we explain our human refusal to operate in an amoral (lack or morals) fashion? - The important thing is that we either answer these critical questions or create a framework in which these questions can be answered. 4. A worldview should be subjectively satisfactory. - It must meet the sense of personal need we possess. - A worldview satisfies by being true (Truth is the only thing that will satisfy). - "It is only when we pursue our doubts and search for the truth that we begin to get real satisfaction." Nihilism - a denial of philosophy, a denial of the possibility of knowledge, a denial that anything is valuable. (It may even deny the reality of existence). Reference Material: Thomas, Cleveland J. (Ph.D.), 1998. A Quest for Reality and Certainty Sire, James W. 1997. The Universe Next Door: A Basic Worldview Catalog, 3rd Edition. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press. Knight, George R., 1998. Philosophy and Education: an introduction in Christian perspective, 3rd edition. Berrien Springs, Michigan: Andrews University Press.