Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human influence.

A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. When water used as a coolant is returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature, the change in temperature impacts organisms by (a) decreasing oxygen supply, and (b) affecting ecosystem composition. Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of reservoirs into warmer rivers. This affects fish (particularly eggs and larvae), macro invertebrates and river productivity. Ecological effects warm water Warm water typically decreases the level of dissolved oxygen in the water. The decrease in levels of dissolved oxygen can harm aquatic animals such as fish, amphibians and copepods. The added heat lowers the dissolved oxygen content and may cause serious problems for the plants and animals living there. In extreme cases, major fish kills can result. It is known that temperature changes of even one to two degrees Celsius can cause significant changes in organism metabolism and other adverse cellular biology effects. Principal adverse changes can include rendering cell walls less permeable to necessary osmosis, coagulation of cell proteins, and alteration of enzyme metabolism. These cellular level effects can adversely affect mortality and reproduction. A large increase in temperature can lead to the denaturing of life-supporting enzymes by breaking down hydrogen- and disulphide bonds within the quaternary structure of the enzymes. Decreased enzyme activity in aquatic organisms can cause problems such as the inability to break down lipids, which leads to malnutrition. Thermal pollution may also increase the metabolic rate of aquatic animals, as enzyme activity, resulting in these organisms consuming more food in a shorter time than if their environment were not changed. An increased metabolic rate may result in food source shortages, causing a sharp decrease in a population. Warm water may also increase the metabolic rate of aquatic animals, as enzyme activity, meaning that these organisms will consume more food in a shorter time than if their environment was not changed. The temperature can be as high as 70 degrees Fahrenheit for freshwater, 80 degrees Fahrenheit for saltwater and 85 degrees Fahrenheit for tropical fish.

Changes in the environment may also result in a migration of organisms to another, more suitable environment and to in-migration of fishes that normally only live in warmer waters elsewhere. This leads to competition for fewer resources; the more adapted organisms moving in may have an

advantage over organisms that are not used to the warmer temperature. As a result one has the problem of compromising food chains of the old and new environments. Biodiversity can be decreased as a result. Primary producers are affected by warm water because higher water temperature increases plant growth rates, resulting in a shorter lifespan and species overpopulation. This can cause an algae bloom which reduces the oxygen levels in the water. The higher plant density leads to an increased plant respiration rate because the reduced light intensity decreases photosynthesis. This is similar to the eutrophication that occurs when watercourses are polluted with leached agricultural inorganic fertilizers. In limited cases, warm water has no deleterious effect and may even lead to improved function of the receiving aquatic ecosystem. This phenomenon is seen especially in seasonal waters and is known as thermal enrichment. An extreme case is derived from the aggregational habits of the manatee, which often uses power plant discharge sites during winter. Projections suggest that manatee populations would decline upon the removal of these discharges. Ecological effects cold water Releases of unnaturally cold water from reservoirs can dramatically change the fish and macro invertebrate fauna of rivers, and reduce river productivity. In Australia, where many rivers have warmer temperature regimes, native fish species have been eliminated, and macro invertebrate faunas have been drastically altered and impoverished. The temperatures for freshwater fish can be as low as 50 degrees Fahrenheit, saltwater 75 degrees Fahrenheit, and Tropical 80 degrees Fahrenheit.

Computer modeling of thermal pollution In the 1970s there was considerable activity from scientists in quantifying effects of thermal pollution. Hydrologists, physicists, meteorologists, and computer scientists combined their skills in one of the first interdisciplinary pursuits of the modern environmental science era. First came, the application of Gaussian function dispersal modeling that forecasts how a thermal plume is formed from a thermal point source and predicts the distribution of aquatic temperatures. The ultimate model was developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency introducing the statistical variations in meteorology to predict the resulting plume from a thermal outfall.

A coolant is a fluid which flows through a device in order to prevent its overheating, transferring the heat produced by the device to other devices that utilize or dissipate it. The most common coolant is water. Its high heat capacity and low cost makes it a suitable heat-transfer medium. It is usually used with additives, like corrosion inhibitors and antifreezes. Antifreeze, a solution of a suitable organic chemical (most often ethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, or propylene glycol) in water, is used when the water-based coolant has to withstand temperatures below 0 C, or when its boiling point has to be raised. Very pure deionized water, due to its relatively low electrical conductivity, is used to cool some electrical equipment, often high-power transmitters. Oxygen saturation or Dissolved oxygen (or DO) is a relative measure of the amount of oxygen that is dissolved or carried in a given medium. It can be measured with a dissolved oxygen probe such as an oxygen sensor or an optode in liquid media, usually water. Medical science In medicine, oxygen saturation (SO2), commonly abbreviated as "sats", measures the percentage of hemoglobin binding sites in the bloodstream occupied by oxygen. Environmental sciences In aquatic environments, oxygen saturation is a relative measure of the amount of oxygen (O2) dissolved in the water. Supersaturation can sometimes be harmful for organisms and cause decompression sickness. Dissolved oxygen (DO) is measured in standard solution units such as millilitres O2 per litre (ml/L), millimoles O2 per liter (mmol/L), milligrams O2 per liter (mg/L) and moles O2 per cubic meter (mol/m3). For example, in freshwater under atmospheric pressure at 20C, O2 saturation is 9.1 mg/L.

Thermal pollution The broadest definition of thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature. Thermal pollution is usually associated with increases of water temperatures in a stream, lake, or ocean due to the discharge of heated water from industrial processes, such as the generation of electricity. Increases in ambient water temperature also occur in streams where shading vegetation along the banks is removed or where sediments have made the water more turbid. Both of these effects allow more energy from the sun to be absorbed by the water and thereby increase its temperature. There are also situations in which the effects of colder-than-normal water temperatures may be observed. For example, the discharge of cold bottom water from deep-water reservoirs behind large dams has changed the downstream biological communities in systems such as the Colorado River. Sources The production of energy from a fuel source can be direct, such as the burning of wood in a fireplace to create heat, or by the conversion of heat energy into mechanical energy by the use of a heat engine. Examples of heat engines include steam engines, turbines, and internal combustion engines. Heat engines work on the principal of heating and pressuring a fluid, the performance of mechanical work, and the rejection of unused or waste heat to a sink. Heat engines can only convert 30 to 40 percent of the available input energy in the fuel source into mechanical energy, and the highest efficiencies are obtained when the input temperature is as high as possible and the sink temperature is as low as possible. Water is a very efficient and economical sink for heat engines and it is commonly used in electrical generating stations. The waste heat from electrical generating stations is transferred to cooling water obtained from local water bodies such as a river, lake, or ocean. Large amounts of water are used to keep the sink temperature as low as possible to maintain a high thermal efficiency. The San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station between Los Angeles and San Diego, California, for example, has two main reactors that have a total operating capacity of 2,200 megawatts (MW). These reactors circulate a total of 2,400 million gallons per day (MGD) of ocean water at a flow rate of 830,000 gallons per minute for each unit. The cooling water enters the station from two intake structures located 3,000 feet offshore in water 32 feet deep. The water is heated to approximately 19F above ambient as it flows through the condensers and is discharged back into the ocean through a series of diffuser-type discharges that have a series of sixty-three exit pipes spread over a distance of 2,450 feet. The discharge water is rapidly mixed with ambient seawater by the diffusers and the average rise in temperature after mixing is less than 2F.

These ASTER false-color images were acquired over Joliet 29, a coal-burning power plant in Illinois. Joliet 29 can be seen in the VNIR image (top) as the bright blue-white pixels just above the large cooling pond. Like many power plants, Joliet 29 uses a cooling pond to discharge heated effluent water. In the bottom image a single ASTER Thermal Infrared band was color-coded to represent heat emitted from the surface. The progression from warmest to coolest is shown with the following colors: white, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and black. (Image courtesy NASA/GSFC/MITI/ERSDAC/JAROS, and U.S./Japan Aster Science Team. Reproduced by permission.)

Environmental Effects The primary effects of thermal pollution are direct thermal shock, changes in dissolved oxygen, and the redistribution of organisms in the local community. Because water can absorb thermal energy with only small changes in temperature, most aquatic organisms have developed enzyme systems that operate in only narrow ranges of temperature. These stenothermic organisms can be killed by sudden temperature changes that are beyond the tolerance limits of their metabolic systems. The cooling water discharges of power plants are designed to minimize heat effects on local fish communities. However, periodic heat treatments used to keep the cooling system clear of fouling organisms that clog the intake pipes can cause fish mortality. A heat treatment reverses the flow and increases the temperature of the discharge to kill the mussels and other fouling organisms in the intake pipes. Southern California Edison had developed a "fish-chase" procedure in which the water temperature of the heat treatment is increased gradually, instead of rapidly, to drive fish away from the intake pipes before the temperature reaches lethal levels. The fish chase procedure has significantly reduced fish kills related to heat treatments. Small chronic changes in temperature can also adversely affect the reproductive systems of these organisms and also make them more susceptible to disease. Cold water contains more oxygen than hot water so increases in temperature also decrease the oxygen-carrying capacity of water. In addition, raising the water temperature increases the decomposition rate of organic matter in water, which also depletes dissolved oxygen. These decreases in the oxygen content of the water occur at the same time that the metabolic rates of the aquatic organisms, which are dependent on a sufficient oxygen supply, are rising because of the increasing temperature. The composition and diversity of communities in the vicinity of cooling water discharges from power plants can be adversely affected by the direct mortality of organisms or movement of organisms away from unfavorable temperature or oxygen environments. A nuclear power-generating station on Nanwan Bay in Taiwan caused bleaching of corals in the vicinity of the discharge channel when the plant first began operation in 1988. Studies of the coral Acropora grandis in 1988 showed that the coral was bleached within two days of exposure to temperatures of 91.4F. In 1990 samples of coral taken from the same area did not start bleaching until six days after exposure to the same temperature. It appears that the thermotolerance of these corals was enhanced by the production of heat-shock proteins that help to protect many organisms from potentially damaging changes in temperature. The populations of some species can also be enhanced by the presence of cooling water discharges. The only large population of sea turtles in California, for example, is found in the southern portion of San Diego Bay near the discharge of an electrical generating station. Abatement The dilution of cooling water discharges can be effectively accomplished by various types of diffuser systems in large bodies of water such as lakes or the ocean. The only thermal effects seen at the San Onofre nuclear generating station are the direct mortality of planktonic organisms during the twentyfive-minute transit through the cooling water system. The effectiveness of the dilution systems can be monitored by thermal infrared imaging using either satellite or airborne imaging systems. The use of

cooling towers has been effective for generating stations located on smaller rivers and streams that do not have the capacity to absorb the waste heat from the cooling water effluent. The cooling towers operate by means of a recirculating cascade of water inside a tower, with a large column of upwardly rising air that carries the heat to the atmosphere through evaporative cooling. Cooling towers have been used extensively at nuclear generating stations in both the United States and France. The disadvantages of cooling towers are the potential for local changes in meteorological conditions due to large amounts of warm air entering the atmosphere and the visual impact of the large towers. In a broader sense, and with the concern about global warming, engineers do nothing to mitigate the effects on earth because they take air or cool water from the environment to exchange heat with their waste streams. Almost half of all water withdrawn in the United States each year is for cooling electric power plants. The cheapest and easiest method is to withdraw water from a nearby body of surface water, pass it through the plant and return the heated water to the same body of water. Warmer temperatures lower dissolved oxygen content by decreasing the solubility of oxygen in water. Warmer water also causes aquatic organisms to increase their respiration rates and consume oxygen faster, and it increases their susceptibility to disease, parasites, and toxic chemicals. Discharge of heated water into shallow water near the shore of a lake also may disrupt spawning and kill young fish. Fish and other organisms adapted to a particular temperature range can also be killed from thermal shock .The effect of sharp changes in water temperature when new power plants open up or when plants shut down for repair. Many fish die on intake screens used to prevent fish from clogging the heat exchanger-pipes. While some scientists call the addition of excess heat to aquatic systems thermal pollution, others talk about using heated water for beneficial purposes, calling it thermal enrichment. They point out that heated water results in longer commercial fishing seasons and reduction of winter ice cover in cold areas. Warm water from power plants can also be used for irrigation to extend the growing season in frostprone areas and cycled through aquaculture pens to speed the growth of commercially valuable fish and shellfish. For example, waste hot water is used to cultivate oysters in aquaculture lagoons in Japan and in New York's Long Island Sound and to cultivate catfish and redfish in Texas. Heated water could also be used to heat nearby buildings and greenhouses, desalinate ocean water, and run under sidewalks to melt snow. However, because of dangers from from aur pollution and release of radioactivity, most coal-burning and nuclear electric power plants and heat-producing factories are usually not located near to aquaculture operations, buildings, and industries to make thermal enrichement economically feasible

There are a number of ways to minimize the harmfull effects of excess heaton aquatic ecosystems: Prevention Using and wasting less electricity. Limiting the amount of heated water discharged into the same body of water.

Control by Dillution Returning the heated water at a point away from the ecologically vulnerable shore zone. Transferring the heat from the water to the atmosphere by means of wet or dry cooling towers. Discharging the heated watwer into shalow ponds or canals, allowing it to cool, and reusing it as cooling water. This method is useful where enough affordable land is available.

Waste Heat - A pollutant as dangerous to waters as more tangible of forms of waste Human activity can change normal temperature: 1. By altering environment of watercourse: Road building , logging, poundments, diverting flows for irrigation. 2. Adding or removing heat. On national scale, industrial cooling waters is a first-order source of heat. Electro power generation uses 80% of cooling waters. Best single index of thermal pollution lies in projecting future electric power generation. Past experience has indicated that thermal pollution has not multiplied as fast as power generation because of improvements in thermal plant efficiency and developement of hydropower. Nulear plants - waste even higher proportion of heat than fossil-fuel plants. Problem is one of managing tremendous amounts of waste heat in a manner that will maintain or enhance, physical, chemical and biological nature of our water resources. Approximately one-half of all water used in U.S. is used for cooling by power and manufacturing industries. During past half-century power generation has virtually doubled every 10 years. This trend is expected to continue or perhaps increase. Power generation has been either for hydropower or steam-electric. Latter requires cooling water. Remaining sites for hydropower are limited. Thermal plants continue to gain a larger portion of market for power. Use of cooling water by U.S. industry, 1964
Cooling Water (billions of m3) Electric Power Primery Metals Chemical and Allied Products Petroleum and Coal Products Paper and Allied Products 153.7 12.8 11.8 4.6 2.30 (%) 81.23 6.76 6.24 2.43 1.21

Food Machinery Rubber and Plastics Transportation All Other Totals

1.48 0.620 0.484 0.386 1.03 189.2

0.78 0.34 0.26 0.21 0.54 100,0

USA averages of steam-electric plant statistics

Heat Rate (millions of J/KWH) 1930 1940 1950 1960 1962 1964 1966 20.89 17.30 14.80 11.35 11.14 11.04 10.99 Waste Heat to Cooling Water (millions of J/KWH) 14.16 11.11 8.98 6.05 5.87 5.78 5.74

nt 17.24 20.81 24.33 31.72 32.33 32.62 32.77

Best fossil-fuel plants operate at about 40% (considered to be about limit). Nuclear plants presently do not exceed 33% (metal strength). Heat wasted to cooling water is less than the "waste heat" portion of the efficiency equation because of in-plant and stack losses. these losses estimated as 15% of thermal input. Therefore, for fossil-fuel plants, Heat to cooling water (J/KWH) = 0.85 * (Heat Rate) - 3.6 *10-6 For nuclear plants, in-plant losses are about 5%. Heat to cooling water (J/KWH) = 0.95 * (Heat Rate) - 3.6 *10-6 Comparison of waste heat for the two types. fossil-fuel plant, nt = 40%

nuclear plants, nt =33%

Thus, advent of nuclear plants may increase by over 60% the amount of heat rejected to to cooling water per KWH. PHYSICAL
Properties effected by heat: 1.density 2.viscosity 3.vapor pressure 4.solubility 1.and 2.- Stokes Law - settling of solids in a non-turbulent medium.

We see that an increase in temperature decreases f and and thus vt increases.This may improve water treatment sligtly.Increasing temperature effects location and amount of sediment deposit. Very slight density differences (0.001-0.002) may cause stratification - also dependent on depth and water movement.Impedes vertical mixing and oxygen transfer. May cause short circuiting in reservoirs wich in turn effect discharge temperatures. 3. Evaporation rates increase with increase in vapour pressure.Caused by difference in water vapor pressure between air and water, and also by wind velocity.

F = evaporation flux (kg m-2 s-1) L = latent heat (J kg-1) C = empirical evaporation coefficient W = wind speed (m s-1) es = vapor pressure of saturated air in temperatures of surface water (Pa) ea = vapor pressure of overlying air (Pa) We may illustrate the effect of varying surface temperatures by holding all terms in the above equation constant except es. L = 2.44*106 J kg-1 C = 11.4 (typical) W = 4.47 m s-1 ea = 999 Pa (air temp. of 294.3 K and RH = 40%)
TH2O (K) 283.1 288.7 294.3 299.8 305.4 es (Pa) 1210.5 1750.0 2473.7 3447.3 4750.0 F(Kg m-2 s-1) 1.07*10-5 3.61*10-5 7.01*10-5 1.16*10-4 1.78*10-4

4. Most living organisms depend on oxygen in one form or another. Relation of water temperature to gas solubility is an important aspect of thermal pollution. Solubility is directly proportional to partial pressure at a given temperature under equilibrium conditions. Temperature changes cause complicated adjustments on the dynamic oxygen balance in waters and make it difficult to relate absolutely the dissolved oxygen and other factors to oxygen demand, such as, atmospheric re-aeration, photosynthetic production, diffusion, mixing,etc. Since waters seldom carry a saturated value of water, temperature rise will decrease the holding capacity which is already less than the optimum. Recent evidence shows that increased temperatures may increase nitrogen levels so as to seriously affect fish life.

CHEMICAL Temperatures effects speed of chemical reactions. For a given reaction the position of equilibrium changes with temperature and with other conditions of reaction, such as the initial concentrations of the reactants. Equilibrium is affected by temperature. Speed of reaction approximately doubles for every 10C rise. In reversible reactions, temperature effects time to reach equilibrium and the point of equilibrium. A + B -> C + D + energy term Many reactions effecting water quality are biochemical and center around microbial activity. Most reactions occur at low temperatures in presence of enzymes which in turn are temperature sensitive. Most are in the mesophyllic classification and thrive on temperature range of 10 to 40C.Maximum activity occurs between 30 and 37C and then falls off. Taste and odor problems may be induced by temperature that accelerates chemical or biochemical action, particularly when oxygen is depleted. Substances which may accumulate include H2S, SO2,CH4,SOX,iron compounds, carbonates, sulfates and phenols. Tastes and odors are more pronounced in warm water because of decreased solubility. When temperatures of receiving waters rise the action of microorganisms cause BOD to be satisfied in shorter distances from discharge of biodegradable organic material. Increased temperature has mixed effects on specific chemical reactions. Disinfection action is increased, coagulant dosages are contradictory, increase slime and algae, taste and odor are increased. BIOLOGICAL Temperature is important to maintenance of optimum characteristics in water - based ecological systems. Example- temperatures wich do not kill fish or shellfish may produce effects in metabolism, reproduction and growth as well as reducing certain food organisms. This will upset balance in the hole system. Because of complexity of natural systems, it is misleading to generalize on temperature effects on aquatic biota.More proper is to study locally important species.

FISH LIFE Temperature directly effects physiology of fish. Fish approach temperature of surroundings, differing by only 0.5-10C.External temperature must be suited to internal temperature needs.Individual species vary in effects. Rates of metabolism increase with temperature up to lethal limit.Rates vary and are affected by oxygen level and salinity.Rate changes may be indicators for spawning migrations. Effects on death mechanism: 1. Accelaration of enzyme reactions may make enzyme inactive 2. Coagulation of cell proteins 3. Reduction in permeability of cell membranes 4. production of toxic products Temperature range within wich fish reproduce is narrow.Temperature affects embryonic development.Temperature affects occurrence of fish life.Some fish are more tolerant of temperature ranges. Simultaneous actions may affect fish life(synergistic action).For instance, the effect of NaCN increases with temperature.Temperature and toxicity effects are common. Decrease in dissolved O2 and rise in metabolism rate may combine to make environment less compatible to fish life. Acclimation temperatures are important to fish life. Gradual changes are better tolerated than quick changes. Fish seek out temperature best suited for survival, called "preferred temperature". Incubation of eggs and development of fry is critically sensitive to temperature. Shellfish: Physiology, metabolism and development of many species are affected by temperature. Algae and other aquatic plants: Increased temperature often eliminates desirable species and helps establish undesirable ones, which is a complicated problem and requires specific study. Bacteria In general, growth increases with temperature if food is abundant. not necessarily harmful unless pathogens increase.

Sources and Methods of Thermal Pollution (4) Major sources Power plants creating electricity from fossil fuel Methods of pollution 1. Electricity is generated by heat stored in the fossil fuels and the stored energy creates a heat flow that drives turbine 2. The turbines then generate electricity 3. All the electricity try to be organized so that it may travel in the same direction in a small line 4. Organization of this sort is created by man and so it does not occur naturally 5. Excess heat is then created because of the unnatural processes of creating organization Water as cooling agent

heat exchangers exchange heat with other streams in the factory because there steps which needs heat while other steps generates heat, leaving streams no options for intermediate temperature evaporate cooling steam is used in many final heating processes. Cooling by condensation generates great amount of waste heat from factory. Cooling comes from evaporation because ambient air is not saturated with water. Air discharged from cooling tower is a direct contribution to global warming further contributes to the problem in two ways:
o o

Deforestation of shoreline

aggravates soil erosion activity increases amount of light that strikes the water

Soil erosion

sedimentation at lakes and streams makes the water muddy muddy water lowers the clarity of water, with the introduction of impurities to the water, containing microbes and dissolved minerals, which increase the light absorption from the atmosphere increase light absorption will see a rise in the temperature of water from the heat energy of light.

Thermal pollution occurs when warm water enters a stream or a lake that is normally cold. Most people think of thermal pollution as a direct (or point) source such as a power plant that takes in cold water for cooling processes and then releases warm water back into the stream.> Thermal stormwater runoff is a bit more complicated. There are a number of ways stormwater or snowmelt are warmed before entering a lake or a stream. > As the state becomes more developed, there is a greater area of ground that is covered by pavement. Think about walking across a parking lot or road with bare feet on a hot summer day. It burns your feet. If a thunderstorm hits that afternoon, the rain landing on that pavement is going to cool the pavement but the water is heated up. Because pavement doesn't allow water to soak in, the heated water is going to runoff the lot, down a storm drain or through a culvert or ditch, into a stream. Rip rap (large angular rocks used to stabilize banks) along a stream or lake also heats up in the sun. Rain falling on the heated rip rap at the waters edge can result in a rapid discharge of heated water to the lake or stream. The heated stormwater runoff will heat up the water in the stream or lake. If the water is emptied into an important pool where brook trout are hanging out on a hot August day, it may have devastating effects on the fish population. Trees and other plants are very important to water temperature. Vegetation naturally occurs along streams, rivers and lakes. Their presence is very important as they shade the water to help keep it cool. If the trees are not there, there is no shade. Tree roots also serve to hold soil in place. Without the trees, soil erosion adds its impact to thermal pollution. One of the side effects of soil entering streams, rivers and lakes is that it makes the water cloudy. Cloudy water absorbs more sunlight, which heats up the water. Another thermal impact of soil is that eroded soil fills in stream beds causing the channels to widen, become shallower and slow the current. Shallower channels are more easily heated up by the sun than deeper water. Regardless of the source, thermal pollution can have severe impacts on aquatic ecosystems. First, warm water cannot hold as much dissolved oxygen as cold water can. Rapid loss of oxygen levels and increases in temperature can cause stress for many cold water fish. Warmer water temperatures also encourage photosynthesis and growth in many aquatic plants, such as algae. Greater amounts of algae and other plants means more plant material to decompose with the help of bacteria in the fall. That process uses a lot of oxygen, which adds to the stress on fish and other organisms.

Thermal Pollution is a harmful increase in water temperature in streams, rivers, lakes, or occasionally, coastal ocean waters. Thermal pollution is caused, for example, by either dumping hot water from factories and power plants or removing trees and vegetation that shade streams, permitting sunlight to raise the temperature of these waters. It is also caused by release of very cold water from the base of reservoirs. Like other forms of water pollution, thermal pollution is widespread, affecting many lakes and vast numbers of streams and rivers in all parts of the world. A temperature increase as small as 1 or 2 degrees Celsius (about 2 to 4 Fahrenheit degrees), can kill native fish, shellfish, and plants, or drive them out in favor of other species, often with undesirable effects.

The major sources of thermal pollution are electric power plants and industrial factories. In most electric power plants, heat is produced when coal, oil, or natural gas is burned or nuclear fuels undergo fission to release huge amounts of energy. This heat turns water to steam, which in turn spins turbines to produce electricity. After doing its work, the spent steam must be cooled and condensed back into water. To condense the steam, cool water is brought into the plant and circulated next to the hot steam. In this process, the water used for cooling warms 5 to 10 Celsius degrees (9 to 18 Fahrenheit degrees), after which it may be dumped back into the lake, river, or ocean from which it came. Similarly, factories contribute to thermal pollution when they dump water used to cool their machinery.

The second type of thermal pollution is much more widespread. Streams and small lakes are naturally kept cool by trees and other tall plants that block sunlight. People often remove this shading vegetation in order to harvest the wood in the trees, to make room for crops, or to construct buildings, roads, and other structures. Left unshaded, the water warms by as much as 10 Celsius degrees (18 Fahrenheit degrees). In a similar manner, grazing sheep and cattle can strip streamsides of low vegetation, including young trees. Even the removal of vegetation far away from a stream or lake can contribute to thermal pollution by speeding up the erosion of soil into the water, making it muddy. Muddy water absorbs more energy from the sun than clear water does, resulting in further heating. Finally, water running off of artificial surfaces, such as streets, parking lots, and roofs, is warmer than water running off vegetated land and, thus, contributes to thermal pollution.

All plant and animal species that live in water are adapted to temperatures within a certain range. When water in an area warms more than they can tolerate, species that cannot move, such as rooted plants and shellfish, will die. Species that can move, such as fish, will leave the area in search of cooler conditions, and they will die if they can not find them. Typically, other species, often less desirable, will move into the area to fill the vacancy.

In general, cold waters are better habitat for plants and animals than warm ones because cold waters contain more dissolved oxygen. Many freshwater fish species that are valued for sport and food, especially trout and salmon, do poorly in warm water. Some organisms do thrive in warm water, often with undesirable effects. Algae and other plants grow more rapidly in warm water than in cold, but they

also die more rapidly; the bacteria that decompose their dead tissue use up oxygen, further reducing the amount available for animals. The dead and decaying algae make the water extremely unpleasant, in an overall process called eutrophication.

Thermal pollution from power plants and factories is relatively easy to control. Instead of discharging heated water into lakes and streams, power plants and factories can pass the heated water through cooling towers or cooling ponds, where evaporation cools the water before it is discharged. Alternatively, power plants can be designed or refitted to be more efficient and to produce less waste heat in the first place. In a process called cogeneration, the excess heat energy from generating electricity can be used in another manufacturing process that needs such energy. Where homes or other buildings are located near industrial plants, waste hot water can be used for heatingan arrangement often found in Scandinavian towns and cities, and proposed for use in China.

To prevent thermal pollution due to devegetation, the prescription is simple: do not devegetate. Landowners can leave strips of trees and vegetation along streams and shorelines. Grazing livestock can be kept away from streamsides by fencing. All efforts to control erosion also have the effect of keeping water clearer and, thus, cooler.

As a practical matter, however, thermal pollution from devegetation is quite hard to control because it is caused by the cumulative effect of many peoples actions, most of which are individually minor. Regulations focus on a few of the most important threats. Grazing management plans, for instance, are intended to counter thermal pollution and other problems on lands owned by the federal government. In the United States, regulations governing logging on both public and private lands supposedly protect streamsides, though enforcement is often lax. Elsewhere, streamside protection is largely up to private landowners, encouraged and aided by such advisory organizations as the federal Natural Resources Conservation Service and cooperative Resource Conservation Districts.