I.

The Nature of Solutions A. Properties of Solutions Solutions homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances in a single physical state. 1. Particles in a solution: a. are atoms, ions or molecules, b. are evenly distributed (homogeneous), c. will not separate under constant conditions, d. cannot be filtered out easily, e. considered a single phase of matter. 2. Solute substance that is dissolved a. usually undergoes a change of physical state 3. Solvent substance that does the dissolving a. substance in greatest amount if no change of state occurs 4. Soluble may be dissolved in a specified solvent 5. Insoluble cant be dissolved in a specified solvent 6. Aqueous (aq) solution in which water is the solvent 7. Tincture solutions in which alcohol is the solvent B. Types of Solutions 1. solid solutions mixtures of solids uniformly spread throughout one another at the atomic or molecular level a. alloy solid solution containing 2 or more metals example brass is an alloy of copper and zinc 2. gaseous solutions gases or vapors dissolved in one another a. all mixtures of gases are solutions example air in which oxygen is dissolved in nitrogen 3. liquid solutions liquid solvent in which a gas, solid or liquid is dissolved example soda (CO2 dissolved in water)

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example antifreeze (ethylene glycol dissolved in water) example sea water (salt dissolved in water) a. miscible two liquids that dissolve in each other in any proportions (e.g., water and alcohol) b. immiscible two liquids that do not dissolve in each other in any noticeable way (e.g., water and oil) Aqueous Solutions 1. Aqueous solutions = solutions in which water is the solvent a. electrolyte solute that forms an aqueous solution capable of carrying an electric current (most often ionic substances) b. non-electrolyte - solute that forms an aqueous solution incapable of carrying an electric current (most often molecular substances)

II.

Concentration of Solutions Solution Concentration quantity of solute dissolved in a specific quantity of solvent or solution A. General Concentration Descriptions 1. Concentrated Solution one in which a relatively large amount of solute is dissolved. 2. Dilute Solution one in which the amount of solute dissolved is small in relation to the amount of solvent B. Measuring Solution Concentrations 1. Molarity a. unit of concentration that states the number of moles of solute in 1 liter of solution.

Molarity (M) =

moles of solute (mol) liters of solution (L)

A 1 molar solution of sucrose dissolved in water has 1 mole (6.022 x 1023 molecules) of sucrose in each 1 liter of solution

2.

Molality a. unit of concentration that states the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kilogram of solvent

Molality (m) =
3.

moles of solute (mol) kilograms of solvent (kg)

Mole Fraction a. unit of concentration that states the ratio of one component in moles to the total number of moles in the solution

Mole fraction (X) =

b. 4.

moles of solute total moles of solution

The sum of the mole fractions of all components in a solution must equal 1. Percentage by mass a. unit of concentration that states the number of parts by mass of solute per hundred parts by mass solution

Percentage by mass =

mass of solute total mass of solution

x 100

C.

Example: 15% aqueous solution of sodium chloride contains 15g of NaCl in 100g of solution. (15g NaCl , 85g water) Saturated Solutions 1. A solution that has dissolved in it all the solute that it can normally hold at the given conditions.

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D.

E.

As additional solute is dissolved, solute in the solution will fall out so that equilibrium is maintained. 3. Solution equilibrium is the physical state in which there is a continuous interchange between the dissolved and undissolved portion of the solute. Unsaturated Solutions 1. A solution that contains less solute than it can hold at a certain temperature and pressure Supersaturated Solutions 1. A solution that contains more solute than it normally holds. a. This type of solution is made by heating the solution as additional solute is added beyond the saturation equilibrium.

III. Formation of Solutions A. Solution Formation 1. Occurs at the surface of a solute in 2 steps a. Solvent particles attach to solute particles by way of electrostatic forces (van der Waals forces)

b.

2.

Solvent particles carry away solute particles then surround them. c. Vocabulary: Solvation the attaching of solvent particles to solute particles Hydration the adhering of water molecules to dissolved ions Dissociation the separation of ions in solution Energy in the solution process a. Energy is required to break the attractions of the particles of solute and to break the attractions within the solvent move the solute particles apart once they are in solution b. The process of breaking attractions requires energy and is endothermic c. The process of forming new attraction releases energy and is exothermic

The net energy flow is determined by comparing the endothermic and exothermic reactions B. Solubility amount of a solute that will dissolve in a specific solvent under given conditions C. Factors Affecting Solubility 1. Nature of the solute and solvent (attraction) Solvent Solute Attraction Non-polar Polar Low (solute sticks to itself) Polar Non-polar Low (solvent sticks to itself) Non-polar Non-polar Low (but soluble) Polar Polar High (partial charges attract) Polar Ionic High (partial + full charge attract) like dissolves like 2. Temperature a. Typically an increase in temperature results in an increase in solubility. If the solution process is endothermic, raising the temp will increase solubility. If the solution process is exothermic, raising the temp will lower solubility. b. For all gases, however, solubility decreases as the temperature of the solvent increases. (e.g., warm soda loses its fizz faster) 3. Pressure a. For solids and liquids, there is very little change in solubility due to pressure. b. For gases, solubility increases with increased pressure over the gas. c. Henrys Law solubility of a gas is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid. Factors Affecting the Rate of Solution 1. The rate of solution is a measure of how fast a substance dissolves.

d.

D.

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Factors affecting the rate are: a. Size of the particles b. Stirring c. Amount of solute already dissolved d. Temperature For liquids and solids increased temperatures increase the rate of solution For gases, increased temperature decreases the rate of solution.

IV. Colligative Properties Colligative Properties a property of a solution that depends on the amount of solute present, but not the nature of the solute A. Vapor Pressure Reduction 1. When a non-volatile solute is added to a pure solvent, the solute takes up space at the surface and decreases the ability of solvent particles to vaporize therefore, lowering the vapor pressure of the solvent B. Boiling Point Elevation 1. When vapor pressure is reduced, it becomes harder to over come the pressure of the atmosphere. The boiling point of the solvent is elevated. Tb = Kbm Where, Tb = boiling point elevation Kb = molal boiling point constant (specific to the solvent) and m = molality of the solution. C. Freezing Point Depression 1. Freezing point of a substance is the only point at which the vapor pressures of the solid and liquid phases are equal. If one lowers the vapor pressure of the liquid by adding a non-volatile solute, the vapor pressure of the liquid is reduced. If the vapor pressure

D.

E.

of the liquid is reduced, the vapor pressure at which the solution will solidify will also reduce. Tf = Kfm Where, Tf = freezing point depression, Kf = molal freezing point constant (specific to the solvent) and m = molality of the solution. Osmotic Pressure 1. Movement of solvent to areas of higher concentration across a semi-permeable membrane. 2. Osmotic pressure increases with concentration. Determining Molar Mass 1. Use colligative properties to work backwards from freezing point depression or boiling point elevation to determine the molality of a substance, then its molar mass.