apchemistrynmsi.wikispaces.com Chapter 1: REVIEWread the chapter!

Know chart p. 9

CHAPTERS 1-3 REVIEW

Significant digits: p. 13-15 for rules

1. How many significant digits are in the following: a. 12 ____ e. 0.0000101 b. 1098 c. 2001 d. 2.001 x 103 ____ ____ ____ f. 1.01 x 10-5 g. 1000. h. 22.04030

____ ____ ____ ____

2. Round each of the followings to three significant digits: a. 312.54 ________ d. 0.00031254 ________ b. 31,254,000 ________ e. 0.31254 ________

c. 31.254 x 10-3 ________ 3. Perform the following mathematical operations and express each result to the correct number of significant digits: a. 97.381 + 4.2502 + 0.99195 ________ b. 171.5 + 72.915 8.23 c. 0.102 x 0.0821 x 273 1.01 d. 312 x 3.0 e. 11200/15 ________ ________ ________ ________

Dimensional Analysis: p. 17-21

4. Do the following conversions using dimensional analysis: a. 8.43 cm to millimeters

b. 2.42 x 102 cm to meters

c. 903.3 nm to micrometers

d. 8.0 dm3 to liters (hint: need to think about the relationship between mL and cm3)

Properties and classification of matter:

5. Classify each of the following as a mixture or a pure substance. If it is a pure substance, state if it is an element or a compound. a. Water ________ b. Blood ________ c. The oceans ________ d. Iron ________ e. Brass ________ f. wine ________ g. Table salt (NaCl) _______ h. leather ________ 6. A rectangular block has dimensions 2.9 cm x 3.5 cm x 10.0 cm. The mass of the block is 615.0 g. What are the volume and the density of the block?

7. Diamonds are measured in carats, and 1 carat=0.200g. The density of diamond is 3.51 g/cm3. What is the volume of a 5.0 carat diamond?

8. A sample containing 33.42 g of metal pellets is poured into a graduated cylinder initially containing 12.7 mL of water, causing the water level in the cylinder to rise to 21.6 mL. Calculate the density of the metal.

(For a gas at STP, density=

MM ) 22.4 L/mole

Chapter 2: REVIEWread the chapter! Atoms, Molecules and Ions

THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS: Mass is neither created nor destroyed. 2

THE LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS: A given compound always contains exactly the same proportions of elements by mass. THE LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS: When two elements combine to form a series of compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with 1 gram of the first element can always be reduced to small whole numbers. AVOGADROS HYPOTHESIS: At the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain the same number of particles.

Daltons ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER: (based on knowledge at that time): 1. All matter is made of atoms. These indivisible and indestructible objects are the ultimate chemical particles. 2. All the atoms of a given element are identical, in both weight and chemical properties. However, atoms of different elements have different weights and different chemical properties. 3. Compounds are formed by the combination of different atoms in the ratio of small whole numbers. 4. A chemical reaction involves only the combination, separation, or rearrangement of atoms; atoms are neither created nor destroyed in the course of ordinary chemical reactions.

**TWO MODIFICATIONS HAVE BEEN MADE TO DALTON'S THEORY 1. Subatomic particles were discovered. 2. Isotopes were discovered.

9. Complete the following table: Symbol # protons # neutrons 33 42

#electrons

Net charge 3+

54
128 52

Te216 16 16

81

123

1+ 3

195 78

Pt

NOMENCLATURE p. 60-71 10. Name the following compounds: (binary) a. NaCl ________________ b. AlI3 ________________ c. CaBr2 ________________ d. FeBr3 ________________

e. Li3N ________________ f. CaS ________________ g. Al2O3 ________________ h. Cr2O3 ________________

11. Name the following compounds: (ternarypolyatomic ions) a. Al2(SO4) 3 ________________ e. K2Cr2O7 ________________ b. BaSO3 ________________ f. Na2CO3________________ c. KClO2 ________________ g. Ca3PO4________________ d. NaNO2 ________________ h. HC2H3O2 ________________ 12. Write the formulas for the following: (binary) a. Cesium bromide ________ e. copper I chloride b. Beryllium oxide ________ f. lithium nitride c. Magnesium fluoride ________ g. tin II fluoride d. Lead IV sulfide ________ h. zinc sulfide

________ ________ ________ ________

13. Write the formulas for the following: (ternarypolyatomic ions) a. Ammonium fluoride ________ e. potassium cyanide b. Barium sulfate ________ f. ammonium acetate c. Chromium III carbonate ________ g. cobalt III nitrate d. Potassium chlorate ________ h. sodium sulfite 14. Name the following molecule: (covalent bonds) a. CO ________________ d. SO2 ________________ b. SF6 ________________ e. N2O4 ________________ c. S4N4 ________________ f. SiO2 ________________ 15. Write the formulas for the following: (covalently bonded) a. Chlorine monoxide ________ d. nitrogen trichloride ________ b. Silicon tetrachloride ________ e. silicon dioxide ________ c. Sulfur hexafluoride ________ f. carbon dioxide ________

________ ________ ________ ________

Naming ACIDS p. 71 No oxygen: gets prefix HydroGets suffix ic hydrochloric acid hydrobromic acid hydrocyanic acid hydrosulfuric acid

Examples: HCl HBr HCN H2S

Oxygen present: ion ending -ate -ic -ite -ous

ACID ACID

Examples: HNO2 nitrous acid HNO3 nitric acid HC2H3O2 acetic acid HF H3PO4 H2SO4 HClO3 HI H2SO3 HClO2 HClO4

See figure 2-25. Be familiar with acids on p. 71.

Chapter 3: REVIEWread the chapter! 3.1 ATOMIC MASSES

! ! CCarbon 12Serves as the standard and would be defined to have a mass of EXACTLY 12 atomic mass units (amu). All other atomic masses are measured relative to this. mass spectrometera device for measuring the mass of atoms or moleculesunderstand how it works Mass13C o = 1.0836129 Mass13C = (1.0836129 )(12amu ) = 13.003355 amu 12 Mass C
12

Exact by definition
!

average atomic massesatoms have masses of whole numbers, HOWEVER samples of quadrillions of atoms have a few that are heavier or lighter [isotopes] due to different numbers of neutrons present percent abundance--percentage of atoms in a natural sample of the pure element represented by a 5

particular isotope percent abundance = number of atoms of a given isotope x 100 Total number of atoms of all isotopes of that element mass spectrometer to determine isotopic compositionload in a pure sample of natural neon or other 20 substance. The areas of the peaks or heights of the bars indicate the relative abundances of 10 Ne ,
21 10

Ne , and

22 10

Ne

Determining elemental atomic mass from isotope data The atomic mass of an element is the average atomic mass of all its isotopes. Example: p. 122 #21 The element magnesium has three stable isotopes 24Mg (23.9850 amu 78.99%), 25Mg (24.9858 amu, 10.00%), and 26Mg (25.9826 amu, 11.01%). What is the average atomic mass of magnesium?

Example: The element europium exists in nature as two isotopes; Eu-151 has a mass of 150.9196 amu and Eu153 has a mass of 152.9209 amu. The average atomic mass of europium is 151.96. Calculate the relative abundance of the two isotopes.

Moles
The mole is a number of items, just as a dozen is a number of items The mole is the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of 12C The number of atoms in 12 grams of 12C is 6.022 x 1023 Therefore the number of items in a mole is 6.022 x 1023 The value of the number of items in a mole is called Avogadros number Therefore, Avogadros number is 6.022 x 1023 Also, 1 mole of a gas at STP is 22.4 L 6

Example: What mass of aluminum contains twice as many atoms as 35.00 grams of copper?

molar mass, MM--the mass in grams of Avogadros number of molecules; i.e. the mass of a mole!

Exercise 3.7

Calculating Molar Mass II

Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), also called calcite, is the principal mineral found in limestone, marble, chalk, pearls, and the shells of marine animals such as clams. a. Calculate the molar mass of calcium carbonate.

b. A certain sample of calcium carbonate contains 4.86 moles. What is the mass in grams of this sample? What is the mass of the CO32- ions present?

Exercise 3.8

Molar Mass and Numbers of Molecules

Isopentyl acetate (C7H14O2), the compound responsible for the scent of bananas, can be produced commercially. Interestingly, bees release about 1g (1.00 x 10-6 g) of this compound when they sting. The resulting scent attracts other bees to join the attack. How many molecules of isopentyl acetate are released in a typical bee sting?

How many atoms of carbon are present?

Moles and molecules Example: How many molecules are in 160 grams of water (H2O)?

Example: How many atoms are in 160 grams of water?

Two common ways of describing the composition of a compound: in terms of the number of its constituent atoms and in terms of the percentages (by mass) of its elements. Percent (by mass) Composition: law of constant composition states that any sample of a pure compound always consists of the same elements combined in the same proportions by mass. % comp = mass of desired element 100 Total mass of compound Percent composition the mass percent of all the elements in a substance

Example: What is the percent composition by mass of each of the elements in calcium nitrate?

Example: How many grams of nitrogen are there in 25 g of calcium nitrate?

Example: Determine the mass in grams of the indicated element in each of the following:
1. grams of carbon in 5.4 grams of CO2

2. kilograms of chlorine in 1.00 kilogram of NaCl

Determining the formula of a compound

The empirical formula indicates the simplest whole number ratio between the numbers of atoms of the elements in a substance The molecular formula indicates the number of atoms of each element in a molecule of substance Consider hydrogen peroxide - H2O2 molecular formula - H2O2 Empirical formula HO To determine the empirical formula from percent composition 1. Find the number of grams of each element in a certain mass of the compound (100 grams) 2. Calculate the number of moles of each element in his mass 3. Find the ratios of these numbers of moles 4. Convert these ratios to the smallest whole numbers To determine the molecular formula: 1. divide the molar mass by the empirical formula mass; the result will be an integer 2. multiply the subscripts of the empirical formula by this integer. hydratesdot waters used to cement crystal structures. anhydrous--without water Exercise 3.11 Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas I

Determine the empirical and molecular formulas for a compound that gives the following analysis (in mass percents): 71.65% C1 24.27% C The molar mass is known to be 98.96 g/mol.

4.07% H

Exercise 3.13

Determining a Molecular Formula

Caffeine, a stimulant found in coffee, tea, and chocolate, contains 49.48% carbon, 5.15% hydrogen, 28.87% nitrogen, and 16.49% oxygen by mass and has a molar mass of 194.2 g/mol. Determine the molecular formula of caffeine.

When faced with a compound of unknown formula, one of the most common techniques is to combust it with oxygen to produce CO2, H2O, and sometimes another gas which are then collected and weighed. See p. 99-100 for summary tables. Example 1: A compound contains only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Combustion of 10.68 mg of the compound yields 16.01 mg CO2 and 4.37 mg H2O. The molar mass of the compound is 176.1 g/mol. What are the empirical and molecular formulas of the compound?

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Example 2: A compound is composed of carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen. When 0.1156 g of this compound is reacted with oxygen [burned, combusted], 0.1638 g or carbon dioxide and 0.1676 g of water are collected. What is the empirical formula of the compound?

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CHEMICAL REACTIONS Chemical reactions are the result of a chemical change where atoms are reorganized into one or more new arrangements. Bonds are broken [requires energy] and new ones are formed [releases energy].

Balancing Chemical Equations

balanced chemical equation--shows the relative amounts of reactants [left] and products [right] by molecule or by mole. " NO ENERGY or TIME is alluded to Example: Methane gas burns in gaseous oxygen. The products are carbon dioxide and water vapor. CH4(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g) Reactants give, yield or form Products States of reactants and products are indicated in parentheses after their symbols (s) solid (g) gas or vapor (l) liquid (aq) aqueous ( dissolved in water) To balance a reactionin general: ! Begin with the most complicated-looking thing (often the scariest, too). ! Save the elemental thing for last. ! If you get stuck, double the most complicated-looking thing. ! MEMORIZE THE FOLLOWING: " metals + halogens MaXb " CH and/or O + O2 CO2(g) + H2O(g) " H2CO3 [any time formed!] CO2 + H2O; in other words, never write carbonic acid as a product, it spontaneously decomposes [in an open container] to become carbon dioxide and water. " metal carbonates metal OXIDES + CO2 12

Balance the following reactions 1. C6H12O6(s) + O2(g) ====> 2. Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 3. Al2O3(s) + 4. AsH3(g) + 5. Ca(s) + Na3PO4(aq) ====> ====>

CO2(g) + ====>

H2O NaNO3(aq)

Ca3(PO4)2(s) + H2O(l)

HCl(aq) KClO3(s)

AlCl3(aq) + KCl(s) +

H3AsO4

H2O(l) ====> Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2 H3AsO4 (aq) ====> PbHAsO4(s) + HNO3(aq)

6. Pb(NO3)2 (aq) +

7. .....Mg(s) + .....NO3(aq) +.....H+(aq) --->......Mg2+(aq) + ....NH4+(aq) + ....H2O(l) Exercise 3.14 Balancing a Chemical Equation I

Chromium compounds exhibit a variety of bright colors. When solid ammonium dichromate, (NH4)2Cr2O7, a vivid orange compound, is ignited, a spectacular reaction occurs, as shown in the two photographs on page 105. Although the reaction is actually somewhat more complex, lets assume here that the products are solid chromium(III) oxide, nitrogen gas (consisting of N2 molecules), and water vapor. Balance the equation for this reaction.

Exercise 3.15

Balancing a Chemical Equation II

At 1000C, ammonia gas, NH3(g), reacts with oxygen gas to form gaseous nitric oxide, NO(g), and water vapor. This reaction is the first step in the commercial production of nitric acid by the Ostwald process. Balance the equation for this reaction.

3.8 STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS

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This is the most important thing you can remember as you embark upon AP Chemistry! Get good at this and you will do well all year. This NEVER goes away! Basic concepts: ! Writing CORRECT formulasthis requires knowledge of your ions. Review section 2.8 in your text and refer to hand-out. ! Calculate CORRECT molar masses from a correctly written formula ! Balance a chemical equation ! Find mole ratios (from balanced equation) ! Use dimensional analysis or anything else! Examples: 1. How many moles of O2 will react with 0.50 moles of Al? Al(s) + O2 Al2O3

2. When ammonium dichromate, (NH4)2Cr2O7 ( 252.1 g/mole), is heated, it decomposes to nitrogen gas, chromium oxide and water. (NH4)2Cr2O7 (s) N2 (g) + Cr2O3(s) + H2O (l) How many molecules of H2O will be produced when 1.0 grams of ammonium dichromate is heated

Limiting Reactants
The amount of products obtained in a chemical reaction is limited by the amounts of the reactants. The limiting reactant [or reagent] is the one you consume first in the chemical reaction. Plan of attack: First, youll know you need a plan if you are given TWO amounts of matter that react.

Lets use a famous process [meaning one the AP exam likes to ask questions about!], the Haber process. This is basically making ammonia for fertilizer production from the nitrogen in the air reacted with hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas is obtained from the reaction of methane with water vapor. This process has saved millions from starvation!! The reaction is below:

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N2 + 3H2

2NH3

Suppose 25.0 kg of nitrogen reacts with 5.00 kg of hydrogen to form ammonia. What mass of ammonia can be produced? Which reactant is the limiting reactant? What is the mass of the reactant that is in excess? 1. Find the number of moles of each substance from given information.

3. WHAT IF I used up all the moles of hydrogen? Id need 1/3 x 2,475 moles = 825 moles of nitrogen. Clearly I have EXCESS moles of nitrogen!! Therefore, hydrogen limits me.

OR
WHAT IF I used up all the moles of nitrogen? Id need 3 x 892 moles = 2676 moles of hydrogen. Clearly I dont have enough hydrogen, so it limits me!! Therefore nitrogen is in excess.

Either way, Ive established that hydrogen is the limiting reactant. That means Ill use up all the hydrogen but not all the nitrogen! What mass of ammonia can be produced?

What is the mass of the reactant that is in excess?

Examples: 1. Nitrogen gas can be prepared by passing gaseous ammonia over solid copper(II)oxide at high temperatures. The other products of the reaction are solid copper and water vapor. If a sample containing 18.1 grams of NH3 is reacted with 90.4 g of CuO, which is the limiting reactant? How many grams of N2 will be formed?

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2. How many moles of water can be made from 3.0 moles of H2 and 2.0 moles of O2?

3. What is the limiting reactant in the reaction between 5.0 moles of NH3 and 7.0 moles of O2? 4 NH3 (g) + 5 O2 (g) ====> 4 NO(g) + 6 H2O(g)

Another way of finding limiting reactant

How many grams of MgCl2 will be produced when 15.8 grams of Mg are mixed with 14.6 grams of HCl? Mg(s) + 2 HCl(aq) MgCl2 + H2 Given: 15.8 gms Mg 14.6 grams HCl Find: grams MgCl2

Convert masses of reactants to moles 15.8 g Mg 1 mole = 0.65 mol Mg 24.30 g Mg 14.6 g HCl 1 mole = 0.400 mol HCl 36.46 g HCl

Find limiting reactant: Actual Mg 0.65 HCl 0.40 A>R bottom is limiting

= 1.625

Reaction Mg 1.0 = 0.5 HCl 2.0

HCl is limiting

Use the amount of HCl to find the grams of MgCl2 Moles HCl moles MgCl2

grams MgCl2

Theoretical Yield: The amount of product formed when a limiting reactant is completely consumed. This assumes perfect conditions and gives a maximum amount!! Actual yield: That which is experimentally yielded 16

Percent yield: The ratio of actual to theoretical yield. Actual Yield x 100% = Percent yield Theoretical Yield

Exercise 3.19

Calculating Percent Yield

Methanol (CH3OH), also called methyl alcohol, is the simplest alcohol. It is used as a fuel in race cars and is a potential replacement for gasoline. Methanol can be manufactured by combination of gaseous carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Suppose 68.5 kg CO(g) is reacted with 8.60 kg H2(g). Calculate the theoretical yield of methanol. If 3.57 x 104 g CH3OH is actually produced, what is the percent yield of methanol ?

Practice problems 1. Washing soda, a compound used to prepare hard water for washing laundry, is a hydrate, which means that a certain number of water molecules are included in its solid structure. Its formula can be written as Na2CO3 x H2O, where x is the number of moles of H2O per moles of Na2CO3. When a 2.558 g sample of washing soda is heated at 125C, all the water of hydration is lost, leaving 0.948 g of Na2CO3. What is the value of x?

2. Aluminum burns in bromine, producing aluminum bromide Write the reaction In a certain experiment, 6.0 g of aluminum was reacted with an excess of bromine to yield 50.3 grams of aluminum bromide. Calculate the theoretical and percent yields for this experiment

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3. Calculate the average atomic mass for Krypton using the data below: 78 Kr 0.356% 80 Kr 2.27% 82 Kr 11.6% 83 Kr 11.5% 84 Kr 57.0% 86 Kr 17.3%

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