I. Objectives 1. To understand what hardness is, and how it can be used to indicate some properties of materials. 2.

Student can decide how far the estimate value for materials (value of tensile strength, hardness brinell, Rockwell, yield point, and ultimate point) and what is the suitable test method for materials. 3. To be able to understand the correlation between hardness numbers and the properties of materials. 4. To learn the advantages and limitations of the common hardness test methods. II. Basic Theory 1. Brinell Test
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Brinell test use to determine hardness metal which has hardness between for 50 HB 750 HB. There two kind type of brinell there are : brinell S which is hardness < 450 HBS with the indenter is made from steel ball (S) and brinell W which is hardness < 650 HBW with the indenter is made from carbide (wolfram).

Brinell test method does to specimen with indenter for gaining expressure plastic and the diameter which is left in specimen measured with loop ruler.

Brinell test method : 1. 2. 3. 4. The indenter is pressed into the sample by an accurately The force is maintained for a specific dwell time, normally 10 After the dwell time is complete, the indenter is removed The size of the indent is determined optically by measuring

controlled test force. 15 seconds. leaving a round indent in the sample. two diagonals of the round indent using either a portable loop or one that is integrated with the load application device. 5. The Brinell hardness number is a function of the test force divided by the curved surface area of the indent. The indentation is considered to be spherical with a radius equal to half the diameter of the ball.
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6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Determining indenter which is will use (D) Determining C (weight of constant) Value of force that will use in testing F = C X D2 Measure diameter after test (d) Accounting dept after test (h), The formula follow as :

h=

Determining of diameter indenter has aim to determine result of diameter (d) can enter range of testing condition (0,24D < d < 0,6D).

The thickness of sample is minimal must be 8 times thicker than h (dept after test). This rule is to aim that value of hardness isnt influence with base of testing, because its could be deformation plastic on the bottom surface.

Because of the wide test force range the Brinell test can be used on almost any metallic material. advantages 1. One scale covers the entire hardness range, although comparable results can only be obtained if the ball size and test force relationship is the same. 2. A wide range of test forces and ball sizes to suit every application. 3. Nondestructive, sample can normally be reused.

Weaknesses
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1.

The main drawback of the Brinell test is the need to optically measure the indent size. This requires that the test point be finished well enough to make an accurate measurement.

2.

Slow. Testing can take 30 seconds not counting the sample preparation time.

Center pressure distance allowed

2.5 d 4d

2. Rockwell Test
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Rockwell hardness values are expressed as a combination of a hardness number and a scale symbol representing the indenter and the minor and major loads. The hardness number is expressed by the symbol HR and the scale designation. Principal Rockwell test :

1. 2. 3. 4. -

The indenter moves down into position on the part surface. A minor load is applied and a zero reference position is The major load is applied for a specified time period (dwell The major load is released leaving the minor load applied .

established. time) beyond zero . There are two types of Rockwell tests:
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1. Rockwell: the minor load is 10 kgf, the major load is 60, 100, or 150

kgf.
2. Superficial Rockwell: the minor load is 3 kgf and major loads are

15, 30, or 45 kgf. In both tests, the indenter may be either a diamond cone or steel ball, depending upon the characteristics of the material being tested.
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Using Rockwell Machine :

1.

Cleaning indenter and test-piece to be clear of dirt, grease, rust or paint. Turn on rockwell machine and set the machine with rockwell type C.

2.

3. Ensuring that the thickness of the test-piece is at least 10 times the depth of the indentation 4. Move around the panel till the machine show at start position.
5.

After machine at start position automatically machine read the hardness of material.

6. Move around back to realease sample from machine.

There are 4 kind of type Rockwell with application : 1. Rockwell C : 20 till 70 HRC Application : hardened steel, hardened alloy, annealed alloy 2. Rockwell A : 60 till 88 HRA

Application : hardened metal such as carbide. 3. Rockwell B : 35 till 100 HRB

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Application

: material with medium hardness. Such as low carbon steel, annealed Cu-Zn, Cu.

4. Rockwell F : 60 till 115 HRF Application : sheet metal cold work, annealed Cu-Zn,Cu

Indenter of rockwell has two type there are conus and steel ball.

3. Tensile Strength Definition of Tensile Strength There are three definitions of tensile strength:
Yield strength

The stress at which material strain changes from elastic deformation to plastic deformation, causing it to deform permanently.
Ultimate strength The maximum stress a material can withstand when subjected to

tension, compression or shearing. It is the maximum stress on the stress-strain curve. Breaking strength
The stress coordinate on the stress-strain curve at the point of

rupture. Example of curve of low carbon steel

- Stress vs. Strain curve typical of structural steel

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Ultimate Strength Yield Strength Tensile strength Strain hardening region Necking region.

- Metals including steel have a linear stress-strain relationship up to the yield point, as shown in the figure. In some steels the stress falls after the yield point. This is due to the interaction of carbon atoms and dislocations in the stressed steel. Cold worked and alloy steels do not show this effect. For most metals yield point is not sharply defined. Below the yield strength all deformation is recoverable, and the material will return to its initial shape when the load is removed. For stresses above the yield point the deformation is not recoverable, and the material will not return to its initial shape. This unrecoverable deformation is known as plastic deformation. For many applications plastic deformation is unacceptable, and the yield strength is used as the design limitation. - After the yield point, steel and many other ductile metals will undergo a period of strain hardening, in which the stress increases again with increasing strain up to the ultimate strength. If the material is unloaded at this point, the stress-strain curve will be parallel to that portion of the curve between the origin and the yield point. If it is re-loaded it will follow the unloading curve up again to the ultimate strength, which has become the new yield strength. - After a metal has been loaded to its yield strength it begins to "neck" as the cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases due to plastic flow. When necking becomes substantial, it may cause a reversal of the engineering stress-strain curve, where decreasing stress
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correlates to increasing strain because of geometric effects. This is because the engineering stress and engineering strain are calculated assuming the original cross-sectional area before necking. If the graph is plotted in terms of true stress and true strain the curve will always slope upwards and never reverse, as true stress is corrected for the decrease in crosssectional area. Necking is not observed for materials loaded in compression. The peak stress on the engineering stress-strain curve is known as the ultimate strength. After a period of necking, the material will rupture and the stored elastic energy is released as noise and heat. The stress on the material at the time of rupture is known as the tensile strength. - Ductile metals do not have a well defined yield point. The yield strength is typically defined by the "0.2% offset strain". The yield strength at 0.2% offset is determined by finding the intersection of the stress-strain curve with a line parallel to the initial slope of the curve and which intercepts the abscissa at 0.2%. A stress-strain curve typical of aluminum along with the 0.2% offset line is shown in the figure below.

- Stress vs. Strain curve typical of aluminum

1. Ultimate Strength 2. Yield strength 3. Proportional Limit Stress 4. Tensile strength 5. Offset Strain (typically 0.2%).

- Stress vs. Strain curve of a very untypical brittle material

1. Ultimate Strength 2. Tensile strength. - Tensile strength is measured in units of force per unit area. In the SI system, the units are newtons per square metre (N/m) or pascals (Pa), with prefixes as appropriate. The non-metric units are pounds-force per square inch (lbf/in or PSI). Engineers in North America usually use units of ksi which is a thousand psi. One MegaPascal is 145.037738 poundsforce per square inch. - The breaking strength of a rope is specified in units of force, such as newtons, without specifying the cross-sectional area of the rope. This is often loosely called tensile strength, but this is not a strictly correct use of the term. - In brittle materials such as rock, concrete, cast iron, or soil, tensile strength is negligible compared to the compressive strength and it is assumed zero for many engineering applications. Glass fibers have a tensile strength stronger than steel[1], but bulk glass usually does not. This is due to the Stress Intensity Factor associated with defects in the material. As the size of the sample gets larger, the size of defects also grows. In general, the tensile strength of a rope is always less than the tensile strength of its individual fibers.
- Tensile strength can be defined for liquids as well as solids. For example,

when a tree draws water from its roots to its upper leaves by
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transpiration, the column of water is pulled upwards from the top by capillary action, and this force is transmitted down the column by its tensile strength. Air pressure from below also plays a small part in a tree's ability to draw up water, but this alone would only be sufficient to push the column of water to a height of about ten metres, and trees can grow much higher than that.

4. Leeb Test

- Principal of Leeb Testing - The Leeb (also known as an Equotip) test is a modern electronic version of the Scleroscope. It uses a carbide ball hammer that is spring rather than gravity powered. An electronic sensor measures the velocity of the hammer as it travels toward and away from the surface of the sample. The Leeb value is the hammer's rebound velocity divided by the impact velocity times 1000. The result is Leeb hardness from 0 to 1000 that can be related to other hardness scales such as Rockwell and Vickers. - Since the devise is electronic in nature, most instruments are designed to automatically convert from the Leeb number to a more conventional hardness scale. By using a variety of different conversions to suit the modulus of different materials, a wide range of metallic parts can be tested. The main limitations are that the parts must have a good finish and a minimum weight of 5kg. Leeb testers are portable and can be used at different angles as long as they are perpendicular to the test surface.

III. Tool and Material III.1 Tool a. Brinell hardness tester with equipment b. Rockwell hardness tester with equipment c. Digital scale d. Breaker glass
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e. Tensile test machine f. Leeb (equotip) g. Vernier scale III.2 Material

a. FC 25 b. Ni hard c. Ni resist d. Sample of tensile strength e. Mild Steel f. FeCr25 g. GXMn12 h. FeCr27 i. St 37 IV. Lab Data N o 1 2 3

Material FC FCD St

F = 3000 Kgf 4.2 mm 4.2 mm 4.2 mm 3.8 mm 4 mm 3.8 mm 5.6 mm 5.6 mm

Average 4.2 mm 3.8 mm 5.6 mm

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Brinell Test for :

1.

FC 25

HB

= = 210.65 HB 2. FCD HB =

= = 259.69 HB 3. St HB =

=
11

= = 113.75 HB

Rockwell Test N o

Material

Data at Xi (HRC) 37 36.9 37.5 36 38 41.7 39.6 39.2 41.8 38.8 44.7 43.5 43.5 43.3 43.4 38.7 58.4 59.2 59.2 60.3 7.7 4.8 7.1 3.6 4.4 4.8 5.2 8.5 6.3 7.7

Average

FeCr25

37

GXMn12

39.4

FeCr27

43.5

Ni hard

59.2

Ni Resist

7.4

Mild Steel

8.1
12

Tensile Strength Tensile strength sheet metal

Identification material With magnetic test When use magnetic the material does influence by magnetic so structure of material is austenite With the hit by other things When use kikir and the material abrasion with kikir, because structure of kikir is martensit so the material structure is lower than kikir maybe ferrit or perlit but the material has plastic behavior so the material has ferrit structure.

Ao = p x l Ao = 12.5 x 2.45 Ao = 30.625 mm2

Estimation of yield strength

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y= F = y. F = 300 . 30,625 F = 9187,5 N = 918.75 Kgf

Estimation of ultimate strength

F = u . Ao F = 400 . 30.625 F = 12,250 N = 1,225 Kgf

Real of yield strength

F = 970 Kgf y= = = 310 N/mm2

Real of Ultimate strength

u= u= u= 376 N/mm2 so possibility that the material is St. 37

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Elongation of material

E= E=

x 100% x 100%

E = 29.85 %
N o
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

Tensile strength of material

F
200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 825 850 875 900 925 950 975 1000 1025 1050 1075 1100 1115

l
0 0.15 0.25 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.15 1.3 1.35 1.9 2.05 2.1 2.15 2.2 2.25 2.3 2.45 2.5

l1
47.5 47.65 47.75 48 48.1 48.2 48.3 48.4 48.5 48.6 48.65 48.8 48.85 49.4 49.55 49.6 49.65 49.7 49.75 49.8 49.95 50

lo
47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5

Ao
20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42 20.42

V. Analyze
1.

At on

sheet tensile especially happens

metal testing there

at yield point area cottrel effect which is indicator arrow

putus 2.55 50.05

move from up to bottom again and again after that indicator arrow up to the next number of scale when I counting yield point estimation it will be happen at 918.75 Kgf but in fact yield point happen at 950 Kgf.

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2.

At sheet metal on tensile testing it did twice why?, in the first change

the machine not strong enough to pull it out (till break) and the yield point area is 950 Kgf but in second change the yield point is increasing to 975 Kgf this things is caused by plastic deformation in first change so the hardness material is increasing in the second tensile testing. 3. At Rockwell testing for Ni hard has happened different hardness this

thing caused by treatment for Ni Hard before like heatreatment which is almost structure of Ni Hard has transformed to martensit so the hardness was increasing. 4. The sample must be drawn before do a tensile strength cause its

possibility that break not in the middle. 5. The person who wants to does kind testing have to take look error factor

so the result can valid. VI. Conclusion From the testing result, we can summarize that ; 1. Based on the curve shape, the materials that have cottrell effect is concrete steel sample, so can be predicted that the material of specimen is low carbon steel.

Before Practicum Understanding 1.Specimen standard is needed, so the united understanding about interpretation of testing result is got. Initial length is needed to known, so elasticity value could be known later. 2.Plastic deformation occur over the course of linier zone, marked by the increasing of elongation as increasing of stress given. If load is negated, the length will be unchanged not return to initial length.

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In atoms perspective, it related to atomic bond break and then forming new atomic bond .Although stress is negated size wouldnt be returned back. For soft and ductile material, is not easy to determine exact position on the stress-strain curve where yield limit occur. Because line slove (elastic) from the curve decrease slowly. So, for soft and ductile material yield point is defined through offset method 0,2% or elongation 0,002%.
After Practicum Understanding 1. The mistakes during testing process; Non standard shape and size of specimen. Loading velocity is too fast. Loading velocity is too slow and unstable. Testing load isnt in the same axis with the specimen.

VII. Literature
1. http://www.instron.us 2. http://www.wikipedia.com

3. Hardness testing book.

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