Group Dynamics

4.1.1 Group Dynamics

Group can be defined as several individuals who come together to accomplish a particular task or goal. Group dynamics refers to the attitudinal and behavioral characteristics of a group. Group dynamics concern how groups form, their structure and process, and how they function. Group dynamics are relevant in both formal and informal groups of all types. In an organizational setting, groups are a very common organizational entity and the study of groups and group dynamics is an important area of study in organizational behavior. Definitions Groups are open and complex systems that interact with the smaller systems (I.e., the members) embedded within them and the larger systems (e.g., organizations) within which they are embedded. Groups have fuzzy boundaries that both distinguish them from and connect them to their members and their embedding contexts. Arrow, McGrath, and Berdahl, 2000

A group is two or more persons who are interacting with one another in such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other person (Shaw 1971) 4.1.2 Nature A group is a collection of two or more people who work with one another regularly to achieve common goals. Groups: Help organizations to accomplish important tasks & to maintain a high-quality workforce by satisfying members needs. Effective groups achieve high levels of: Task performance and its Members attain performance goals regarding quantity, quality, and timeliness of work results. In addition it accomplishes Members satisfaction & members believe that their participation and experiences are positive to meet important and personal needs. It also achieves high level of Team viability. Members are sufficiently satisfied to continue working together on an ongoing basis. Synergy: Effective groups offer synergy. With synergy, groups accomplish more than the total of the members individual capabilities. Synergy is necessary for organizations to compete effectively and achieve long-term high performance. Situations in which groups are superior to individuals: When there is no clear expert in a particular problem or task. And at what time problem solving can be handled by a division of labor and the sharing of information. When creativity and innovation are needed. Social loafing as a performance problem: Social loafing is the tendency of people to work less hard in a group than they would individually.

Reasons for social loafing are, Individual contributions are less noticeable in the group context. And some individuals prefer to see others carry the workload. Ways of preventing social loafing, Define member roles and tasks to maximize individual interests, Link individual rewards to performance contributions to the group & Raise accountability by identifying individuals performance contributions to the group. Formal groups: Officially designated to serve a specific organizational purpose it may be permanent or temporary. Permanent work groups are command groups in the vertical organization structure & Temporary work groups are task groups specifically created to solve a problem or perform a defined task. Informal groups: Emerge without being officially designated by the organization. 4.1.3 Groups in organizations: Groups seem to be good for people it also appears to be useful in promoting innovation and creativity. Groups can gain commitment of members for carrying out decisions & can control members in ways it is otherwise difficult to do. Groups help are natural phenomena in organizations Groups and Individual Needs Groups are a major influence on individual work attitudes and behaviors. Groups members communicate expectations to one another, and influence one anothers beliefs and views of work and the organization. As well it provides social interaction and interpersonal fulfillment. 4.1.4 Types of Groups in Organizations Work Groups A group created by the formal authority of an organization to transform resource inputs into product outputs. Work groups may be permanent or temporary. One common way to classify group is by whether they are formal or informal in nature. Formal work groups are established by an organization to achieve organizational goals. Formal groups may take the form of command groups, task groups, and functional groups. I. COMMAND GROUPS.

Command groups are specified by the organizational chart and often consist of a supervisor and the subordinates that report to that supervisor. An example of a command group is an academic department chairman and the faculty members in that department. II. TASK GROUPS.

Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a common task. Members are brought together to accomplish a narrow range of goals within a specified time period. Task groups are also commonly referred to as task forces. The organization appoints members and assigns the goals and tasks to be accomplished. Examples of assigned tasks are the development of a new product, the improvement of a production process, or the proposal of a motivational contest. Other common task groups are ad hoc committees, project groups, and standing committees. Ad hoc committees are temporary groups created to resolve a specific complaint or develop a process. Project groups are similar to ad hoc committees and

normally disband after the group completes the assigned task. Standing committees are more permanent than ad hoc committees and project groups. They maintain longer life spans by rotating members into the group. III. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS.

A functional group is created by the organization to accomplish specific goals within an unspecified time frame. Functional groups remain in existence after achievement of current goals and objectives. Examples of functional groups would be a marketing department, a customer service department, or an accounting department. In contrast to formal groups, informal groups are formed naturally and in response to the common interests and shared values of individuals. They are created for purposes other than the accomplishment of organizational goals and do not have a specified time frame. Informal groups are not appointed by the organization and members can invite others to join from time to time. Informal groups can have a strong influence in organizations that can either be positive or negative. For example, employees who form an informal group can either discuss how to improve a production process or how to create shortcuts that jeopardize quality. Informal groups can take the form of interest groups, friendship groups, or reference groups. I. INTEREST GROUPS.

Interest groups usually continue over time and may last longer than general informal groups. Members of interest groups may not be part of the same organizational department but they are bound together by some other common interest. The goals and objectives of group interests are specific to each group and may not be related to organizational goals and objectives. An example of an interest group would be students who come together to form a study group for a specific class. II. FRIENDSHIP GROUPS.

Friendship groups are formed by members who enjoy similar social activities, political beliefs, religious values, or other common bonds. Members enjoy each other's company and often meet after work to participate in these activities. For example, a group of employees who form a friendship group may have an exercise group, a softball team, or a potluck lunch once a month. III. REFERENCE GROUPS.

A reference group is a type of group that people use to evaluate themselves. According to Cheering on, the main purposes of reference groups are social validation and social comparison. Social validation allows individuals to justify their attitudes and values while social comparison helps individuals evaluate their own actions by comparing themselves to others. Reference groups have a strong influence on members' behavior. By comparing themselves with other members, individuals are able to assess whether their behavior is acceptable and whether their attitudes and values are right or wrong. Reference groups are different from the previously discussed groups because they may not actually meet or form voluntarily. For example, the reference group for a new employee of an organization may be a group of employees that work in a different department or even a different organization. Family, friends, and religious affiliations are strong reference groups for most individuals.

4.1.5 Membership:

People join groups for a multitude of reasons. A major reason is that group membership often results in some form of need satisfaction on the part of the individual. Membership into a group can fulfill numerous needs, some which group members may not realize they are benefiting from: 1. Companionship groups provide members to simply be in the company of other people.
2. Survival and security From a historic or evolutionary perspective our ancestors would partake in

group experiences for hunting and defense. 3. Affiliation and status membership into various groups can provide individuals with certain socials status or security. 4. Power and control with group membership comes the opportunity for leadership roles; individuals who feel they need to exert their power and opinions over others can have such experiences within group settings. 5. Achievement groups have the capability to achieve more than individuals acting alone. Organizations typically form groups in order to accomplish work related tasks; however, as a member of a work group you may unintentionally reap the numerous benefits independent of the original group construct. Membership characteristics. A group must have the right skills and competencies available for task performance and problem solving. Homogeneous groups may not perform well if they lack the requisite experiences, skills, and competencies. Heterogeneous groups may perform well if they effectively utilize a variety of experiences, skills, and competencies. By joining a group, individuals can reduce the insecurity of standing alone. People feel stronger, have fewer self-doubts, and are more resistant to threats when they are part of a group. Diversity-consensus dilemma: Increasing diversity among group members makes it harder for group members to work together, even though the diversity itself expands the skills and perspectives available for problem solving. FIRO-B theory: Identifies individual differences in how people relate to one another in groups. This is based on needs to express and receive feelings of inclusion, control, and affection. Categories groups whose members have compatible characteristics are likely to be more effective & whose members have incompatible characteristics are likely to be less effective. Status: A persons relative rank, prestige, or standing in a group. Inclusion in a group that is viewed as important by others provides recognition and status for its members. Status congruence: Occurs when a persons position within the group is equivalent in status to positions held outside the group. When status incongruence is present, problems will likely occur. Self-esteem: Groups can provide people with feelings of self-worth. That is, in addition to conveying status to those outside the group, membership can also give increased feelings of worth to the group members themselves.

Affiliation: Groups can fulfill social needs. People enjoy the regular interaction that comes with group membership. For many people, these on-the-job interactions are their primary source for fulfilling their needs for affiliation. Power: What cannot be achieved individually often becomes possible through group action. There is power in numbers. Goal Achievement: There are times when it takes more than one person to accomplish a particular task there is a need to pool talents, knowledge, or power in order to complete a job. In such instances, management will reply on the use of a formal group.

4.1.6 Process of group development: As applied to group development, group dynamics is concerned with why and how groups develop. There are several theories as to why groups develop. A classic theory, developed by George Homans, suggests that groups develop based on activities, interactions, and sentiments. Basically, the theory means that when individuals share common activities, they will have more interaction and will develop attitudes (positive or negative) toward each other. The major element in this theory is the interaction of the individuals involved. According to Tuckman's theory, there are five stages of group development: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. During these stages group members must address several issues and the way in which these issues are resolved determines whether the group will succeed in accomplishing its tasks.
1. Forming: The first stage is when the team is formed and members meet. They learn what the team

opportunities and challenge will be. Individual members may be confused about their role or not understand the need for the team. Members will agree on goals and assign actions for work, often working independently. Ground rules or team guidelines are established. At the start, the team leader may be a member of the group, a supervisor, a manager, or a consultant who will facilitate the teambuilding process. Leadership will help the team to define their processes. At this stage, the leader needs to be directive and understand the requirements for team training to move through each stage.
2. Storming: During the second stage, individual expression of ideas occurs and there is open conflict

between members. Members tend to focus on details rather than the issues and compete for influence. Low trust among team members is an evident indicator of this stage. The team needs to select their desired leadership style and decision methodology. The team leader can help by stressing tolerance and patience between members. The leader should guide the team process towards clear goals, defined roles, acceptable team behavior, and a mutual feedback process for team communication.

3. Norming: In the third stage, the team develops work habits that support group rules and values. They

use established tools and methods; exhibit good behaviors; mutual trust, motivation, and open communication increase; positive teamwork and group focus are apparent. The team relationships grow and individual characteristics are understood and appropriately utilized. The team leader continues to encourage participation and professionalism among the team members.

4. Performing: The fourth stage shows high levels of loyalty, participation, motivation, and group

decision-making. Knowledge sharing, cross-training, and interdependence increases. Team is selfdirecting in development of plans and strategy to meet their goals and carry out work. Personal

growth and sharing is encouraged throughout membership. The leader becomes a facilitator aiding the team in communication processes and helping if they revert to a prior stage.

5. Adjourning: For project teams, temporary committees, or task forces coming to an end, there will be

a finalizing stage as they .celebrate and recognize group achievement. Then some mourning over the dissolving of the team relationship and begin planning for the change in individual work requirements. During this stage, leadership needs to emphasize organization gratitude and both team and individual recognition. For continuous work teams, there may be a higher performance level as they develop and transform as individuals and reform into revised teams. It is important to note that continuous work teams may revert to prior stages when new people are added to the team. Time and effort are required to move through the various team development stages. Every team will go through all the stages. However the timeline of each stage may be different for each team depending on the individual members and their skill levels, the work the team is expected to accomplish, and team leadership during each stage. 4.1.7 Group Structure: Group structure is a pattern of relationships among members that hold the group together and help it achieve assigned goals. Structure can be described in a variety of ways. Among the more common considerations are group size, group roles, group norms, and group cohesiveness. Composition: Group Demography: The degree to which members of a group share a common demographic attribute, such as age, sex, race, educational level, or length of service in the organization, and the impact of this attribute on turnover. Cohorts: Individuals who, as part of a group, hold a common attribute. Role(s): A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit Role Identity: Certain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a role. Role Perception: An individuals view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation. Role Expectations: How others believe a person should act in a given situation. Psychological Contract: An unwritten agreement that sets out what management expects from the employee and vice versa. Role Conflict: A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations.

4.2.1 Group Norms:

Norms are acceptable standards of behaviour within a group that are shared by the members of the group. Norms define the boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. They are typically created in order to facilitate group survival, make behaviour more predictable, avoid embarrassing situations, and express the values of the group. Each group will establish its own set of norms that might determine anything from the appropriate dress to how many comments to make in a meeting. Groups exert pressure on members to force them to conform to the group's standards. The norms often reflect the level of commitment, motivation, and performance of the group.

Performance norms determine how quickly members should work and how much they should produce. They are created in an effort to determine levels of individual effort. They can be very frustrating to managers because they are not always in line with the organization's goals. Members of a group may have the skill and ability to perform at higher levels but they don't because of the group's performance norms. For example, workers may stop working a production machine at 20 minutes before quitting time in order to wash up, even though they produced fewer items that day than management intended. Reward-allocation norms determine how rewards are bestowed upon group members. For example, the norm of equality dictates equal treatment of all members. Every member shares equally so rewards are distributed equally to everyone. Equity norms suggest that rewards are distributed according to the member's contribution. In other words, members who contribute the most receive the largest share of the rewards. Members may contribute through effort, skill, or ability. Social responsibility norms reward on the basis of need. Members who have special needs therefore receive the largest share of the reward. The majority of the group must agree that the norms are appropriate in order for the behaviour to be accepted. There must also be a shared understanding.

4.2.2 Group Conformity: Conformity: the tendency to adjust ones thoughts, feelings or behavior in ways that are in agreement with those of a particular individual or group or with accepted standards about how someone should behave in certain circumstances. Adjusting ones behavior to align with the norms of the group. Reference Groups Important groups to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to conform. Conformity and Group Dynamics Most people have had the experience of standing in a crowd of excited sports fans, cheering for the home team. In the moment, it is easy to be infected by the enthusiasm of a group. A sense of pride and camaraderie with the group is a common experience, and many people find themselves following along with the cheers and applause of others.

4.2.3 Group Cohesion: Cohesiveness: Degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group. Group cohesion is a phenomenon which determines how well a group holds together. When group cohesion is strong; a group will remain strong and stable. When it is weak, the group may fall apart. The study of group cohesion is a topic of interest among social psychologists and many others, including people who are concerned with making large organizations work effectively. Understanding group cohesion can be key to pulling together a team, a workplace, or a similar group of people. Some of the factors in group cohesion are social; there are a number of things which can occur within a group and its members which encourage people to stay in the group and to stay focused on group goals. Others are environmental, caused by external factors which make staying together as a group more or less appealing.

The smaller a group is, the better the group cohesion. The more stable a group is in terms of member demographics, the better the cohesion as well. People who share characteristics like gender, race, sex, religion, and so forth will forge stronger connections in a group, while a group of diverse individuals may have difficulty staying together. Another factor is group success, with people having an incentive to stay in a group which is doing well, with elitism also playing a role. Increasing group cohesiveness: Make the group smaller, Encourage agreement with group goals, Increase time members spend together also the group status and admission difficultly. Stimulate competition with other groups; by giving rewards to the group, not individuals.furthermore physically isolate the group.

4.2.4 Group size:

Group size can vary from 2 people to a very large number of people. As group size increases, performance and

member satisfaction increase up to a point. Small groups of two to ten are thought to be more effective because each member has ample opportunity to participate and become actively involved in the group. Large groups may waste time by deciding on processes and trying to decide who should participate next. Division of work promotes performance and increased satisfaction. Communication and coordination problems occur, in turn decreasing performance and satisfaction. Group size will affect not only participation but satisfaction as well. Problem-solving groups should have 5 to 7 members. Groups with an odd number of members may be more effective for resolving disagreements and reaching a speedy decision. Groups with an even number of members may be more effective when careful deliberation, consensus building, or complex problem solving is required. Evidence supports the notion that as the size of the group increases, satisfaction increases up to a certain
point. In other words, a group of six members has twice as many opportunities for interaction and participation as a group of three people. Beyond 10 or 12 members, increasing the size of the group results in decreased satisfaction. It is increasingly difficult for members of large groups to identify with one another and experience cohesion.

4.2.5 Groupthink: It is a phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative course of action. Groupthink occurs when a homogenous highly cohesive group is so concerned with maintaining unanimity that they fail to evaluate all their alternatives and options. Groupthink members see themselves as part of an in-group working against an out-group opposed to their goals. A group suffers from groupthink if it, overestimates its invulnerability or high moral stance, collectively rationalizes the decisions it makes, demonizes or stereotypes out groups and their leaders, has a culture of uniformity where individuals censor themselves and others so that the facade of group unanimity is maintained, and contains members who take it upon themselves to protect the group leader by keeping information, theirs or other group members', from the leader. Groups engaged in groupthink tend to make faulty decisions when compared to the decisions that could have been reached using a fair, open, and rational decision-making process. Groupthinking groups tend to, firstly it fails to adequately determine their objectives and alternatives, secondly fails to adequately assess the risks associated with the group's decision, thirdly fail to cycle through discarded alternatives to re-examine their worth after a majority of the group discarded the alternative, moreover it not seek expert advice. It only select and use only information that supports their position and conclusions, and does not make contingency plans in case their decision and resulting actions fail. Group leaders can prevent groupthink by encouraging members to raise objections and concerns; refraining from stating their preferences at the onset of the group's activities; allowing the group to be independently evaluated by a separate group with a different leader; splitting the group into sub-groups, each

with different chairpersons, to separately generate alternatives, then bringing the sub-groups together to hammer out differences; allowing group members to get feedback on the group's decisions from their own constituents; seeking input from experts outside the group; assigning one or more members to play the role of the devil's advocate; requiring the group to develop multiple scenarios of events upon which they are acting, and contingencies for each scenario; and calling a meeting after a decision consensus is reached in which all group members are expected to critically review the decision before final approval is given. 4.2.6 Group shift Group shift is basically a change in riskiness of a decision. A change in decision risk between the groups decision and the individual decision that member within the group would make; can be either toward conservatism or greater risk. Groupshift Decision of the group reflects the dominant decision-making norm that develops during the groups discussion in discussing a given set of alternatives and arriving at a solution, group members tend to exaggerate the initial positions that they hold. In some situations caution dominates and there is a conservative shift. More often groups tend toward a risky shift.

Causes of Groupshift
There are varying explanations that attempt to provide a reason as to why Groupshift occurs. Group diffuses responsibility: a diffusion of responsibility throughout the group seems to give members of these groups a free rein to act as they see fit (Wallach, Kogan, & Bem 1964). The emotional bonds that are created within the group serve to decrease anxiety within the group and the actual risk of the situation seems less. The emotional bonds that are created within the group serve to decrease anxiety within the group and the actual risk of the situation seems less. Brown (1965) indicates that social status in groups is often associated with risk-taking, leading people to avoid a low risk position. The size of the group also has an effect on how susceptible the group will be to polarization. The greater the number of people in a group, the greater the tendency toward deindividuation .In other word, deindividuation is a group-size-effect. As groups get larger, trends in risk-taking are amplified. Scientific research also suggests that males are greater risk-takers than females (Wilde 1994) a trait that likely has both physiological and social roots. Utilizing the Risky Shift Whatever the cause of the risky shift phenomenon or the worries regarding the generality of the phenomenon the point of interest is that individuals may be manipulated in their decision making. The mechanism causing the post-discussion group shift causes a change in the perception of the problem domain by some or all of the group members. It is in the perceptual process which we must examine for guidance on how to educate individuals in their decision-making skills. 4.3.1 Group Dynamics: Kurt Lcwin popularized the term "Group Dynamics" during 1930's. The social process by which people interact face-to-face in small groups arc called group dynamics. The word "dynamics" comes from the Greek word meaning "force". Therefore, "Group Dynamics" rcl'crs to the study of forces operating within a group. There are different connotations attached to the term group dynamics. One view is that group dynamics describes how a group should be organic and conducted. Here, democratic leadership, member participation and overall co-operation are stressed. Another view of group dynamics suggests that it consists of a set of

techniques. Here, role-playing, brainstorming, buzz groups, leaderless groups, group therapy, sensitivity training, team building, transactional analysis, and the Johari Window arc equated with group dynamics. However, the universally accepted view of group dynamics is closest to Lewin's* original conception. Here, group dynamics arc viewed from the perspective of the internal nature of groups, how they form, their structure and processes, and how they function and affect individual members, other groups and the organization. In understanding the concept of group dynamics, a modem comprehensive definition of a group will be useful. It is as follows: "A group is a collection of individuals in which there is, (i) Interaction among members, (ii) Perception of group membership, (iii) Shared norms and values, and (iv) Fate interdependence (what happens to one group member affects other group members and what happens to the group as a whole affects the individual members).

4.3.2 Inter-group dynamics: An organization is an aggregate of many smaller groups. The study of groups is vital for the understanding of behavior because individuals seldom act without being influenced by others. Behavior takes place within a group, even if that group consists of not more than two persons. Much of the research on social functioning in general has been done in small group settings. It has either been related to the basic characteristics of group behavior or has focused upon the applied aspects. Studies on work teams, management conference groups and academic committees have proved the omnipresence and importance of the groups and the Inter-group behavior. The process by which people interact face to face in small groups is called group dynamics. Groups are vehicles or instruments for the fulfillment of the needs of the people and for the achievement of the goals of the organizations. But this is possible only if there is positive inter-group behavior Inter-group dynamics from a systems perspective, the throughputs for a group or team are group dynamics. Group dynamics concern the forces operating within groups that affect the way members relate to and work with one another. Inner Group Behavior: Required behaviors within groups: Those formally defined and expected by the organization. Emergent behaviors: Those that group members display in addition to what the organization asks of them. Emergent behaviors often supplement and extend required behaviors. Member relationships revolve around: Activities - the things people do or the actions they take. Interactions - interpersonal communications and contacts. Sentiments - the feelings, attitudes, beliefs, or values held by group members. Group rivals & behaviors: The dynamics that take place between two or more groups. Organizations and their members seek to avoid the negative aspects and achieve the positive aspects of intergroup dynamics.

On the negative side, intergroup dynamics may divert energies as members focus on animosities rather than performance. On the positive side, competing groups may; Work harder, Become more focused on key tasks, Develop more internal loyalty and satisfaction and Achieve creativity in problem solving.s