INTRODUCTION TO THE ORACLE

Oracle consists of a comprehensive set of application building & enduser products, aimed at providing complete information technology solutions .Oracle applications are portable across wide range of plateforms & operating systems , from personal computer to large parellel processors. Oracle provides a flexible Database Management System (DBMS) - the Oracle Server - for storage & management of information used by applications . ORACLE SERVER The Oracle server is used to store & manage the information by applications. The latest oracle server is Oracle 9i manages a dbase with all the advantages of relational structure , plus ability to store & execute dbase objects such as procedures & triggers. It has following features:1.Storage of data in designated dbase areas. 2.Retrieval of data for applications , using appropriate optimization techniques. 3.Database security, & the tasks perfmitted for specific users. 4.Consistency & protection of data. 5.Communication & integration of data where dbases are disributed across a network.. Oracle applications may run on the same computer as the oracle server. Applications and tools supporting them may be run on another system.In the client -server computing environment , a wide range of computing resource may be used . Oracle server options :-

1.procedural option:- It provides a PL/SQL version 2 engine with in the Oracle server , which includes the ability to store dbase procedures , functions & triggers for use by application. 2.Distributed option :- It supports transactions which update data across more than one dbase in a distributed dbase network , employing two-phase commit . 3.parallel option :- It supports loosely-coupled systems. 4.Trusted Oracle :- Provides a set of additional high security features .

ORACLE PRODUCTS

1Oracle text retrieval :- A technlogy that adds fully functional text retrieval capabilities to an oracle dbase . 2Pro * oracle :- A series of precompliers that allows oracle dbase access with in C , Cobol , PL/1 , Pascal , & Ada Programming Languages . 3Oracle Card :- An end-user interface for producing easy-to-use dbase applications incorporating graphics & multimedia features. 4Oracle Case :- A family of tools to aid the analysis , design & generation of oracle applications. 5SQL * Plus :- A tool that allows direct & interactive use of the SQL language to access the oracle server , using ad-hoc commands or by runnig command files.

INTRODUCTION TO SQL * PLUS

A database management system requires a query language to enable users to access data . Structured Query Language(SQL)- pronounced Sequel is the language was used by the most relational database systems. The SQL language was developed in a prototype relational database management system system R-by IBM in the mid 1970 s . In 1979 , oracle Corp. introduced the first commercially available implementation of SQL . Features of SQL are described below :I.Sql is an english like language .It uses words such as select , update , insert , delete as part of its command set . II.Sql is the non-procedural language . In other words Sql does not requires to specify the method to the data . III.Sql process sets of records rather than a single record at a time . The most common form of records is table . IV.Sql can be used by a range of users including DBA s , application programmers , management personal . QUERYING DATABASE TABLES I.the most commonly uesd command ; it is used to retrieve the data from the database table. By using simple Select command : - This is Syntax :- select columnname from tablename ; For e . g :- select ename , empno , sal , hiredate from emp Where ename like s%; II.By using condtional retrieval :- The where clause is used for this purpose.It corresponds to the restriction operator of relational algebra.

It contains the condition that rows must meet in order to be displayed .The where clause must follow the from clause . Syntax :- select columns From table Where certain conditions are met . For e . g :- If we want to retrieve the information of those employees whose department name is Salesman , then :S :\> select ename , empno , deptno , hiredate From emp Where job = SALESMAN ; OPERATORS IN WHERE CLAUSE

BETWEEN Clause :- This operator is used to tests value between , & inclusive of , low & high range . for e . g : If we want to see those employee s whose salaries are ranging between 1000 & 2000 S :\> Select ename , deptno , empno , sal , from emp Where sal between 1000 and 2000 ;

IN Clause :- It test values in a specified list . If the characters & dates are used in the list they must be enclosed in a single quotations ( ) . To find out all employees who have one of three mgr numbers . S:\> select em[pno , ename , sal , mgr , from emp Where mgr IN (7902 , 7566 , 7788) ; IS NULL operator :- The IS NULL operator specificallly tests for values that are NULL . So to find out all employees who have no managers , then .

S:\> select ename , mgr From emp Where mgr is NULL ; For negating we use : NOT BETWEEN IN NOT IN . LIKE :- Like operator is used to select the rows that match a character pattern .The character pattern matching operation may be referred to us a wild card search . Two symbols can be used to construct the search string . Symbol % Represents any sequence of zero or more characters . any single character.

If we want to list the names of those employees whose name starts from letter S S:\> select ename from emp Where ename like S%; III By using null values :- A null value is a value which is either unavailable , Unassigned , unknown or inapplicable.A null value is not the same as zero. Zero is a number . Null values taken up by one byte of internal storage. Null values are handelled correctly by SQL . In order to Achieve a result for all employees , it is necessary to convert The null values to a number . We uese the NVL function to Convert the null value to a non value. For e.g : S:\> select ename , sal*12 +NVL(comm ,0) Annual _sal from emp ; IV By using DISTINCT Clause : - The Distinct Clause is used to

eliniminate the The duplicate values in the result . Multiple columns may be specified after The DISTINCT clause & the DISTINCT affects all selected columns . For e .g :- To display the distinct values of deptno & job enter : S:\> select DISTINCT deptno , job from emp ; This display a list of all the different combinations Of jobs & department numbers . V By using ORDER BY clause : - Normally , the order of rows returns in a query . May be used to sort the rows . ORDER BY must always be the last clause in The select statement . The default sort order is in ascending order : Numeric values lowest first . Date values earliest first . Character values alphabatically . To reverse this order , the command word DESC is specified after the column name in the ORDER BY clause . For e . g S:\> select ename , job , hiredate From emp ORDER BY hiredate desc ;

VI By using GROUP BY Clause : - The GROUP BY clause of the select statement is Used to divides rows into smaller groups . Group functions can be used to return Information for each group . Rows may be pre excluded with a WHERE Clause ,before dividing them into group . For e . g : S:\> select job , avg (sal) From emp Group by job ;

VII Having Clause :- The Having clause is used only with the expressions and / or Columns that are specified with the GROUP BY clause . For e .g S:\> select job , sum(sal) , avg (sal) , max (sal) , min (sal) from emp Where deptno =20 Group by job Having avg (sal)>1000 ; VIII By using Roll up operation : - Roll up grouping produces a result set containing the The regular grouped rows & the subtotal values . The Roll up operator delivers aggregate & subaggregates for Expressions within the group by statements . The roll up operator Can be used by the report writers to extract statistics & summary Information from results sets. The Roll Up operator creates Groupings moved from right to left , along the list of columns Specified in the GROUP BY clause . Syntax :Select [column ,.] group_function (column) from table [where condition] group by [ROLL UP] [group_expression] For e .g :S:\> select dept_id ,job_id,sum (sal) From employees Where dept_id<60 Group by ROLL UP(dept_id , job_id) ; IX Cube operation : - The cube operator is an additional switch in group by in select statement.The Cube operator can be applied to all aggregate functions including Avg , max , min , sum ,Count . It is used to produce results set that are typically used for across tabular reports .The cube operator is used with an aggregate function to generate additional rows in a result set .

Syntax :- select [column,] group_function (column) From table [where condition] group by [CUBE] group_by_expression ; for e .g : S:\> select dept_id , job_id , sum (sal) From emp Where dept_id < 60 Group by CUBE (dept_id , job_id) ;

ORACLE DATATYPES The information in a data base is maintained in the form of tables . Each table consists of rows & columns to store data . A particular column in a table must contain similar data , which is of a particular type . The different data types available are :1.CHAR :- To store character type data. 2.VARCHAR2 :- Similar to char but can store variable number of . 3.NUMBER :- Stores fixed & floating point numbers . 4.DATE :- stores point- in time values in a table . 5.RAW :- Used to store binary data such as graphics , sound , etc . 6.LONG :- This type of data is used to store upto 2GB of characters . 7.LONGRAW :- Contains raw binary data otherwise the same as a long characters

column. Data type Descripti on Column Length (in bytes ) Fixed For every row in the table . Max. size 255 bytes per column / row . Variable for each row , upto 2000 bytes per column / row . Variable for each row . The Max . space required for a given column is 21 bytes . Fixed at 7 bytes for each row in a table .

1. CHAR (n)

Fixed length character data of length (n).

2. VARCHAR2 (n)

Varirable length character data . Variable length numeric data . Maximum pre -sicion ( P) is 38 . Fixed length date & time data ranging from (Jan 1 , 4712 B.C ) to

3. NUMBER ( P , S)

4. DATE

5. LONG

(Jan 1, 4712 A.D . Default format ( DD: MM : yy) . Variable legth character data .

Its range is upto 2GB .

AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS IN ORACLE

1COUNT () :- The COUNT() function is used to determine the number of rows or non NULL column values . For e.g :S:\> Select count (*) from emp ; 2SUM () :- This function is use to determine the sum of all selected columns . For e . g :S:\> Select sum ( sal ) from emp ; 3MAX () :- This function is used to calculate largest value of all selected values of a column . For e .g :S:\> select max ( sal ) from emp ; 4MIN () :- This function is used to calculate the smallest value of all selected values of a column .

For e .g :S:\> select min (comm ) from emp ; 5AVG () :- This function is use to calculate the average of all selected values of a column . For e . g :S:\> select avg (sal ) from emp ;

QUERYING MULTIPLE TABLES A join is used to when a Sql query requires data from more than one table on data base . Rows in one table may be joined to rows of another table according to rows common values existing in corressponding columns . There types of joins : 1. Equi join :- When two tables are joined together using quality of values in one or more than one columns , they make an equi join . Table prefixes are utilized to prevent ambiguity & the clause specifies the columns being joined . For e . g :S:\> select empno , ename , emp . deptno , dname from emp , dept where emp . deptno = dept . deptno ; Here deptno columns exists in column name should be qualified with the table name. 2. Cartesian join :- When no where clause is specified , each row of one table matches every row of other table . This results in a cartesian product . For e .g :S:\> select empno , ename , dname , loc , from emp , dept ; 3. Outer join :- If there are values in one table that do not have corressponding

values in other , in an equi join that row will not be selected by using the the outer join symbol ( + ) . The corressponding columns for that row will have NULLs. For e . g :S:\> select empno , ename , emp.deptno , dname , loc , dept . deptno , from emp , dept where emp .dept no (+) = dept .deptno ; If the symbol (+ ) is placed on the other side of the Equation then all the employees details with no corressponding Department name & location will be displayed with NULL values in DNAME & LOC column . The symbol ( + ) cannot be on the both sides. 4. Self join :- To join the table to itself it means that each row of the table is combined with itself & with every other row of the table . The self join can be viewed as join of two copies of the same table . The table is not actually copied , but SQL performs the command . The syntax of the command for joining the table to itself is almost same as that for joining two different tables . to distinguish the column name from one another , aliases for the actual table names are used . Table name aliases are defined in the From clause of the query . For e.g :S:\> select worker . name , manager .ename from emp WORKER , Emp MANAGER where WORKER . mgr = MANAGER . mgr ; 5. Non equi join :- The relation ship between EMP & SALGRADE table is a non-equi join , in that no column in EMP corressponds directly to a column in SALGRADE . The relationship is obtained using an operator other than the equal ( = ) . To evaluate employees grade , their salary must be BETWEEN any pair of the low & Hisal ranges . for e .g :S:\> select ename , e . sal , s .grade , from emp E , salgrade S Where E . sal between s.losal and s.hisal ;

SET OPERATORS Set operators are used to combine two or more queries into one result . Data type of corressponding columns are same . There are three types of set operators given below :11UNION :- Multiple queries can be merged together & their results are combined , using the UNION clause . The UNION clause marges the outputs of two or more queries into a single set of rows & columns . The queries are all executed independently , but their output is merged . Only a final query is ends with a semicolon ( ; ) . The number of columns in the queries must be the same & of the same data type . For e .g :S:\> select job from emp Where dept no= 20 UNION S:\> select job from emp Where dept no = 30 ; 12INTERSECT :- The INTERSECT operator displays the jobs which are common to department 10 & 20 . For e . g :S:\> select job from emp where deptno = 10 INTERSECT S:\> select job from emp where deptno= 20 ; 13MINUS :- The MINUS operator display the list of those jobs which are unique to department 20 . For e . g :S:\> select job from emp where deptno = 10 MINUS S:\> select job from emp where deptno = 10 MINUS S:\> select job from emp where deptno = 30 ;

NESTED QUERIES

When one query is defined in another query is called nesting queries . It has following features which are given below :1The result of one query is dynamically substituted in the condition of another . 2Sql first evaluates the inner query / or sub query with in the where clause . 3The return value of inner query is then substituted in the condition of the outer query . 4There is no limitation to the level of nesting of queries in ORACLE 8 . 5When using relational operators , ensure that the sub query return a single row output 6In some cases , the DISTINCT clause can be used to ensure single valued output . For e . g :1Select ename from emp where dept no = (select deptno from emp where ename = MILLER ) ; 2Select ename from emp Where sal = (select max ( sal) from emp ) ; 3 Select ename from emp where empno IN ( select empno from incr ) ;

FUNCTIONS Functions make the basic query block more powerful , & are used to manipulate data values . Functions are used to manipulate data items . They accept one or more than one arguments & return one value . Functions can be used to :1. Performs calculations on data . 3Modify indidvidual data items . 4Manipulate output for group of rows . 5Alter date formats for display . 6Convert column data types . Functions are of different types :1)Character Functions :- Single row character function accept character data as input & can return both characters & number values . The following character functions are :a) LOWER ( col | value ):- This function forces alpha charcter values which are in uppercase or mixed case into lower case . For e . g :S:\> select LOWER ( Dname ) , LOWER( Sql Course ) from dept ; b) UPPER :- This function is used to force the user input to capitals For e . g :- S:\> select ename From emp where ename = UPPER (& Ename ) ; c) INITCAP :- This function is used to captilized the first letter of each

Word of the string . For e . g :S:\> select INITCAP ( Dname ) , INITCAP (Loc) From dept ; d) CONCAT :- This function is used to concatenate the two words . For e . g:- S:\> Select CONCAT (ename , job ) JOB From emp where empno = 7900 ; e) SUBSTR :- This function returns the string of n characters form the Column & literal value , starting at the position number pos . For e . g :- S:\> select substr ( ORACLE , 2 , 4 ) , substr ( Dname , 3 , 5 ) From dept ; f) LTRIM :- This function removes from left leading occurences of Char specified . If char is not specified will trim any blanks from the Left where CHAR / s is treated as a set not as a string .For e .g :S:\> select dname , LTRIM ( dname , A ) , LTRIM (dname , AS) , LTRIM (dname , ASOP ) from dept ;

g) RTRIM :- This function removes from the right trailing occurrences of Character specified . For e .g :S:\> select dname , RTRIM (dname , A) , RTRIM (dname , GHS ) , RTRIM ( dname , N ) , from dept ; 2) NUMBER FUNCTIONS :- Number function accept numeric accept numeric input & return the no of numric values . The number of numeric functions are :-

1ROUND () :- Round function is used to round the column expression or value to n decimal places . For e . g :S:\> select ROUND(2.456 , +2 ) from dual ; 2TRUNC () :- The TRUNC function is used to truncate the column or values to n decimal places . For e . g :S:\> select TRUNC(2.678 , +1) from dual ; 3CEIL ():- The CEIL function is used to find smallest integer greater than or equal to the column , expression or value . For e .g :S:\> select CEIL( sal ) , CEIL (99.9 ) , CEIL ( 101.6 ) from emp ; 4POWER () :- Raises the column / expression to the nth power . Can also be negative . For e . g :S:\> select sal , power ( sal , 4) from dual ; 5EXP ():- Returns the e raised to the nth power . e = 2.71828183 for e.g :S:\> select EXP (4) from dual ; 3. SQRT ():- It finds the square root of the any value specified in brackets . For e.g :S:\> select SQRT(144 ) from dual ; 7. MOD () :- The MOD function is used to find out the remainder of value 1 divide by value 2 . for e.g :S:\> select mod ( 12 ,3 ) from dual ; 3) DATE FUNCTION :- Date functions are operate on oracle dbases . All date function returns the value of DATE datatype except month_between which returns a numeric value .Types of date functions are :1. SYSDATE :- Sysdate is a pseudo column that returns the current date

& time . It selects sysdate from a table called dual table . For e .g :S:\> select sysdate from sys.dual ; 2. MONTHS_BETWEEN :- Finds the number of months between date 1 & date 2 . The rows can be +ve & -ve , If date 1 is later than date 2 . For e . g :S:\> select months_between ( sysdate , hiredate) , months_between ( 01-JAN 84 , 05 NOV 88 ) from emp Where months_between (sysdate , hiredate ) > 59 ; 3. ADD_MONTH :- Add n number of calender months to date .n must be an integer & can be negative . For e .g :S:\> select hiredate , add_months ( hiredate , 3) ,

Add_months (hiredate , -3 ) from emp ; 4. NEXT_DAY :- It displays date of the next specified day of the week following date1. For e . g :S:\> select hiredate , next_day (hiredate , Friday ) , Next_day (hiredate , 6 ) from emp ; 5. ROUND (Date1 , Month ) :- This function returns the first of the month date 1 if date1 is in the first half of the month ; otherwise returns the first of the following month . For e . g :S:\> select sysdate , round (sysdate , month ) from sys.dual ; 6. TRUNC :- This function finds the date of the first day of the month containing in date1 when char = month . For e . g :S:\> select sysdate , trunc (sysdate , month ) , trunc ( sysdate , year ) from sys.dual ; 7. TO_CHAR :- This function is frequently used to change date format from the default to an alternative display format . For e . g :-

S:\> select to_char (sysdate , DAY , DDTH ,MONTH YYYY ) from sys .dual ; 8. TO_NUMBER :- The to_number function is used to transform a number store as a character to number datatypen .For e . g :S:\> select empno , ename , job , sal From emp Where sal >= To_number ( 1500 ) ;

DATA MANIPULATION & CONTROL -_I 1) DDL COMMANDS :- DDL stands for Data Definition Language . DDL is the subset of sql commands use to create , modify , or remove dbase structure , including tables . These commands have an immediate effect on the database , & also record in the data dictionary . It include the following set of commands : CREATE TABLE COMMAND :- The create table command is used to create the table . It is the one of the simplest forms of this command is where the basic information for each column defined together with their data types & sizes . Syntax :Create table table name ( column_ name type (size) , column_name type (size ) , ); For e . g :Create table item ( item_no number ( 5 ) , item_code varchar2 (4 ) , item_name varchar2 (20 ) , item_price number (5 , 2) ) ;

1ALTER TABLE COMMAND :- Alter table command is used to add a column in a database table Syntax :Alter table table name add ( column_name For e . g :S:\>Alter table emp add ( spouses_name type (size ) ) ; varchar2 ( 20 )) ;

2DROP TABLE / COLUMN COMMAND :- We can delete entire datatbase table using drop table command . We can delete column by using the drop table command . For e . g :S:\> drop table emp ; S:\> drop emp empno ; 15DML COMMANDS :- DML stands for Data Manipulation Language commands . The SQL DML includes a query language base on both the relational algebra & the tuple of the relational calculus . It includes following DML commands :3INSERT COMMAND :- We can insert values into the dbase table via INSERT command . It is possible to a new row with values in an each column , in which case the column list is not require . Syntax :- S:\.> insert into table name (column name 1 , Column name 2 , Column name 3 , ) Values (value 1,value 2 , value 3 , ) ; For e . g :- S:\> insert into emp ( empno , ename , sal ) Values ( 7902 , pankaj singh , 7000 ) ;

When values are provided to the insert into command it is Called a single row insert . For e. g :- S:\> insert into emp Values ( 7311 , TOM , CLERK , 7001 , 18 Apr 95 , 3000 , NULL , 20 ) ; 4UPDATE Command :- Columns in a table are updated using the update command . Values of a single column or group of columns can be updated . Updation can be carried out for all the rows in a table or selected rows .Expressions can also be with update . Syntax :Update table (alias ) Set column = expression Where condition For e . g :S:\> update emp Set job = SALESMAN hiredate = sysdate where ename = SCOTT ; 5DELETE COMMAND :- Rows can be deleted from the table using the delete command . The entire row is deleted from the table . A set of rows can be deleted from the table . Syntax :DELETE from table [ Where condition ] For e . g :S:\> delete from emp Where ename = SCOTT ;

VIEWS A view is a virtual table & is like a window to a table . It doesnot have any data type of its own , but derives from the table it is associated with . The advantages of the view are :6Any updation of rows in the table will automatically reflect in the view . 7As a view does not store any data , the redundancy problem does not arise . 8Critical data in the database table is safeguarded as access to such data can be controlled by using views . 9Complicated queries are simplified using views Views can be created using CREATE VIEW command . Syntax :Create view [or replace ] [force ] view View name [column 1 , column 2 , ] ; For e.g :S:\> create view D10 emp As select empno , ename , sal From emp Where deptno = 10 ;

MANIPULATING BASETABLES THROUGH VIEWS

We can manipulate the basetable through views from the following ways :1By using insert , update , & delete commands can also be used with views . 2While manipulating tables , certain rules are applicable . 3The crieteria that determines whether the operations are througha view are :a) The view must be based on the single table . b) The view must not have columns that are aggregate function . c) The view must not specify Distinct in its Definition . d) The view must not use group by or having in its definition . e) The view must not use subqueries . f) The views must not be read only view .

Droping a view We can drop an existing view using drop view command . This command removes the view definition from the database . Rows & columns are not affected since they are stored on the tables from which view was derived . Syntax :Drop view viewname ; For e . g :S:\> drop view dept30 ;

DATA MANIPULATION & CONTROL - II DATA BASE SECURITY & PRIVILEGES

Oraclae provides extensive security Features in order to safeguard the user s information from both unauthorized accesss & internal damage . This security is provided by granting or revoking privileges on a user by user & privilege by privilege basis . Every oracle user has a username , & password & own tables , views & other objects That he creates . An oracle role is set of privileges , which determine the type of access that each user needs , depending upon his / her status & responsibilities . Specific privilegs can be grant to roles & roles are assigned to appropriate users . Database system privileges let the user execute a specific set of commands . Database object privileges give the user the ability to perform the certain operation on certain specified classes of objects .

APPLICATIONS PRIVILEGES MANAGEMENT

The management of the application privileges are done by the following :1By roles that collects the privileges . 2Oracle 8 . 0 provides three standard roles : connect , resource , DBA . 3Connect role only allows to use oracle . 4Resource role allows to create oracle objects such as tables , views , etc . 5DBA role has the system privileges such as creating users , creating databases , &

system administration . 6Role can be created by Create role <role name > [Identified by <password> ] . Once the role has been created , the privileges can be granted . GRANT < priv_list > TO < role_name > A role is then granted to user . When granted to the users , Roles are can be thought of as a set of privileges . Instead of granting individual privileges to the each user , the privileges can be granted to the role & the role is granted to the each user . This simplifies the administrative tasks involved in the management of pivileges . ENHANCING PERFORMANCE

We can enhance the system performance by following ways :1Indexing & clustering are two common way of enhancing system performance in retrieving information from the table . 2SQL syntax does not change with these methods , as these database objects are transparent to the user . 3INDEXES a) Indexes provies a fast access path to columns that are indexed . b ) Index can also be used to ensure that no duplicate values are entered into a column . c ) Oracle analyzes each query to find out the fastest paths to the data . d ) Indexes are used to reference records , in all the SQL statements . e) Indexes are store seperately from the actual data . f ) Indexes do not have to be activated or deactivated .

g ) With every data manipulation the appropriate index is automatically updated . SEQUENCES:- A Sequence is a database object used to generate unique integers for use as a primary keys . A sequence is created through the CREATE SEQUENCE command . Syntax : Create sequence seq_name [ Increment by < n > ] [ start with < m >] ; The default increment value is 1 . START WITH is the number with which the sequence will begin . < seq_name > URRVAL returns the current value of sequnce .< seq_name > NEXT_VAL returns the next value of the sequnce . It also increments the value . For e . g :S:\> Create sequence empno INCREMENT with 8890 Insert into em ( empno , ename , sal ) Values ( empno . nextval , HANS , by 1 start 6000 ) ;

MAINTAINING DATABASE OBJECTS Data base objects are created & stored in a dbase . Tables , clusters , views indexes , etc are the examples of a database objects . Maintainence of database objects involves creating , altering & deleting them from the dbase . Modifications are done using Alter Table command . Deleting is done by using Delete Table command .

Syntax :ALTER TABLE < table _ name > { ADD ( < col element > | < constraints > [ MODIFY < col _ elements > ] } ALTER cluster < cluster_name >

GRANT :- The GRANT command is used to craete user & grant access to the database . It requires DBA privilege , except that user can change his / her passsword . A user can grant access to hi database object to other user . Syntax :GRANT < database _ priv [ , database_ priv ] To < user_name > Indentified by < password > For e . g :S:\> GRANT CONNECT , RESOURCE To thomas Identified by enquist ; S:\> GRANT ALL On emp To public ;

REVOKE :- The REVOKE command is used to revoke the database privileges from the user by DBA . The user can be revoke the grants to other on his objects .

Syntax :REVOKE < dbase priv > FROM < user [ , user] > ; For e.g :thomas ; S:\> REVOKE CONNECT , RESOURCE , FROM

S :\> Revoke update on emp from public ;

ROLLBACK :- The ROLLBACK command is used to undo the changes performed through insert , ROLLBACK command is used to discard path or all the work the user has done in transaction . For e . g :S:\> insert into dept values ( GO , PURCHASE , DELHI ) ; S:\> savepoint s1 ; S :\> Update emp set deptno = 60 Where ename = SMITH ; S :\> ROLLBACK to savepoint s1 ; Save point identifies a point in a transcation to which one can later rollback via ROLLBACK command . COMMIT :- The COMMIT command is used to make the changes permanent . When this command is executed . The ROLL BACK is not use after the commit command . For e . g :S:\> insert into dept values ( 50 , CORRICULUM , DELHI ) ; S:\> select * from dept ; S:\> commit ;

END

PL / SQL ( PROCEDURAL LANGUAGE SQL )

PL / SQL (PROCEDURAL LANGUAGE / SQL is an extension to SQL , incorporating many of the design features of the programminng languages . It allows the data manipulation & query statements of SQL to be included with in the the block structure & procedural units of code , making PL/ SQL Powerful transcation query language . The advantages of the PL / SQL are as following :1BLOCK STRUCTURE :- PL / SQL is a block structured language , meaninig that programs can be divided into logical blocks , each block containing the the language resources that are logically required in that unit . Variables are declared locally to the block in which they will be used . 2FLOW OF CONTROL :- Conditional statements , loops , & branches may be employed to control the procedural flow of the program . This can avoid the need to place commands into separate trigger steps . 3PORTABILITY :- Since PL / SQL is native to oracle , programs may be transported across any host environment in which ORACLE & PL / SQL are supported . 4INTEGRATION :- PL / SQL is playing an increasingly central role in both the RDBMS & in ORACLE tools . The variables & dataypes of PL / SQL are compatible with those of SQL . Therefore , PL / SQL bridges , the gap between convenient access to dbase technology . 5PERFORMANCE :- The use of PL / SQL can help to improve the perfromance of an application .

PL / SQL BLOCK STRUCTURE As we know that the PL / SQL is a block - structured language . Every unit of PL / SQL compromises one or more blocks . These blocks may be entirely separate , or nested one within another . One block may represent just a small part of another , which in turn may be just a part of the whole unit of code . The PL / SQL block structure is given below : DECLARE < declaration > BEGIN < Executable Statements > EXCEPTION <Exception handlers > END ; The BEGIN & END statements are mandatory , & enclosed the body of the of actions to be performed . The DECLARE section is optional & used to declare PL / SQL objects such as variables that are to be referenced in the block , or a nested block with in it . Finally , the EXECPTION section is used to trap the predefined error condtions .

DECLARING PL / SQL VARIABLES & CONSTANTS PL / SQL supports a variety of data types which may optionally be assigned a value when declare , and are allowed to change their further assignments . Constants are identifiers which had a fixed value that must be assigned when a constant is declared . Variables are declared in the DECLARE section of the PL / SQL block . Declaration must involved name of the variables followed by its datatype . All statements must end with a semicolon ( ; ) . Constants are declared by specifying the keyword CONSTANT before the data type . The general syntax :-

Var_name type [ : = < value > ] ; For e . g :Mname char (20 ) ; Age number ( 3 ) ; Dept no number ( 4 ) = 30 ; To avoid the type & size conflict between a variable & the column of the table , the attributes % TYPE is used . Advantage of this method of defining a variable that , whenever the type & size of a column in the table is changed , it is automatically reflected in the variable declaration . For e . g :Temp_name emp.ename %TYPE ;

SCOPE & VISIBILTY OF A VARIABLE The scope of an object is the region of the program over which that object may potentially be used . These rules are apply to all declared objects , including variables , cursors , user defined exceptions & contants . The scope of an object is the complete block in which it is declared , including any sub blocks nested within it . Objects declared in subblock are only available until that subblock has ended . For e . g :DECLARE X number ; BEGIN ... DECLARE Y number ; BEGIN ... END ; END ; In the example above , variable X of the subblock disable the use of variable x from the main block until the subblocks

variable from the main block until the subblocks variable reaches the end of its scope . During the subblock , the variable x from the main block still it exists , but has no visibilty .

ASSIGNMENTS & EXPRESSIONS The PL / SQL assignment statements allows a value to be assigned or reassigned to a variable after the declare section of the block . The variable to receive the new value must be explicitly named on the left of the assignment operator . Syntax :Identifier := expression ; Where identifier is the name of the target variable , or field , to receive the value of expression . The expression may be literal , the name of another existing variable , or any complexity of the expression necessary to determine the value to be assigned . Generally , most of the expressions available in select clause of an SQL query are available here . The functions supported in PL / SQL expression are discuss later in this unit . For e . g :V_count : = v_count + 1 ; Ann_sal : = month sal*12 + NVL ( COMM , 0 ) ; Lev : = 6 ; V_name : = KING ; The assignments to boolean variables may be TRUE or FAlSE , or the result of a boolean expression . Overpaid : = ann_sal > 35000 ; Male : = upper ( title ) ; Salary_ok : = not over paid ;

Female : =

not male ;

Switch 1 : = TRUE ;

ORACLE

PRACTICAL

FILE

CREATED

BY

Varun bhardwaj SUBMITTED BY :NAME :- KAMALJIT SINGH. CLASS :- B.C.A II Rollno= 10739

1 2 Using commit: A commit ends the current transaction and makes permanent any changes made during the transaction . All transactional locks acquired on tables are released . Syntax: COMMIT; Using: ROLLBACK A rollback does exactly the opposite of commit . it ends the transaction but undoes any changes made during the transaction .All transactional locks acquired on tables are released . syntax : ROLLBACK[work][to[savepoint]savepoint] Where: Work:is optional and is provided for ansi compatibility. Savepoint: is optional and is used to rollback a partial transaction as far as the specified save point : Creating save point : Save point marks and saves the current point int the processing of a transaction. When a save point is used with a rollback statement parts of a transaction can be undone .an active save point is one that is specified since the last commit or rollback . SYNTAX : Savepoint savepointname; WHAT IS A CURSOR ? The oracle engine uses awork area for its internal processing in order to

execute an sql statement. This work area is private to sqls operations and is called a cursor . Example: Select empno,ename ,job ,salary from employee where deptno=20; Types of cursors: Cursors are classified in two ways . 1.Implicit cursors. 2.explicit cursors. When the sql statement is not associated with an explicitly declared curscr then oracle implicitly opens a cursor to process sql statements . 2 . explicit cursor is declared within the declare section to specify the query to be executed for the cursor .then the open statement executes the query associated with the curs

or to form the active set.