Brain anatomy and physiology:

Brain cells:
Neurons:
Function as electrical impulse generation and transmission. Cannot regenerate when damaged i.e. neurons and neuroglia

Neuroglia:
Makes half of the volume of CNS Smaller than neurons and 5-50 times more numerous than neurons. Do not propagate nerve impulses Can regain after injury, highly growing. Neuroglia of CNS Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Microglia Ependymal cells Neuroglia of PNS Schwann cells Satellite cells

Astrocytes: Star shaped cells, have many processes, largest and most numerous Two types of astrocytes-protoplasmic and fibrous Protoplasmic Astrocytes have short branching processes and found in gray matter. Fibrous astrocytes have long branching processes and located in white matter. Processes of astrocytes make contact with blood capillaries, pia matter and neurons. Functions include Contains microfilaments that give them strength which enables them to support neurons. Process of Astrocytes wrapped around the blood capillaries and protects the neurons from harmful substances by secreting chemicals that maintains the unique selective permeability of endothelial cells of blood capillaries and thus create blood brain barrier. In embryo these cells secrete chemicals that control growth and interconnection of neurons.

 It maintains the appropriate chemical environment for generation of nerve impulses by neurons. Plays a role in learning and memory by influencing nerve synapse. Oligodendrocytes: These resemble astrocytes but have fewer processes and smaller in size. Maintain myelin sheath around the CNS axons. A single oligodendrocyte may myelinate several neurons.

Microglia: Small in size, contains spindle like projections Function as phagocytes and clear cell debris

Ependymal cells: Cuboidal to columnar cells contain cillia and microvilli. Lines the ventricals of brain and central canal of spinal cord. Produce, monitor and assist in CSF circulation. Form blood cerebrospinal fluid barrior. Neuroglia of PNS: Schwann cells: Form myelin sheath around the neurons. Single cell can line only one axon. Participate in axon regeneration.

Satellite cells: Surrounds the cell bodies of neurons in PNS ganglia. Exchange of materials between neuronal cell bodies and interstitial fluid.

Meninges:
Three layers surround the brain and spinal cord.

skull Epidural space 1. Dura matter Sub dural space 2. Arachnoid matter Sub arachnoid space 3. Pia matter
Dense irregular connective tissue Collagen fibers and elastic fibers Collagen fibers and fine elastic fibers, contains blood vessels which supplies to brain.

Cerebrospinal fluid circulation:

choroid plexus of lateral ventricles

lateral ventricles
through interventricular foramina

choroid plexus of third ventricle

third ventricle through cerebral aqueduct

choroid plexus of forth ventricle

forth ventricle through lateral and median aperture subarachnoid space

arachnoid villi of dural venous sinuses

venous blood

heart and lungs

Normal CSF secretion is 20 ml/hr or 480 ml/day Total volume is 80-150 ml Carries oxygen and nutrients Contains glucose, protein, lactic acid, urea, cations ( Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) and anions (Cl, HCO3-) Functions are mechanical support, chemical and nutritional.

Brain stem:
Consists of 3 parts: Medulla ablongata Pons Mid brain

1. Medulla ablongata: contains sensory and motor tracts extends between the brain and spinal cord. Contains cardiovascular centre which regulates heart rate and diameter of arteries. Medullary rythmicity area of respiratory centre regulates rhythm of breathing. Responsible for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, swallowing and hiccupping. Sensitive to touch, vibration and proprioception. Contains 5 pairs of cranial nerves: Vestibulocochlear VIII Glossopharyngeal IX Vagus X Accessory XI Hypoglossal XII Damage to this part cause cranial nerve alterations at the same side and paralysis in opposite side.

2. Pons: contains pneumotaxic area and apneustic area which helps in respiration.
Have 4 pairs of cranial nerves: Trigeminal V Abducens VI Facial VII Vestibulocochlear VIII

3. Mid brain: connects cerebrum to medulla, pons and spinal cord.

Reflex centre for visual activities
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Helps in tracking moving objects Helps in scanning stationary objects Eyes, head and neck movements with moving objects Startle reflex Sudden movement of head with noise Have substantia nigra which release dopamine and also responsible for subconscious muscle activities. Contains occulomotor and trochlear nerve

RAS- reticular activating system: brain stem consists of small clusters of neuronal cell
bodies. It maintains consciousness Awakening from sleep Muscle tone maintenance

Cerebellum:
Skilled skeletal muscle movements Posture and balance Cognition and language processing

Cerebrum:
Have two cerebral hemispheres Have frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes which have their specialized functions.

Frontal lobe: areas involved: primary motor area, pre motor area, frontal eye lid area,
brocas area. Functions are Voluntary contraction of specific muscles. Articulation of speech Movements of muscles of larynx, pharynx and mouth Coordination of speech and breathing muscles. Responsible for intellectual, personality, complex learning abilities, recall, judgment, planning, reasoning, abstract ideas. Dysfunction of this lobe causes Unable to form words Poor muscle contraction of opposite side of affected area Poor intellect, poor judgment and decision making, and behavioral changes.

Parietal lobe: areas involved

Primary somato sensory area Common integrative area Wernickes area Primary gustatory area

Functions are: Orientation of objects with touch Sense the relationship of one part with another Storage of memories of past experience Helps in adding emotions while speaking

Dysfunction causes Speak in coherent fassion without emotions Impaired taste recognition

Temporal lobe: areas involved

Wernickes area Auditory association area Primary auditory area Functions are Recognition of voice Speech Dysfunctions are Inability to recognize voice Speech problems

Occipital lobe: areas involved:

Visual area Visual association area
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Functions: Vision recognition Dysfunctions are: Visual disturbances

Functional areas of cerebrum

These are sensory, motor and association areas. Sensory area Primary somatosensory area Primary visual area Primary auditory area Primary gustatory area Primary olfactory area Motor areas Primary motor area Pre motor area Brocas speech area Association areas Somatosensory association area Frontal association area Visual association area Auditory association area Wernickes area Common integrative area Pre motor area Frontal eye lid area

Functions of these areas are summarized below Primary somatosensory area (1,2,3) Primary visual area (17) Primary auditory area (41,42) Primary gustatory area (43) Primary olfactory area (28) Primary motor area (4) Brocas speech area (44,45) Proprioception, touch, pain, itching, temperature, receives impulses from each part of the body. Receives visual information and involved in visual perception Receives information of sound and involved in auditory perception Sense of taste Sense of smell Controls voluntary contraction of muscles on opposite side of body Located in left hemisphere, Articulation of speech, works with primary motor area for speech, damage to this area causes non fluent aphasia i.e. person has clear thoughts but unable to form words. Receives input from primary somatosensory area,
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Somatosensory association area

(5,7)

Frontal association area (9,10,11,12) Visual association area (18,19) Auditory association area (22) Wernickes area (22,39,40)

thalamus and other parts of brain. Helps to detect shape of the object without seeing it Determine orientation of one object in relation to another Memories of past experiences as you can compare between previous sensations with current. Responsible for intellectual, personality, complex learning abilities, recall, judgment, planning, reasoning, abstract ideas. Relates present and past experience of visual activity Recognize a particular speech Located in right hemisphere Interprets the meaning of speech by recognizing spoken words. Translate words into thoughts Add emotions in speech Damage to this area causes fluent aphasia. Receives impulses from olfactory area, visual and auditory area, gustatory area and somatosensory area. Integrates the sensory impulses. Learned motor activities and sequential activities Muscle group to contract in a sequence. Voluntary scanning movements of eyes eg. Just reading a sentence.

Common integrative area (5,7,39,40) Pre motor area (6) Frontal eye lid area (8)

Cranial nerves
No. Name Sensory, Motor, or Both Purely Sensory Purely Sensory Mainly Motor Origin Function

Olfactory

Telencephalon

Transmits the sense of smell from the nasal cavity.

II

Optic

Diencephalon

Transmits visual signals from the retina of the eye to the brain.

III

Oculomotor

Anterior aspect of midbrain

Innervates the levator palpebrae superioris, superior rectus,medial rectus, inferior rectus, and inferior oblique, which collectively perform most eye movements. Also innervates the sphincter pupillae and the muscles of the ciliary body. Innervates the superior oblique muscle, which depresses, rotates laterally, and intorts the eyeball.. Receives sensation from the face and innervates the muscles of mastication.

IV

Trochlear

Mainly Motor

Dorsal aspect of midbrain

Trigeminal

Both Sensory and Motor Mainly Motor Both Sensory and Motor

Pons

VI

Abducens

Anterior margin of pons Pons

Innervates the lateral rectus, which abducts the eye.

VII

Facial

Provides motor innervation to the muscles of facial expression, posterior belly of the digastric muscle, andstapedius muscle. Also receives the special sense of taste from the anterior 2/3 of the tongue and provides secretomotor innervation to the salivary
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glands (except parotid) and the lacrimal gland. VIII Acoustic orVestibulocochlear Mostly sensory Lateral to CN VII Senses sound, rotation, and gravity (essential for balance and movement). More specifically, the vestibular branch carries impulses for equilibrium and the cochlear branch carries impulses for hearing Receives taste from the posterior 1/3 of the tongue, provides secretomotor innervation to the parotid gland, and provides motor innervation to the stylopharyngeus. Some sensation is also relayed to the brain from the palatine tonsils. Supplies branchiomotor innervation to most laryngeal and pharyngeal muscles. Also providesparasympathetic fibers to nearly all thoracic and abdominal viscera down to the splenic flexure. Receives the special sense of taste from the epiglottis. A major function: controls muscles for voice and resonance and the soft palate. Symptoms of damage: dysphagia (swallowing problems),velopharyngeal insufficiency. Controls the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles, and overlaps with functions of the vagus nerve (CN X). Symptoms of damage: inability to shrug, weak head movement Provides motor innervation to the muscles of the tongue (except for the palatoglossus which is innervated by the vagus nerve) and other glossal muscles. Important for swallowing (bolus formation) and speech articulation
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IX

Glossopharyngeal

Both Sensory and Motor

Medulla

Vagus

Both Sensory and Motor

medulla

XI

Accessory (orcrania Mainly l accessory Motor nerve or spinal accessory nerve)

Cranial and Spinal Roots

XII

Hypoglossal

Mainly Motor

Medulla

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