1. Describe the following features of Image Extraction: A) Image Feature Evaluation B) Amplitude FeaturesC) Transform Coefficient Features a.

In this paper, we evaluate various image features and different search strategies for fittingActive Shape Models (ASM) to bone object boundaries in digitized radiographs. The originalASM method iteratively refines the pose and shape parameters of the point distribution modeldriving the ASM by a least squares fit of the shape to update the target points at the estimatedobject boundary position, as determined by a suitable object boundary criterion. We propose animproved search procedure that is more robust against outlier configurations in the boundaryt a r g e t p o i n t s b y r e q u i r i n g s u b s e q u e n t s h a p e c h a n g e s t o b e s m o o t h , w h i c h i s i m p o s e d b y a smoothness constraint on the displacement of neighbouring target points at each iteration andimplemented by a minimal cost path approach. We compare the original ASM search method and our improved search algorithm with a third method that does not rely on iteratively refinedtarget point positions, but instead optimizes a global Bayesian objective function derived fromstatistical a priori contour shape and image models. Extensive validation of these methods on ad a t a b a s e containing more than 400 images of the femur, humerus and calcaneus u s i n g t h e manual expert segmentation as ground truth shows that our minimal cost path method is themost robust. We also evaluate various measures for capturing local image appearance aroundeach boundary point and conclude that the Mahalanobis distance applied to normalized imageintensity profiles extracted normal to the shape is the most suitable criterion among the testedones for guiding the ASM optimization

b) Image segmentation decisions are typically based on some measure of image amplitude in terms of luminance, color value, spectral value, or other units. The amplitude values may be used directly or may result from some transformation of the original pixel values. In this section we describe amplitude features that result from measurements over a neighborhood of pixels. For example, the average or mean amplitude in a 2 M+12 M+1 neighborhood centered on (x,y) is given bywhere . Other commonly used amplitude features include range, variance, median,energy, and entropy. c) Discrete wavelet transform has become a widely u s e d f e a t u r e e x t r a c t i o n t o o l i n p a t t e r n recognition and pattern classification applications. However, using all wavelet coefficients asf eatures is not desirable in most applications -- the enormity of data and irrelevant waveletc o e f f i c i e n t s m a y a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t t h e p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e r e f o r e , t h i s p a p e r p r e s e n t s a n o v e l feature extraction method based on discrete wavelet transform. In this method, Shannon'se n t r o p y m e a s u r e i s u s e d f o r i d e n t i f yi n g c o m p e t e n t w a v e l e t c o e f f i c i e n t s . T h e f e a t u r e s a r e formed by calculating the energy of coefficients clustered around the competent clusters. The method is applied to the lung sound classification problem. The experimental results show that the new method performs better than a well-known

feature extraction method that is known to give the best results for lung sound classification problem