FERTILIZATION or CONCEPTION * Process by which sperm and ovum combine to create a single cell called a zygote.

*The zygote then duplicates itself again and again by cell division. *It normally occurs while the ovum is passing through the fallopian tube. *If fertilization does not occur, the ovum and any sperm cells in the womans body die. MULTIPLE BIRTHS This happens in two ways: * DIZYGOTIC TWINS (fraternal twins) the mothers body releases two ova within a short time and then both are fertilized. - They are created from different sperm cells and usually from different ova. - It tends to run in families and may also have genetic basis. *MONOZYGOTIC TWINS (identical twins) the mothers single fertilized ovum is split into two. -Many cases of mistaken identity among identical twins attest to their photocopy like physical appearance. - It usually occurs purely by chance. - Differences between monozygotic twins can be seen through the process of epigenesist. This tends to magnify as twins grow older, especially if they live apart. - It appears to be constant at all times and places. *SEMI IDENTICAL TWINS a rare third type of twins. - The result of two sperm cells fusing with a single ovum. - They are more genetically similar than fraternal twins but less similar than identical twins. *Triplets, quadruplets, and other multiple births can result from either of these processes or a combination of both. MULTIPLE BIRTHS Factors and Concerns *Trend toward delayed childbearing. *Increased use of fertility drugs which stimulate ovulation. *Multiple births are associated with increased risks: - Pregnancy Complications - Premature Delivery - Low-birth-weight Infants - Disability or Death of the Infant HEREDITY *The inborn factors, inherited from ones biological parents that affect the development. *When ovum and sperm unite, they endow the baby-to-be with a genetic makeup that influences a wide range of characteristics from color of eyes and hair to health, intellect and personality. GENETIC CODE *The basis of heredity is a chemical called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). *The double-helix structure of a DNA molecule resembles a long, spiralling ladder whose steps are made of pairs of chemical units called bases. The bases: - Adenine (A) - Thymine (T) letters of - Cytosine (C) genetic code - Guanine (G) *Chromosomes coils of DNA that consist of smaller segments called genes.

*23 pairs of chromosomes *Genes functional units of heredity. *Each gene is located in a definite position on its chromosome and contains thousands of bases. *Human Genome complete sequence of genes in the human body. WHAT DETERMINES SEX? *At the moment of conception, the 23 chromosomes from the sperm and the 23 from the ovum form 23 pairs. *Autosomes: twenty-two pairs that are not related to sexual expression. *Sex Chromosomes: twenty-third pair; *X chromosomes the sex chromosome of every ovum. *Y chromosomes contains the gene for maleness (SRY) ** the sperm may contain either an X or a Y chromosome. *Initially, the embryos rudimentary reproductive system is almost identical in males and females. *Six to eight weeks after conception, male embryos normally start producing the male hormone testosterone. (Development of a male body with male sexual organs.) *Sexual differentiation appears to be more complex process than simple genetic determination. *Alleles genes that can produce alternative expressions of a characteristic. Patterns of Genetic Transmission (Dominant and Recessive Inheritance) *When both alleles are the same, the person is homozygous. *When they are different, the person is heterozygous. *Dominant Inheritance when a person is heterozygous for a particular trait, the dominant allele governs. *Recessive Inheritance only occurs when a person receives two recessive alleles, one from each parent. *Polygenic Inheritance the interaction of several genes. *Mutations permanent alterations in genetic material. *Phenotype the observable characteristics of a person through which the genotype is expressed. - the product of the genotype and any relevant environmental influences. *Genotype underlying genetic makeup of a person, containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics. *The difference between genotype and phenotype helps explain why a clone or an identical twin can never be an exact duplicate of another person. Genotypes and Phenotypes: Multifactorial Transmission *Multifactorial Transmission combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce certain complex traits. * Some physical characteristics and most psychological characteristics are products of multifactorial transmission. * Many disorders arise when an inherited predisposition interacts with environmental factor, either before or after death. Epigenesis: Environmental Influence on Gene Expression Epigenesis mechanism that turns genes on or off and determines functions of body cells. - may also explain why one monozygotic twin is susceptible to a disease such as schizophrenia whereas the other twin is not. - (on the genes; epigenetic framework) refers to chemical molecules attached to a gene which alter the way a cell reads the genes DNA. - epigenetic framework can be visualized as a code written in a pencil in the margins around the DNA. *Epigenetic Markers to differentiate various types of body cells.

- may contribute to such common ailments as cancer, diabetes and heart disease. *Epigenetic Changes can occur throughout life in response to environmental factors such as nutrition and stress. *Epigenetic Modifications may be heritable especially those that occur early in life. Epigenesis: Examples *Genome, Genetic and Imprinting *Imprinting the differential expression of certain genetic traits. * In imprinted gene pairs, genetic information inherited from the parent of one sex is activated, but genetic information from the other parent is not. * Imprinted genes play an important role in regulating fetal growth and development. GENETIC AND CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES *The most prevalent defects are cleft lip/palate, followed by Down syndrome. *Not all genetic or chromosomal abnormalities are apparent at birth. *It is in genetic defects and diseases that we see most clearly the operation of dominant and recessive transmission and also of a variation, sex-linked inheritance. *Most of the time, normal genes are dominant over those carrying abnormal traits, but sometimes the gene for an abnormal trait is dominant. *Recessive Defects are expressed only if a child receives the same recessive gene from each biological parent. - defects transmitted by recessive inheritance are more likely to be lethal at an early age than those transmitted by dominant inheritance. - it can be transmitted by carriers who do not have the disorder and thus may live to reproduce. *In Incomplete Dominance, a trait is not fully expressed. SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE OF DEFECTS *In sex-linked inheritance, certain recessive disorders linked to genes on the sex chromosomes affect male and female children differently. *Sex-linked recessive traits are carried on one of the X chromosomes of an unaffected mother. *The mother is a carrier; *Sex-linked disorders almost always appear only in male children; in females, a normal dominant gene on the X chromosome from the father generally overrides the defective gene on the X chromosome from the mother. CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES *It typically occurs because of errors in cell division, resulting in an extra or missing chromosome. *Some of the errors happen in the sex cells during meiosis. (Kleinfelter Syndrome) *Other chromosomal abnormalities occur in the autosomes during cell division. (Down Syndrome) GENETIC COUNSELLING AND TESTING *Genetic Counselling can help prospective parents assess their risk of bearing children with genetic or chromosomal defects. *A Genetic Counsellor takes a family history and gives the prospective parents and any biological children physical examinations. *Chromosomes from body tissues may be analyzed and photographed, and the photographs enlarged are arranged according to size and structure on a chart called karyotype. *Karyotype can show chromosomal abnormalities and can indicate whether a person who appears normal might transmit genetic defects to a child. NATURE AND NURTURE

*One approach to the study of heredity and environment is quantitative. *It seeks to measure how much heredity and environment influence particular traits. HERITABILITY *Is a statistical estimate of the contribution of heredity makes toward individual differences on complex traits within a given population. ** the greater the number the greater the heritability of trait. Types of Correlational Research * Family Studies - researchers measure the degree to which biological relatives share certain traits and whether the closeness of the familial relationship is a associated with the degree of similarity. *Adoption Studies - similarities between adopted children and their adoptive families and also between adopted children and their biological families. * Twins - compare pairs of monozygotic twins with same-sex dizygotic twins. How Heredity and Environment Work Together - refers to a range of potential expressions of a hereditary trait. Example: Body Size Canalization - limitation on variance of expression of certain inherited characteristics. Genotype Environment Interaction - the effects of similar environmental conditions on genetically different individuals Genotype Environment Correlation- tendency of certain genetic and environmental influences to reinforce each other; may be passive, reactive(evocative), or active. Passive Correlations - parents, who provide the genes that predispose a child toward a trait, also tend to provide an environmental that encourages the development of the trait. Active Correlations - As children get older and have more freedom to choose their own activities and environments, the actively select or create experiences consistent with their genetic tendencies Reactive Correlations - Children with differing genetic make-ups evoke different from adults. Characteristics Influenced by Heredity and Environment Obesity - Sometimes called overweight - is measured by body mass index, or BMI (comparison of weight to height) Intelligence - Heredity exerts a strong influence on general intelligence and to a lesser extent, on specific abilities such as memory, verbal ability and spatial ability. Personality and psychopathology - Heritability of personality traits appears to be between 40 to 50%, and there is little evidence of shared environmental influence. Temperament - an aspect of personality, is a persons characteristic way of approaching and reacting to situations. It appears to be largely inborn and is often consistent over the years, though it may respond to special experiences or parental handling. Schizophrenia - is a neurological disorder characterized by loss of contact with reality and by such a symptoms as hallucinations and delusions. DEVELOPMENT FROM CONCEPTION TO BIRTH 1 month - Embryo reaches a size 10,000 times greater than the zygote. - Measures about inch in length. - Blood flows through the very small veins and arteries.

- Has a miniscule heart, beating 65 times a minute. - Already has the beginning of the: * brain * kidneys *liver * digestive tract - Umbilical cord is working. - The swellings on the head that will develop into eyes, ears, mouth and nose can already be seen through a microscope. 7 weeks - Embryo becomes a fetus. - Less than 1 inch long and weighs only 1/3 ounce. - Head is half the total of body length. - Facial parts are clearly developed, with tongue and teeth buds. arms have hands, fingers, and thumbs legs have knees, ankles, feet and toes - Fetus has a thin covering of skin and can make handprints and footprints. 8 weeks - Bone cells appear. - Brain impulses coordinate the function of the organ system. - Sex organs are developing. - Heartbeat is steady. - Stomach produces digestive juices; the liver; blood cells. - Kidneys remove uric acid from the blood. - Skin is sensitive enough to react to tactile stimulation. - The inner layer of cells will become the digestive and respiratory systems. The outer layer of cells includes the ectoderm which becomes the nervous system, ear, nose, eyes, hair and nails. A middle layer, the mesoderm, becomes the circulatory system, bones, muscle, reproductive and excretory systems. 12 weeks - Fetus weighs about 1 ounce and measures about 3 inches in length. - Has fingernails, toenails, eyelids (still closed), vocal cords, lips and a prominent nose. - Head still large - about 1/3 its total length and its forehead is high. - Sex can now easily detected. - Organ systems are functioning. - So the fetus can breathe, swallow amniotic fluid into the lungs and expel it, and occasionally urinate. - Ribs and vertebrae have turned into cartilage. 14 weeks - Fetus can make variety of specialized responses: *can move its legs, feet, thumbs, and head * mouth can open and close and swallow * if its eyelids are touched, it squints * if its palm is touched, it makes a partial fist * if its lip is touched, it will suck * if the sole of the foot is stroked, the toes will fan out. 16 weeks - Body is now catching up to the head which is only the total body length.

- Measures 8 to 10 inches and weighs about 6 ounces. - Umbilical cord is as long as the fetus and will continue to grow with it. - Placenta is now fully developed. - Mother may be able to feel the fetus kicking, a movement known as quickening (societies and religious groups consider the beginning of human life. - Reflex activities in the third month are now brisker because of increased muscular development. 20 weeks - Fetus weighs about 12 ounces to 1 pound and measuring about 1 foot. has definite sleep wake pattern, has a favorite position in the uterus (called its lie). - Becomes more active; *kicking, stretching, squirming, and hiccupping - The general rule for kick counts is feeling 10 movements--kicks, jabs, rolls--within a two-hour period. If you feel anything less than that, call your doctor. - It is possible to hear the fetal heartbeat by merely putting your ear to mothers abdomen). - Sweat and sebaceous glands are functioning. - Respiratory system is not yet adequate to sustain life outside the womb. - Coarse hair has begun to grow for eyebrows and eyelashes, fine hair is on head, and a wooly - hair called lanugo covers the body.

24 weeks - Fetus is about 4 inches long and weighs pounds. - Has fat pads under the skin. - Eyes are complete, opening, closing, and looking in all directions. - Can hear. - Can make a fist with strong grip. 28 weeks - Fetus is about 16 inches long and weighing 3 to 5 pounds - Has fully developed reflex patterns. *cries *breathes * swallows * sucks its thumb - Lanugo may disappear at about this time or may remain until shortly after birth. - Head hair may continue to grow. 32 weeks - Fetus is 18 to 20 inches long and weighs between 5 to 7 pounds. - Living quarters are becoming cramped, and so its movements are curtailed. -A layer of fat is developing over the fetus entire body, which will enable it to adjust to varying temperatures outside the womb. 41 weeks - Stops growing, having reached an average weight of about 7 pounds and length of about 20 inches. - fat pads continue to form. - Organ systems are operating more efficiently. the heart rate increases. - more waste are expelled through the umbilical cord. - reddish color f the skin is fading .

At birth, the fetus will have been in the womb for about 266 days, through gestational age is usually estimated at 280 days because most doctors date the pregnancy from the mothers last menstrual period. Environmental Influences: Maternal Factor Nutrition and Maternal Weight * Pregnant women typically need 300 to 500 additional calories a day including extra protein. * Women of normal weight and body build who gain 16 to 40 pounds are less likely to have a birth complications; however, desirable weight gain also depends on BMI before pregnancy. * Obesity also increases the risk of other complications of pregnancy. * Folic acid, folate (vitamin B), is critical in a pregnant womens diet. It is estimated that if all women took 5 mg. of folic acid each day before pregnancy and during the first trimester neural-tube defects could be prevented. Malnutrition * Children in the United Kingdom whose mothers had low vitamin D levels late in pregnancy had low bone mineral content at age 9, potentially increasing their risk of osteoporosis in later life. * Women with low Zinc level who take daily zinc supplements are less likely to have babies with low birth weight and small head circumference. * Women who took nutrients fortified dietary supplements while pregnant or lactating tended to have infants who grew more rapidly and were less likely to be anemic. Drug Intake *Medical Drugs *Alcohol *Nicotine *Caffeine *Three illegal drugs (marijuana, cocaine and methemphetamine) Medical Drugs * Among the medical drugs that may be harmful during pregnancy are the antibiotic tetracycline; certain barbiturates, opiates, and other central nervous system depressants; certain anticancer drugs; ACE; NSAIDs and certain antipsychotic drugs. * The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) Committee on Drugs recommends that no medication to be taken by a pregnant or breast-feeding woman unless it is essential for her health or her child. Alcohol * Is the most common cause of mental retardation and the leading preventable cause of birth defects. * Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) Is characterized by a combination of retarded growth, face, and body malformations and disorders of the CNS. FAS related problems includes: in infancy >reduced responsiveness to stimuli, slow reaction time, and reduced visual acuity throughout childhood> short attention span, memory deficits, and mood disorders as well as aggressiveness and problem behavior Nicotine * Maternal smoking has been identified as the single most important factor in low birth weight in developed countries. (weighing less than 5 lbs. at birth.

* Tobacco use may increased risk of miscarriage, growth retardation, stillbirth, small head circumference, sudden infant death, colic in early pregnancy, hyperkinetic disorder, and long term respiratory, neurological, cognitive, and behavioral problems. * The effect of prenatal exposure to secondhand smoke on cognitive development tend to be worse. Caffeine * Those who consumed at least two cups of regular coffee or five cans od caffeinated soda daily had twice the risk of miscarriage. * Four or more cups of coffee a day may increase the risk of sudden death in infancy. Marijuana, Cocaine, Methamphetamine * Some evidence suggests that heavy marijuana use can lead to birth defects, low birth weight, withdrawallike symptoms at birth, and increased risk of attention disorders and learning problems later in life. It also suggest that the drug may affect functioning of the brains frontal lobe. * Cocaine use during pregnancy has been associated with spontaneous abortion, delayed growth, premature labor, low birth weight, small head size, birth defects, and impaired neurological development. * In a study of 1,618 infants, 84 were found to have been exposed methamphetamine. The methamphetamine-expose infants were most likely to have low birth weight and to be small for their gestational age than the remainder of the sample. Maternal illnesses AIDS * Is a disease caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which undermines functioning of the immune system. * Prenatal transmission may occur. Rubella (German measles) * If contracted by a woman before her eleventh week of pregnancy, is almost certain to cause deafness and heart defects in her baby.

Toxoplasmosis * Caused by a parasite harbored in the bodies of cattle, sheep, and pigs and in the intestinal tracts of cats. * Typically produces either no symptoms or symptoms like those of the common cold. Maternal Anxiety and Stress * Some tension and worry during pregnancy are normal and do not necessarily increase risks of birth complications. * Unusual maternal stress during pregnancy may negatively affect the offspring. * Also, major stress during the 24th to 28th weeks of pregnancy may produce autism by deforming the developing brain. Maternal Age * The risk of miscarriage or stillbirth rises with maternal age. * Women over 30 to 35 are more likely to suffer complications * Adolescent mothers tend to have premature or underweight babies. These newborns are at heightened risk of death in the first month, disabilities, or health problems. Outside Environmental Hazards

* Pregnant women who regularly breathe air that contains high levels of fine combustion-related particles are more likely to bear infants who are premature or undersized or have chromosomal abnormalities. Environmental Influences: Paternal Factor * A mans exposure to lead, marijuana or tobacco smoke, large amounts of alcohol or radiation, DES, pesticides, or high ozone levels may result in abnormal or poor quality sperm. * Men who smoke have an increase likelihood of transmitting genetic abnormalities. A pregnant woman exposure to the fathers second hand smoke has been linked with low birth rate, infant respiratory infections, sudden infant death, and cancer in childhood and adulthood. * Older fathers maybe a significant source of birth deffects due to damage or deteriorated sperm. In 2004 about 10% of fathers of new babies were ages 35 to 55 and over. * Advancing paternal age is associated with increases in the risk of several rare conditions, including dwarfism; it also maybe a factor in a disproportionate number of cases of schizophrenia and of autism and related disorders. * In a study of more than 2.6 million U.S. births, infant with teen age fathers had a greater risk of premature birth, of low birth weight, and of being small for their gestational age than infants of fathers age 40 or older. Monitoring and Promoting Prenatal Development * Progress is being made of the use of non invasive procedures, such as ultrasound and blood tests, to detect chromosomal abnormalities. * Screening for defects and diseases is only one reason for the importance of early prenatal care. Early, high quality prenatal care, which includes educational, social, and nutritional services, can help prevent maternal or infant death and other birth complications. It can provide first time mothers with information about pregnancy, child birth and infant care. * Disparities in Prenatal Care * Rates of low birth weight and premature birth continue to rise. Why? * One answer is the increasing number of multiple births which requires especially closed prenatal attention. These pregnancies often and in early births, low birth weight, and heightened risk of death within the first year. * Second answer is that the benefits of the prenatal care are not evenly distributed. * A related concern is an ethnic disparity in fetal and post birth mortality. * The need for Preconception Care * Physical examinations * Vaccinations * Risk screening for genetic disorders and infectious diseases Counselling women * The CDC urges all adults to create a reproductive life plan so as to focus attention on reproductive health, avoid an intended pregnancies, and improve pregnancy outcomes. It also calls for increase health insurance for low income women to make sure they have access to preventive care.