rw irrf vrvirw srvf 6cf zoo8 z

EBWJEIBSWFZ
THE RI GHT TO THE CI TY
W
F MJWF JO an oia whon idoals ol hunan iights havo
novod contio stago loth politically and othically. A
gioat doal ol onoigy is oxpondod in pionoting thoii sig-
nihcanco loi tho constiuction ol a lottoi woild. But loi
tho nost pait tho concopts ciiculating do not lundanontally challongo
hogononic liloial and nooliloial naikot logics, oi tho doninant nodos
ol logality and stato action. Wo livo, altoi all, in a woild in which tho
iights ol piivato piopoity and tho pioht iato tiunp all othoi notions ol
iights. I hoio want to oxploio anothoi typo ol hunan iight, that ol tho
iight to tho city.
Has tho astonishing paco and scalo ol uilanization ovoi tho last hundiod
yoais contiilutod to hunan woll-loing? Tho city, in tho woids ol uilan
sociologist Roloit Paik, is:
nan`s nost succosslul attonpt to ionako tho woild ho livos in noio altoi
his hoait`s dosiio. But, il tho city is tho woild which nan cioatod, it is tho
woild in which ho is honcoloith condonnod to livo. Thus, indiioctly, and
without any cloai sonso ol tho natuio ol his task, in naking tho city nan
has ionado hinsoll.

Tho quostion ol what kind ol city wo want cannot lo divoicod lion that ol
what kind ol social tios, iolationship to natuio, lilostylos, tochnologios and
aosthotic valuos wo dosiio. Tho iight to tho city is lai noio than tho indi-
vidual liloity to accoss uilan iosouicos: it is a iight to chango ouisolvos
ly changing tho city. It is, noioovoi, a connon iathoi than an individual
iight sinco this tiansloination inovitally doponds upon tho oxoiciso ol a
colloctivo powoi to ioshapo tho piocossos ol uilanization. Tho lioodon
to nako and ionako oui citios and ouisolvos is, I want to aiguo, ono ol
tho nost piocious yot nost nogloctod ol oui hunan iights.
zq iv
Fion thoii incoption, citios havo aiison thiough googiaphical and social
concontiations ol a suiplus pioduct. Uilanization has always loon,
thoioloio, a class phonononon, sinco suiplusos aio oxtiactod lion
sonowhoio and lion sonolody, whilo tho contiol ovoi thoii disluiso-
nont typically lios in a low hands. This gonoial situation poisists undoi
capitalisn, ol couiso, lut sinco uilanization doponds on tho noliliza-
tion ol a suiplus pioduct, an intinato connoction onoigos lotwoon tho
dovolopnont ol capitalisn and uilanization. Capitalists havo to pioduco
a suiplus pioduct in oidoi to pioduco suiplus valuo, this in tuin nust lo
ioinvostod in oidoi to gonoiato noio suiplus valuo. Tho iosult ol contin-
uod ioinvostnont is tho oxpansion ol suiplus pioduction at a conpound
iatohonco tho logistic cuivos (nonoy, output and population attachod
to tho histoiy ol capital accunulation, paiallolod ly tho giowth path ol
uilanization undoi capitalisn.
Tho poipotual nood to hnd piohtallo toiiains loi capital-suiplus piod-
uction and alsoiption shapos tho politics ol capitalisn. It also piosonts tho
capitalist with a nunloi ol laiiiois to continuous and tioullo-lioo oxpan-
sion. Il laloui is scaico and wagos aio high, oithoi oxisting laloui has to
lo disciplinodtochnologically inducod unonploynont oi an assault on
oiganizod woiking-class powoi aio two piino nothodsoi liosh laloui
loicos nust lo lound ly innigiation, oxpoit ol capital oi piolotaiianiza-
tion ol hithoito indopondont olononts ol tho population. Capitalists nust
also discovoi now noans ol pioduction in gonoial and natuial iosouicos
in paiticulai, which puts incioasing piossuio on tho natuial onviionnont
to yiold up nocossaiy iaw natoiials and alsoil tho inovitallo wasto. Thoy
nood to opon up toiiains loi iaw-natoiial oxtiactionolton tho oljoctivo
ol inpoiialist and noo-colonial ondoavouis.
Tho cooicivo laws ol conpotition also loico tho continuous inplononta-
tion ol now tochnologios and oiganizational loins, sinco thoso onallo
capitalists to out-conpoto thoso using inloiioi nothods. Innovations
dohno now wants and noods, ioduco tho tuinovoi tino ol capital and
losson tho liiction ol distanco, which linits tho googiaphical iango within
which tho capitalist can soaich loi oxpandod laloui supplios, iaw natoii-
als, and so on. Il thoio is not onough puichasing powoi in tho naikot,
thon now naikots nust lo lound ly oxpanding loioign tiado, pionot-
ing novol pioducts and lilostylos, cioating now ciodit instiunonts, and

Roloit Paik, On Scciu| Ccntrc| und Cc||cctivc Bcnuvicr, Chicago o;, p. .

itvvrv: 3JHIUUPUIF$JUZ z
dolt-hnancing stato and piivato oxpondituios. Il, hnally, tho pioht iato is
too low, thon stato iogulation ol 'iuinous conpotition`, nonopolization
(noigois and acquisitions and capital oxpoits piovido ways out.
Il any ol tho alovo laiiiois cannot lo ciicunvontod, capitalists aio
unallo piohtally to ioinvost thoii suiplus pioduct. Capital accunula-
tion is llockod, loaving thon lacing a ciisis, in which thoii capital can
lo dovaluod and in sono instancos ovon physically wipod out. Suiplus
connoditios can loso valuo oi lo dostioyod, whilo pioductivo capacity
and assots can lo wiitton down and lolt unusod, nonoy itsoll can lo
dovaluod thiough ination, and laloui thiough nassivo unonploynont.
How, thon, has tho nood to ciicunvont thoso laiiiois and to oxpand tho
toiiain ol piohtallo activity diivon capitalist uilanization? I aiguo hoio
that uilanization has playod a paiticulaily activo iolo, alongsido such
phononona as nilitaiy oxpondituios, in alsoiling tho suiplus pioduct
that capitalists poipotually pioduco in thoii soaich loi piohts.
Urbun rcvc|uticns
Considoi, hist, tho caso ol Socond Enpiio Paiis. Tho yoai 8q8 liought
ono ol tho hist cloai, and Euiopoan-wido, ciisos ol loth unonployod
suiplus capital and suiplus laloui. It stiuck Paiis paiticulaily haid, and
issuod in an aloitivo iovolution ly unonployod woikois and thoso loui-
goois utopians who saw a social iopullic as tho antidoto to tho giood and
inoquality that had chaiactoiizod tho July Monaichy. Tho iopullican loui-
gooisio violontly iopiossod tho iovolutionaiios lut lailod to iosolvo tho
ciisis. Tho iosult was tho ascont to powoi ol Louis-Napoloon Bonapaito,
who onginooiod a coup in 8 and pioclainod hinsoll Enpoioi tho
lollowing yoai. To suivivo politically, ho iosoitod to widospioad iopios-
sion ol altoinativo political novononts. Tho ocononic situation ho doalt
with ly noans ol a vast piogianno ol inliastiuctuial invostnont loth
at hono and alioad. In tho lattoi caso, this noant tho constiuction ol
iailioads thioughout Euiopo and into tho Oiiont, as woll as suppoit loi
giand woiks such as tho Suoz Canal. At hono, it noant consolidating tho
iailway notwoik, luilding poits and hailouis, and diaining naishos.
Alovo all, it ontailod tho ioconhguiation ol tho uilan inliastiuctuio ol
Paiis. Bonapaito liought in Gooigos-Eugno Haussnann to tako chaigo
ol tho city`s pullic woiks in 8.
zo iv
Haussnann cloaily undoistood that his nission was to holp solvo tho
suiplus-capital and unonploynont piollon thiough uilanization.
Roluilding Paiis alsoilod hugo quantitios ol laloui and capital ly tho
standaids ol tho tino and, couplod with suppiossing tho aspiiations ol
tho Paiisian woikloico, was a piinaiy vohiclo ol social stalilization. Ho
diow upon tho utopian plans that Fouiioiists and Saint-Sinonians had
dolatod in tho 8qos loi ioshaping Paiis, lut with ono lig dilloionco: ho
tiansloinod tho scalo at which tho uilan piocoss was inaginod. Whon
tho aichitoct Jacquos Ignaco Hittoill showod Haussnann his plans loi
a now loulovaid, Haussnann thiow thon lack at hin saying: 'not wido
onough . . . you havo it qo notios wido and I want it zo.` Ho annoxod
tho suluils and iodosignod wholo noighlouihoods such as Los Hallos.
To do this Haussnann noodod now hnancial institutions and dolt
instiunonts, tho Cidit Molilioi and Cidit Innolilioi, which woio
constiuctod on Saint-Sinonian linos. In olloct, ho holpod iosolvo tho
capital-suiplus disposal piollon ly sotting up a pioto-Koynosian syston
ol dolt-hnancod inliastiuctuial uilan inpiovononts.
Tho syston woikod voiy woll loi sono hltoon yoais, and it involvod not
only a tiansloination ol uilan inliastiuctuios lut also tho constiuc-
tion ol a now way ol lilo and uilan poisona. Paiis locano 'tho city ol
light`, tho gioat contio ol consunption, touiisn and ploasuio, tho cals,
dopaitnont stoios, lashion industiy and giand oxpositions all changod
uilan living so that it could alsoil vast suiplusos thiough consunoi-
isn. But thon tho ovoioxtondod and spoculativo hnancial syston and
ciodit stiuctuios ciashod in 8o8. Haussnann was disnissod, Napoloon
III in dospoiation wont to wai against Bisnaick`s Goinany and lost.
In tho onsuing vacuun aioso tho Paiis Connuno, ono ol tho gioatost
iovolutionaiy opisodos in capitalist uilan histoiy, wiought in pait out ol
a nostalgia loi tho woild that Haussnann had dostioyod and tho dosiio
to tako lack tho city on tho pait ol thoso dispossossod ly his woiks.
z

Fast loiwaid now to tho qos in tho Unitod Statos. Tho hugo noliliza-
tion loi tho wai olloit tonpoiaiily iosolvod tho capital-suiplus disposal
piollon that had soonod so intiactallo in tho os, and tho unon-
ploynont that wont with it. But ovoiyono was loailul alout what would
happon altoi tho wai. Politically tho situation was dangoious: tho lod-
oial govoinnont was in olloct iunning a nationalizod oconony, and
z
Foi a lulloi account, soo David Haivoy, Puris, Cupitu| cj Mcdcrnity, Now Yoik zoo.
itvvrv: 3JHIUUPUIF$JUZ z;
was in allianco with tho Connunist Soviot Union, whilo stiong social
novononts with socialist inclinations had onoigod in tho os. As in
Louis Bonapaito`s oia, a holty doso ol political iopiossion was ovidontly
callod loi ly tho iuling classos ol tho tino, tho sulsoquont histoiy ol
McCaithyisn and Cold Wai politics, ol which thoio woio alioady alun-
dant signs in tho oaily qos, is all too laniliai. On tho ocononic liont,
thoio ionainod tho quostion ol how suiplus capital could lo alsoilod.
In qz, a longthy ovaluation ol Haussnann`s olloits appoaiod in
Arcnitccturu| Fcrun. It docunontod in dotail what ho had dono, attonptod
an analysis ol his nistakos lut sought to iocupoiato his ioputation as
ono ol tho gioatost uilanists ol all tino. Tho aiticlo was ly nono othoi
than Roloit Mosos, who altoi tho Socond Woild Wai did to Now Yoik
what Haussnann had dono to Paiis.

That is, Mosos changod tho scalo

ol thinking alout tho uilan piocoss. Thiough a syston ol highways
and inliastiuctuial tiansloinations, suluilanization and tho total io-
onginooiing ol not just tho city lut also tho wholo notiopolitan iogion,
ho holpod iosolvo tho capital-suiplus alsoiption piollon. To do this, ho
tappod into now hnancial institutions and tax aiiangononts that liloi-
atod tho ciodit to dolt-hnanco uilan oxpansion. Whon takon nationwido
to all tho najoi notiopolitan contios ol tho VTyot anothoi tiansloi-
nation ol scalothis piocoss playod a ciucial iolo in stalilizing glolal
capitalisn altoi q, a poiiod in which tho VT could alloid to powoi tho
wholo glolal non-connunist oconony ly iunning tiado dohcits.
Tho suluilanization ol tho Unitod Statos was not noioly a nattoi ol now
inliastiuctuios. As in Socond Enpiio Paiis, it ontailod a iadical tiansloi-
nation in lilostylos, liinging now pioducts lion housing to ioliigoiatois
and aii conditionois, as woll as two cais in tho diivoway and an onoinous
incioaso in tho consunption ol oil. It also altoiod tho political landscapo,
as sulsidizod hono-ownoiship loi tho niddlo classos changod tho locus
ol connunity action towaids tho dolonco ol piopoity valuos and indi-
vidualizod idontitios, tuining tho suluilan voto towaids consoivativo
iopullicanisn. Dolt-oncunloiod honoownois, it was aiguod, woio loss
likoly to go on stiiko. This piojoct succosslully alsoilod tho suiplus and
assuiod social stalility, alloit at tho cost ol hollowing out tho innoi citios
and gonoiating uilan uniost anongst thoso, chioy Aliican-Anoiicans,
who woio doniod accoss to tho now piospoiity.

Roloit Mosos, 'What Happonod to Haussnann?`, Arcnitccturu| Fcrun, vol. ;; (July

qz, pp. ;oo.
z8 iv
By tho ond ol tho oos, a dilloiont kind ol ciisis logan to unlold,
Mosos, liko Haussnann, loll lion giaco, and his solutions cano to lo
soon as inappiopiiato and unaccoptallo. Tiaditionalists ialliod aiound
Jano Jacols and sought to countoi tho liutal nodoinisn ol Mosos`s
piojocts with a localizod noighlouihood aosthotic. But tho suluils
had loon luilt, and tho iadical chango in lilostylo that this lotokonod
had nany social consoquoncos, loading loninists, loi oxanplo, to
pioclain tho suluil as tho locus ol all thoii piinaiy discontonts.

Il
Haussnannization had a pait in tho dynanics ol tho Paiis Connuno,
tho soulloss qualitios ol suluilan living also playod a ciitical iolo in
tho dianatic ovonts ol o8 in tho VT. Discontontod whito niddlo-class
studonts wont into a phaso ol iovolt, sought alliancos with naiginalizod
gioups claining civil iights and ialliod against Anoiican inpoiialisn
to cioato a novonont to luild anothoi kind ol woildincluding a dil-
loiont kind ol uilan oxpoiionco.
In Paiis, tho canpaign to stop tho Lolt Bank Expiossway and tho dostiuc-
tion ol tiaditional noighlouihoods ly tho invading 'high-iiso giants`
such as tho Placo d`Italio and Toui Montpainasso holpod aninato tho
laigoi dynanics ol tho o8 upiising. It was in this contoxt that Honii
Lololvio wioto Tnc Urbun Rcvc|uticn, which piodictod not only that
uilanization was contial to tho suivival ol capitalisn and thoioloio
lound to locono a ciucial locus ol political and class stiugglo, lut that it
was ollitoiating stop ly stop tho distinctions lotwoon town and countiy
thiough tho pioduction ol intogiatod spacos acioss national toiiitoiy, il
not loyond.
q
Tho iight to tho city had to noan tho iight to connand tho
wholo uilan piocoss, which was incioasingly doninating tho countiy-
sido thiough phononona ianging lion agiilusinoss to socond honos
and iuial touiisn.
Along with tho o8 iovolt cano a hnancial ciisis within tho ciodit institu-
tions that, thiough dolt-hnancing, had powoiod tho piopoity loon in
tho piocoding docados. Tho ciisis gathoiod nonontun at tho ond ol
tho oos until tho wholo capitalist syston ciashod, staiting with tho
luisting ol tho glolal piopoity-naikot lulllo in ;, lollowod ly tho
hscal lankiuptcy ol Now Yoik City in ;. As Willian Tall aiguod,
tho iosponso to tho consoquoncos ol tho lattoi olloctivoly pionooiod tho
constiuction ol a nooliloial answoi to tho piollons ol poipotuating class
q
Honii Lololvio, Tnc Urbun Rcvc|uticn, Minnoapolis zoo, and Writings cn Citics,
Oxloid o.
itvvrv: 3JHIUUPUIF$JUZ z
powoi and ol ioviving tho capacity to alsoil tho suiplusos that capital-
isn nust pioduco to suivivo.

Cirding tnc g|cbc

Fast loiwaid onco again to oui cuiiont conjunctuio. Intoinational capi-
talisn has loon on a iolloi-coastoi ol iogional ciisos and ciashosEast
and Southoast Asia in ;8, Russia in 8, Aigontina in zoo
lut had until iocontly avoidod a glolal ciash ovon in tho laco ol a chionic
inalility to disposo ol capital suiplus. What was tho iolo ol uilanization
in stalilizing this situation? In tho Unitod Statos, it is accoptod wisdon
that tho housing soctoi was an inpoitant stalilizoi ol tho oconony,
paiticulaily altoi tho high-toch ciash ol tho lato os, although it was
an activo conponont ol oxpansion in tho oailioi pait ol that docado.
Tho piopoity naikot diioctly alsoilod a gioat doal ol suiplus capital
thiough tho constiuction ol city-contio and suluilan honos and olhco
spacos, whilo tho iapid ination ol housing assot piicoslackod ly
a pioigato wavo ol noitgago iohnancing at histoiically low iatos ol
intoiostloostod tho VT donostic naikot loi consunoi goods and soiv-
icos. Anoiican uilan oxpansion paitially stoadiod tho glolal oconony,
as tho VT ian hugo tiado dohcits with tho iost ol tho woild, loiiowing
aiound Sz lillion a day to luol its insatiallo consunoiisn and tho wais
in Alghanistan and Iiaq.
But tho uilan piocoss has undoigono anothoi tiansloination ol scalo.
It has, in shoit, gono glolal. Piopoity-naikot loons in Biitain and
Spain, as woll as in nany othoi countiios, havo holpod powoi a capitalist
dynanic in ways that lioadly paiallol what has happonod in tho Unitod
Statos. Tho uilanization ol China ovoi tho last twonty yoais has loon
ol a dilloiont chaiactoi, with its hoavy locus on inliastiuctuial dovolop-
nont, lut it is ovon noio inpoitant than that ol tho VT. Its paco pickod
up onoinously altoi a liiol iocossion in ;, to tho oxtont that China
has takon in noaily hall tho woild`s conont supplios sinco zooo. Moio
than a hundiod citios havo passod tho ono-nillion population naik
in this poiiod, and pioviously snall villagos, such as Shonzhon, havo
locono hugo notiopolisos ol o to o nillion pooplo. Vast inliastiuctuial
piojocts, including dans and highwaysagain, all dolt-hnancodaio
tiansloining tho landscapo. Tho consoquoncos loi tho glolal oconony

Willian Tall, Tnc Lcng Dcjuu|t. Ncw Ycrk City und tnc Urbun Fiscu| Crisis, Now
Yoik 8z.
o iv
and tho alsoiption ol suiplus capital havo loon signihcant: Chilo loons
thanks to tho high piico ol coppoi, Austialia thiivos and ovon Biazil and
Aigontina havo iocovoiod in pait locauso ol tho stiongth ol Chinoso
donand loi iaw natoiials.
Is tho uilanization ol China, thon, tho piinaiy stalilizoi ol glolal
capitalisn today? Tho answoi has to lo a qualihod yos. Foi China is
only tho opicontio ol an uilanization piocoss that has now locono
gonuinoly glolal, paitly thiough tho astonishing intogiation ol hnancial
naikots that havo usod thoii oxilility to dolt-hnanco uilan dovolop-
nont aiound tho woild. Tho Chinoso contial lank, loi oxanplo, has
loon activo in tho socondaiy noitgago naikot in tho VT whilo Goldnan
Sachs was hoavily involvod in tho suiging piopoity naikot in Munlai,
and Hong Kong capital has invostod in Baltinoio. In tho nidst ol a
ood ol inpovoiishod nigiants, constiuction loonod in Johannosluig,
Taipoi, Moscow, as woll as tho citios in tho coio capitalist countiios,
such as London and Los Angolos. Astonishing il not ciininally alsuid
noga-uilanization piojocts havo onoigod in tho Middlo East in placos
such as Dulai and Alu Dhali, nopping up tho suiplus aiising lion oil
woalth in tho nost conspicuous, socially unjust and onviionnontally
wastolul ways possillo.
This glolal scalo nakos it haid to giasp that what is happoning is in
piinciplo sinilai to tho tiansloinations that Haussnann ovoisaw in
Paiis. Foi tho glolal uilanization loon has dopondod, as did all tho
othois loloio it, on tho constiuction ol now hnancial institutions and
aiiangononts to oiganizo tho ciodit ioquiiod to sustain it. Financial
innovations sot in tiain in tho 8ossocuiitizing and packaging local
noitgagos loi salo to invostois woildwido, and sotting up now vohiclos
to hold collatoializod dolt olligationsplayod a ciucial iolo. Thoii nany
lonohts includod spioading iisk and poinitting suiplus savings pools
oasioi accoss to suiplus housing donand, thoy also liought aggiogato
intoiost iatos down, whilo gonoiating innonso loitunos loi tho hnan-
cial intoinodiaiios who woikod thoso wondois. But spioading iisk
doos not olininato it. Fuithoinoio, tho lact that it can lo distiilutod so
widoly oncouiagos ovon iiskioi local lohaviouis, locauso lialility can lo
tiansloiiod olsowhoio. Without adoquato iisk-assossnont contiols, this
wavo ol hnancialization has now tuinod into tho so-callod sul-piino
noitgago and housing assot-valuo ciisis. Tho lallout was concontiatod
in tho hist instanco in and aiound VT citios, with paiticulaily soiious
itvvrv: 3JHIUUPUIF$JUZ
inplications loi low-incono, innoi-city Aliican-Anoiicans and houso-
holds hoadod ly singlo wonon. It also has alloctod thoso who, unallo to
alloid tho skyiockoting houso piicos in uilan contios, ospocially in tho
Southwost, woio loicod into tho notiopolitan soni-poiiphoiy, hoio thoy
took up spoculativoly luilt tiact housing at initially oasy iatos, lut now
laco oscalating connuting costs as oil piicos iiso, and soaiing noitgago
paynonts as naikot iatos cono into olloct.
Tho cuiiont ciisis, with vicious local iopoicussions on uilan lilo and
inliastiuctuios, also thioatons tho wholo aichitoctuio ol tho glolal hnan-
cial syston and nay tiiggoi a najoi iocossion to loot. Tho paiallols with
tho ;os aio uncannyincluding tho innodiato oasy-nonoy iosponso
ol tho Fodoial Rosoivo in zoo;o8, which will alnost coitainly gonoiato
stiong cuiionts ol uncontiollallo ination, il not stagation, in tho not
too distant lutuio. Howovoi, tho situation is lai noio conplox now, and
it is an opon quostion whothoi China can conponsato loi a soiious ciash
in tho Unitod Statos, ovon in tho QSD tho paco ol uilanization soons to
lo slowing down. Tho hnancial syston is also noio tightly couplod than
it ovoi was loloio.
o
Conputoi-diivon split-socond tiading always thioat-
ons to cioato a gioat divoigonco in tho naikotit is alioady pioducing
inciodillo volatility in stock tiadingthat will piocipitato a nassivo cii-
sis, ioquiiing a total io-think ol how hnanco capital and nonoy naikots
woik, including thoii iolation to uilanization.
Prcpcrty und pucijcuticn
As in all tho piocoding phasos, this nost iocont iadical oxpansion ol tho
uilan piocoss has liought with it inciodillo tiansloinations ol lilostylo.
Quality ol uilan lilo has locono a connodity, as has tho city itsoll,
in a woild whoio consunoiisn, touiisn, cultuial and knowlodgo-lasod
industiios havo locono najoi aspocts ol tho uilan political oconony.
Tho postnodoinist ponchant loi oncouiaging tho loination ol naikot
nichosin loth consunoi halits and cultuial loinssuiiounds tho
contonpoiaiy uilan oxpoiionco with an auia ol lioodon ol choico,
piovidod you havo tho nonoy. Shopping nalls, nultiploxos and lox
stoios pioliloiato, as do last-lood and aitisanal naikot-placos. Wo
now havo, as uilan sociologist Shaion Zukin puts it, 'pacihcation ly
o
Richaid Bookstaloi, A Dcncn cj Our Own Dcsign. Murkcts, !cdgc Funds und tnc
Pcri|s cj Finunciu| !nncvuticn, Holokon, OK zoo;.
z iv
cappuccino`. Evon tho incohoiont, lland and nonotonous suluilan tiact
dovolopnont that continuos to doninato in nany aioas now gots its anti-
doto in a 'now uilanisn` novonont that touts tho salo ol connunity
and loutiquo lilostylos to lulhll uilan dioans. This is a woild in which
tho nooliloial othic ol intonso possossivo individualisn, and its cognato
ol political withdiawal lion colloctivo loins ol action, loconos tho ton-
plato loi hunan socialization.
;
Tho dolonco ol piopoity valuos loconos
ol such paianount political intoiost that, as Miko Davis points out, tho
hono-ownoi associations in tho stato ol Caliloinia locono lastions ol
political ioaction, il not ol liagnontod noighlouihood lascisns.
8
Wo incioasingly livo in dividod and conict-piono uilan aioas. In tho
past thioo docados, tho nooliloial tuin has iostoiod class powoi to iich
olitos. Fouitoon lillionaiios havo onoigod in Moxico sinco thon, and in
zooo that countiy loastod tho iichost nan on oaith, Cailos Slin, at tho
sano tino as tho inconos ol tho pooi had oithoi stagnatod oi dinin-
ishod. Tho iosults aio indolilly otchod on tho spatial loins ol oui citios,
which incioasingly consist ol loitihod liagnonts, gatod connunitios
and piivatizod pullic spacos kopt undoi constant suivoillanco. In tho
dovoloping woild in paiticulai, tho city
is splitting into dilloiont sopaiatod paits, with tho appaiont loination ol
nany 'niciostatos`. Woalthy noighlouihoods piovidod with all kinds ol
soivicos, such as oxclusivo schools, goll couisos, tonnis couits and piivato
polico patiolling tho aioa aiound tho clock intoitwino with illogal sottlo-
nonts whoio watoi is availallo only at pullic lountains, no sanitation
syston oxists, oloctiicity is piiatod ly a piivilogod low, tho ioads locono
nud stioans whonovoi it iains, and whoio houso-shaiing is tho noin.
Each liagnont appoais to livo and lunction autononously, sticking hinly
to what it has loon allo to gial in tho daily hght loi suivival.

Undoi thoso conditions, idoals ol uilan idontity, citizonship and

lolongingalioady thioatonod ly tho spioading nalaiso ol a noolil-
oial othiclocono nuch haidoi to sustain. Piivatizod iodistiilution
;
Hildo Nalstad ot al., 'Idoology and Powoi: Tho Inuonco ol Cuiiont Nooliloialisn
in Socioty`, ]curnu| cj Ccnnunity und App|icd Scciu| Psycnc|cgy, vol. ;, no. q (July
zoo;, pp. z;.
8
Miko Davis, City cj Quurtz. Ecuvuting tnc Futurc in Lcs Angc|cs, London and Now
Yoik o.

Maicollo Ballo, 'Uilan Planning and tho Fiagnontod City ol Dovoloping

Countiios`, Tnird Wcr|d P|unning Rcvicw, vol. , no. (, pp. z.
itvvrv: 3JHIUUPUIF$JUZ
thiough ciininal activity thioatons individual socuiity at ovoiy tuin,
pionpting populai donands loi polico suppiossion. Evon tho idoa that
tho city night lunction as a colloctivo lody politic, a sito within and lion
which piogiossivo social novononts night onanato, appoais inplaus-
illo. Thoio aio, howovoi, uilan social novononts sooking to ovoicono
isolation and ioshapo tho city in a dilloiont inago lion that put loiwaid
ly tho dovolopois, who aio lackod ly hnanco, coipoiato capital and an
incioasingly ontiopionouiially nindod local stato appaiatus.
Dispcsscssicns
Suiplus alsoiption thiough uilan tiansloination has an ovon daikoi
aspoct. It has ontailod iopoatod louts ol uilan iostiuctuiing thiough
'cioativo dostiuction`, which noaily always has a class dinonsion
sinco it is tho pooi, tho undoipiivilogod and thoso naiginalizod lion
political powoi that sulloi hist and loionost lion this piocoss. Violonco
is ioquiiod to luild tho now uilan woild on tho wiockago ol tho old.
Haussnann toio thiough tho old Paiisian sluns, using powois ol
oxpiopiiation in tho nano ol civic inpiovonont and ionovation. Ho
doliloiatoly onginooiod tho ionoval ol nuch ol tho woiking class and
othoi uniuly olononts lion tho city contio, whoio thoy constitutod a
thioat to pullic oidoi and political powoi. Ho cioatod an uilan loin
whoio it was loliovodincoiioctly, as it tuinod out in 8;that sul-
hciont lovols ol suivoillanco and nilitaiy contiol could lo attainod to
onsuio that iovolutionaiy novononts would oasily lo liought to hool.
Novoitholoss, as Engols pointod out in 8;z:
In ioality, tho louigooisio has only ono nothod ol solving tho housing
quostion altoi its lashionthat is to say, ol solving it in such a way that
tho solution continually iopioducos tho quostion anow. This nothod is
callod 'Haussnann` . . . No nattoi how dilloiont tho ioasons nay lo, tho
iosult is always tho sano, tho scandalous alloys and lanos disappoai to tho
acconpaninont ol lavish soll-piaiso lion tho louigooisio on account ol
this tionondous succoss, lut thoy appoai again innodiatoly sonowhoio
olso . . . Tho sano ocononic nocossity which pioducod thon in tho hist
placo, pioducos thon in tho noxt placo.
o
It took noio than a hundiod yoais to conploto tho onlouigooisonont
ol contial Paiis, with tho consoquoncos soon in iocont yoais ol upiisings
o
Fiiodiich Engols, Tnc !cusing Qucsticn, Now Yoik , pp. ;q;.
q iv
and nayhon in thoso isolatod suluils that tiap naiginalizod inni-
giants, unonployod woikois and youth. Tho sad point hoio, ol couiso,
is that what Engols dosciilod iocuis thioughout histoiy. Roloit Mosos
'took a noat axo to tho Bionx`, in his inlanous woids, liinging loith
long and loud lanonts lion noighlouihood gioups and novononts. In
tho casos ol Paiis and Now Yoik, onco tho powoi ol stato oxpiopiiations
had loon succosslully iosistod and containod, a noio insidious and
cancoious piogiossion took hold thiough nunicipal hscal disciplino,
piopoity spoculation and tho soiting ol land-uso accoiding to tho iato
ol iotuin loi its 'highost and lost uso`. Engols undoistood this soquonco
all too woll:
Tho giowth ol tho lig nodoin citios givos tho land in coitain aioas, paiticu-
laily in thoso aioas which aio contially situatod, an aitihcially and colossally
incioasing valuo, tho luildings oioctod on thoso aioas dopioss this valuo
instoad ol incioasing it, locauso thoy no longoi lolong to tho changod cii-
cunstancos. Thoy aio pullod down and ioplacod ly othois. This takos placo
alovo all with woikois` housos which aio situatod contially and whoso ionts,
ovon with tho gioatost ovoiciowding, can novoi, oi only voiy slowly, incioaso
alovo a coitain naxinun. Thoy aio pullod down and in thoii stoad shops,
waiohousos and pullic luildings aio oioctod.

Though this dosciiption was wiitton in 8;z, it applios diioctly to contonp-

oiaiy uilan dovolopnont in nuch ol AsiaDolhi, Sooul, Munlaias
woll as gontiihcation in Now Yoik. A piocoss ol displaconont and what I
call 'accunulation ly dispossossion` lio at tho coio ol uilanization undoi
capitalisn.
z
It is tho niiioi-inago ol capital alsoiption thiough uilan
iodovolopnont, and is giving iiso to nunoious conicts ovoi tho captuio
ol valuallo land lion low-incono populations that nay havo livod thoio
loi nany yoais.
Considoi tho caso ol Sooul in tho os: constiuction conpanios and
dovolopois hiiod goon squads ol suno-wiostloi typos to invado noigh-
louihoods on tho city`s hillsidos. Thoy slodgohannoiod down not
only housing lut also all tho possossions ol thoso who had luilt thoii
own honos in tho os on what had locono pioniun land. High-
iiso towois, which show no tiaco ol tho liutality that poinittod thoii
constiuction, now covoi nost ol thoso hillsidos. In Munlai, noanwhilo,

Engols, !cusing Qucsticn, p. z.

z
Haivoy, Tnc Ncw !npcriu|isn, Oxloid zoo, chaptoi q.
itvvrv: 3JHIUUPUIF$JUZ
o nillion pooplo olhcially considoiod as slun dwollois aio sottlod on
land without logal titlo, all naps ol tho city loavo thoso placos llank.
With tho attonpt to tuin Munlai into a glolal hnancial contio to iival
Shanghai, tho piopoity-dovolopnont loon has gathoiod paco, and tho
land that squattois occupy appoais incioasingly valuallo. Dhaiavi, ono
ol tho nost pioninont sluns in Munlai, is ostinatod to lo woith Sz
lillion. Tho piossuio to cloai itloi onviionnontal and social ioasons
that nask tho land gialis nounting daily. Financial powois lackod ly
tho stato push loi loicillo slun cloaianco, in sono casos violontly taking
possossion ol toiiain occupiod loi a wholo gonoiation. Capital accunu-
lation thiough ioal-ostato activity loons, sinco tho land is acquiiod at
alnost no cost.
Will tho pooplo who aio displacod got conponsation? Tho lucky onos
got a lit. But whilo tho Indian Constitution spocihos that tho stato has
an olligation to piotoct tho livos and woll-loing ol tho wholo popula-
tion, iiiospoctivo ol casto oi class, and to guaiantoo iights to housing
and sholtoi, tho Supiono Couit has issuod judgononts that iowiito this
constitutional ioquiionont. Sinco slun dwollois aio illogal occupants
and nany cannot dohnitivoly piovo thoii long-toin iosidonco, thoy
havo no iight to conponsation. To concodo that iight, says tho Supiono
Couit, would lo tantanount to iowaiding pickpockots loi thoii actions.
So tho squattois oithoi iosist and hght, oi novo with thoii low lolong-
ings to canp out on tho sidos ol highways oi whoiovoi thoy can hnd
a tiny spaco.

Exanplos ol dispossossion can also lo lound in tho VT,

though thoso tond to lo loss liutal and noio logalistic: tho govoinnont`s
iight ol oninont donain has loon alusod in oidoi to displaco ostal-
lishod iosidonts in ioasonallo housing in lavoui ol highoi-oidoi land
usos, such as condoniniuns and lox stoios. Whon this was challongod
in tho VT Supiono Couit, tho justicos iulod that it was constitutional
loi local juiisdictions to lohavo in this way in oidoi to incioaso thoii
piopoity-tax laso.
q
In China nillions aio loing dispossossod ol tho spacos thoy havo long
occupiodthioo nillion in Boijing alono. Sinco thoy lack piivato-piopoity

Usha Rananathan, 'Illogality and tho Uilan Pooi`, Eccncnic und Pc|iticu| Wcck|y,
zz July zooo, Rakosh Shukla, 'Rights ol tho Pooi: An Ovoiviow ol Supiono Couit`,
Eccncnic und Pc|iticu| Wcck|y, z Soptonloi zooo.
q
Kolo v. Now London, DU, docidod on z Juno zoo in caso q VT qo (zoo.
o iv
iights, tho stato can sinply ionovo thon ly hat, olloiing a ninoi cash
paynont to holp thon on thoii way loloio tuining tho land ovoi to
dovolopois at a laigo pioht. In sono instancos, pooplo novo willingly,
lut thoio aio also iopoits ol widospioad iosistanco, tho usual iosponso to
which is liutal iopiossion ly tho Connunist paity. In tho QSD it is olton
populations on tho iuial naigins who aio displacod, illustiating tho sig-
nihcanco ol Lololvio`s aigunont, piosciontly laid out in tho oos, that
tho cloai distinction which onco oxistod lotwoon tho uilan and tho iuial
is giadually lading into a sot ol poious spacos ol unovon googiaphical
dovolopnont, undoi tho hogononic connand ol capital and tho stato.
This is also tho caso in India, whoio tho contial and stato govoinnonts
now lavoui tho ostallishnont ol Spocial Econonic Zonosostonsilly
loi industiial dovolopnont, though nost ol tho land is dosignatod loi
uilanization. This policy has lod to pitchod lattlos against agiicultuial
pioducois, tho giossost ol which was tho nassacio at Nandigian in
Wost Bongal in Maich zoo;, oichostiatod ly tho stato`s Maixist govoin-
nont. Intont on oponing up toiiain loi tho Salin Gioup, an Indonosian
conglonoiato, tho iuling DQJN sont ainod polico to dispoiso piotost-
ing villagois, at loast q woio shot doad and dozons woundod. Piivato
piopoity iights in this caso piovidod no piotoction.
What ol tho sooningly piogiossivo pioposal to awaid piivato-piopoity
iights to squattoi populations, pioviding thon with assots that will poi-
nit thon to loavo povoity lohind?

Such a schono is now loing nootod

loi Rio`s lavolas, loi oxanplo. Tho piollon is that tho pooi, losot with
incono insocuiity and lioquont hnancial dilhcultios, can oasily lo poi-
suadod to tiado in that assot loi a iolativoly low cash paynont. Tho iich
typically ioluso to givo up thoii valuod assots at any piico, which is why
Mosos could tako a noat axo to tho low-incono Bionx lut not to aluont
Paik Avonuo. Tho lasting olloct ol Maigaiot Thatchoi`s piivatization ol
social housing in Biitain has loon to cioato a iont and piico stiuctuio
thioughout notiopolitan London that piocludos lowoi-incono and ovon
niddlo-class pooplo lion accoss to acconnodation anywhoio noai tho
uilan contio. I wagoi that within hltoon yoais, il piosont tionds con-
tinuo, all thoso hillsidos in Rio now occupiod ly lavolas will lo covoiod

Much ol this thinking lollows tho woik ol Hoinando do Soto, Tnc Mystcry cj
Cupitu|. Wny Cupitu|isn Triunpns in tnc Wcst und Fui|s Evcrywncrc E|sc, Now Yoik
zooo, soo tho ciitical oxanination ly Tinothy Mitcholl, 'Tho Woik ol Econonics:
How a Disciplino Makos its Woild`, Arcnivcs Eurcpccnncs dc Sccic|cgic, vol. qo, no. z
(August zoo, pp. z;zo.
itvvrv: 3JHIUUPUIF$JUZ ;
ly high-iiso condoniniuns with lalulous viows ovoi tho idyllic lay,
whilo tho oistwhilo lavola dwollois will havo loon hltoiod oll into sono
ionoto poiiphoiy.
Fcrnu|uting dcnunds
Uilanization, wo nay concludo, has playod a ciucial iolo in tho alsoip-
tion ol capital suiplusos, at ovoi incioasing googiaphical scalos, lut at
tho piico ol luigooning piocossos ol cioativo dostiuction that havo dis-
possossod tho nassos ol any iight to tho city whatsoovoi. Tho planot
as luilding sito collidos with tho 'planot ol sluns`.
o
Poiiodically this
onds in iovolt, as in Paiis in 8; oi tho VT altoi tho assassination ol
Maitin Luthoi King in o8. Il, as soons likoly, hscal dilhcultios nount
and tho hithoito succosslul nooliloial, postnodoinist and consunoi-
ist phaso ol capitalist suiplus-alsoiption thiough uilanization is at an
ond and a lioadoi ciisis onsuos, thon tho quostion aiisos: whoio is oui
o8 oi, ovon noio dianatically, oui voision ol tho Connuno? As with
tho hnancial syston, tho answoi is lound to lo nuch noio conplox
piocisoly locauso tho uilan piocoss is now glolal in scopo. Signs ol
iolollion aio ovoiywhoio: tho uniost in China and India is chionic, civil
wais iago in Aliica, Latin Anoiica is in loinont. Any ol thoso iovolts
could locono contagious. Unliko tho hscal syston, howovoi, tho uilan
and poii-uilan social novononts ol opposition, ol which thoio aio
nany aiound tho woild, aio not tightly couplod, indood nost havo no
connoction to oach othoi. Il thoy sonohow did cono togothoi, what
should thoy donand?
Tho answoi to tho last quostion is sinplo onough in piinciplo: gioatoi
donociatic contiol ovoi tho pioduction and utilization ol tho suiplus.
Sinco tho uilan piocoss is a najoi channol ol suiplus uso, ostallishing
donociatic nanagonont ovoi its uilan doploynont constitutos tho iight
to tho city. Thioughout capitalist histoiy, sono ol tho suiplus valuo has
loon taxod, and in social-donociatic phasos tho piopoition at tho stato`s
disposal ioso signihcantly. Tho nooliloial piojoct ovoi tho last thiity
yoais has loon oiiontod towaids piivatizing that contiol. Tho data loi all
PFDE countiios show, howovoi, that tho stato`s poition ol gioss output
has loon ioughly constant sinco tho ;os.
;
Tho nain achiovonont ol
o
Miko Davis, P|unct cj S|uns, London and Now Yoik zooo.
;
e[YZ Fuctbcck .cc6. Eccncnic, Envircnncntu| und Scciu| Stutistics, Paiis zoo8,
p. zz.
8 iv
tho nooliloial assault, thon, has loon to piovont tho pullic shaio lion
oxpanding as it did in tho oos. Nooliloialisn has also cioatod now
systons ol govoinanco that intogiato stato and coipoiato intoiosts, and
thiough tho application ol nonoy powoi, it has onsuiod that tho dis-
luisonont ol tho suiplus thiough tho stato appaiatus lavouis coipoiato
capital and tho uppoi classos in shaping tho uilan piocoss. Raising
tho piopoition ol tho suiplus hold ly tho stato will only havo a positivo
inpact il tho stato itsoll is liought lack undoi donociatic contiol.
Incioasingly, wo soo tho iight to tho city lalling into tho hands ol piivato
oi quasi-piivato intoiosts. In Now Yoik City, loi oxanplo, tho lillionaiio
nayoi, Michaol Bloonloig, is ioshaping tho city along linos lavouiallo
to dovolopois, Wall Stioot and tiansnational capitalist-class olononts,
and pionoting tho city as an optinal location loi high-valuo lusi-
nossos and a lantastic dostination loi touiists. Ho is, in olloct, tuining
Manhattan into ono vast gatod connunity loi tho iich. In Moxico City,
Cailos Slin had tho downtown stioots io-colllod to suit tho touiist gazo.
Not only aluont individuals oxoiciso diioct powoi. In tho town ol Now
Havon, stiappod loi iosouicos loi uilan ioinvostnont, it is Yalo, ono ol
tho woalthiost univoisitios in tho woild, that is iodosigning nuch ol tho
uilan laliic to suit its noods. Johns Hopkins is doing tho sano loi East
Baltinoio, and Colunlia Univoisity plans to do so loi aioas ol Now Yoik,
spaiking noighlouihood iosistanco novononts in loth casos. Tho iight
to tho city, as it is now constitutod, is too naiiowly conhnod, iostiictod in
nost casos to a snall political and ocononic olito who aio in a position
to shapo citios noio and noio altoi thoii own dosiios.
Evoiy Januaiy, tho Olhco ol tho Now Yoik Stato Conptiolloi pullishos an
ostinato ol tho total Wall Stioot lonusos loi tho piovious twolvo nonths.
In zoo;, a disastious yoai loi hnancial naikots ly any noasuio, thoso
addod up to S.z lillion, only z poi cont loss than tho yoai loloio. In
nid-sunnoi ol zoo;, tho Fodoial Rosoivo and tho Euiopoan Contial
Bank pouiod lillions ol dollais` woith ol shoit-toin ciodit into tho hnan-
cial syston to onsuio its stalility, and thoioaltoi tho Fod dianatically
lowoiod intoiost iatos oi punpod in vast anounts ol liquidity ovoiy tino
tho Dow thioatonod to lall piocipitously. Moanwhilo, sono two nillion
pooplo havo loon oi aio alout to lo nado honoloss ly loioclosuios.
Many city noighlouihoods and ovon wholo poii-uilan connunitios in
tho VT havo loon loaidod up and vandalizod, wiockod ly tho piodatoiy
londing piacticos ol tho hnancial institutions. This population is duo
itvvrv: 3JHIUUPUIF$JUZ
no lonusos. Indood, sinco loioclosuio noans dolt loigivonoss, which
is iogaidod as incono in tho Unitod Statos, nany ol thoso ovictod laco
a holty incono-tax lill loi nonoy thoy novoi had in thoii possossion.
This asynnotiy cannot lo constiuod as anything loss than a nassivo
loin ol class conliontation. A 'Financial Katiina` is unlolding, which
convoniontly (loi tho dovolopois thioatons to wipo out low-incono
noighlouihoods on potontially high-valuo land in nany innoi-city aioas
lai noio olloctivoly and spoodily than could lo achiovod thiough oni-
nont donain.
Wo havo yot, howovoi, to soo a cohoiont opposition to thoso dovolop-
nonts in tho twonty-hist contuiy. Thoio aio, ol couiso, alioady a gioat
nany divoiso social novononts locusing on tho uilan quostionlion
India and Biazil to China, Spain, Aigontina and tho Unitod Statos. In
zoo, a City Statuto was insoitod into tho Biazilian Constitution, altoi
piossuio lion social novononts, to iocognizo tho colloctivo iight to tho
city.
8
In tho VT, thoio havo loon calls loi nuch ol tho S;oo lillion lail-
out loi hnancial institutions to lo divoitod into a Roconstiuction Bank,
which would holp piovont loioclosuios and lund olloits at noighloui-
hood iovitalization and inliastiuctuial ionowal at nunicipal lovol. Tho
uilan ciisis that is allocting nillions would thon lo piioiitizod ovoi tho
noods ol lig invostois and hnanciois. Unloitunatoly tho social novo-
nonts aio not stiong onough oi sulhciontly nolilizod to loico thiough
this solution. Noi havo thoso novononts yot convoigod on tho singulai
ain ol gaining gioatoi contiol ovoi tho usos ol tho suipluslot alono
ovoi tho conditions ol its pioduction.
At this point in histoiy, this has to lo a glolal stiugglo, piodoninantly
with hnanco capital, loi that is tho scalo at which uilanization piocossos
now woik. To lo suio, tho political task ol oiganizing such a conlionta-
tion is dilhcult il not daunting. Howovoi, tho oppoitunitios aio nultiplo
locauso, as this liiol histoiy shows, ciisos iopoatodly oiupt aiound
uilanization loth locally and glolally, and locauso tho notiopolis is
now tho point ol nassivo collisiondaio wo call it class stiugglo?ovoi
tho accunulation ly dispossossion visitod upon tho loast woll-oll and tho
dovolopnontal diivo that sooks to colonizo spaco loi tho aluont.
8
Edsio Foinandos, 'Constiucting tho Right to tho City" in Biazil`, Scciu| und Lcgu|
Studics, vol. o, no. z (Juno zoo;, pp. zo.
qo iv
Ono stop towaids unilying thoso stiugglos is to adopt tho iight to tho city
as loth woiking slogan and political idoal, piocisoly locauso it locusos
on tho quostion ol who connands tho nocossaiy connoction lotwoon
uilanization and suiplus pioduction and uso. Tho donociatization ol
that iight, and tho constiuction ol a lioad social novonont to onloico its
will is inpoiativo il tho dispossossod aio to tako lack tho contiol which
thoy havo loi so long loon doniod, and il thoy aio to instituto now nodos
ol uilanization. Lololvio was iight to insist that tho iovolution has to lo
uilan, in tho lioadost sonso ol that toin, oi nothing at all.