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The Central Nervous System or The Name of the Game is the Brain
To say the brain is the most marvelous organ is an understatement at best. Although some organs of the body are self-governing such as the heart and intestines, acting independently of the brain at least to some degree, it is still safe to say that our entire sense of being is brain dependent. And while the brain orchestrates visceral functions, thoughts, and muscular activity, the way that it does so has yet to be adequately described. The following is a modest attempt at brain description and will cover only the obvious and most visual parts of the brain. The subtleties will be left for more advanced minds than mine. The following is a three part exercise in which your brain will be examining brain models and the real brains of others. We will begin with the brain model and then try to compare the features of that model with a sheep brain. We will also examine a few specific structures on the human brain. Be sure to refer to your sheep brain (if available) when comparing structures. Some structures are not obvious on the sheep brain and you will not be responsible for them. Only look for those structures that we will discuss in class. You will note that there are obvious differences between real brains, so plastic models offer a conceptual view at best. Still, these models look real enough to serve our purpose.

Part I: A Matter of Matter

The central nervous system contains two distinct general tissue types, white matter and gray matter. White matter contains axons of the spinal nerves and their accompanying oligodendrocyte cells. As you might suspect, white matter is myelinated. White matter will appear white or yellow on your models. It will be paler in color than gray matter on real brains. By contrast, gray matter contains neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and non-myelinated axons. In the central nervous system, glial cells such as microglial cells and astrocytes may be found here. Gray matter is a grayish green or yellow color or even brown on the models and is a darker color than the white matter on the real brains. This outer covering of gray matter in the brain is called the cerebral cortex; interior regions of gray matter are called nuclei. The nuclei on your brain models are either salmon colored or gray. While both gray and white matter are necessary for brain function, white matter can be compared to telephone lines, while gray matter is more like the phone itself, and for that matter, the person speaking.

Part II: Human Brains, Brain Models & Sheep Brains

A. Lobes and Fissures (Martini, p.392393) Some of you know by now that the brain model comes apart, but lets examine the assembled brain first. The brain proper, or cerebrum, is divided into four regional lobes and is divided mid-sagittally into two halves, the left and right hemispheres, by a deep fissure, the longitudinal fissure. We also see that there is a small bun-like structure that rests posteriorly and inferiorly to the cerebrum. This bun is the cerebellum, or little brain, and is separated from the cerebrum by the transverse fissure. Note that the cerebellum serves as a great positional landmark. The cerebellum rests in the posterior region of the brain, so the opposite side of the brain must be the anterior region. Directly above it lies the occipital lobe. Now lets examine the lobes in earnest. To learn the lobes of the cerebrum, recall the bones of the cranial vault and imagine in your mind where they would rest on the brain model. The frontal bone would rest in the anterior region, the temporal bones would rest laterally on the brain, the occipital bone would rest in the posterior region, and the parietal bones would rest on the superior region connecting the other three bones. The main lobes of the brain, therefore, are the frontal lobes, parietal lobes, temporal lobes and occipital lobes. Less obvious is a hidden lobe called the insula (island) which will be discussed later. It is fortunate for anatomy students that the lobes of the cerebrum have the same names as the bones that rest upon them. But rather than being separated by sutures, the lobes are separated by distinct grooves called sulci (sulcus, singular). Sulci are not as deep as fissures, but are distinguishable nonetheless, because the sulci are accompanied by prominent rounded elevations that lie between them called gyri (gyrus, singular). The term sulcus means furrow or ditch; the term gyrus means circle. While there are numerous sulci in the brain, there are a few dominant sulci that serve as demarcation lines between the cerebral lobes. Lets examine them. First, find the pink and the blue gyri on your models. Note the deep groove that lies between them. This groove is the central sulcus and it serves as a border between the frontal and parietal lobes. The pink gyrus marks the posterior region of the frontal lobe. It is called the precentral gyrus and is a region used for motor control. The blue gyrus marks the anterior region of the parietal lobe. It is the postcentral gyrus. It serves as the somatosensory area (touch and pressure signals from the skin and a few other organs are processed here). The prefixes, pre and post, mean before and after respectively. Now examine the deep groove that distinguishes the temporal lobe from the rest of the cerebrum. This obvious groove is the lateral sulcus. It is deep enough to be referred to often as the lateral cerebral fissure. By contrast, the sulcus distinguishing the anterior border of the occipital lobe is less distinct. To see it, find a short crease-like sulcus in the posterior region of the brain model (#25). This is the parieto-occipital sulcus and it separates the parietal and

occipital lobes as its name suggests. Because the parieto-occipital sulcus so indistinct, for our purposes the occipital lobe will be best understood simply as the posterior region of the cerebrum. Now for the lobe we cant see. Just as the skull has a hidden ethmoid bone, the brain has a fifth lobe that rests beneath the temporal lobe and parietal lobe. It is called the insula. This hidden lobe is difficult to distinguish and still little is known about its function. Recently, some insular activity has come to light. Scientists now believe the insula may serve as an addiction center and may be responsible for craving. It also acts as a center for emotions such as empathy, joy, and criticism. People with damage to the insula are less critical about foods (they cannot distinguish rotten from fresh, which makes them an ideal dinner guest if you cook the way I do). Likewise, insula damaged patients have difficulty reading body language, and have reduced emotional responses in general. It is clear the insula works along with the limbic system in this regard. One the bright side, damage to the insula can stop addictions. While this is a high price to pay, it does shed some hope for the future for addicts. Perhaps one day, physicians will be able to perform simple procedures on the insula to cure addiction with little or no side effects. Meanwhile, stay away form addictive substances and give your insula a rest. B. Lobes and Fissures of the Cerebellum

The cerebellum has a continuation of the longitudinal fissure that separates the cerebellum into two distinct hemispheres (left and right). There are three lobes of interest here. See Martini p. 407, figure 15.19. These are: the anterior lobe, which rests closest to the base of the cerebrum, the posterior lobe, which makes the bulk of the cerebellum, and the tiny flocculonodular lobe. In general, the cerebellum is used for regulating motor control. The primary fissure separates the anterior and posterior lobes. The anterior and posterior lobes help influence general body movements while the flocculonodular lobe (# 128) helps regulate and coordinate balance and the extrinsic muscles of the eye. Getting dizzy upsets the flocculonodular lobe, and saying flocculonodular makes me dizzy. (The term flocculo means resembling a tuft of yarn). In addition, the union of cerebellar hemispheres is marked by a little worm-like gyrus called the vermis. Vermis literally means worm. The vermis contributes to the motor control of the axial skeleton. The vermis, like any good worm, makes you squirm. White and gray matter are easily distinguished in the cerebellum. If you examine a sagittal cut of the cerebellum, you will see a highly branched collection of white matter. This white matter is called the arbor vitae (the tree of life). C. Jack and the Brain Stalk (Martini, p. 404-5) Examine the white stalk-like structure on which the brain model appears to be perched. This is the brain stem. The brain stem consists of the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the

midbrain. The bulge in the middle of the brainstem is the pons. It helps regulate breathing and coordinates signals to the cerebellum. The term pons means bridge. Above the pons is the midbrain, a region that contains nuclei involved in various reflexes. If you disassemble the brain model and examine the brain stem, you will find two bumps in the posterior region of the midbrain. These bumps are the superior and inferior colliculi (colliculus means hill). Collectively they are known as the corpora quadrigemina (four twin bodies). The superior colliculus (#100) is involved with reflex movements of the eye while the inferior colliculus (#106) is involved in auditory reflexes. Find #67 on your model by examining the lateral region of the midbrain. You will see a series of linear grooves projecting upward. These are the cerebral peduncle (pp. 404-5). They contain sensory and motor nerve fibers coming into and out of the brain respectively. Now lets examine the region below the pons. Here lies the narrow medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata is also a region for involuntary reflex centers. Two columns pass on its anterior side known as the pyramids. Crossing over of most of the tracts of the spinal cord occurs here (by crossing over, I refer to nerve tracts on the left side cross to the right and vice versa. This means signals from the right brain go to the left side of the body and vice versa. Crossing of nerve tracts within the spinal cord is also called decussation). You will also note two green oval shaped structures, the olives. The olives contain nuclei that act as relay centers to the midbrain and medulla oblongata. Roots of two cranial nerves are also associated with this region (more on that later).

D. Half Brain. (Martini , p. 399 & 402) 1. First, the Bird By now your brain model should be in pieces, so take the brainstem piece and examine the interior view. Look at the yellow spot in the upper region, number 47. Imagine that this spot is the eye of a bird. Try to make out the birds beak, a crest on its head, and its chin. Imagine that the pons is the birds chest. The cerebellum would be its plumbed tail---I think you get the picture. You can see the bird on the sagittal half brain piece of the model as well. We will use this image as a reference for the structures we are about to observe. 2. The Diencephalon & Associated Structures (page 399, 402) The Diencephalon consists of three structures: the thalamus, the hypothalamus and the epithalamus. While it is not part of the brain stem per se, there a strong enough connection that the brain stem and diencephalon appear as one piece. This union of brain stem and diencephalon has recently been described to you as a bird, and references to the diencephalons features will coincide with the features of the bird. First find # 47 again, the eye of the bird. If you can image the face of the bird, you will be viewing the thalamus. The thalamus is the relay center for virtually all the sensory activity of the brain. The term thalamus has a long and convoluted derivation, but it literally means a hidden bedroom in the keel of a ship. Dont ask me why. The eye of the

bird is actually a little connecting stalk between the two lobes of the thalamus. This stalk is called the intermediate mass (also the interthalamic adhesion and mass intermedia). Within the walls of the thalamus lies the third ventricle, a cavity filled with circulating cerebral spinal fluid. Therefore, when we examine a sagittal view of the thalamus, we are examining the third ventricle. The ventricles will be discussed later in this exercise. Now we will explore the birds beak, an area that is much more complex than it appears on your model. The beak of the bird is the hypothalamus, a complex region containing nuclei that regulate hunger, sleep/wake cycles, thirst, certain emotions, and body temperature. The pituitary gland is found in this region as well, attached to the hypothalamus. In some models, a little connecting stalk is present. The stalk is called the infundibulum and it contains axons and capillaries that allow the hypothalamus to communicate with the pituitary gland. Check this out on the colorful brain model that shows the corona radiata in its entirety, or check out the half-head model. On these models, the infundibulum is obvious enough. However, on our regular brain model, the infundibulum is absent. The pituitary gland is depicted as a little salmon colored bulge that the bird seems to be holding in its beak. Youll discuss the relationship between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland more in physiology. For now, remember that the hypothalamus sends regulatory hormones to the anterior portion of the pituitary gland and two hormones for storage to the posterior pituitary gland. Well discus these hormones a little more in the endocrine system lab.

The beak region has other important features as well. The distal portion of the beak of the bird is composed in part by the optic chiasma. This is a structure created by the optic nerve, one of the cranial nerves. We will discuss the cranial nerves later in this exercise. Moving in a proximal direction on the beak we find a bump that looks like a chin or jowl of the bird. This bump is one of two mamillary bodies, so named because they resemble small breasts when viewed together. The mamillary bodies contain nuclei that promote reflexes involved in eating. Follow the bill up to a little yellow dot that is in line with the intermediate mass. You could consider this dot the nostril of the bird. This yellow dot is, in actuality, the anterior commissure. Commissures are white matter connections that allow communication between the two cerebral hemispheres. A more prominent commissure, the corpus callosum, may be found as a yellow crest on the head of the bird. This commissure promotes the most communication between the cerebral hemispheres. It tends to be thinner in men, which may explain why women are better are multi-tasking than men are. Now where was I? Oh yes! The anterior commissure rests below the corpus callosum and also connects the brains lobes. The posterior commissure also does the same, but is found in the posterior region near the epithalamus. It, too, is represented by a small yellow dot on the model (see Figure 15.11 p. 396). Below the corpus callosum lies a white space (#44) called the septum pellucidum which literally means the

transparent wall. This structure may be very obvious in the sheep brain. The septum pellucidum is a thin membranelike structure that separates the lateral ventricles. Again, ventricles are cavities that contain cerebral spinal fluid. We will study a model of the ventricles later on in this exercise. At the base of the septum pellucidum lies another structure of white matter called the fornix. The fornix is the axonal connection between the limbic system and the rest of the brain and forms the eyebrow of the bird (see figure 15.13, p. 399). The limbic system is a series of nuclei and other structures that regulate both our emotions and memory (see Figure 15.12, p. 398). I used to have a little white model that showed this, but someone took it thinking they would not be tested on it if it were gone. I have a photograph in your power point of this model and I do expect you to learn the parts. Also, use figure 15.12 in your textbook, and try to find the mamillary bodies, olfactory tracts (nerves) and hippocampus and parahippocampus on this figure. The hippocampus and parahippocampus are one of our main memory centers. The olfactory nerves and mamillary bodies will be discussed later in this exercise. Now let us visit the epithalamus, the last of the diencephalon and some of the accompanying structures. The epithalamus contains the pineal gland and part of the choroid plexus, but first let us examine an associated structure. At the rear of the corpus callosum and septum pellucidum lies a bright pink structure sometimes tipped with red (#54). The choroid plexus is the pink strip itself, but this is best viewed on the ventricle model coming later. The red tip

represents the pineal gland. The hormone produced by the pineal gland is melatonin, which helps govern our sleep/wake cycles and may be involved in sexual maturation as well as sexual activity. The term pineal means pinecone, and the real gland does bear some resemblance if you look closely. The epithalamus is also important because it contains part of the choroid plexus, a region where cerebral spinal fluid is produced by special ependymal cells lies in close proximity to the pineal gland. I will show you choroid plexus on a horizontal section of a real brain. Because the choroid plexus is rich is capillaries, there is often a reddish or dark appearance. It also explains why our model is colored pink and red. (Please note: For the rest of this exercise, dont use the sheep brain) E. Nuclei (Internal Gray Matter) Examine the brain stem part of the model. Find the flesh-toned bulge that rests on the superior lateral side. This bulge represents some of the basal nuclei, collections of neural cell bodies responsible in part for motor control. The main neurotransmitters of the basal nuclei are inhibitory and ensure muscular relaxation when a muscle is not being used. They are particularly important in rhythmic movements such as walking. The small gray crest on top of the basal nuclei represents the corona radiata (fibers of the internal capsule) p. 397, figure 15.11. The corona radiata consists of tracts of neurons that project upward into several fan-shaped regions (see the brightly colored brain model in the front of the room). These fibers link

the diencephalon, cerebellum and spinal cord with the cerebral cortex. Now let us return to the specific basal nuclei. # 96 on your model shows the lentiform nucleus (lentil shaped) which consist of a superior, lateral putamen (from the Latin word to prune,) and an inferior medial globus pallidus (pale globe). The lentiform nuclei are important in regulating muscle tone, especially in initiating action, while the caudate nucleus is important for keeping smooth rhythms. These nuclei are best seen in the frontal section of the brain illustrated on p. 396, figure 15.11. The caudate nucleus (tail) is medial to the lentiform nucleus (#98 on your model). Another basal nucleus, the claustrum (barrier), may be important in processing visual information subconsciously. The fictional character Sherlock Holmes must have had an exceptionally good claustrum. Still, when asked how he solved a mystery, Holmes was never known to say, elementary, my dear Claustrum. While not depicted on your model, you can see the Claustrum resting laterally to the lentiform nucleus on p. 396, figure 15.11. Let us now descend into the midbrain and examine a few nuclei there. Page 405, figure 15.17 shows a cross section of the midbrain. (Sorry, there is no model to refer to here, only the illustration). Look for the little monkey face near the top of the page. Note the dark eyebrow of the monkey, the substantia nigra (dark substance). The monkey has large red eyes, the red nuclei, and his mouth is surrounded by a beard of gray matter. His mouth is the

cerebral aqueduct, which is continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord. The substantia nigra is dark because it contains copious quantities of melanin. It works closely with the basal nuclei regulating motor control. By contrast, the red nuclei are responsible for integrating information between the cerebellum and cerebrum. Again, motor control and muscle tone are regulated here, and in particular flexion of the arm at the elbow. The red color is a result of the rich capillary fields associated with these nuclei. We can augment the monkey to some degree. If we added a pair of nostrils, they would represent nuclei of the occulomotor nerve which we will discuss with the other cranial nerves shortly. Adding freckles in his cheeks would represent parts of the reticular formation, the loosely organized structure of the main stem and cerebrum that promotes consciousness. A little beard around the mouth would be the gray matter of the midbrain. What a work of art! Eat your heart out Gustov Klint! F. Ventricles, Back to the Bird! (p. 382, figure 15.2) The ventricles are cavities that reside within the brain and are best seen in a model all their own. It is a little gray model, which once again has the appearance of a bird with a large double crest. Remember the ventricles are cavities, not solid structures, so a model like this is the result of using the ventricular cavities as a mold. The purpose of the ventricles is to house, circulate and produce cerebral spinal fluid. Cerebral spinal fluid is a thick syrup-like substance that circulates both

internally and externally in the central nervous system. It contains glucose, amino acids, ions and waste products, and has a variety of functions. These include cushioning and supporting the brain and associated structures (like a water bed for the brain) and transporting nutrients, chemical messengers, and waste products. Cerebral spinal fluid is manufactured in the capillary rich regions of the ventricles by specialized nonciliated ependymal cells. (Recall your neural tissue handout.) These regions, collectively called the choroid plexus, select materials from capillary blood and secrete them as cerebral spinal fluid into the ventricular cavities (see p. 389 figure 15.5). Cerebral spinal fluid also has a close association with the meningies, the coverings of the brain. We will examine that association later in this exercise. Let us begin with the third ventricle on our model because it is a good central place to start. Note the hollow eye of the bird on your model (page 385, figure 15.2). This hole would represent a solid structure in a real brain and that structure is the intermediate mass of the thalamus. Recall that the walls of the thalamus surround the third ventricle, so the third ventricle also

resembles the head of a bird. The double crest of the bird is formed by the two lateral ventricles. The lateral ventricles are ventricles numbers one and two, but most texts refer to them collectively as the lateral ventricles. The neck of the bird is a tiny tube that connects the third ventricle with the fourth ventricle. This tube is called the cerebral aqueduct. The tiny body of the bird is the fourth ventricle. On your brain model, you will see the fourth ventricle lies between the cerebellum and the posterior region of the medulla oblongata forming a little triangular pit. Though not shown on your model, it is important to recognize that the fourth ventricle is continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord. We will examine the central canal shortly. On a clinical note, Hydrocephaly, an enlargement of the cranium, also known as water on the brain, is do the excessive cerebral spinal fluid production and subsequently enlarged lateral ventricles. This condition may be treated in number of ways, including shunting the cerebral spinal fluid away from the brain. Brain damage may occur with this condition, although new techniques are promising.

Part III. The Spinal Cord (p. 358, Figure 14.2)

We will examine the spinal cord both as a model and under the microscope. Let us examine the model first. It is a green plaque holding a large cervical vertebra. The vertebra is one found in the neck. We know this because it has little holes on its lateral most projections (transverse processes) that contain blood vessels. These vessels are the vertebral arteries and veins and will be discussed later in this exercise. But for now, let us concentrate on the spinal cord, housed within the vertebral foramen. Find the brown butterfly composed of gray matter. The gray matter is surrounded by white matter, which contains myelinated axons called tracts. Now note the hole in the center of the gray matter (butterfly). This hole is the central canal and its ciliated ependymal cells help to circulate the cerebral spinal fluid in the interior of the spinal cord. Now let us venture outside the spinal cord. Note the yellow bulge, #19 on your model. This bulge is the dorsal root ganglion and it houses unipolar sensory neurons. Number 18 is the dorsal root itself. It contains axons of the sensory neurons that travel into the gray matter at the dorsal horn #38. Number 36 represents the ventral horn of the gray matter. The ventral horn is a region that contains motor neurons and their dendrites as well as the beginnings of motor axons. The myelinated axons of the motor neurons travel outside the spinal cord and form the ventral root #17. Note that the ventral root lacks a ganglion, because the cell bodies of the motor neurons are inside the gray matter. Its a good idea to draw the spinal cord cross section youre examining under your microscope. There is space provided for this on the following page. It is not an assignment, but the spinal cord is easy enough to draw. Also label as many of the features listed above as you can find. It will help you learn the material. Now that youve drawn the cross section of the spinal cord, lets return to the spinal cord model to see what constitutes a nerve. The dorsal and ventral roots merge just after the dorsal root ganglion to form a nerve, but the nerve immediately branches into the dorsal ramus and ventral ramus. The dorsal rami innervate the posterior regions of the body; the ventral rami innervate the anterior regions. Note that the dorsal rami are thinner on your model than the ventral rami. It is also important to understand that the rami, like the nerve itself are composed of both sensory and motor axons. All nerves and their branches in the spinal region are called mixed nerves for this reason. Note too that the sensory axons the nerve travels to the spinal cord. We use the term afferent to describe them. Think of A arriving. The motor axons of the nerve leave the spinal cord. We use the

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term efferent to describe them. Think of E exiting. Afferent means to bear, while efferent means to carry out. Just so you know, this has nothing to do with Chinese food or pizza. When examining your model, you will also find that there are nerves that run parallel to the spinal cord. (#22 and #23 on your model). These regions represent the nerves of the sympathetic nervous system. Page 453, Figure 17.4

shows that the sympathetic nervous system is a chain of ganglia located outside the spinal cord. While you will discuss this in more detail in physiology, it is important to note the sympathetic chain as an anatomical feature. With luck I will be able to show you part of it on the cadaver. You can see the sympathetic chain ganglion plainly on the dorsum model at your tables. We will view a real spinal cord when we study the meninges.

Draw the Spinal Cord. Lable the horns, gray commisure, central canal, gray and white matter.

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Part IV: The Meninges P. 388, Figure 15.4

The meninges (membranes) are the coverings of the central nervous system and are found in both the brain and spinal cord. There are three meninges: the pia mater (tender mother), the arachnoid mater (spider mother) and the dura mater (tough mother). While all three cover the brain and are therefore designed as a protective surface, each has its own purpose and composition. See figure 15.3 p. 387. We will use a real human brain for this exercise. Lets begin with the dura mater. Examine the human brain and note the swimming cap on its surface. This cap is the dura mater. The dura mater is composed of dense irregular connective tissue and is identical to the cranial periosteum in its composition. It can be separated into two layers. The first layer literally is the periosteum of the cranial vault bones. It is called the endosteal layer (endo means internal) This dural layer then is an internal periosteum. The second deeper layer is the meningeal layer. Between the meningeal layer and the periosteal layer following the sagittal suture lies a dural sinus, called the superior sagittal sinus (p. 388 figure 15.4 ) Dural sinuses house venous blood. Wart-like bumps may be found projecting into this dural sinus. These bumps are the arachnoid granulations. Arachnoid granulations are regions where cerebral spinal fluid is delivered into the blood stream. One of our human brains shows the arachnoid granulations very well. We will study the remaining sinuses later in this exercise. Note that some of the dura mater travels down the longitudinal fissure and some also rests between the cerebrum and cerebellum. See figure 15.3, p. 387. The portion of the dura mater that travels deep into the longitudinal fissure is the falx cerebri. The term falx means sickle. Likewise there is a small bit of dura mater that travels down the shallow depression that separates the hemispheres of the hemispheres of the cerebellum. This is the falx cerebelli. Finally, there is a dural separation between the cerebrum and the cerebellum. This horizontal piece of dura mater is called the tentorium cerebelli (literally the tent of the cerebellum). The dura mater provides the most protection of all the meningeal layers. It is a very tough tissue to say the least. Beneath the dura mater lies a bit of potential space called the subdural space. It is potential space because the dura rests upon the second layer, the arachnoid mater, but does not bind to it directly. The base of the dura mater contains simple squamous epithelium as does the surface of the underlying arachnoid mater. The space between these two epithelial layers is therefore similar in effect to a serous membrane. See Figure 15.3, p. 387. Now look at the jelly-like, highly vascular coating over the brain. This is the arachnoid mater. The arachnoid mater covers the brain but does not travel into the sulci of the cerebrum. Rather it covers the blood vessels

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associated with the brains surface. The arachnoid mater is a dense network of areolar connective tissue, composed of elastin and collagen fibers. Below the arachnoid mater is a region filled with cerebral spinal fluid called the subarachnoid space. The subarachnoid space contains projecting trabeculae that come down to join the final meningeal layer, the pia mater. The trabeculae are composed, once again, of collagen and elastin fibers. Cerebral spinal fluid flows through the subarachnoid space, bathing the surface of the brain with nutrients and ions. The arachnoid granulations described above, arise from the arachnoid mater and which take in cerebral spinal fluid from the subarachnoid space. Major blood vessels of the brain travel in the subarachnoid space as well, giving this meningeal layer its vascular appearance. Resting on the surface of the brain and following the brains contour is the final meningeal layer, the pia mater (Figure 15.4, page 388). The pia mater is also composed of loose connective tissue and has a base composed of simple squamous epithelium that is of glial origin. Small blood vessels of the brain course within the pia mater until they enter the actual brain tissue. Ependymal cells form the walls of these blood vessels. Now lets examine the meninges on real spinal cord (page 358, figure 14.2a). The meninges are also seen on the spinal cord. The dura mater is a tough outer covering similar to the one found in the brain. Beneath the dura is a clear membrane that resembles cellophane. This is the arachnoid mater. The pia mater is also a thin cellophane coating, but rests directly on

the spinal cord itself. It is usually less obvious. We will find distinct pia mater projecting from the tip of the spinal cord, and we will discuss that shortly. But let us return to the meninges. There is one chief anatomical difference between meninges of the spinal cord and brain. The spinal cord contains an epidural space between the dura mater and the periosteum of the vertebral foramen and the brain does not. The epidual space (literally above the dura) is another highly vascularized region. It contains areolar connective tissue and fat and can be seen on the model of the spinal cord cross section as a yellow layer with red ovals in it. The yellow represents adipose tissue; the red ovals represent crosssectioned blood vessels. When someone has an epidural injection, this is where it is received. A. More on the Cord Examine the real spinal cord again or observe the dorsal cavity model. Better yet, observe both. Note the little bumps coming from the spinal cord. These bumps are the dorsal root ganglia. Follow the cord toward the brush-like end. The nerves coming from this region form the cauda equina (horses tail). The cauda equina is composed of axons that travel through the foramina of the sacrum. We have a cauda equina to compensate differences in growth rates of the spinal cord and the body in general. As we grow, the spinal cord growth is slower than body growth. The body compensates for this by producing the cauda equina because axons are easier to grow than the full-blown cord. Now lets examine the place where the spinal cord ends and the cauda equina begins. This tapered region is

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called the conus medullaris (middle cone). Note that the thin whitish string that leaves the conus medullaris. This string of pia mater anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx bone. It is called the

filum terminale (terminal filament). Essentially it keeps the spinal cord pulled taught and helps prevent it from flopping around.

Part V: Vasculature
We will study the vasculature of the head primarily using illustrations from your textbook. We will study the arteries of the brain first. A. Arteries of the Brain Oxygenated blood enters the brain via two routes. The main route is through the internal carotid arteries. A second route is through the vertebral arteries, which pass through the transverse foramen of the cervical vertebrae (586, Figure 22.13). You may see the vertebral arteries on the model of the spinal cord cross as well. The vertebral arteries are positioned posteriorly and laterally. Lets examine the carotid arteries first. Carotid arteries arises from the aorta of the heart as the left and right common carotid arteries. The right common carotid arises from the brachiocephalic artery that ascends from the aorta of the heart. The left common carotid arises directly from the aorta. See page 584, figure 22.12. Each of the common carotid arteries divides into an external carotid artery and an internal carotid artery (Figure 22.13, p. 586. On a cadaver, the external carotid starts out medial to the internal carotid artery, but they switch positions somewhere above the larynx. The external carotid arteries branch into the blood vessels of the face, temporal region and back of the head. The internal carotid arteries travel into the brain arising through the carotid canals and coming out of the skull at the medial regions of the petrous portion of the temporal bones. In a skull, it almost looks like the internal carotids might drain into the foramen lacerum which rest medially to the internal opening of the carotid canals. Recall that the foramina lacerum are plugged with cartilage in a living person, so the internal carotid arteries are going to take a different route. But remember, we are trying to send blood to the brain. To do so, the internal carotid arteries rise sharply into the brain near the lateral edges of the sella turcica joining the Circle of Willis. We will discuss the Circle of Willis soon. (See page 588, Figure 22.15). Now let us return to the vertebral arteries. Figure 22.15, page 588, shows the vertebral arteries forming an upsidedown Y as they course up the medulla oblongata and join to form the large basilar artery in the region of the pons. The basilar artery begins to branch into arteries feeding the cerebellum. It ends at the junction of the two posterior cerebral arteries. Branching from the two posterior cerebral arteries are two small posterior communicating arteries that join the internal carotids to form the middle cerebral arteries. Branching anteriorly from the middle cerebral

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artries are two small anterior communicating arteries that join at the junction of two anterior cerebral arteries. The posterior cerebral artery, posterior communicating arteries, middle cerebral arteries, anterior cerebral arteries and anterior communicating arteries combine to form a circle, the Circle of Willis. This circle of arteries ensures equal blood flow to the brain and compensates for partial blockages that may arise. B. Veins of the Brain. Venous blood drains from the brain to the heart primarily via the internal jugular veins. Examine Figure 22.22, page 596. The internal jugulars are fed by a number of venous sinuses that course through the dura mater. The sinuses include the sagittal sinus which courses along the sagittal suture and drains the superior region of the cerebrum. In the occipital region, the sagittal sinus joins the right and left transverse sinuses as well as the straight sinus. The grooves for the transverse sinuses can be seen in the horizontal view of the skull Figure 6.4, p. 140. Its best to see them on a skull. Also note that although this sinus groove is labeled occipital bone on p.140, the arrow is dead on with the groove for the transverse sinus!

Let us now find a few more sinuses in the cranial cavity. The transverse sinuses join at with the sagittal sinus at the confluence of the sinuses. See Figure 22.22, page 596. In addition, two other sinuses converge here. These are the straight sinus which lies in the dura space between the falx cerebri and falx cerebelli and the occipital sinus which courses up the occipital groove. The occipital groove lies directly across the foramen magnum from the clivus. If we follow the transverse sinuses in the opposite direction of the confluence, we see that they end at the jugular foramen. Before they do so, they form an S shaped sinus called the sigmoid sinus. As noted earlier, the sigmoid sinus drains into the internal jugular veins which course through the jugular foramina. One other sinus drains into the internal jugular veins, and its groove courses along the upper regions of the petrous portion of the temporal bones. These are the grooves for the superior petrous sinuses. Eventually the internal jugular veins will drain into the subclavian veins which merge with the drainage into the heart. We will discuss this venous system when we examine the heart later in this course.

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Part VI. Cranial Nerves

Lets return to the brain model and examine the brain stem. There are small striped projections coming out of the brain stem, numbered with Roman numerals. These are the cranial nerves. There are twelve cranial nerves. Three of them, the olfactory, optic and vestibulocochlear nerves are sensory only. The others are either mixed nerves or chiefly motor nerves. Cranial nerves are designed primarily to regulate the face and special senses, but one of them, the vagus nerve travels into the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Another, the accessory nerve, regulates the some of the muscles of the shoulder and neck. We should note that the cranial nerves are numbered, (I-XII) mainly by their position. In general, the most superior nerves have low numbers while the higher numbered nerves arise from in the medulla oblongata. The order of the cranial nerves is as follows: I. Olfactory II. Optic III. Oculomotor IV. Trochlear V. Trigeminal VI. Abducens I. Facial VII. Vestibulocochlear VIII. Glossopharyngeal IX. Vagus X. Accessory II. Hypoglossal To remember the order of the cranial nerves recall this sentence: Oh, Oh, Oh! To Touch And Feel Very Good Velvet! AH! A summary of the cranial nerves is provided in the worksheet on the following page. Also, note the foramen and the fissures through which these nerves pass. Here are a few ditties to help you recall them. Nerves: Oh Oh Oh To Touch And Feel Very Good Velvet A H Olfactory Optic Oculomotor Trochlear Trigeminal Abducens Facial Vestibulococholear Glossopharyngeal Vagus Accessory Hypoglossal

Foramens: Come on fishy, fishy, fishy! Right on Fish! Its a strike! Its a jump! Jump! Jump High! Come = cribriforrn plate On =- optic canal Fishy & Fish = superior orbital fissure Right = foramen rotundum Old = foramen ovale Its a = internal acoustic (auditory) meatus Strike = Stylomastoid foramen Jump= jugular foramen High = hypoglossal foramen

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Heres something else to help you recall if the nerves are sensory, mainly motor, or both. Its a bit antiquated, because we now know there are no nerves that are strictly motor. Still, it helps to distinguish those that are nearly all motor. S = sensory, M = motor, B = both, following the order from (I XII). Sensory or Motor or Both: Some say Marilyn Monroe, but my brother says, Bridgette Bardot, MM. In addition to the cranial nerves themselves, there are two anatomical features of interest created by them. The olfactory nerve (I), forms, the olfactory bulbs at its distal end. The olfactory bulbs receive axons that pass from sensory tissue at the roof of the nasal cavity and rise through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. The olfactory bulbs can be seen as two prong-like structures at the base of the frontal lobe of the brain (See figure 15.21, page 409, and figure 15.22, page 410). The second anatomical feature is created by the optic nerves (II). The optic nerves come from the rear of the eyeballs projecting inwardly and form an X at a junction near the sella turcica. This X is called the optic chiasma (literally two crossing lines. Some of the fibers of the optic nerves cross at the optic chiasma and some do not. The result is that both occipital lobes receive signals from each eye. Our depth perception is dependant upon this phenomenon. (See figure 15.21, page 409 and figure 15.23, page 411). The optic nerve travels through the optic canals, those ear holes of the bat we found while studying the sphenoid bone.

Now note the little nerves that poke up at the top of the pons. These are the oculomotor nerves (cranial nerve III). If the pons were a clock, they would be positioned at about 11:00 and 1:00. The nerve exists via the superior orbital fissure. As we travel down the pons, we see two tiny (and I mean tiny) threads that come from around the back. These are the trochlear nerves that allow for the eye to roll laterally downward. Remember: Cranial nerve IV comes from the back door. It too will exit via the superior orbital fissure. These nerves can be found at 10:00 and 2:00 on the Pons clock. Now lets go to 9:00 and 3:00 on the pons. We see a big fat bundle of fibers which is the trigeminal nerve. The trigeminal nerves divides into an ophthalmic branch that innervates the region around the forehead and eye, a maxillary branch that innervates the upper jaw, and a mandibular branch that innervates the lower jaw. Your dentist numbs smaller alveolar nerves that arise from these two lower trigeminal branches when he works on your teeth. The branches of the trigeminal nerve exit the skull at various foramina. The ophthalmic branch predictably courses through the superior orbital fissure along with all of the eye nerves that are used for motor control. The maxillary branch enters the foramen rotundum and then exits the skull at the infraorbital foramen along with the maxillary artery. The mandibular branch exits the skull at the foramen ovale, coursing to innervate the skin of

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the lower jaw, mucous membranes and masticatory muscles. Now lets go to 6:00 on the pons. Here we find two small prongs of nerves projecting form the pons base. These are the abducens nerves (Cranial nerve VI. How convenient!) that innervates the lateral rectus muscles of the eye and they hold our eyes laterally. Weak abducens nerves make people cross-eyed as our eyes naturally gravitate to the middle. The term abducens means to abduct. This nerve also exits from the superior orbital fissure. As we travel laterally from the pons, we find a set of three nerves, cranial nerves VII, VIII, and IX. The first nerve we run into traveling laterally from the abducens is nerve VII, the facial nerve. The facial nerve enters into the internal acoustic meatus, bypassing the cranial nerve VIII, and exits the skull at the stylomastoid foramen. While this tiny foramen seems insignificant, the facial nerve branches into five parts, each innervating a specific region of the face. Among other things, this nerve innervates the lacrimal glands, parotid salivary glands, and the facial muscles. It is responsible for tears, taste, and facial expression. Cranial nerve VIII also enters the internal acoustic meatus, but it ends there at the cochlea and vestibular organ which are responsible for hearing and balance respectively. It is the central nerve of our set of three. The last of this set, cranial nerve IX, the glossopharyngeal nerve, innervates the tongue and the pharynx. It helps us swallow and also helps regulate salivation, Eustachian the tubes and middle ear mucosa, and helps regulate blood pressure from its branch associated

with the carotid arteries. The glossopharyngeal nerve exits the skull at the jugular foramen. Traveling down the medulla oblongata, just behind the olives, is the vagus nerve, cranial nerve X. The term vagus means wanderer, and indeed, this nerve wanders throughout the thoracic and abdominal cavities, innervating nearly every major organ there. Some of the details of the vagus nerve will be discussed when we study the viscera later in the semester. The vagus nerve also exits the skull via the jugular foramen. Traveling down the medulla we find rootlets that resemble ladders. These are the accessory nerves, cranial nerve XI, that innervate the shoulder and neck muscles. Damage to these nerves prevents proper function of the sternocleidomastoid muscle, causing the condition known as wry neck. Like the glossopharyngeal nerve and vagus nerve, the accessory nerve also exits the skull at the jugular foramen. The final cranial nerve, nerve XII, rests in front of the olives. This is the hypoglossal nerve, the principle nerve of the tongue. Hypoglossal literally means, below the tongue, accurately describing this nerves position. The hypoglossal nerve exits the foramen that bears its name, the hypoglossal foramen. Sometimes even anatomy is easy. Please note: I am not crazy about the way the cranial nerves are presented in the brain model. I prefer the illustration in Martini on page 409, Figure 15.21. Pages 409-418 present these nerves in detail.

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