A MODIFICATION TO THE f-CHART AND

,f-CHART METHOD FOR

SOLAR DOMESTIC HOT WATER SYSTEMS WITH STRATIFIED STORAGE

BY ARTHUR BERNHARD COPSEY

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

(Engineering)

at the

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON 1984

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would Bill Beckman

like to thank and Sandy

my thesis Klein for

advisors, Professors the suggestions I am and

encouragement throughout

this project.

grateful for

their help and the knowledge that they have both conveyed to me. The friendship the lab and camaraderie of the fellow RA's in I

has made my stay

here memorable and

enjoyable.

wish you all

the best of luck in

your future harrassments.

May all your DCM errors disappear. Financial support for this work has been provided by

the American Taxpayer, via a of Energy.

grant from the U.S. Department

Also, thanks to the Graduate School and WARF for

giving help when it was needed. Finally, the successful completion of this project

would have been insurmountable of my wife, Donna. and downs more up Her moral and less

without the selfless support support and Love made the ups down. Being married to a

graduate student is a lonely event, and I thank you for your patience a million times over. Thanks, and more.

ii

ABSTRACT

Several

experimental

and

analytical

studies

have

recently indicated that SDHW performance operating the than collectors at

can be enhanced by flowrates that 10 to

significantly lower These studies

currently practiced.

have shown

system performance 15% by reducing flowrates.

can be increased on

the order of

the flow to about 20% design method

of typical collector and the #,f-Chart

The f-Chart

design method are not applicable at low flowrates that the when because they tank is

for SDHW systems operating were developed (a are with the

assumption assumption modification

fully-mixed flowrates and

reasonable used). were A

conventional f-Chart

to the

4,f-Chart methods

developed by running numerous TRNSYS simulations employing a stratified tank model. collector flowrate From this ratio, heat removal A correlation was developed between dimensionless ratio, LX/AXmax*

and a

a modified collector loss obtained. When

coefficient and these modified

factor can be

parameters are used in a fraction is solar system were compared Madison,

design method, the resulting solar would be achieved preheat tank. from a

the performance that with a stratified with TRNSYS

The methods

simulations in Seattle. iii A

three locations: collector

Albuquerque, and

range of

flowrates and load flowrates were of the annual solar fractions

also used. predicted by

The RMS error the design

methods with the

the stratified

tank modification 2.07% for the

relative to *,f-Chart

the TRNSYS

predictions was

method and 3.15% for the f-Chart method.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION

1 2 3

1.1 THERMALLY STRATIFIED STORAGE 1.1.1 Effects of Reduced Collector Flowrate 1.2 DESIGN METHODS 1.2.1 Conventional Solar Hot Water Heating Systems 1.2.2 Measures of System Performance 1.2.3 Utilizabilitv 1.3 COLLECTOR OPERATING TIME 1.4 AVERAGE DAYLIGHT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE 1.5 OBJECTIVES CHAPTER TWO: SOLAR FRACTION MODIFICATION 2.1 ANALYTICAL METHODS 2.1.1 Stratification Coefficient 2.1.2 Stratification Index 2.2 EMPIRICAL METHODS 2.2.1 Effect of Collector Flowrate on the Heat Removal Factor 2.2.2 Identification of Important Parameters 2.2.3 System Description 2.2.4 Component Model Description 2.2.5 Af Correlation
V

5 6 10 12 20 28 31 33 34 35 40 42 42 45 49 53 56

CHAPTER THREE: MODIFICATION TO THE F-CHART METHOD FOR THERMALLY STRATIFIED SDHW SYSTEMS 3.1 REVIEW OF THE F-CHART METHOD 3.2 COLLECTOR AREA CORRECTION FACTOR 3.3 COLLECTOR LOSS COEFFICIENT CORRECTION FACTOR 3.3.1 Collector Loss Coefficient Methodology 3.3.2 Results 3.4 EXAMPLE CHAPTER FOUR: MODIFICATION TO THE #,F-CHART METHOD FOR THERMALLY STRATIFIED SDHW SYSTEMS 4.1 THE 0,f-CHART METHOD 4.2 CORRECTION FACTOR METHODOLOGY 4.3 RESULTS 4.4 EXAMPLE

65 65 74 80 81 87 95 98 98 101 103 110

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Effect of Collector Flowrate on the Theoretical, Monthly Solar Fraction for a Stratified and a Fully-Mixed Preheat Tank System for the Base Case System in Madison with a 300 /day Load. Figure 1.2 Open-loop Solar Domestic Hot Water System Schematic. Figure 1.3 Closed-loop Solar Domestic Hot Water System Schematic. From Reference [341. Figure 1.4 Two Sequence of Days with the same Average Radiation. From Reference Ell]. Figure 1.5 Radiation level for a Clear Day. Reference E141. From

16

21

Figure 1.6 Monthly-Average Daily Collector Flowrate from Simulations with a Mixed Preheat Tank Compared to Equation 1.15. Figure 1.7 Monthly-Average Daily Collector Flowrate from Simulations with a Stratified Preheat Tank Compared to Equation 1.15. Figure 2.1 The Stratification Coefficient Compared with the Ratio of Stratified Tank Solar Fraction to Mixed Tank Solar Fraction from TRNSYS. Fiqure 2.2 Comparison of Experimental and Analytical Results Showing the Variation of FR with Collector Flowrate.

25

26

39

43

vii

Figure 2.3 Solar Fraction Variation with the Ratio of-Monthly-Average Daily Collector Flow to Daily Load Flow. Figure 2.4 Operation of the Plug-Flow Storage Tank Model. From Reference [29J. Figure 2.5 The Difference Between the Mixed-Tank and Stratified-Tank Solar Fraction Variation with the Ratio of Monthly-Average Daily Collector Flow to Daily Load Flow for the Base Case System in Madison with a 300 /day Load. Figure 2.6 Af/Af aVersus M /M for the Base Case Syste fan Madisoncwi h a 300 R/day Load. Figure 2.7 Af Variation with the Mixed-Tank So a Fraction for the Base Case System in Albuquerque. Figure 2.8 Af Variation with the Stratified-Tank So a Fraction for the Base Case System in Albuquerque. Figure 3.1 The f-Chart for Liquid Systems. (Equation 3.8) From Reference [4]. Figure 3.2 Annual Solar Fractions from TRNSYS Simulations with a Fully-Mixed Preheat Tank Compared to the f-Chart Method. Figure 3.3 Annual Solar Fractions from TRNSYS Simulations with a Stratified Preheat Tank Compared to the f-Chart Method. Figure 3.4 Collector Area Ratio Variation with the Ratio of the Monthly- Average Daily Collector to L F1 and the Solar Fraction from a Mixed Tank System.

47

54

57

59

61

62

67

71

72

76

viii

Figure 3.5

Co

amr

of the Stratfie-T mk Armual

Solar Fractions from TRNSYS and the Annual Solar Fractions from the f-Chart Method Modified with Equation 3.13.

78

Figure 3.6

The Liquid System f-Chart with an Example of a Varying Collector Area Line. The Relationship Between the Collector Heat Removal Factor and the C llector Loss Coefficient. A = 1.2m M = 10 kg/hr-m ,h=306W/m5C, Wc= 0.15 m, d. = 0.009 m, do = 0.01,6 = 0.001. The Variation of the X and Y Parameters on a Liquid System f-Chart Caused by Increasing ULand Correspondingly Decreasing FR. The Relationship Between the f-Chart Parameters for a Collector with no Thermal Losses, a System with a FullyMixed Storage, and a System with a Stratified Storage.

79

Figure 3.7

83

Figure 3.8

84

Figure 3.9

86

Figure 3.10 Simulation Results of AX/AXmax Versus Mc/ML for Madison, 200 R/day Load, and the Base Case System. Figure 3.11 Annual Solar Fractions from TRNSYS Simulations Versus the f-Chart Method Modified with the Stratification Correction for MC/ML less than 0.3

89

93

ix

Figure 3.12 AX/AXmax for the f-Chart method Figure 3.13 Annual Solar Fractions from TRNSYS Simulations Versus the f-Chart Method Modified with the Stratification Correction, for Mc=10-60 kc/hrm2 and all Locations, Loads, and Systems. Figure 4.1 AX/AXmax for the of-Chart method

94 96

108

Figure 4.2

Annual Solar Fractions from TRNSYS Simulations Versus the Tf-Chart Method a Modified with the Stratification Correction, for Mc=10-60 kg/hrm2 and all Locations, Loads, and Systems.

109

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Values of

the Tilt

Angle to

be used

in

19

Equation 1.12, From Reference 13 Table 2.1 Parameter Values for the Systems Simulated in this Study Table 3.1 Parameter Values for the Chart Example Table 4.1 The Error of the Stratified Design Method 107 System in the f97 52

for Varying Ranges of Collector Flowrate Table 4.2 Parameter Values for the System in the 111

0,f-Chart Example

xi

NOMENCLATURE Symbols used in this thesis which do not appear below are defined locally in the text. As AC C D di d0 E F' fmax cross-section area of the storage tank collector area collector fluid specific heat tank diameter. inside riser tube diameter outside riser tube diameter collector effectiveness collector efficiency factor monthly solar fraction for a solar system with a collector that has no thermal losses fmix monthly solar fraction for a solar system with a mixed preheat tank f str monthly solar fraction for a solar system with a stratified preheat tank FR HT collector heat removal factor monthly-average insolation incident upon the collector H0 extraterrestrial radiation storaqe height. Ic the critical radiation from equation 1.5 xii

Hs

It

instantaneous radiation incident upon the collector per unit area

k K' t Ks KT L

fluid thermal conductivity modified stratification coefficient, equation 1.12 stratification coefficient monthly-average daily clearness index monthly energy removed from the system by the hot water demand

L0tank Mc/ML

losses the ratio of daily collector flowrate to load flowrate

Mc Mt M N NP P QaOc Qa qu

collector mass flowrate mass of fluid in the preheat tank mixing number number of days in the month. collector operating time tank perimeter auxiliary energy demand of a conventional DHW system auxiliary energy demand of the solar system instantaneous rate of energy gain monthly-average daily useful energy gain monthly-average ratio of total radiation on a tilted surface to that on ahorizontal surface

Qu
R

Rn

noon radiation on the tilted surface to that on a

horizonal surface for the average day of the month rtn ratio of the total radiation in the hour around noon to the total daily radiation T Twwater Ta Tday storage tempertature set temperature monthly-average ambient temperature monthly-average temperature during the daylight hours T. Tm T collector inlet water temperature mains water temperature the sunrise time if the sign is negative and the sunset time if it is positive. Ttank TW Ut UL U W X average storage temperature space temperature where the storage is located storage loss coefficient overall collector loss coefficient inlet velocity distance between riser tubes X parameter for the f-Chart correlation, equation 3.1 X Xc Y vertical distance of the storage monthly-average critical radiation level Y parameter for the f-Chart correlation, equation 3.2 xiv

AT At Om

top-to-bottom temperature difference number of seconds in the month monthly optimal collector tilt, from Table 1.1. collector tilt

Pfluid volumetric expansion

S Sp
0 ('tx)

the declination. absorber plate thickness

the latitude monthly-average transmittance-absorption product

ws

sunset hour angle

xv

CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION

Recent studies have shown that the performance of solar domestic hot water (SDHW) systems may A be improved by of

reducing the

collector fluid

flowrate.

high degree

thermal stratification in

the preheat tank may

be achieved

in a system that has a low flowrate. assume that the storage tank

Present design methods a reasonable A design to This

is fully-mixed,

assumption when high collector flowrates are used. method that accounts for stratification

is necessary flowrates.

evaluate SDHW

systems operated at reduced

thesis investigated a modification to the f-Chart method and the Ff-Chart method to make them applicable to active SDHW systems discuss methods collector with the of thermal stratification. cause and effect the time, of This chapter storage function, average will and the

stratifed

obtaining operating

utilizability and the

ambient

temperature during investigate account for

daylight hours. to

The next design Two

chapters will methods presents to a

modifications

present Chapter

stratification.

correction based on the difference in solar fraction between mixed tank and stratified tank systems. In Chapter Three, a

stratification modification for the f-Chart method is presented. A correlation was developed between collector

flowrate Finally,

and in

modified Four

collector the

loss

coefficient. collector the loss

Chapter

modified

coefficient correction method.

factor is applied to

,f-Chart

1.1 THERMALLY STRATIFIED STORAGE

Solar domestic hot water at relatively high collector a

system are typically operated flowrates. of This control heat

strategy removal

results in factor, FRP

high value

the collector a high

and

consequently

collector causes the

efficiency. fluid to be times average

However,

a high collector flowrate

recirculated through the collector single inlet day.

a number of the the

during a

Recirculation increases which reduces

collector

temperature

collector efficiency. stratification at

These are

two opposite effects, high versus high FR at a high This

a low flowrate

flowrate, resulting in an optimum has analytically.

optimal collector flowrate.

been demonstrated both both

experimentally and

1.1.1

Effects of Reduced Collector Flowrate

The effect of fraction for a Figure 1.1

.

collector flowrate on the

monthly solar is shown in

fully-mixed preheat tank system The decrease in performance

associated with reduction of the

the decrease in

flowrate is caused by the

heat removal factor. A high collector flowrate does not necessarily mean

that the solar domestic hot water system performance will be increased. High flowrates tend to reduce the degree of

thermal stratification in the storage is recirculated through the collector day and as a consequence, temperature is increased. collector area of

tank, since the fluid a number of times per

the average daily collector inlet For a typical storage volume per the storage volume is

75 /m2 ,

recirculated through the day. Recirculation causes

collector three to five

times per

fluid previously heated by solar the collector again, increasing and experiments E23 have typical storage volumes

energy to be pumped through collector losses. shown that SDHW

Simulations Ell systems with

operated at high collector flowrates degree of stratification.

do not develop a high

ff

0.9 0.80.74-

0
L.

0.60.50.40.30.20.1 0-I--

stratified-tank system

--

LL

mixed-tank system

V)

II
0 20
Collector Flowrate

40
(kg/hr-m2)

1 50

Ficrure 1.1

Effect of Collector Flowrate on the Theoretical, Monthly Solar Fraction for a Stratified and a Fully-Mixed Preheat Tank System for the Base Case System in Madison with a 300 /day Load.

The variation of solar fraction area for a Figure 1.1

with flowrate per unit are shown in the the

stratified and a mixed tank system

.

At both

very

low

collector is similar,

flowrates due to

performance

of

systems

precipitous decline in flowrates the

FR for very low flowrates. of the stratified

At high system

performance

approaches that of the mixed system. with a high collector flowrate,

For stratified systems the large amount of

recirculation causes the difference between the tank top and bottom temperatures to be small, close to that of the mixed so that the performance is tank system. The maximum

difference in solar fraction between

significant.

the two systems can be

in this graph, the

From the results presented

low-flow control strategy appears to perform better than the high-flow performance suggests strategy. at flowrates it may The rapid than decrease in system flowrate at a

less

the optimal to

that

be advantageous

operate

collector flowrate slightly greater than optimal.

1.2

DESIGN METHODS

Evaluating the long-term performance is necessary to be able to choose

of a solar system and to

the best system

evaluate its economic merit.

Detailed computer simulations,

such as system

TRNSYS [31, are one performance can be

method by which estimated.

the long-term of The

The advantages

detailed simulations are its disadvantages expertise, unusual or are its high

flexibility and accuracy. computer cost,

necessary Except for

and required very large

computer

facilities.

systems, detailed

computer programs The in use

are impractical as a long-term performance design tool. results from these simulations, however, simple design can be used

developing computationally

methods that

monthly-average meteorological data, rather data required obtained from for TRNSYS. The long-term

than the hourly performance data detailed or

these design methods

are not as

accurate as the data from simulations, but their accuracy is generally sufficient for design purposes. Two SDHW design

methods were investigated in this E43 and the O,f-Chart method E53.

study: the f-Chart method

1.2.1 Conventional Solar Hot Water Heating Systems

Design methods are created for limited range of parameters.

standard systems with a The parameter range is

generally broad enough to incorporate the majority of system designs, but is limited to increase the accuracy for typical systems and to reduce the computational effort.

A typical for which

open-loop solar

domestic hot and the SDHW

water system, modification to

the f-Chart method

the O,f-Chart method are configured 1.2. It is a two tank

to, is shown in Figure circulating the A relief

set-up with a pump

fluid from the preheat tank through the collector.

value dumps fluid, and energy, if the average temperature of the preheat tank is above the fluid boiling the pump point. if A the

differential

controller

activates

temperature difference between the tank outlet and collector outlet is greater than a deadband temperature. A heat

exchanger may be tank, allowing

present between the collector an antifreeze solution The auxiliary set to be

and preheat circulated

through the collector. temperature to a

tank boosts the water necessary.

desired

temperature, if

Water is removed from the auxiliary tank to supply the load. During a hot of the preheat tank flows into water draw, mains water flows tank, and water from the top the auxiliary above the storage. into the bottom of the preheat If the delivery valve

temperature is mixes mains

set temperature,

a mixing

water with the

delivery water to

maintain the

set temperature. In open-loop designs, but also fluid. a load removes not only energy,

This is in contrast to

a closed-loop SDHW

system, shown in

Figure 1.3

When a load

is present, the

TO TAPS

WATER 1 SUPPLY

Figure 1.2

Open-loop Solar Kmutic Hot Mater System Schematic.

- "Li ,

Figure 1.3

Closod-loop Solar Dmestic Hot Hater System

Uhmmatic.

FroRmleference

M3,.

10

heated liquid is mass is These

pumped through a load

heat exchanger.

No

transfered between the systems are

solar system and by a single

the load. minimum

characterized above which

temperature, Tmin" This system is

useful energy

is obtained. the 4,f-Chart

the configuration upon which

design method 15J originally was based on.

1.2.2

Measures of System Performance

measurement of compare

system performance different systems.

is necessary The

to

quantitatively

rationale

behind considering a of performance could

SDHW system is economic, be the reduction The in

so a measure the amount of

conventional fuel used.

fuel displacement is generally load to give a "solar load, the

nondimensionalized by dividing by the fraction." Depending upon

the definition of the

solar fraction can have different values.

Buckles and Klein

E63 have investigated three solar fraction definitions

fl

Qa L+L
0

2= 1

L-[12

11

f3 = 1-

a(1.3)
Qac

where, Qa Qa, auxiliary energy demand of the solar system auxiliary energy demand of a conventional
DHW system L L0 hot water load tank losses

The

first

solar fraction

definition,

equation

1.1.

defines the total load as the hot water demand plus the tank losses. This definition may not be appropriate for a

measure of the fraction of displaced fuel, since the load of the solar system may be larger in a two-tank than in a conventional system due to system. Also,

preheat tank losses,

experimental tank losses are due to conduction through

sometimes difficult to monitor the connecting pipes, thermal

stratification in the storage, and temperature swings in the space where the storage is located. The second hot water load solar fraction in the equation includes Tank only the not

denominator.

losses are

ignored, since demand causing collected is

they will increase the auxiliary f2 to decrease. If the solar than the tank losses,

energy energy be

greater

f2can

12

negative.

Experimentally

determining f2 is easy

since the

auxiliary energy and the hot water load are easily measured. From an economic standpoint, the system should be

referenced to a quantity ratio of of hot the and

conventional system that supplies water. supplied solar The third solar

the same the a

fraction is between

energy DHW system

difference to the

conventional system. be

conventional can and

Choosing a conventional to the

system to compute Qa, solar

difficult, due

differences between

conventional systems.

For example, SDHW tanks are generally In this study the solar

larger than conventional DHW tanks.

fraction defined by equation 1.2 was used.

1.2.3 Utilizability

The instantaneous collector is given

useful energy by the well

gain by known

a flat-plate

Hottel-Whillier

equation [7,8,9) qu =AcFRE(TOL)It where, qu Ac FR (to ) instantaneous rate of energy gain collector area collector heat removal factor transmittance-absorbtance product
-

UL(Ti-Ta)J +

[1.4)

13

It

instantaneous

radiation

incident

upon

the

collector per unit area UL Ti Ta collector loss coefficient collector inlet temperature. ambient temperature only positive values of the are considered. This

The plus superscript means that quantity within the

sqare brackets

implies that a controller with

a zero deadband operates the

pump whenever useful energy can be obtained. The solar level losses before and radiation must the useful be greater exceeds than a the This critical collector critical

absorbed energy output is

produced.

radiation level, Ic , Whillier equation radiation

is found by setting

qu of the Hottelthe solar

equal to zero

and solving for

Ic = UL (Ti-Ta)/(TM)

1.5)

The useful energy from equation 1.4 can then be rewritten as

qu=AcFR(T)(It
The monthly total

Ic ) +

1.63 can be obtained

useful energy gain, Qu"

by integrating equation 1.6 over critical level and ('rcx)

a month, assuming that the

are constant

14

Qu= AcFR(
If the integral

i)f t (ItIc

+ dt

1.7. it to

is nondimensionalized by referencing

the total

radiation, then a

defining equation

is obtained

for utilizability
=At(It-IC) +dt

fAttdt

Utilizability radiation that collector temperature ambient.

is

the

fraction

of

the

incident

solar from a

could be

obtained as

useful energy and a

with an

FR( oL) = 1, FRUL = 0, between the

constant inlet and

difference

collector

The monthly-average daily

useful energy gain from

equation 1.7 can be rewritten as

-AcFR (t )?FtN

Qu
where,

Ei.91

Ht

monthly-average solar radiation incident

upon the collector

(T(cx)monthly-average transmittance-absorbtance product N number of days in the month.

15

The

value of

4 cannot

be obtained

solely from Figure 1.4

the

total radiation

level.

Illustrated in

are two

sequences of three days with the same total radiation level. The utilizability total area. day has a is the ratio of the shaded area to the

The sequence, having identical lower 4 The value of to than the

radiation each variable of

sequence of the the

radiation. incident

effect is

increasing increase

variation

radiation

monthly-average

utilizability. The distribution of the number of high and low

radiation days has been shown by Liu and Jordan E10 unique function of the independent of

to be a

monthly-average clearness index, Kt. and location. Therefore, a

month

utilizability correlation of this on the radiation information,

could account for

the dependence Using be

distribution by including Kt. Ell] found that 0

Klein

could

correlated toK-t and two Xc

dimensionless varibles,

/Rn and

x.0
R/R n is a geometric factor that includes the collector year. R is the monthly and time of the

tilt, location,

ratio of radiation incident of a tilted surface to that on a horizontal surface. the tilted surface Rn is the noon ratio of radiation on

to that on a horizontal

surface for the

average day of the month.

ooo

Ic

.1

C U2

Ic

Figure 1.4

Two Sequence of Days with the sane Averaqe Radiation. Frou Reference E113.
Ch

17

The monthly-average the ratio of the

critical radiation

level, X c"

is

critical level from

equation 1.5

to the

noon radiation level for the average day of the month I Xc= rt, nRntH0 Methods for obtaining the variables in the denominator can El[i.i03

be found in Duffie and Beckman 112J. Klein's correlation for the monthly-average

utilizability as a function of Xcr R/RN and Kt is given by

=

expla+b(Rn/R)JEXc+CXc2 J

(.11)

where, a = 2.943-9.271Kt+4.031Kt 2 b
=

-4.345+8.853Kt -3.602K 2

c = -.170-0.306Kt+2.936Kt2 The maximum error for this correlation is 2.5%. Another relationship for 4 was al E13J. data, but difficult Equation 1.11 developed by Evans, et a wide range of

is accurate over

requires the calculation of terms. Evans' regression

some computationally is computationally

simpler than Klein's correlation and is given by = 0.97 + AI c + BI c 2 where, [1.12J

18

the critical radiation from equation 1.5

3 A = -4.86*10-3+ 7.5610- K't

(K 2 -3 81 10 -'3 t )tt
B = 50.43*10 - 6 . l.23-l- 5 K't + 7.62*10-6(K't)2
K't = Kt cosE0"8(m-_P)J

0 Om This

collector tilt monthly optimal collector tilt, from Table 1.1. correlation has a reasonably low error for

utilizability values

greater than 0.6

(average RMS = 1.7%)

but a larger uncertainty in (average RMS = 2.8%).

smaller values of utilizability of the monthly-average

The value

collector inlet temperature used in calculating the critical level, equation 1.5, is often not known exactly. the higher error of equation 1.12 may be Therefore, its

offset by

calculation ease and the uncertainty of the input variables. The utilizability design concept can be used whenever a collector operates this is the case, at a known then the monthly critical useful level. can If be

energy gain of a

obtained from would be

equation 1.9.

An example

system that a system

amenable to the

utilizability design is

with a very large storage so the collector storage).

that the return temperature to over a month. (seasonal

is nearly constant

Generally,

SDHW systems have a

varying critical

19

Table 1.1 Values a

t w Tilt Anqle to be used in Reference 12

Equatim 1.12. f

Month 1 2
3

Om e+29 8+18
e+3

4 5
6

e-i0 6-22
0-25

7 8
9

0-24 e-1O
6-2

10

e+10
0+23 0+30

11
12

20

level and are not applicable to this method.

1.3 COLLECTOROPERATING TIME

The number of hours that the collector pump operates is needed to calculate the parasitic energy requirement and the daily mass of fluid that is pumped through the collector.

It will be shown in Chapter Three that the degree of thermal stratification present in a SDHW of the daily mass of fluid the preheat tank is a function is pumped through operating the time

that

collector.

Obtaining

collector

analytically is not possible, even perfect contoller is imposed.

when the assumption of a for the

Some relationships

collector operating time were investigated. Mitchell, Theilacker relationship for the and Klein [14) have a A developed a the

pump-on

time as

function of

monthly-average daily solar radiation 1.5. A

utilizability. a clear day

plot of is shown

a typical in Figure will

level for

differential controller

with a

zero deadband

activate the pump whenever the critical level, Ico equal to the

radiation level reaches some collector losses are utilizability for

at which time the

collector gains.

The daily

this case is the area of divided by entire area.

the curve above the critical level If the differential area bounded by

21

C
.,-'

0 U)

Ic

Time
Fiture 1.5 Radiation level for a Clear Day.
f ermce E143.

From

22

and

the

critical

level

plus

differential

amount,

Ic + & I c ois

approximated as a

rectangle, then

the monthly

average daily pump operating time is

_
Np=Ht

(I c)-Iac +&I c)
[1.13)
c

In the

limit as HIc approaches

zero, the right

hand side

becomes an exact differential Htd4= (1.14)

c The difficulty in using equation 1.14 is in determining an appropriate critical level. To obtain a monthly-average

daily collector operating time from equation 1.14, a monthly average equation collector inlet 1.6, yielding a temperature, T i must be used in

monthly-average critical

level. be

The monthly-average

collector inlet It is a

temperature cannot

obtained analytically.

function of

the collector

performance, mains water temperature, quantity, and meteorological

load distribution and The collector of tank

conditions.

inlet temperature recirculation.

is also a measure

of the amount

If the recirculation volume is small, then a for the average inlet temperature

reasonable approximation

would be the mains water temperature.

23

Evans' collector mains will

correlation was operating time for

employed two

for determining First,

the using

reasons.

water temperature give relatively a low

in the

critical level

evaluation this and

high

utilizability for high

values and values,

correlation has

RMS error

second, the computational effort

involved in solving Evans' Taking the derivative

utilizability equation 1.12 is small. of equation 1.12 results in operating time, NP,
NP = Ht(A +

an expression for the collector

given by
11.15J

2 BIc)

where, A and B are the same coefficients as given in equation 1.12. There evaluation temperature collector are of is inlet a the number of sources If for the error mains in the water the

operating time. than the is

lower

ambient low,

temperature, and the

temperature

contoller The

deadband is small, then the pump

may operate at night.

useful energy gain during this nighttime operation is small, but the operating time can be large enough to cause an error in the pump-on time estimation. This behavior is often

observed for thermally stratified a low collector inlet temperature.

storage systems that have Another error source is

24

the assumption that the collector inlet temperature is equal to the mains water temperature. This may be a good for

assumption for

stratified tank designs. A

SDHW systems, third error

but not

fully-mixed storage

is numerical.

The intergration of a to decrease the

numerically derived correlation tends while differentiation tends to

error,

increase the uncertainty. the collector operating

This will cause the RMS error for time to be greater than the

utilizability correlation error. A plot of the monthly-average mixed storage tank obtained from collector flowrate for a TRNSYS compared to the

results from bias is

equation 1.15 are the collector

shown in Figure

1.6 . The always

caused by

inlet temperature

being greater than or equal to For the 1.6, mixed tank system in did

the mains water temperature. Madison simulated at in Figure the

the collector

not operate

night, since

collector inlet

for a mixed

tank is generally A similar

higher than plot is shown

the ambient temperature

at night.

in Figure 1.7, comparing stratified storage simulations with the results from previous graph equation 1.15 is not
.

The bias

observed in the since the

as evident in

this plot,

stratified storage tank causes turn-on and turn-off not up,

the perfect controller (zero the sun is of the

deadbands) to operate when

due to the low

collector inlet temperature

2000

1600

1200

800

400

400

800

1200

1600

2000

Daily Collector Flowrate, equation 1.15

Iiqr.

1.6

fnothly-Aewraqe fiy Collector Platt. T simatiem with a mma Prehet to qmtln 1.15.

frm C amrei

2000

1600

1200

800

400

0400

800

1200

1600

2000

DailY Collector Flowrate, equation 1.15 Flqure 1. 7

Nmothly-Avera"e hily Collector r'lmate f m UlmAlatlmmg with a Otrstj~ UA Preheat, Mf Cmpred to 8quation 1.15.

27

stratified tank. The collector operating using a correlation for time can also be the evaluated by daily

monthly-average

utilizability developed by Klein [ll. this equation is more computionally

As mentioned before, involved than Evans'

correlation, but more accurate over a wide range of critical radiation levels. Evaluating the derivative of Klein's #

equation to obtain the collector operating time produces

Np = -4A + B(Rn/R)J[l. + 2CX c I R/(rtn R n E1.163

where,
4, A, B, and C are from equation 1.11, and

Rn , rtn, and R can be obtained from Duffie and Beckman (123. A program that inplements the CHART4.1 needed for (153, requires the #,f-Chart method, such as Fevaluation For these of the variables

equation 1.16 .

programs, evaluation of the input

of equation 1.16

is not difficult, since most

variables are previously calculated. Other collector operating time investigated. did An attempt was made utilizability, so The relationships were also to find an equation that that the computational variation with as being range of

not require

effort could the number linear for

be reduced.

pump-on time

of daylight hours a limited set of

can be approximated data. For a wider

28

data, the fraction. collector fraction.

relationship appeared to A correlation time was to was

be a function developed

of solar the solar for

relating and well

operating

the

daylength to work

This correlation

found

equations that are not sensitive to the accuracy of the pump operating time. they are Since they are a function of the daylength, biased. For this reason, upon the collector daylength

location

operating

time correlations

depending

were not used in this study.

1.4 AVERAGE DAYLIGHT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

The equation

monthly-average critical 1.5 and that using

level

is obtained collector The

from inlet

monthly-average temperature. be used is the in the

temperature temperature critical collector operating. available in

ambient should equation

ambient

monthly-average that it the is

level is

temperature the day that not for

exposed The

to

during

while is the

ambient

temperature data is

usually daytime and

meteoroliical but rather the

temperature, night.

mean value

the day

29

Erbs (16) has developed a relationship for the monthlyaverage hourly temperature, Tah
,

as

a function

of

the

monthly-average clearness index, Kt, and the monthly-average ambient (day and night) temperature, Ta Tah = Ta + AEO.4632cos(tA-3.805)
+ 0.0984cos(2tA-0.360) + 0.0168cos(3t-0.822) + 0.0138cos(4t"
-

3.513)]

[1.17)

where t = time in hours, with 1 corresponding to 1 am

t*
= =

(t-l)/12 25.8Kt 5.21

This relationship can to give a value The

be integrated from sunrise for the monthly-average time is

to sunset daylight

temperature.

sunrise or sunset

obtained from

the sunset hour angle, w., in radians as

T0 = o 12ws hrI(1.18)

where, T0 o the sunrise time if the sign is negative and the

sunset time if it is positive. The sunset hour angle can be found from Reference (12)
w s = arccos (-tan& tan&)

(1.193

where,

30

the latitude S the declination. equation 1.17 over a day the with the limits

Integrating obtained

from

equation

1.18

yields

monthly-average

daylight temperature, Tday" T Tday=T(A/ws). a + E2.129sin(w S ) + 0.238sin(2w s )

+ 0.002sin(3w S ) - 0.004sin(4ws)

El.203 for the the

This formula average collector ambient ambient

does not

qive the

actual value operation sun-down. is

temperature during sun-up to

unless The

operates from (day and

average than the

night) temperature temperature, and If

lower

average operation between these high, then the to the

equation 1.20

will lie is

extremes.

the solar

radiation level

average daylight temperature will operation temperature, while

be closer if the

average

temperature amplitude,

A, from equation

1.17 is

large and

the solar radiation level is low, the difference between the operating large. The temperature and daylight temperature could be

average daylight temperature temperature than the average

is closer day and

to the night in the

operating

temperature, so it

is a better approximation

for T

monthly-average critical level evaluatione.

31

1.5 OBJECTIVES

The objective of this research was to develop a general design method have a for domestic hot water heating The systems that was

thermally stratified

tank.

approach that

taken was to find a

relationship between a fully-mixed tank

parameter and the corresponding stratified tank parameter. Chapter two analyzes attempting to previous work that has develop a been done of solar

analytically Also in

measure

stratification.

Chapter Two,

an empirical

fraction modification is analyzed. In Chapter are discussed. Three, modifications to the A correction factor in the X and from was f-Chart method developed that

modifies variables solar

Y parameters, so the f-Chart method

that the is the

fraction obtained would be

performance that system. have the

achieved from

a stratified-tank was found to

The stratification lowest error over

correction that the widest range

of parameters

modified the collector loss coefficient and the heat removal factor. The performance of a can be SDHW system with a stratified using the modifed UL and

preheat tank

obtained by

FR in the f-Chart method.

32

The collector loss coefficient to the ',f-Chart method in

modification is applied Four. Therefore, be analyzed

Chapter

stratified tank domestic with this design method.

hot water systems can

33 CHAPTER TWO: SOLAR FRACTION MODIFICATION

There

are

many

different approaches

that

could

be

undertaken to water

create a design with

tool for solar

domestic hot A direct

(SDHW) systems

stratified

storage.

approach would be to start a new design method.

from basic principles and create this approach would

The advantage to

be that the range of SDHW systems could

parameters relevant to stratified tank be employed in determining the

correlation, and possibly would

increasing the

design method's

applicability

resulting in high accuracy. solar designers to

The disadvantage use a new

be getting

learn to

design tool. well known

There are a number of accurate, adaptable, and mixed-tank SDHW design methods presently

available. solar

Instead of adding the

another method for estimating was This to establish a

fraction,

approach taken tools.

correction for take a

the existing forms. One

correction could be to This as the modify the approach is *,f-Chart f-Chart exchanger

number of

way would

implicit variables of utilized method method in some to account to

the design method. such systems

design methods, for open-loop for

and the heat

modify

different

effectivenesses. design tools

Another technique to find

for correcting existing between the

would be

a relationship

34 solar fractions for mixed and stratified systems. The

benefit of such a correction factor is its applicability for all SDHW design methods. The difficulty in a technique such relation of solar fraction to

as this lies in the nonlinear other system variables. fraction directly has

A correction factor involving solar been investigated analytically and

empirically.

2.1 ANALYTICAL METHODS

A number

of researchers

have attempted

to derive

an

analytical model to predict the effect of stratified storage on solar system performance. the advantage of if the An analytical model could have time and good

a relatively short computational assumptions were

simplifying

justifiable,

agreement with experimental results. develop an the partial heat transfer The boundary inlet and the analytical model entails differential equation in a liquid storage conditions are an

The approach taken to finding a for the solution to

one-dimensional load flow. the tank

tank with no

energy balance at at the tank initial

no temperature gradient condition is a

bottom, and temperature

initial

given

distribution.

35 2.1.1 Stratification Coefficient

Phillips, et al. has studied stratified storacre for air systems E17), and obtained integrated daily performance

predictions of both air systems (18), and liquid-based solar systems (19). He uses a dimensionless variable, the

stratification coefficient, Ks, in solving the heat transfer equation. The stratification coefficient is defined as the

ratio of the useful energy storage to the energy

gain from a thermally stratified from an otherwise identical

gain

mixed-tank system.

Employing

the Hottel-Whillier equation,

the stratification coefficient can be written as

AcFRE( x)It ... .. .

K5

-.

UL(Ti-Ta)(

E2 .1]

AcFRE(T)It

UL(TtankTa)J

where, Ti temperature of the bottom of a stratified tank

Ttank average tank temperature

If

the

stratification

coefficient were

known,

then

the

instantaneous energy gain of a could be obtained Ttk. Phillips and Dave

stratified tank solar system storage temperature,

by knowing the mean

(19) were able to solve

for a daily

36 K
5

with the following assumptions: section, no hot

no tank losses, constant one dimensional placing with a

storage cross

water draw,

heat-transfer, and the fluid entering

thermal inversion the tank at

avoidance by the location

temperature closest to its own.

Separation of variables was

used to obtain ordinary differential equations from the heat transfer equation. In order to solve the ordinary of

differential equation, tank turnovers is large. not immediately

it was

assumed that

the number

The validity of this assumption is Phillips and Dave compare their

obvious.

results with detailed daily simulation, flow-rate systems, the analytical model

and for fairly high agrees well with

simulations. per day and

For systems with less a collector

than two tank turnovers (equation 2.3) of

effectiveness

greater than 0.2, the stratification significant error, as shown below. with a low-flow control strategy

coefficient can have a It appears that systems will be outside of the

acceptable collector effectivness and tank turnover range. The general solution for dimensionless variables.
as

K s is iterative utilizing two is defined

The mixinq number, M,

M=

AMk s m C Hs

E2.2J

37 where, As k m HS For a storage cross sectional area fluid conductance storage mass flowrate storage height. 300 k, 1.5 m tall storage tank with a low-flow the

control

strategy collector

flowrate of

10 kg/hr*m 2 ,

mixing number

is 0.0016. The second

dimensionless variable

is the collector effectiveness defined as

R Lc(2.3) mC p For a collector with an FRUL of

5 W/m2

0 C,

and a flowrate

of 10 kg/hr-m 2 , the collector effectiveness is 0.43 The general solution to is the root of the equation 4pq(l-E)e p = (p+q) 2 eP-(p-q) 2 e-q E2.4) the stratification coefficient

where,

p q
If

= =

l./(2M)
/(2M)
number is small, then the stratification

the mixing

coefficient may be approximated as

38

in Ell/(i-E)3
K s EUI+M*Zn EI/(l-E))). (=E2.53 solution to within one percent than 0.1. For vertical tanks, than 0.1, so for the

This agrees with the general if the mixing number is less the mixing number equation 2.5

will generally be much less give reasonable

should

results

stratification coefficient. The flowrate, stratification as calculated coefficient from equation versus 2.5, is collector shown in

Figure 2.1 . Also solar system. for

on this graph are the TRNSYS for

ratios of monthly and mixed

fractions from

a stratified

Although the.stratification coefficient was derived energy gains, Phillips and However, it needed for the Dave is SDHW

instantaneous useful to daily

compared it monthly design results

simulation results. which are

average-daily results methods. and The

difference results error

between shown at in flows

analytical 2.1 than is 20

simulated The large

Figure less

siqnificant. kg/hr-m 2 is due

primarily to the

initial assumption

of a

large collector flowrate. well designed systems one, which is contrary

Phillips and Dave state that most larger than [20), von

have an Mc/ML ratio much to findings by Veltkamp

Koppen (21), Wuestling (22), and others.

3.6 3.4 3.2 3 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0 20
Collector Flowrate (kg/hr-m2)

40

Figure 2.1

The Stratified Coefficient Compared with the Ratio of Stratified Tank Solar Fraction to Mixed Tank Solar Fraction from TRNSYS.

40

In summary, work well

the stratification coefficient

appears to to load

for systems with

fairly large collector

flow ratios and no load, but the restrictions necessary with their method. analysis do not lend it well to a general design

2.1.2 Stratification Index

Cole

and

Bellinger [1)

have

analytically

evaluated They have model that

thermal stratification developed includes a down the a

of liquid solar systems. storage

computationally involved correlation for They

entrance mixing defined a

and conduction

tank walls.

stratification index for a The

that ranges from perfectly

zero for a fully (no

mixed tank to one tank.

stratified

recirculation)

stratification index from their experimental results. investigated tubes, the They

equation compares well with

experimentally and analytically of tank height, wall diffusers, on dip tank

effect and

baffles,

thermal

capacity

stratification. ability of a

They analyzed a parameter that measures the remain stratified. This

system to become and

dimensionless parameter is called the Richardson number

Ri = gLAT/U
2

41
=

Gr Re 2 (Hs/D) 2

(2.63

where, q gravitational constant fluid volumetric expansion HS AT U D tank heiqht top-to-bottom temperature difference inlet velocity tank diameter. Richardson number stratified. indicates that The the storaqe cause a

A large tank

will remain

factors that are a large

system to

have a stratified storage

height to between the

diameter ratio, top and

a large temperature difference tank, and a low

the bottom of the

inlet velocity.

Turner 123) indicates that convective

mixinq will occur for

systems that have a Richardson number less than the critical value of 0.25. the value note The inlet and outlet mixing number. It is is governed by interestin were to

of the Richardson and

that Lavan of the

Thompson

(24], who of the

apparently number, measuring

unaware

significance a

Richardson for

empirically

derived

correlation

stratification that included Gr Re -1.6 (Hi/D)-1 "7 (2.7)

which is similar to equation 2.6 .

42 Although Cole and Bellinger's work would be valuable to a tank designer interested is not useful in a in increasing stratification, it tool for predicting solar

design

fraction, since it yields quantities, it cannot

instantaneous rather than monthly hot water draws, and it

deal with

cannot deal with tank losses.

2.2 EMPIRICAL METHODS

An

attempt

was

made mixed

to

empirically tank

derive

a tank

relationship

between the

and stratified was to

solar fractions.

The approach taken

correlate the involving the

stratified-tank solar

fraction to a function

mixed-tank solar fraction.

2.2.1 Effect of Collector Flowrate on the Heat Removal Factor

The collector

values

of

FRUL and through the

FR( t)n are

affected of

by

flowrate

relationship

FR with

collector flowrate per unit area.

The analytic relationship

between FR and collector flowrate is shown in Fiqure 2.2 and may be expressed as

0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 20 40 60 80 100
Collector Flowrate (kg/hr-m2) Figure 2.2

Comparison of Experimental and Analytical Results Showing the Variation of FR with Collector Flowrate.

44

FR

MC ..

l-e -(AcF' LMcP

[2.8J

where, F' collector efficiency factor is a weak function affects the

The collector efficiency factor, F', of flowrate since the collector

flowrate

convective heat transfer coefficient. riser tubes of liquid collectors

The fluid flow in the laminar. A

is generally

flowrate of 0.04 kg/s through twenty 1 cm riser tubes yields a Reynolds number of approximately 500, well into the

laminar region. the Nusselt

For fully-developed is independent

internal laminar flow, of flowrate and the the For

number

entrance

effects are

generally insignificant,

due to

large length to diameter ratio

of typical riser tubes.

the range of collector flowrates studied (2.5-60 kg/hrom2), the collector efficiency factor changes by only one percent. If F' is assumed independent for any of collector liquid flowrate flowrate, using an For

then FR can

be modified

analytical correction ratio derived a given heat removal factor

in reference E12).

at test conditions,

FR at use

conditions can be determined from

45 MC -e -(AcF'UL/McC P )
FR use AcUL L use WMMFR C fE test M FRetL1-e -(AcF'UL/McCp) ]2.

AcU L

test

where F'UL can be evaluated at the test conditions F'U L = Mc p____ n

UL V2.10)

Ac
Fanney degradation flowrates. equation 2.9 (25) of has

McC p
experimentally performance of his Figure investigated caused by the

collector

reduced and

A comparison is shown in

experimental results 2.2

.

The

difference

between the experimental and analytical procedures is small, due possibly to the uncertainty of the low flow measurement.

2.2.2 Identification of Important Parameters

The first step the relevant the function for a limited

in developing a correlation The omission of

is to find

parameters.

parameters that the error the

is dependent upon set of data;

may not increase however, it

will cause

correlation to An example is

be biased at is the

the extreme

parameter values. that the

of this

f-Chart assumption solar fraction

storage

fully-mixed

and the

strictly

46
increases with collector flowrate (assuming no pipe losses.) For high collector flowrates this assumption is valid, but

as the flowrate is reduced

and the tank becomes stratified,

the design method underpredicts the system performance. Stratification dependent upon Vertical tanks in vertical tanks height to is not strongly

the storage tank generally have a

diameter ratio. that is

Richardson number

much larger than the critical value, significant.

so inlet mixing is not

Also, the conduction between fluid segments is

generally not significant for vertical tanks 1261. Wuestling (22) found that the stratified-tank solar

fraction depends upon the collector flowrate, load flow, and the storage volume. As discussed in Section 1.1, stratified

systems perform better than mixed systems due to the reduced collector inlet temperature. The stratified system

performance degrades when the warm collector is recirculated through losses.

fluid returning from the the collector, increasing

To maximize the performance, the collector flowrate

should be as high as possible to increase FR, but low enough to avoid recirculation. This is achieved by pumping through

the

collector

on

daily

basis

volume

of

fluid

approximately equal to draw.

the volume removed by

the hot water

If the daily flowrate is

higher than the daily load, it is lower, the collector

recirculation will occur; and if

-r

0.90.80.70.6 0.50

Jun ay

M a r-------

.4 i l Ja J n ,

0.30.20.1 0
4

Mc/ML
Figure 2.3

Solar Fraction Variation with the Ratio of Monthly-Average Daily Collector Flow to Daily Load Flow.

48 efficiency is poor due to a low heat removal factor. To achieve maximum performance, the volume of the

storage tank should be large

enough to avoid recirculation, Wuestlinq has shown

but small enough to reduce tank losses.

that well-insulated tanks with a volume as least as large as the daily collector flowrate will achieve a similar

performance. The variation of solar system with the in Figure 1.1. fraction from a stratified-tank area was shown

collector flowrate per unit

For the reasons discussed above, the optimal depend upon the load, graph shows that the as indicated optimal system

collector flowrate will in Figure 2.3. This

performance occurs when the

monthly-average daily collector equal to the monthly-average

flowrate, Mc , is approximately daily load flow, ML. variables on the

Wuestling examined the effect of other fraction. The parameters

optimal solar

that were investigated include

location, collector quality, deadband, collector area, and load distribution. the daily

tank loss coefficient, controller set temperature, daily load,

Although the

solar fraction varied considerably, that yielded the maximum

collector flowrate

solar fraction

appeared to be fairly independent of the parameters.

49

2.2.3 oystm
design load

hecrlpeme
pmtsrs were investigated to
for typical ensure the The solar systems.

A rang, of

method's validity flows examined

range from

200 R/day to The load

400 /day, profile used

covering most domestic was the pattern.

daily draws.

RAND E27) profile, Domestic

which is a

representative draw Even

load profiles

vary considerably.

for a particular day to demand

residence, variation can be the operation of effect of

observed from high hot-water for

day depending upon appliances. The

load distributions

fully-mixed storage tanks has Buckles and Klein (6) and

been examined analytically by experimentally by Fischer and

Fanney (28). effect typical on the

They conclude that thermal

load profiles have a small of SDHW systems with

performance

storage tank

volumes operated

at high

flowrates.

They found that the optimal with designs that

system performance was achieved from the tank during

removed energy This control

collector operation.

strategy tends to reduce

the collector inlet temperature collector and storage losses.

for mixed tanks, decreasing

Wuestling (293 analyzed the effect stratified tank systems,

of draw patterns on eight different

investigating

profiles. He found that the RAND profile achieved an average solar fraction when compared to the other draw

50 patterns. The best performance was achieved by an afternoon useful energy in the afternoon reduces

drw. Removing the

recirculation and preheat tank losses since the average tank temperature is generally highest in the afternoon. The

worst performance was registered by a late morning draw that caused the most recirculation and difference in solar draw pattern and the tank losses. The maximum or the worst Including the

fraction between the best RAND profile was 5%.

load pattern in a design method would be difficult since the draw profile is a difficult parameter to quantify. The RAND

profile is a typical draw pattern and was observed to have a performance for stratified tanks between the other profiles. It was, as a result, employed in this study. The weather data used data were [30). SOLMET typical Alb-

meteorological

year (TMY)

Madison, WI,

uquerque, NM, and explored. clearness These

Seattle, WA were the three places ambient cover

locations that were a wide The range of

indices and

temperatures.

regions

studied are not a group of a range of the

three typical cities, but rather extremes. There are few

meteorological

places except Albuquerque in June that have a Kt of 74%, and few cities with the exception of Seattle in December that have a Kt of 29%. Madison has wide annual weatherswn, with clearness indices ranging from 0.38 to 0.55 and ambient

51 temperature reqions' changing from -70C to 21C. fall Most between other these

weather

statistics

should

extremes, providing a test for this design method.

for location independence in

Three flat-plate collector designs base-case system being single was a three with

were analyzed.

The

collector array, low iron The glass and

each module having a

glazed

selective surface absorber plate. polymer single glazed low loss system

high loss system was and the surface three

without a selective surface, double glazed selective for the

was a

design.

The collector

efficiency

factors

systems, along with the other in Table 2.1. These

system parameters, are listed a wide range of showed

three systems cover

collector types. that only 1%

Referencing the SRCC directory E31

of certified liquid flat-plate

collectors are

outside of the range listed in Table 2.1. A wide range of employed in change in maximum monthly flowrates instantaneous collector flowrates were As shown by Wuestling only 3 in E22J, a

this analysis.

collector flowrate of solar solar near fraction can fraction. the

kg/hr-m 2 near the a 12% a was change range used in of to

result For this

reason, fraction

maximum solar

increase the

method's accuracy.

High collector

flowrates

were used so that the solar

fraction from a stratified tank

52

Table 2.1 Parameter Values for the Systems Simulated in this Study Locations Madison, WI; Albuquerque, NM; Seattle, WA Collectors A =4.2 m Mc(test)=71.5 kq/hr m c slope=latitude b =0.i Base Case FRUL=4 .7 3 W/m 2 C FR(Tx)n=0. 8 0 5 Higher Quality FRUL= 3 .6 2 W/m 2 C FR(Tcx)n= 0 .7 5 4 Lower Quality FRUL= 8 .5 7 W/m 2 C FR(c(x) n =0.697 Mc= 2
.5 ,

5, 7.5, 10, 12.5,

2 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 kg/hr m

Preheat Tank

Volume=0.30 m Heiqht=l.5 m U=0.42 W/m 2 C

Auxiliary Tank Hot Water Load

negligible losses Demand=200, 300, 400 /day Tm=10 C Tw=60 C T =20 C

53 system will approach the solar fraction from a mixed storage system at high collector to load flow ratios. ranging TRNSYS. system a from 2.5 to 60
2 kg/hr'm 2 were used

Ten flowrates as inputs to

The collector performance

flowrate that was

yielded the between 10

optimal and 20

generally

kg/hr-m 2 .

2.2.4 Component Model Description

The transient

systems simulation program, SDHW systems. modeled with

TRNSYS 12.1

[3J was employed to simulate the solar systems were

The elements of standard TRNSYS

components. The algebraic, preheat tank variable 132]. plug-flow tank model The plug-flow model was used uses a for the number of to

sized constant

temperature segments The algebraic

of fluid

simulate stratification. have to solve a set

tank model does not

of simultaneous equations, therefore it than a finite difference, the model is shown in

is more computationally efficient multi-node model. Figure 2.4, plotted.

A description of

in which a The top

series of temperature is the initial

profiles are temperature

profile If

distribution at time t I .

collector flow occurs during a

timestep, then a plug of fluid is inserted in the top of the

54

TOP

BOTTOM

POSITION
Figure

2.4

Operation of the Pluq-Flow Storage Tank Model.

From Reference

2W'.

55 tank, and fluid from the tank A bottom is returned to the

collector, shown in step 1.

load flow removes fluid from

the top of the tank and returns mains water into the bottom, shifting the segments towards the losses are calculated top of the storage. for each Tank

individually

segment. This inlet heat

Internal mixing model has two

between segments modes of

is not The

considered. variable from the

operation.

position

mode inserts

the fluid

returning

source or the load between segments of adjacent temperatures to avoid temperature inversions. This mode yields an upper

limit on tank stratification, the lower limit being a fullymixed storage. The fixed inlet when the position collector mode fluid combines return

adjacent

segments

temperature is lower of the tank.

than the fluid temperature

at the top for the

The fixed inlet

position was chosen

simulations used here since it

appears to agree better with

a limited set of low-flow experimental data 126J. The pump was activated by a perfect controller (i.e. The auxiliary

having zero turn-on and

turn-off deadbands).

tank contained a 9 kW auxiliary heater and was assumed to be fully mixed. The water mains temperature and set

temperature were A relief valve

constant at 100 C and allowed boiling to

600 C respectively. take place, and a

tempering valve maintained the set temperature by mixing the

56 hot water with mains water as necessary.

2.2.5 f Correlation

The difference

between the

mixed and

stratified tank

solar fractions versus the collector in Fiqure 2.5. a collector

to load ratio is shown

The maximum value for these curves is not at of one like the stratified

to load flow ratio

tank solar fraction, but at a

value slightly less than one.

The maximum for the Af function will occur where dLfstr d(M /M For the strictly increasing mixed tank solar fraction

=0

[2.9ii1

function, the maximum difference between stratified tank systems will generally to load ratio flow ratio that maximizes less than

the mixed tank and occur at a collector to load flow

the collector

the stratified

tank solar

fraction.

The exception

is if the

mixed tank solar

fraction reaches

one, then the maximum will occur

at the lowest collector to

load flow ratio for which the stratified tank solar fraction is one. The curves shape with the to load flow in Figure 2.5 are approximately the same

maxima occuring at about ratio. If these curves

the same collector are normalized by

0.260.240.22 0.2
0.18 0.160.140.120.1 0.08-

July
0.06 0.04
-

Apr
-

Feb

0.02 0

2 Mc/ML Figure 2.5

The Difference Between the Mixed-Tank and Stratified-Tank Solar Fraction Variation with the Ratio of Monthly-Average Daily Collector Flow to Daily Load Flow for the Base Case System in Madison with a 300 L/day Load.

58 dividing by their a single maximum curve solar is fraction difference, shown in

Afmax value, Figure 2.6. low

generated, as

The strategy for developing a design method for is to the find an equation for the maximum lar

flowrates

difference

between

stratifieda

tam At/Afax"

fraction, and in Figure 2.6.

develop a correlation for The stratified

tank solar fractiom cald be tank solar fraction such as the f-Chart

obtained from this was obtained

method once a mixed design method

from a

method. The maximum solar fraction difference If will be a

function of the

average tank temperature. is equal to the

the monthly-

average tank temperature Afmax is zero since

mains water, then be equal to If

the auxiliary energy will

the load for the stratified tank and mixed tank systems.

the monthly-average tank temperature is equal to the desired set temperature, the maximum solar fraction difference is

also zero since the auxiliary energy demand is also zero for both the stratified and mixed storage systems. Between

these extremes, the maximum difference is a finite, positive quantity due the improved performance of the stratified tank design over the fraction is mixed tank system. The mixed-system solar

a linear function of the monthly-average tank temperature. A plot of the maximum difference between the

-I-

0.9 0.80.7-

0.60.50.40.3 0.20.1 00 0 0

Mc/ML Fiqure 2.6

Af/Af Versus mc/Mr for the Base Case Systerrn Madison with a 300 I/day Load.

60 mixed-system and stratified-system solar fraction versus the mixed-tank solar fraction at the flowrate that yields

fmax is shown in linear at Af

Figure 2.7.

The relationship but due to mixed tank

is fairly

low solar fractions, zero as the

energy dumping, solar fraction

approaces

approaces one.

A similar plot is

shown in Figure 2.8. This

time the independent variable is the stratified-system solar fraction at the flowrate that yields Afmax* less scatter, and the trend is linear. This curve has range of

The wide

Afmax data for a stratified-system solar fraction of one is due to energy dumping. A linear regression for Figure 2.8

with the stratified-system solar less than 0.99 Af max - 0.322 fstr with system a correlation solar fraction

fraction constrained to be

(2 12J 87%. The stratified maximum

coefficient of was used to

correlate the

solar fraction difference instead fraction max A function was as the due to the linear

of the mixed-system solar f str and

relationship between

chosen that exhibits the in Figure

same behavior 2.6. This

has a and

Lf/Afmax relationship shown

zero for M/L of

function is maium a

a collector flowrate slightly less

of zero, than one,

0.45 0.4D

0.35 F0 0.30.25 0.20.1513m 0.1 0.050 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Mixed Tank Solar Fraction
Figure 2.7
-

0%

13

o313
d~o0

Af Variation with the Mixed-Tank Solar FrIffion for the Base Case System in Albuquerque.

0.3
0.28 0.26 0.24 0.22
0 13

0
0P

0
-

0.20.18-

0 0 0 D2Lu 0l o 0 0 a 0

0= no00

oI dD

0.16 0.14 0.12

-

EJ 0 0

0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02

O
-

3 0 00 0

0 0

0E

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Figure 2.8

Stratified Tank Solar Fraction Variation with the Stratified-Tank Solar f FrIfion for the Base Case System in Albuquerque.

63 asymptotically approaches zero as the collector to load flow increases. -max A nonlinear Lf
=

A function that exhibits this behavior is

C1 M exp(C 2 M + C3M2)
regression routine was then used to

E2.13J
find the

relationship between ratio. The though

Af/Afmax and collector to

load flow

stratification the

correction is

noniterative, is used

even to of

stratified-system Afm. To is used use the

solar fraction method,

correlate

the derivative

equation 2.13

to find the

collector to

load flow is used

ratio that yields

Afmax*

This collector flowrate

in the f-Chart method to at Afmax*

give the mixed-tank solar fraction

Then Af max is obtained from equation 2.12 using

the mixed-tank solar fraction, since the only unknown is the stratified-system used at solar fraction. to give Equation 2.13 is then

the actual flowrate

the stratified-system

solar fraction. The RMS error between TRNSYS Madison with simulations and the tf 3

correlation for

10 collector

flowrate and

load flows is 6.9% for monthly annual values reasons for with a bias of the large error.

solar fractions and 4.7% for 2.7%. The There are a maximum solar number of fraction A

difference varies

with the

collector loss

coefficient.

64 stratified mixed-tank temperature. coefficient tank system design due has to a better performance the lower the collector collector than a

inlet loss

Therefore, will reduce

decreasing the solar

fraction

difference

between a mixed and stratified system. Also, the relationship between Af/Af max and the

collector to load flowrate is a year. During

function of the time of the instantaneous collector difference between relatively high. the This

the winter, the high the maximum

flowrate stratified

that yields and mixed

systems is to be

causes recirculation

obtained at

a lower

Mc/M L and

tank losses to be increased. Due to the approach was high error of the taken. A solar Af correlation, another fraction difference is

difficult to correlate due to its nonlinear behavior and the large number of variables that it is dependent upon. next chapter, a stratified tank modification is In the studied

which modifies one or more variables that are used in the fChart method.

65

CHAPTER THREE: MODIFICATION TO THE F-CHART METHOD FOR THERMALLY STRATIFIED SDHW SYSTEMS

In this chapter, to account

a modification to the

f-Chart method First, a area is

for stratified storage

is presented.

correction factor based explored. The

on an equivalent collector area is

equivalent collector

the collector

area that a fully mixed system would need to obtain the same solar system. fraction as The an otherwise identical stratified tank

collector area

modification agrees

well with

simulations for the system that it has a high parameters. is then error for SDHW systems

was designed for, but it with different collector

A more general stratification correction factor This modification is based on the

presented.

collector loss coefficient, and it agrees well over the wide range of parameters that were tested.

3.1 REVIEW OF THE F-CHART METHOD

The f-Chart method is the design The were method for

most well known, widely used heating systems [4]. which

residential solar is calculated hundreds

solar fraction developed

from correlations of TRNSYS

from

simulations. heating, air

Correlations were

developed for

liquid space

66

space heating, and for which Figure 1.2. the SDHW

domestic hot water systems. correlation was based on

The system is shown in

The solar fraction

for SDHW systems was The X

correlated to

two dimensionless variables. the ratio of by

parameter is related to and is qiven

the collector losses to the load

X = - -

=AcFRUL(I*6+l1l8Tw+3.86TM-2* 3 2

..

Ta )At

..

E3.13

L where, T w Tm At mains water temperature number of seconds in the month Y parameter is related to the ratio of

water set temperature

The dimensionless

absorbed radiation to AcFR( OHtN L

the load and is given by the relation E3.2

Y =

--

3,21

The relation between solar fraction for SDHW systems and the X and Y parameters is shown in squares approximation
3 2 2 f = i.029Y-0.065X-0.245Y +0.0018X +O. 0215Y

Figure 3.1 or from the least

E3,31

>-

(9 w

z w

LJ 0

0 (.9 C,) z

w:
L" 0 Uf) m
11

12

16

x REF. COLLECTOR LOSS

HEATING LOAD
Figure 3.1 The f-Chart for Liquid Systems. (Equation 3.8)

From Reference [43.

68

The X and shown

Y parameter range which equation 3.3 3.1 as the range of

is valid is solar

in Figure

the constant

fraction lines.

Systems with high

collector losses and low of the limits that

values of absorbed of equation these systems 3.3.

radiation will be outside Duffie and Beckman

[12) recommend

can be analyzed

using the f-Chart

method by

extrapolating the constant solar 3.1. Since these lines tend to

fraction lines from Figure be linear of the X for low solar

fractions and

reasonably low values

parameter, a to be used for range

linear extrapolation algorithm was developed computer given by X < 12, and
Y < 0.116-X - 0.128

applications.

For

the X

and

Y parameter

13.4) (3.5)

A linear extrapolation for the liquid f-Chart given by these limits is

f = 0.657&Y - 0.0321-X - 0.0009

(3.6)

A number of assumptions were the f-Chart method that restrict

made in the derivation of its applicability. The

mains temperature must be between 50

and 200 C and the set

temperature

must be

between 500

and

70C.

The

design

69

method

was

derived

for

preheat

storage

tank

loss

coefficient of 0.42 W/m 2 OC and an adiabatic auxiliary tank. Auxiliary tank accounted for load as loss coefficients greater by adding the energy loss Klein 16J. than zero to the The can be

hot water

shown by Buckles and

assumed loss

coefficient example, the

for

the

preheat

tank

is

rather of a DHW

low.

For

standard loss coefficient

tank from

ASHRAE is 1.0 W/m 2 0C [33).

The f-Chart method will tend to for systems with typical tanks were assumed to

overpredict the useful energy gain storage losses.

Finally, the storage

be fully-mixed, which occurs when high. The f-Chart method will

the collector flowrate is

as a result underpredict the

solar fraction for thermally stratified storage systems. A number modify either of correction the of X the or factors have Y parameter been derived to For increase liquid to the space

applicability heating a

f-Chart method.

systems, the f-Chart capacity in tank per

correlation was developed for area be of 75 RIm 2 . for by

storage

collector can

Variations

capacity

accounted

modifying the X parameter Xc X [actual storage capacity ]-0,25 75 R/m2 is also a correction factor for liquid systems to

There

70

modify size.

the Y

parameter for

variations

in heat

exchanger

The f-Chart method is an systems with well-insulated

accurate tool for sizing SDHW tanks and high collector

flowrates. compared

A set with the

of annual solar fractions f-Chart method in

from TRNSYS is 3.2. The

Figure

simulations modeled the

system shown in Figure

1.2, with a

fully-mixed preheat tank and a preheat tank loss coefficient of 0.42 W/m 2 OC. on an The design method to simulation compares to within 2.0% results. For thermally

annual basis

stratified storage the as shown in Figure 3.3. a thermally stratified mixed preheat tank,

error is greater and

highly biased,

The collector inlet temperature for preheat tank is lower decreasing collector than a fullylosses and

increasing performance. underpredict the solar

This causes the f-Chart fraction from a

method to tank

stratified

simulation, since the f-Chart method was developed for highflowrate, fully-mixed tank solar systems. This chapter will investigate a Chart method storage tank. for systems that The modification to the fthermally stratified presently has

have a

f-Chart design

method

modifications to size, storage These

account for

variations in bed volume, the

heat exchanger flowrate. X and Y

size, pebble adjust

and air

alterations

dimensionless

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Solar Fraction from TRNSYS

Figure 3.2 Annual Solar Fractions from TRNSYS Simulations with a Fully-Mixed Preheat Tank Compared to the f-Chart Method.

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Solar Fraction from f-Chart

Fiqure 3.3

Annual Solar Fractions from TRNSYS Simulations

with a Stratified Preheat Tank Compared to the f-Chart Method.

73

parameters.

The

air

flowrate

correction

is

needed

to

account for thermal stratification in the pebble bed and the dependence of FR on flowrate. The air flow modification

factor adjusts the X parameter. A modification for fluid was tank attempted that stratification decreased with the the X

parameter

same

equation form as the air air flowrate the can

flowrate correction. system in

Reducing the due bed. to The

increase

performance the pebble

increasing

stratification

behavior of the parameter from stratified equation parameter.

X parameter was studied by equation 3.2 TRNSYS. and the The was the X

obtaining the Y for a f-Chart the X

solar fraction liquid system

tank from for The

solar fraction results from

then

solved for

parameter modification

equation (i.e. usinq the form deviated from TRNSYS

of the air flow modification) The data that had

simulations by 8%.

the highest error were the high and low collector flowrates. The air flowrate correction factor is limited to air
.

flowrates less This is but the greater.

than 20 /s-m 2 and

greater than

5 k/s-m 2

a wide range

for typical collector

air flowrates, used is a

range of liquid A

flowrates presently being for example,

thermosyphon system,

may have

collector flow that is one-eiqhth system.

the flowrate of an active

74

3.2 COLLECTOR AREA CORRECTION FACTOR

correlation

for thermally

stratified

storaqe

was area area

developed by ratio, A/A*.

employing the This quotient

concept of is the

the collector

actual collector

divided by the area that a fully-mixed tank would require to achieve the same solar fraction that was obtained by a

stratified system with being the same. hot water

the actual collector area,

all else

For example, having a

a hypothetical solar domestic fully-mixed storage with a

set-up

collector area The same

of 4

m2 produces a at the

solar fraction same flowrate

of 43%. with a If

system

operated

stratified storage tank yields a the collector size 51% solar

solar fraction of 51%.

needed by the mixed system

to achieve a A/AA, is

fraction is 5 m 2

then the area ratio,

4/5 or 0.80. A function was chosen so that at high flowrates, A/AA

approaches unity as the tank storage tank becomes mixed; and a minimum value of A/A* (maximum difference occurs when the daily to the load flow, The between fullycollector flow as observed by

mixed and stratified) is approximately equal

Wuestling and others E23-251.

collector area ratio was

also observed to be a function of the solar fraction. A nonlinear regression analysis was employed to

75

minimize the the f-Chart

RMS error between method used in modified

the TRNSYS with A/AA were

simulations and function. the base The case

parameters

the simulations

system, three

locations, 200 to 400 k/day

load flowrates, The

and 5 to 60 kg/hrom 2 collector resulting equation is: A/AA = l.-E3.53(Mc/ML)-l exp-l.15(M--c/ML)where, Mc/ML the ratio of

flowrates (Table 2.1).

7 l(Mc/ML

2 +0.655dmi/ML 3

2.50f+0.047(M /ML ) 2+2.17f23

monthly-average

daily

collector

flowrate to load flowrate from TRNSYS f the monthly solar fraction for an equivalent

system with a fully-mixed storage. The solar for a fraction, f, appearing in the A/AA equation was from a A/A*

mixed tank

system, since the design would RMS error

solar fraction evaluation of TRNSYS and

stratified tank iterative. The

make the between

f-Chart

utilizing equation 3.8

is 2.31% of annual

solar fractions.

The monthly error is 4.67% with a bias of 0.13%. The equation for the collector area ratio as a function of mixed solar fraction and Mc/ML is shown in Figure 3.4.

Because of the of the

nature of equation 3.8, in Figure 3.4

values of Mc/ML out should not be used.

range shown

76

o 0.9
0 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5

0.4

C) 0.3
0

0.2

U0.1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Mc/Mi

Figure

3.4

Collector Area Ratio Variation with the Ratio of the Monthly- Average Daily Collector to Load Flow and the Solar Fraction from a Mixed Tank System.

77

Extrapolation can tank assumed.

be done

on the

graph, or

a fully-mixed months

The highest

error was

observed for

with a low clearness index. underpredict monthly solar fractions from in Seattle,

The f-Charts have been shown to WA E121 A due to Seattle's of annual low solar

radiation.

scatter plot

TRNSYS and the

f-Charts using

equation 3.8

appears in Figure 3.5. The agree collector area for the correction factor for was shown which it to was

well

typical

system

developed, with FR((TM) 4.73 W/m2 C. performance

equal to 0.805 and

FRUL equal to

When systems with characteristics

collectors having different with the area

were analyzed

correction method, the agreement with simulations was not as good. A system with an FRUL value of 3.72 W/m 2 0C was

tested with the area correction factor method, giving an RMS error of 8%. The reason for this error can be seen in

Figure 3.6. varying

The modification area, as

will move shown.

along the The slope

line of of this and Y

collector

modification line parameters. will

is determined by

the mixed-tank X

In general,

moving up the collector solar

area line to

cause an

increase in

fraction, comparable

increasing the size of the solar collector. The error of the area correction the limit of zero collector factor can be seen in A stratified

loss coefficient.

78

1 0.9

;0.8 C)

0.6 0.7

* 0.5

cd 0.4
093 r>0.2 0.1 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Solar Fraction (f-Chart)

Figure 3.5

Comparison of the Stratified-Tank Annual Solar Fractions from TRNSYS and the Annual Solar Fractions from the f-Chart Method Modified with Equation 3.1.

(9 0::

1o::g,
CnZ

<

-n J
mWi
Cl) 0

m
I!

REF COLLECTOR LOSS HEATING LOAD

Figure 3.6

The Liquid System f-Chart with an Example of a Varying Collector Area Line.

80

and

a mixed will

system that perform

have collectors identically,

with no neglecting

thermal minor

losses

differences in storage tank losses. Chart of and the a collector with no area modification line

The location on the fthe ordinate, But for this

losses lies on is vertical.

ideal system, the the stratified system. that of For the

area correction factor will perform better a loss previous

predict that mixed to area

system will collectors with system in the

than the

coefficient close chapter, reasonable the

modification The

correlation

should give in the

results. in

approach described

next section

was taken

order to develop

a stratification design method

that could

be used with a wider range of collector types.

3.3 COLLECTOR LOSS COEFFICIENT CORRECTION FACTOR

The instantaneous given by qu AcFR(TU)It

-

performance of a solar

collector is

AcFRUL(Ti-Ta)

[3.9J

The major reason that stratified systems perform better than mixed tank systems is the temperature reduction of the fluid flowing into hand side the collector. The first term on the right the

is the

absorbed energy,

and the

second is

81

energy lost modified energy.

by the collector. A c to account a for an

The area increase with

correction factor in the useful losses,

But for

a collector

no thermal

increasing the collector area implies that absorption, the useful i.e.,

to account for stratification is causing greater solar increases

a stratified system which is energy gain incorrect. of a second

Stratification

system by term

decreasing losses, Hottel-Whillier

decreasing the

of the

equation. a method

Modifying the collector by which the increase

loss coefficient, UL , is caused by

in useful energy

stratification can be correlated and behave correctly in the extremes of the parameters.

3.3.1 Collector Loss Coefficient Methodology

The f-Charts were developed to be fully-mixed. Charts predict the

assuming the preheat tank needed to have the fSDHW systems having from a

A modification is performance storage. of

stratified

preheat

The solar

fraction

stratified system can be obtained system with coefficient. obtained a installed in a fully-mixed tank For example,

by an otherwise identical and a lower stratified collector loss SDHW design

if a

solar fraction the preheat

of 55%, and tank the

a mixing

device is will be

solar fraction

82

reduced.

However, it

can

aqain be

raised

to 55%

solar

fraction if the collector back by adding more insulation.

and side losses were reduced

The collector heat removal factor collector loss coefficient. shown in The

is a function of the

variation of FR with UL is shows that a a collector

Fiqure 3.7. This figure

with no thermal losses has a increasing factor to factor the loss

heat removal factor of one and causes the heat The removal

coefficient

approach zero complicated A

asymptotically. function of the

heat removal loss

is a

collector

coefficient.

stratification modification to

the f-Chart

method that is based on also modify FR.

the collector loss coefficient will

The f-Chart method includes the collector losses in the X parameter, and the heat removal factor in both parameters. Figure 3.8 is an expanded view of a liquid f-Chart. The

dashed line on

this figure is the path while simultaneously The bottom point is

taken by decreasing modifying the the location heat on the

collector losses, removal factor.

liquid f-Chart of a mixed tank system. fraction can be obtained from Xmix and Ymix*

The mixed tank solar f-Chart method no

the original If the

with coordinates

collector has

thermal losses, then its X parameter Y parameter would be equal to

would be zero, and the of the absorbed

the ratio

0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 2 4 6 8 Collector Loss Coefficient (W/m2-C)
Figure 3.7 The Relationship Between the Collector eat Removal Facto and the Collector Loss Coefficient. A = 4.2u , M = 10 kg/hr-m ,h=30OW/mZoC, W = 0.15 m, d i = 0.009 m, d o = S.01,6p = 0.501. c

84

No Thermal Loss System

0.95
0.9 0.85
L 4,

f:.7

0 L 0 0.

0.8 0.75 0.7 0.65 0.6 0.55

0 2 X Parameter Figure 3.8 The Variation of the X and Y Parameters on a Liquid System f-Chart Caused by Increasing ULand Correspondingly Decreasing FR. 4

85 radiation to the load, given by Ymax

=

A c(Tm)HTN/L"

[3.10 UL line in Figure 3.8 is the system that has no thermal always be system with

The upper point on the varying location on losses. the f-Chart of a

The stratified

tank solar fraction will a fully-mixed

between the

limits obtained for

the correct collector loss coefficient no thermal losses.

and a collector with the maximum

The curved line connectinq

and the mixed solar fraction is that which would be obtained if the collector loss coefficient were varied from the

original value to zero, and correspondingly the heat removal factor was varied from the original value to one. The

slight curve in this line is due to the relationship between FR and UL" The equation relating the collector heat removal factor to the collector loss coefficient (Figure 3.7) is

unnecessarily complex for the accuracy a design method. If the path

warranted for use in in Figure 3.8 is

shown

approximated as being linear, relationship can be

then a computationally simple between the maximum, In

established

stratified, and mixed performances, shown in Figure 3.9. this figure, the maximum and mixed The X and Y

parameters are

shown as before.

stratified performance is constrained

z
0 0 ..J -j

Ymax

mU

mm 0 U) >II

Ystr Ymix

Xstr

Xmix

*8

12

16

COLLECTOR x=REF.HEATING LOADLOSS

Figure 3,9 The Relationship Between the f-Chart Parameters for a Collector with no Thermal Losses, a System with a Fully-Mixed Storage, and a System with a Stratified Storage.

87 as being values. colinear on a line between the maximum and mixed

Using similar triangles, a relationship between the

three sets of f-Chart parameters can be expressed as AX AXmax Xmi x Xstr ------ =13

111

Xmix Ystr -Ymix Ymax Ymix Y parameters can be obtained from the (3.12)

The

mixed X

and

original f-Chart and If an equation X 3.4 and and for Y

Ymax can be found from the AX/AXmaxis can

equation 3.10. then the from solar

known, be

stratified equations

parameters 3.5,

calculated stratified

yielding

the

fraction when they are used in the f-Chart method.

3.3.2 Results

The

relationship between

AX/AXmax and the

monthlyA

average collector to load flow, computer program was written simulation data collector

Mc/ML? was investigated.

,

to determine AX/AX

using

for Madison, Albuquerque, and from 2.5 to 60

Seattle with kg/hr-m

2

flowrates ranging

and

daily load flows ranging from 200 to 400 /day. The program calculated the collector heat removal factor

88 analytically 1121, and Chart parameters. are constrained by solved for the mixed and maximum f-

The stratified system being on a line

X and Y parameters

between the mixed-tank computer program, then obtained solar

and maximum

f-Chart parameters. tank X and Y

In this

the stratified from colinearity fractions. Figure 3.10. A

parameters are

and the

stratified-tank simulation this program is

set of points from

shown in

be

A general relationship between IX/AXmax and M /ML can c 1M Lca seen in Figure 3.10 . The largest values of points where the system and occurs when performance difference the mixed system is

AX/tXmax are the between greatest. the

stratified This maximum

the daily

collector

flowrate is about equal to the Wuestling, et al. [223.

daily load flow, as shown by

As the collector to load flow ratio mixed and stratified tank

increases, the performance of the

systems approach each other since the temperature difference between the top and bottom of the stratified tank is

decreasing due

to recirculation.

The heat

removal factor

becomes small and A/Xmax approaches zero as the flowrate approaches zero. The upper limit low The limits on AX/AXmax are one and zero. is approached for high rates, where the solar fractions and collector inlet

recirculation

temperature is close to the mains water, and the system acts

~1

A>

0.9-

0.80.7x

+ + +

E
x

0.60.5-

+
0

C3

C
0 C0

0i

xS

0.40.3-

Feb

0.20.1 0 -t 0
A

Apr

Jun
Aug

Mc/ML
Fiqure 3.10 Simulation Results of AX/AXmax Versus Mc/ML for Madison, 200 i/day Load, and the Base Case System.

90 as if the mains water is connected directly to the collector inlet ("once-through" design). The ratio AX/AXmax is a function load flow ratio and solar fraction. of the collector to An equation that

exhibits the behavior discussed in the previous paragraph is of the form X(X 2 + 1.) Other formulae that can fit the above criteria include but X*exp(-X). it produced This higher The equation residuals was and

investigated, consequently a did not follow

higher RMS error. the

exponential equation the peak causing a

simulations near

biased error for near one. Both

points with collector to of these functions

load flow ratios will not follow The

simulation results

for very

low collector

flowrates.

equation will overpredict AX/AXmaxfor low values of Mc/ML There are equations that would better follow these low

flowrates, such as does not lend

the beta function, but to design methods,

their complexity and very low

itself

collector flowrates are not a desirable operating region. A nonlinear coefficients simulations regression routine the RMS method was used to find the

that minimized and the f-Chart

error between modified The

TRNSYS the

with

stratification correlation from Mc/ML for the

correction

formula.

utilizability to calculate since it

Evans, et al.

(13) was used

f-Chart stratification modification

91
is computationally easier to solve. The X parameter

modification, AX/AX AX AXmax where,

max

,is C1iM

2=2
2

3 131
+1

EC2 M + C3 f + C4f

12

Cl, C2, C3, C4 are coefficients from the regression routine, f the solar fraction from a mixed storage system, and M The solar a correlation for the collector to load flow fraction from a stratified system was tried in

place of the mixed solar fraction, about the same, using the

and although the RMS was fraction would

stratified solar

have involved iteration.

The RMS error with all of the data

was 3.74% annually and 5.55% monthly with a bias of 0.63%. The data that exhibited a low collector flowrates, 2.5 high error included the very 7.5 kg/hr*m 2 . The form of not fit

the equation used well at very

to correlate the AX/AXmax does The equation

low flowrates.

form of equation

3.13 was chosen due to behavior at low flow

its computational simplicity and its or conventional flowrates. The

flowrates in error all have a collector to load flow of less than one, indicating that they are operating at an undesirable collector to load ratio. Equation 3.13 is

92 asymptotic to a line of slope one and origin intercept

(Y = X) as M approaches zero. to a line of slope zero

The actual data is asymptotic (Y = 0). Over the range of

collector to load strongly collector biased

flows, the correction is good, with high relative shown in error

.

but it is very low the

for

flows, as

Figure 3.11

If only

range of flowrates from 10 - 60 kg/hr*m 2 is considered, the annual RMS error the bias is is 3.15%, the monthly error High residuals were is 5.49%, and also noted for

0.54%.

Seattle. location.

The f-Chart method tends This is due

to underpredict for this relatively low solar

to Seattle's

radiation in the winter and high utilizability. The set of coefficients that gave the lowest RMS error

for all of the locations to be used in equation 3.13 is:

C1 = C2 = C3 = 1.040 0.726 1.564

C4 = -2.760

Equation

3.13 with

the these

coefficients

is plotted

in

Figure 3.12 .

Because of

the nature

of equation

3.13, a

high solar fraction

combined with a collector

to load flow

ratio near one can give AX/AXmax greater than one. For these cases, AX/LX should be set equal to one. A plot of annual solar fractions from simulation results and the f-

0.5

0.4-0
V) 00 00

H 0
L

0 0 0

2 0.2
a 13
010

03

Solar Fratio from f-Chart

Flqre3-LI

Aua FomIractions fr 11Snal vrm the f -Cat Non NMtled with the ftratiflstmm COrree ism for N les1s thi 0.3C

10.9f=--0.7 0.80.7x

f=0.5

E 0.60.5x 0.40.30.20.1 f=0.3

2 fIure 3.12

6 imnt

10

Mc/ML &ih/Mz for the f-ft

95 Chart method Figure 3.13 corrected for stratified storaqe is shown in

3.4 EXAMPLE

As an example of using stratified storage, a

the f-Chart method modified for located in Madison

low-flow system

will be analyzed for the month of June. and design parameters step in the procedure

Meteorological data 3.1

.

are listed in Table is obtaining a

The first the solar The

value for

fraction of a mixed system to be used in Equations 3.7. f-Chart method is employed using the actual

collector loss

coefficient, giving an X parameter of 2.59, a Y parameter of 0.77, and daily a solar fraction load of 50.2%. flow ratio to be The monthly-average can 1.40 equal be evaluated
.

collector to and it

by

equation 3.5, 3.12, or

is found

From to

Figure

equation to the

3.13, AX/ Xmax is f-Chart method

0.632 of

Going back

with an

X parameter

2.59(1-0.632) or 0.954 and a Y parameter of 0.942, the solar fraction for a stratified system is found to be 71.9%.

96

-r-

0.90.8 0.70.6-

z
Z. L-

0.50.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 F (FCHART) 0.7 0.9

Figure 3.13

Annual Solar Fractions from TRNSYS Simulations Versus the f-Chart Method Modified with the Stratification Correction, for Mc=10-60 kg/hrm2 and all Locations, Loads, and Systems.

97

Table 3.1 Parameter Values for System in f-Chart Example )cation Lc ME ateorological Madison, Wisconsin June H=17.07 MJ/m 2 Ta=19.6O C
K t =*513 Cc llectors

AC=4.2 m FR(T(X) n=0.805 (Tu)/(TM)/ n =.925

(Tcx)=.913

FRUL= 4 .7 3 W/m 2 C Mc(test)=71.5 kg/hr m2

2 1 A (use)= 0 kg/hr m

slope=latitude=43. 10 pr eheat Tank Volume=0.30 m 3 Heiqht=l.5 m U=0.42 W/m 2 C ixiliary Tank AL )t Hc Water Load negligible losses Demand=300 /day TM=10 C T =60 C Tc=20 C

98

CHAPTER FOUR: MODIFICATION TO THE 0,F-CHART METHOD FOR THERMALLY STRATIFIED SDHW SYSTEMS

4.1 THE *,f-CHART METHOD

The f-Chart the

method is a

design tool for in the

systems with The known which and has was

restrictions discussed method is Another of both The

previous chapter. systems with a

utilizability critical

useful for

level.

design method of these

was created

combines aspects fewer

design methods method 15)

restrictions.

T,f-Chart

originally developed for closed-loop Figure 1.3. method system Braun, et al.

solar systems shown in

E341 has extended the T,f-Chart such

.

to open-loop shown in

designs,

as the

standard have

SDHW mass

Figure 1.2 the load

These

designs

exchange between have a load

and storage.

Open-loop systems

that is characterized by

two temperatures, the Auxiliary the

mains water temperature and energy is supplied if the

the set temperature. delivery

temperature from

storage is less than the set temperature. The method for estimatinq the solar fraction of openThe

loop systems by the 4,f-Chart method is as useful energy for a solar system is given by Q
=

follows.

Qmaxa(ebf- l ') (l'-eCX) (edZ4)L &4.1)

99 where, Qmax = -maxAcFR ( '-x)HtN SMtCp/Ac

a = 0. 0151 b = 3.85 c = -0.15 d = -1.959 1-0.76
2oC

a350.kJ/m2 oc

X = AcFRUL(100C)AT/L
Z = L/(MLCp(1000C))

Mt ML

mass of fluid in the preheat tank monthly mass of fluid removed from the system by the hot water demand

monthly energy removed from the system by the hot water demand

The term

Pmax is the

utilizability function

evaluated at The monthly temperature of

the monthly-average delivery temperature, Td. average delivery temperature is the average

the fluid going from the preheat tank to the auxiliary tank. The second part the of equation 4.1 corrects for is not always Z, is equal the fact that to Td. The

inlet temperature

dimensionless parameter,

important for

systems that

have set temperatures significantly higher domestic hot water designs.

than Td, such as

100

An equation for the storage losses is E4.21 at for the the average average 4.2 has tank tank been

QLS = (UA)tank(Ttank-Tenv) Storage losses A are evaluated correlation be used

temperature. temperature,

Ttank' to

in equation

determined by Braun, et al. to be Ttank = Td + g(ekf where, g = 0.2136 h = -4.002 .tCP/A M 35. kJ/m 2 c 004
-

1)(ehZ

E43

4.702.

The energy supplied from solar to

the load, Q., is the

minimum of the load and the delivered energy QS = min[MLCp(Td-Tmain)vL] The solar fraction section 1.2.1, hot water load f = QS-[4.5) L A monthly energy balance on the SDHW system, assuming that employed in this study, [4.4) as discussed in to the

is the ratio of

the supplied energy

101

the change in storage internal energy is negligible is given by

QU-

QLS

QS

0[4.6]
indicate that the monthly tl% of the

TRNSYS simulations of DHW systems change in storage

internal energy is less than

useful energy, for systems having typical storage volumes. The open-loop solution of q,f-Chart method involves to 4.6 for Td. value an iterative For monthly the

equations 4.1 an approximate

simulations,

initial

for Td is

solution from the previous month. Similar to tool is accurate the f-Chart method, the the p,f-Chart design SDHW

for predicting

performance of It

systems with

a fully-mixed storage hence it

tank.

also assumes the solar stratified

fully-mixed storage, fraction for a

will underpredict has a thermally

system that

storage tank.

4.2

CTION FACTOR METHODOLOGY

The correction to the

O,f-Chart method for stratified

storage was similar to the modification used for the f-Chart method. Chart A correlation for AX/AXmax was obtained in the fcorrection. The AX/AX max modifies the collector

102

loss coefficient a proportionate amount.

As shown with the

f-Chart correction, the heat removal factor also is modified so that the stratified state is colinear on the liquid fthe mixed

Chart between the state. AX AXmax

maximum absorbed radiation and

For the T,f-Charts this ratio reduces to Xmix - Xstr Xmix

(FRUL)mix- (FRUL)str (FRUL)mix

E47J

This equation can be solved for FRULfor a stratified storage system as AX

(FRUL)str = (FRUL)mi(l.-)

4.81

AX

max

From the f-Chart correction, it was shown that AX AXmax Ystr-Ymix4 Ymax-Ymix

Substituting the definition of the Y parameter into equation 4.9 and solving for the stratified heat removal factor

yields

103 AX
(FR)st r = + (1.- -

AX
) (FR)mix [4.10)

AXmax Equations 4.8 desiqn method

Xmax and 4.10 can once is a be used in relationship The the O,f-Chart for form the of

AX/Axmax equation

determined. that used in the a function

AX/AXmax is similar to method. The

original f-Chart to load

equation is

of collector

flow ratio and solar fraction, it intersects the origin, has a maximum at an Mc/M L value of about one, and is asymptotic

to the abcissa at high collector to load flow ratios.

4.3

.TS

nonlinear regression method

package to

that

utilizes a the sum

gradient of the

search

was employed

minimize

squares between TRNSYS simulations and the 0,f-Chart method modified with a stratification correction. AX/AXmax equation is similar stratified tank correction AX AXmC2 max where, C1 M 2 M + C3 f]2 + 1. [4.I111 to that used in The form of the the f-Chart

Cl, C2, C3 coefficients from the regression routine,

104

fm

the solar and

fraction from

a mixed

storage system,

a correlation for the collector to load flow

The collector operating correlation for the 1l.

time was evaluated by daily

using a

monthly-average

utilizability

developed by Klein

As mentioned before, this equation than Evans' correlation, but range of critical radiation

is more computionally involved more accurate A over a wide

levels.

program that

impliments the

*,f-Chart method,

such as F-CHART4.1, requires the evaluation of the variables in equation 1.16. For these programs, evaluation of equation 1.16 is not difficult, since most of the input variables are previously calculated. The same range of parameters used in the f-Chart method were used here; three locations, three systems, three

locations, ten flowrates 3240 pieces of data. ambient Evans' temperature utilizability The

and twelve months, for

a total of

The initial run used the day and night in the critical level equation and

correlation for RMS error was 2.64%

collector

operating

time equation.

annually and 3.93%

monthly, with a bias of 0.29%. When Erbs' was used, no daytime ambient change in the temperature equation were observed. 1.20 This

errors

105

indicates temperature

that using

the

average the

day and

night

ambient a good

in evaluating

critical

level is

approxmation. utilizability

The

negligible

difference or the

in

the

evaluated with

the ambient

daylight

temperature is consistent with findings from Reference E131. If Mitchell's collector operating time equation is used to estimate the collector to load flow ratio, the error

decreases negligibly to 2.60% annually, 3.88% monthly, and a bias of 0.21%. obtained from This would indicate that the solar fraction with equation

the T,f-Chart method modified

4.11 is relatively insensitive to on time equation as long as the

the accuracy of the pumpgeneral relationship is

correct.

This is caused by

the nature of AX/AXmax curve. stratified and mixed

The slope of

the difference between a

,

system, and consequently 8XIAXmax of the using collector to load flow the mains is

is small at high values The error caused by level of the to the

ratio. in

water temperature reduced due the

the critical

evaluation

insensitivity at

AX/AXma x relationship load flow ratios.

to flowrate The collector

high collector in

flowrates used with most

TRNSYS simulations

cover a

wide range,

of them

occuring in the region where the negligible difference

the slope is small, explaining between the two collector

operating time equations.

106

As flowrates equation. in Table

discussed caused a

previously, bias error

the due

very the the

low

collector the

form of

The error without these very low flows are listed the flowrates

4.1. The annual RMS error for 2. 10-60 kg/hr-m is only 2.07%, with no bias. eliminated since the AX/AXmax tends to flowrates.

The bias was

overpredict solar

fraction at the very low flowrates 10-60 strategy

The range of collector low-flow control equation

kq/hr-m 2 cover a typical The

operating range.

coefficients for

4.11 that yielded the lowest monthly RMS error are:

C1 = C2 = 0.6078 0.6019

C3 = -0.1657

AX/AXmax from

Equation

4.11

is

plotted

versus

the

collector to load flow ratio in Figure 4.1 . A comparison solar of TRNSYS simulation results and annual with

fractions from 4.11 is the design The three

the V,f-Chart in

method modified
.

equation between small.

shown

Figure 4.2 and

The

difference reasonably in

method points

simulations is highest

with the

RMS error

Figure 4.2 were for Seattle system. Locations with

with the high quality collector generally shown Overall, the a

a very low Kt have

the largest error in previous modification to the ,f,Chart

design methods. method for

systems with

107

Table 4.1 The Error of the Stratified Desiqn Method for Varying Ranges of Collector Flowrate Collector Flowrateg (kg/hrm RMS Error (%) Annual Monthly Bias (%)

2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60

2.60

3.93

0.27

5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60

2.55

3.89

0.24

7.5, 10, 12.5, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60

2.51

3.81

0.18

10, 12.5, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60

2.07

3.45

0.03

1 0.90.80.7a

"

X~~~ 0.60.5-

--0.8

0.4

0.3 0.2 0.1

4 Mc/ML

10

1 w.e 4.1

AX/Axlbu

for the i1-Chart

tbdl

109

1 0.9

t 0 0.8
_4-

0.7
'o

40"0

0.6 0.5

E
0
4-

0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

0

0
4J
L

I.

. 01
0

0
Ficrure 4.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Solar Fraction from TRNSYS Annual Solar Fractions from TRNSYS Simulations Versus the 4f-Chart Method Modified with the Stratification Correction, for Mc=10-60 kcr/hrm2 and all Locations, Loads, and Systems.

110 stratified preheat tank appears to simulations. agree well with detailed

4.4 EXAMPLE

An

example

of

estimating

the

performance

of

stratified tank SDHW presented here. parameter valued the month of

system using the O,f-Chart for a

method is the

The performance given in Table R, Rn

,

system having

4.2 will be and

estimated for as

April.

rt,n are determined

outlined in Reference [121. R=l.01 r t,n =0.131 Rn=l.02 The monthly total load is L=MdCp (Tw-Tm)N =1.886 GJ

For this example

First, the mixed-tank solar fraction is obtained. FR for the use conditions FR(use)/FR(test)=0.841 FRUL = 3.98 W/m 2 C
FR(To)=0.677

Modifying

An initial

guess of 300 C

is used for

the monthly-average

delivery temperature

ill

Table 4.2._Parameter Values for System in *, f-Chart Example Lc )cation Me teorological Madison, Wisconsin April
2 H=14.90 MJ/m

Ta=8.66 0 C Kt=0.47 Cc )llectors

2 A =4.2 m

FR( o)n=0.805 (Xt)/(T(X)/ (tor)=.913 FRUL=4 .7 3 W/m 2 C Mc(test)=71.5 kq/hr m 2 a Mc(use)=10 kc/hr m 2 slope=latitude=43.10
Pr-eheat Tank

n =.925

Volume=0.30 m 3
Heiqht=l.5 m

U=0.42 W/m 2 C UA=2.75 W/C

Auixiliary

Tank

negligible losses Demand=300 /day Tm=10 C Tw=60 C T =20 C

Hc)t Water Load

112

QS

L
(300)(4.19)(30-10) (300)(4.19)(60-10) =0.40

Ic =UL(Td-Ta)/(T(X)
=(3.98)(30-8.7)/((.677)(.925))
2 =135.5 W/m

From

this

critical

level,

using

Klein's

correlation,

equation 1.11, the maximum utilizability is max =0.691 The useful energy is calculated from equation 4.1 Qmax
=

maxAcFR(T()HtN

=29.7 MJ X=AcFRUL(100OC)AT/L =2.30 a =0.015 =0.0169

Z = L/(MLCp(100C))

MtCp/Ac tP 350.kJ/m 2 OC

-0.76

=0.50
Q.- = Qmax a(e b f -l .) (l.-eCX) (edZ)L =29.7-.0169Eexp(3.85-0.4)-1J.

113 El-exp(-.15*2.30)]exp(-l.959-0.5) (1,886)/30 =29.29 MJ The tank lossed are estimated from equation 4.2 and 4.3

MtCp/A C
g =0.2136

-0"704
2oME

350.kJ/m2

=0.239 C Ttank = Td + J(ekfl.)(e)hZ =30+(.239)E(exp(4.702*0.4)-Jexp(-4.002*0.50) =30.7 C QLS = (UA)tank(Ttank- T env =(2.75) (30.2-20) (24) (3600) =2.41 MJ A new guess of the delivery temperature can be obtained by

averacring the initial supply temperature with the calculated supply temperature

QS

QU - QLS

=29.29-2.41 =26.88 MJ QS= minE-MLCp (Td -Tmain) ,L)

114

=25.14 MJ
=

QS, 2

(25.14 + 26.88)/2

=26.01 MJ Td,2 =TmainQs /MLCp =10 + 26,O10/(3004.19) =30.69 C Repeating the procedure with the new delivery temperature

gives the following f=.414

2 Ic=140.1 W/m 0 max

=.677
"1

Qmax=2 9

MJ

Qu = 2 8 .64MJ
QLS =2.42 MJ Td, 2 =3 0.78 C Since there was little change in the iterations, it is not

115

necessary to iterate further. The next step is to calculate the monthly-average daily collector to load flow ratio from equation 1.15 or 1.16

For this example, Klein's utilizability correlation was used

c-ML

-E[A

+ B(R /R)J[l. + 2CX c I R/(rtn Rn)

ML =(10)(4.2)/300)(-.875)E-0.514+(-.990)(1.02/1.01))-

[1+2(0.330)(0.086)3(1.01)/1(0.131)(1.02)) =E(42kg/hr)/(300kg/day)]10.67 hrs/day =1.49 Then tX/AXmax can be determined from equation 4.11

AX 6Xmax

=2

0.6078 M

[0.6019 M + -0.6019 f]2 + 1. -0.549

The

stratified

tank

heat removal

factor

and

tank

loss

coefficient are calculated from equations 4.9 and 4.11 AX AX

max

(FRUL)st r =

(FRULstr

(FRUL)mix(1.-

mix

=(3.98)(l-.549)

116 =1.80

AX

R)st

=AXmax

ystr-Ymix Ymax- Ymix,(Rmix

IFR( (X))str = (0.549)(.913)+(i-0.549)(0.677) =0.807 Going back to the O,f-Chart method f=0.40
2 I =51.4 W/m

ma =0.87 Qmax=44.8 MJ Qu=43.9 MJ

QLS=5.0 MJ Td,2=36,7 C
After a few iterations, Tmin= 4 0e 9 C f=0.619 An increase of 20% from the mixed-tank solar fraction. The

solar fraction from a TRNSYS simulation is 0.614.

117

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 SUMMARY

The objective of this research method heating tanks. that could systems A high be that used for have

was to develop a design domestic hot stratified water preheat

solar

thermally

degree of stratification can low collector flowrates, on of conventional

be present for the order of Low than flow an

systems that have one fifth that can

SDHW systems. 20% greater

designs

achieve

a performance

otherwise identical high collector flowrate system.

Present

design methods were developed assuming that the preheat tank is fully mixed, a good assumption with high collector

flowrates.

The mixed tank assumption

will cause the design

methods to underpredict the solar fraction from a stratified tank system. A number developed to tank systems. since of analytically try to predict These the derived equations the performance be have been

of stratified used in design the The a

equations cannot

methods

assumptions necessary

in

solving

differential equations give them limited applicability. solar fraction differnce between a mixed-tank and

stratified tank system is a

difficult variable to modify to

118

account for the SDHW system.

increased performance of a is caused by its

stratified tank

This

nonlinear behavior and

dependence upon a number of variables. A modification to the f-Chart method 141 that corrected for stratified tanks reason that was presented in Chapter 3. A primary better than

stratified storage designs perform

mixed tank systems is due to fluid entering the

the reduced temperature of the A lower collector inlet A

collector.

temperature reduces the thermal losses correction that correspondingly, This correction is collector to

of the collector.

modifed the collector loss the heat removal factor

coefficient and was developed.

a function of the

monthly-average daily fraction. The

load flow ratio

and the solar

RMS error of the f-Chart method corrected with the collector loss coefficient modification compared to detailed

simulations is 3.15% annually. The O,f-Chart can be used for design method was stratified that modified so A that it correction was

tank systems. the

factor

similar to

used for

f-Chart method between the

employed.

The solar

fraction error

modified

0,f-Chart method and simulations is 2.1%.

119 5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the results of of areas for future

this study several suggestions be made. The plug-flow

research can

tank model ignores conduction through

the tank walls, inlet For some systems, effects may not between

mixing, and conduction through the fluid. such as those be negligible. with horizontal tanks, these Systems with

collector flowrates

that of a conventional system and may have some inlet mixing.

that of a low-flow system be put in More

A correction should

the plug-flow tank model to work should be done comparing

account for inlet mixing.

experimental results with the

performance of the plug-flow model to assertain the accuracy of the model over a wide range of system configurations. This study examined two-tank SDHW systems. Other

designs should be tank design method.

simulated and compared to Indirect systems

the stratified

may perform better at

high collector flowrates due to the increased heat exchanger efficiency and since in tank thermal stratification 123. two tanks in the heat exchangers tend to reduce Single tank set-ups can be

treated as

mixed storage

f-Chart method

[61, but this should be tank systems. element, If the

investigated further for stratified single tank of the has an in-tank heating the

the location

element

will influence

120 degree of stratification. be simulated and Other collector types should also the stratified tank design

compared to

method.

121 REFERENCES 1 Cole, R.L. and Belliner, J.0., "National Thermal Stratification in Tanks," Arcronne National Lab, 82-7 (February 1982). Fanney, A.H. and Klein, S.A., "Performance of Solar Domestic Hot Water Systems at the National Bureau of Standards Measurements and Predictions" ASME Journal of Solar Energy Engineering, 105, p. 311 (August 1983). TRNSYS 12.1, Engineering Experiment Station Report 38-12, Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison (1983). Klein, S.A., Beckman, W.A. and Duffie, J.A., "A Design Procedure For Solar Heating Systems," Solar Energy, 18, 113 (1976). Klein, S.A., and Beckman W.A., "A General Design Method for Closed-Loop Solar Energy Systems," Solar Energy, 22, 269 (1979). Buckles, W.E., and Klein, S.A., "Analysis of Solar Domestic Hot Water Heaters", Solar Energy, 25 (May 1980). Hottel, H.C., and Woertz, B.B., Flat-plate Solar Heat Collectors," 91 (1942). "Performance of Trans. ASME, 64,

Hottel, H.C., and Whillier, A., "Evalution of FlatPlate Collector Performance," Transactions of Conference on Use of Solar Energy, Part 1, p. 74, University of Arizona Press (1958). Bliss, R.W., "The Deriviation of Several Plate Efficiency Factors Useful in the Design of Flat-Plate Solar Heat Collectors." Solar Energy, 3, 55 (1959). Liu, B.Y.H., and Jordan, R.C., "The Interrelationship and Characteristic Distribution of Direct, Diffuse, and Total Solar Radiation", Solar Energy, 6 (1960).

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Klein, S.A. "Calculation of Flat-Plate Collector Utilizability," Solar Energy, 21, 393 (1978). Duffie, J.A., and Beckman W.A., "Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes", Wiley-Interscience, New York (1980). Evans, D.L., Rule, T.T., and Wood, B.D., "A New Look at Long Term Collector Performance and Utilizability," Solar Energy, 28, 13 (1982). Mitchell, J.C., Theilacker, J.C. and Klein, S.A., "Calculation of Monthly Average Collector Operating Time and Parasitic Energy Requirements," Solar Energy, 26, 555 (1981). F-Chart 4.1, Engineering Experiment Station Report 50, Solar Energy Laboratory, University of WisconsinMadison (1980). Erbs, D.G., Klein, S.A., and Beckman W.A., "Estimation of Degree-Days and Ambient Temperature Bin Data From Monthly-Average Temperatures" ASHRAE Journal, June (1983). Phillips, W.F., "Effects of Stratification on the Performance of Solar Air Heating Systems." Solar Energy, 26, 175 (1981). Hoerger, C.R., Phillips, W.F., "An Analytical Model for the Integrated Daily Performance of Solar Air Heating Systems." ASME Solar Conference (1984). Phillips, W.F., and Dave R.N., "Effects of Stratification on the Performance of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems" Solar Energy, 29, No 2, pp. 111-120, (1982). Veltkamp, W.B., "Thermal Stratification in Heat Storage," In C. den Ouden, Thermal Storage of Solar Energy , Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 2, 47 (1980). Von Koppen, C.W.F., et al., "The Actual Benefits of Thermally Stratified Storage in A Small and A Medium Size Solar System," Proceedings ISES, Atlanta (1979).

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Wuestling, M.D., Duffie, J.A., Klein, S.A. and Braun, J.E., "Investigation of Promising Control Alternatives for Solar Water Heating Systems," Proceedings of the ASES 1983 Annual Meeting, Minneapolis, Minnesota, Vol. 6, p. 229. Turner, J.S., Buoyancy Effects in Fluids, Internal Mixing Processes, Cambridge University Press, pp. 313-337 (1973). Lavan, Z., and Tompson, J., "Experimental Study of Thermally Stratified Hot Water Storage Tanks." Solar Energy, 19, 519 (1977). Fanney, A.H., written dated January 31, 1984 communication to S.A. Klein

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Morrison, G.L. and Braun, J.E., "System Modelling and Operation Characteristics of Thermosyphon Solar Water Heaters," submitted to Solar Energy (1984). Mutch, J.J., "Residential Water Consumption Economics and Public Department R1498, NSF (1974). Heating, Policy, Fuel RAND,

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Fischer, R.A., and Fanney, A.H., "Thermal Performance Comparisons for a Solar Hot Water System subjected to Various Hot Water Load Profiles", to be published in ASME Journal of Solar Energy Engineering. Wuestlinq, M.D., "Investigation of Promising Control Alternatives For Solar Water Heating Systems," M.S. Thesis University of Wisconsin-Madison (1983). Hall, I.J., et al., "Generation of Meteorological Year," Sandia National Report SAND 78-1601 (1979). a Typical Laboratory,

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Solar Rating and Certification Corporation, Directory of S.R.C.C. Certified Solar Collector Ratings, Washington D.C., Fall 1983 Edition. Braun, J.E., Fanney, A.H., "Design and Evaluation of Thermosiphon Solar Hot Water Heating Systems", Proceedings of the ASES 1983 Annual Meeting, Minneapolis, Minnesota, Vol. 6, pp. 283-288.

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124 33 34 "Energy Conservation in New Buldincr Dessign," ASHRAE Standard 90A-1980, New York (1980). Braun, J.E., Klein, S.A., and Pearson K.A., "An Improved Design Method for Solar Water Heating Systems", Solar Energy, 31, 597 (1983).