+)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))), * MCP Application Notes: * * * * 1. Character(s) preceded & followed by these symbols (. -) or (+ ,) * * are super- or subscripted, respectively.

* * EXAMPLES: 42m.3- = 42 cubic meters * * CO+2, = carbon dioxide * * * * 2. All table notes (letters and numbers) have been enclosed in square* * brackets in both the table and below the table. The same is * * true for footnotes. * .))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))-

ACI 207.5R-89 (Reapproved 1997) Roller Compacted Mass Concrete

Reported by ACI Committee 207 James L. Cope,* Chairman; Ernest K. Schrader,* Task Group Chairman; Edward A. Abdun-Nur;* Fred A. Anderson;* Howard L. Boggs;* Dan A. Bonikowsky; Richard A. Bradshaw, Jr.; Edward G. W. Bush;* Robert W. Cannon;* Roy W. Carlson; Luis H. Diaz; Timothy P. Dolen;* Kenneth D. Hansen;* Gary R. Mass;* Wm. Douglas McEwen; Robert A. Middlecamp; James E. Oliverson;* Robert F. Oury;* Jerome M. Raphael; Stephen B. Tatro.* (* Indicates Task Group member.) Roller compacted concrete (RCC) is a concrete of no-slump consistency in its unhardened state that is transported, placed, and compacted using earth and rockfill construction equipment. Properties of hardened RCC are similar to those of conventionally placed concrete. This report applies to the use of RCC in structures that require measures be taken to cope with the generation of heat from hydration of the cementitious materials and attendant volume change to minimize cracking. Mixture proportioning, physical properties, mixing, transporting, placing, consolidating, curing, protection, testing, inspection, design, and construction are covered. Keywords: admixtures; aggregate gradation; aggregates; aggregate size; air entrainment; cement pastes; cements; coarse aggregates; compacting; compressive strength; concrete construction; concrete dams; concretes; consolidation; construction joints; conveying; creep properties; curing; dams; density (mass/volume); durability; elastic properties; fine aggregates; fly ash; formwork (construction); gap-graded aggregates; gravity dams; joints (junctions); mass concrete; mixers; mixing; mixture proportioning; modulus of elasticity; no-slump concrete; permeability; placing; pozzolans; shear properties; stability; structural design; temperature; thermal properties; vibration; voids; volume change; water-cement ratio; water content; workability. ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Commentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing, or inspecting construction and in preparing specifications. Reference to these documents shall not be made in the Project Documents. If items found in these documents are desired to be part of the Project Documents they should be phrased in mandatory language and incorporated into the Project Documents. Committee 207 acknowledges with thanks the contribution of Lewis H. Tuthill, consulting member of the committee.

This report supersedes ACI 207.5R-80. This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee and was approved in accordance with ACI balloting procedures. Copyright (c) 1988, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors. CONTENTS Chapter 1--Introduction Chapter 2--Materials and mixture proportioning 2.1--General 2.2--Consistency 2.3--Cementitious materials 2.4--Aggregates 2.5--Mixture proportioning methods for RCC 2.6--Admixtures Chapter 3--Properties 3.1--General 3.2--Strength 3.3--Elastic properties 3.4--Creep 3.5--Volume change 3.6--Stress coefficients 3.7--Strain capacity 3.8--Permeability 3.9--Durability 3.10--Unit weight Chapter 4--Construction 4.1--General 4.2--Mixing 4.3--Transporting and placing 4.4--Compaction 4.5--Horizontal joints 4.6--Forms and facings 4.7--Curing and protection from weather 4.8--Galleries and drainage Chapter 5--Design of gravity sections 5.1--General 5.2--Design considerations 5.3--Stability against overturning 5.4--Sliding stability 5.5--Thermal analysis

5.6--Contraction joints 5.7--Galleries and adits 5.8--Seepage control 5.9--Instrumentation 5.10--Foundation 5.11--Spillways 5.12--Outlet works Chapter 6--Laboratory testing and field control 6.1--General 6.2--Training and orientation 6.3--Gradation and aggregates 6.4--Proportioning and mixing 6.5--Moisture content control 6.6--Workability and measurement of consistency 6.7--Compressive strength 6.8--Density 6.9--Placing and joint bonding 6.10--Frequency of testing during construction 6.11--Grade and alignment control Chapter 7--References and information sources 7.1--ASTM and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers sources 7.2--ASTM standards 7.3--U.S. Army Corps of Engineers standards 7.4--ACI references 7.5--Cited references 7.6--General references 7.7--Gravity dam design references

CHAPTER 1--INTRODUCTION The terms "roller compaction" and "roller compacted concrete" are defined as follows: Roller compaction: A process for compacting concrete using a roller, often a vibrating roller. Roller compacted concrete: Concrete compacted by roller compaction; concrete that in its unhardened state will support a roller while being compacted. Roller compacted concrete (RCC) is concrete proportioned to support external compaction equipment. It differs from granular soil cement, which may use similar placement methods, primarily in that it contains coarse aggregate and develops properties similar to conventionally placed concrete. RCC encompasses a broad range of mixtures with properties that are primarily dependent on the quality of materials used, the cementitious materials content, the degree of compaction, and the degree of control exercised. Materials referred to in the past as "rollcrete" and "rolled concrete" and some materials previously referred to as soil cement or cement-treated base may be considered to be RCC.

RCC was developed as a result of efforts to design more economical concrete dams that could be constructed rapidly. In 1960 concrete was placed with dozers and consolidated with ganged groups of internal vibrators supported from machinery at Alpe Gere Dam in Italy.[1] Also in the 1960s, a lean concrete central mass was placed by dozer and internally vibrated between slipformed and precast concrete blocks for two gravity wing dams at the Manicougan I project in Canada.[2] At the Rapid Construction of Concrete Dams Conference in 1970, Raphael presented a paper, "The Optimum Gravity Dam,"[3] in which he extrapolated from soil-cement applications the concept of placement and compaction of an embankment with cement-enriched granular bank or pit-run material using high-capacity earth-moving and compaction equipment. He noted that the increase in shear strength of cement-stabilized material would result in a significant reduction of the cross section when compared with a typical embankment dam and that use of continuous placement methods, similar to those used in earth dams, would generate savings in time and money as compared with traditional concrete gravity dam construction. Although mass sections using large aggregate RCC were not new, Raphael's paper was the first to recognize that these construction methods could be used to produce a large dam. Sly Creek Dam for the Oroville-Wyandotte Irrigation District was designed as a 60 ft high solid soil-cement dam in 1967. The design by a private consulting firm was approved for construction by the California Division of Safety of Dams, but it was not built due to a funding problem.[4] RCC (called "rollcrete" at the time) containing coarse pit-run aggregate was used for the cofferdam for Shimen Dam in Taiwan in 1960[5] and for the mass foundation to support the outlet conduit for Cochiti Dam in New Mexico in 1968.[6] In 1972, Cannon presented results of tests on a lean concrete using controlled gradation aggregates transported by truck, spread by a front-end loader, and compacted by a vibratory roller at the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Tims Ford Dam.[7] The U.S. Corps of Engineers (USCE) soon thereafter constructed RCC field test sections at Jackson, Mississippi,[8] and Lost Creek Dam in Oregon[9] in 1972 and 1973. Starting in 1974 and continuing through 1982, more than 3.3 million yd.3- of RCC were placed at Tarbela Dam, Pakistan. The initial application was to replace rock and embankment when one of four 45 ft diameter outlet tunnels collapsed during initial filling of the reservoir. This repair was followed by rehabilitation work on both the auxiliary and service spillways consisting of massive groins, stilling basins, and cofferdams. In the tunnel repairs, 460,000 yd.3- of RCC were placed in 42 working days (an average of 10,950 yd.3- per day) with a maximum daily placement of 24,000 yd.3- (Reference 10). Confidence in the erosion resistance of RCC was heightened when some unprotected RCC adjacent to the service spillway was subjected to high flows in 1980 with no noticeable erosion.[11] One of the first effective uses of RCC in the United States was in 1976 at TVA's Bellefonte Nuclear Plant, where 8000 yd.3- were used to raise the supporting base under the turbine building by approximately 10 ft.[12] Between 1978 and 1980, the USCE used RCC

on the floodway sill adjacent to the Tanana River,[13] on the Chena River project in Alaska,[14] and for rock protection in the tailrace of the second powerhouse at Bonneville Lock and Dam in Washington. Based on data developed in its early research and test sections, the Corps designed an RCC alternate for Zintel Canyon Dam near Kennewick, Washington, in 1974. The concept of a more economical gravity dam took a big step forward when it was found that the rockfill section could be reduced to one more typical of a conventional gravity dam with a vertical upstream face.[15,16] Although Zintel Canyon Dam was not built due to lack of funds, many of its concepts were carried over to Willow Creek Dam, Oregon, which, when it was completed in 1982, was the world's first major dam built almost entirely of RCC. The 169 ft high Willow Creek Dam (Fig. 1.1) confirmed the economy and rapid construction possible with RCC. More than 430,000 yd.3- of RCC were placed in less than 5 months at an approximate cost of US $22/yd.3-, including the precast concrete panels that formed the vertical upstream face and all incidental costs for the RCC mass (Fig. 1.2 and 1.3).[17]

While RCC concept in the United technology

was being developed as a material and construction the United States, notable research was going on in Kingdom (UK), and Japan was implementing the into its dams.

In the UK, laboratory research on RCC (referred to at that time as "dry lean concrete") was carried out in laboratories at the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne from 1971 to 1977.[18] In the late 1970s, an extensive research program on high fly-ash content RCC was sponsored by the Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA) and conducted by the Southwest Water Authority.[19] In addition to laboratory investigations, a trial section was completed at the Tamar Treatment Works in Cornwall in 1976[20] and a full-scale trial was conducted at the Wimbleball Dam site in 1979.[21] This work did not lead to the use of RCC in a major dam in the UK, but it was the basis for the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) design for Upper Stillwater Dam, Utah.[22] The 296 ft high Upper Stillwater Dam, completed in 1987, contains 1.47 million yd.3- of RCC placed within horizontally slipformed, air-entrained concrete facing elements (in Chapter 4, see Fig. 4.2). In Japan, research into RCC for dams was initiated in 1974 under the guidance of its committee on Rationalized Construction of Concrete Dams.[23] The results led to the use of RCC (referred to as the "rolled concrete dam" [RCD] method in Japan) in the main body of Shimajigawa Dam starting in 1978 and for the foundation slab in Ohkawa Dam starting in 1979. Thick lifts 27.5 in. or greater, spread in three to five layers with lifts bonded together by mortar brushed on prior to starting the next lift, characterize the Japanese use of RCC. Transverse contraction joints are also cut into the 10 ft thick conventional concrete face and interior RCC.[24] RCC construction was used for major portions of several Japanese dams prior to completion of Willow Creek Dam. Extensive use of RCC in conjunction with conventional concrete resulted in gravity dams of conventional design, performance, and appearance. Canada was also an early user of RCC with a 12 ft thick cap of RCC in the 150 ft high cofferdam for Revelstoke Dam in British Columbia in 1980.[25] The Japanese and Canadian projects are also notable in that continuously forced mixing (pug mill) was used rather than conventional concrete batch drum mixing. Since these first projects, RCC has rapidly gained popularity and it has been used in a number of completed structures in Brazil, Venezuela, France, Australia, and South Africa as well as in the United States and Japan. RCC is being incorporated into other structures that are in various stages of concept, design, and construction. As with conventional concrete, there does not appear to be a limit to the size of structure that can be designed and built with RCC. RCC is also used as a dam facing for erosion protection on new and existing embankment dams. This report reviews the state of the art of this process primarily as it applies to mass concrete and discusses its future potential. RCC pavements are being addressed by ACI Committee 325, Pavements.

CHAPTER 2--MATERIALS AND MIXTURE PROPORTIONING 2.1--General RCC differs from conventional concrete principally in that it has a consistency that will support a vibratory roller and an aggregate grading and paste content suitable for compaction by the roller or other external methods. The objective of RCC proportioning is to provide a compactible and stable mass that meets the strength, durability, and permeability requirements for the application. Materials and mixture proportioning methods for RCC have ranged from pit-run minimally processed aggregates with low cementitious materials (cement plus pozzolan) contents to fully processed concrete aggregates with moderate to high cementitious materials content. The mixture design for Shimajigawa Dam in Japan used conventionally graded 3-in. maximum size aggregate (MSA) with 219 lb/yd.3- cementitious materials. Upper Stillwater Dam used 2-in. MSA and 415 lb/yd.3- cementitious materials. Mixtures at Willow Creek Dam used a combination of crushed quarry rock and natural silty overburden with minimal processing and no washing. The MSA was 3 in., and three size group stockpiles (without a separate sandpile) were used. Middle Fork Dam had two primary stockpiles with no separate sand material, and Copperfield in Australia used a single all-inclusive aggregate pile. Various procedures for mixture proportioning have developed to accommodate this wide range of material processing and cementitious material contents. No one procedure is best for all situations. Materials selection and proportioning of RCC mixtures is controlled by design requirements, availability of materials, and planned placement procedures. Dams that have a steep downstream slope producing a low volume per increment of height or low unit weight will typically require higher strength and quality RCC and better production controls than more massive dam sections. Similarly, higher dams will have zones requiring higher strength. The mixture must be proportioned and designed to provide the strength, durability, and impermeability necessary to meet all design requirements for stability and performance. A principle of mass concrete mixture proportioning is to provide a maximum of aggregate and a minimum amount of cement while developing the required properties at the least overall cost. The primary difference between the RCC mixture proportioning approach used at Upper Stillwater and that used at Willow Creek is the consistency of the RCC and the degree to which the aggregate particles are coated with paste (cement, pozzolan, and water). Also involved is the use of other fine particles such as silt and rock dust to fill aggregate void space. Both approaches to mixture proportioning have been used successfully. RCC is generally compacted by external methods into a dense mass from its no-slump consistency rather than being consolidated with internal vibrators.[26-28] RCC must be proportioned so that it has the ability to support a roller and spreading equipment. Mixture proportioning procedures reflect the need for a different consistency than is produced in conventional concrete mixtures

with a measurable slump. A major concern in RCC design is obtaining adequate bond between layers of RCC. The drier consistency of RCC, particularly mixtures containing aggregates larger than 1-1/2 in., creates problems in bonding fresh to hardened RCC. Improved bond may be obtained by restricting the time interval between placement of lifts, by providing supplemental joint treatment such as mortar or bedding layers, or by increasing the paste content of the mixture. Mixture proportioning parameters that result in too low a paste content will reduce bond strength. 2.2--Consistency Concrete suitable for compaction with vibratory rollers differs significantly in appearance from conventional concrete having a measurable slump. There is little or no evidence of fluid paste in the mixture when deposited. The energy required to compact RCC mixtures to their maximum densities is much greater than for concrete of measurable slump. Any externally applied method of compaction that is sufficient to obtain adequate density of the RCC can be used. A modified Vebe apparatus having the standard size container has been used to determine a mixture consistency (paste and/or moisture content) for compaction in the field (see ACI 211.3)[19,28] It consists of a vibrating rigid cylinder mold with a stiff steel plate and surcharge pressed down on top of each layer. The USBR has used a 50-lb surcharge while the USCE has used 27 lb. The moisture content that allows a small amount of paste to migrate up around the rim of the surcharge plate within a specified vibration time period is then considered correct for construction. For example, a Vebe time of approximately 15 sec was judged to be appropriate for mixtures at Upper Stillwater and Elk Creek Dams. This procedure is generally used with mixtures having higher paste volumes in relation to their fine aggregate voids. It is not applicable to very lean mixtures or to all field conditions. For example, to get paste to migrate up around the surcharge plate with some mixtures used in construction of Willow Creek Dam, a mixture wetter than was used in the field was required.[29] The surcharge procedure has been very effective as a tool to help duplicate mixtures from batch to batch under controlled laboratory conditions, even with RCC mixtures that do not respond well to the test method in the field. The selected water content for a given RCC mixture will be influenced by the size, shape, and gradation of aggregates and the volume of cementitious materials. The minimum stiffness of RCC mixtures is controlled by the need for the material to support the spreading and compaction equipment. The water contents of stiffer granular mixtures may be based on soil-cement approaches for obtaining maximum density. Variations in water content of 10 lb/yd.3- are not unusual in maintaining a uniform slump in conventional concrete. Similar variations should, therefore, be expected in controlling the consistency of RCC. RCC mixtures should be proportioned with aggregates

representing what will be used during production and with water contents corresponding to the midpoint of the range (of water contents) that is expected to produce the consistency desired in the field during construction. Water contents from these tests will provide a good starting point for field production. As with laboratory mixtures for conventional concrete, field conditions will differ from lab conditions and adjustments in the mixture proportions will be necessary.[28,29] 2.3--Cementitious materials 2.3.1 General--RCC can be made with any of the basic types of cement or a combination of cement and pozzolan. Selection of cementitious materials for chemical resistance to sulfate attack and potential alkali reactivity with certain aggregates should follow procedures in ACI 318 and 201.2R. The strength of RCC is primarily dependent upon the quality of the aggregate; degree of compaction; and the proportions of cement, pozzolan, and water. The type of cementitious material has a significant effect on the rate of hydration and the rate of strength development and, therefore, significantly affects strengths at early ages. At ages beyond 28 days, the pound-for-pound difference in strength contributions for the various cementitious materials decreases, with the slower strength-developing materials ultimately producing the highest strengths. For most ASTM C 150 Type I or II cements, Fig. 2.1 can be used as a guide to proportion equal strength RCC for varying proportions of cement and Class F pozzolans meeting ASTM C 618 requirements. Similar results may be expected with other pozzolans.

Consideration must be given to the generation of heat by the cementitious materials of the RCC mass. It is desirable to use low or moderate heat-generating cements and the maximum amounts of pozzolans commensurate with strength requirements. The effectiveness of pozzolans in reducing heat generation is dependent on strength requirements and the ability of pozzolan additions to reduce water requirements as well as cement contents. The economic benefit of heat reduction through the use of pozzolans is dependent on the relative cost of materials, including handling. Structures with low strength requirements and corresponding low cement contents may not achieve an overall strength benefit from the use of pozzolan. Structures requiring higher strength or paste contents have used high percentages of pozzolan with both economic and reduced temperature benefits. When the aggregates contain noncementitious fines in the particle size range of cement and pozzolan, care must be exercised. A reduction in w/(c + p) ratio may or may not be necessary to maintain required strength at a given age. When the total fines content (fine aggregate passing the 75 m screen, cement, and pozzolan) of a mortar exceeds 20 percent of the mortar volume, there can be a rapid increase in water required to maintain compactability as determined by vibration time.[30] It is thus possible to reach a point of strength reduction with a continued increase in cementitious fines. 2.3.2 Cement--RCC can be made from any of the basic types of portland cement. For mass applications, cements with lower heat generation characteristics than ASTM C 150 Type I are beneficial. They include Type II (low heat), Type IP (portland pozzolan cement) and Type IS (portland blast furnace slag cement). Strength development for these low heat cements is usually slower than for Type I at early ages. At ages beyond 28 days, the slower early strength development cements ultimately produce higher strengths than Type I. 2.3.3 Pozzolans--The selection of a pozzolan suitable for RCC should be based on its conformance with ASTM C 618 or other applicable standard and its cost and availability. Nearly all RCC projects using pozzolans have used Class F fly ash, due primarily to the effect of its spherical particles on workability. There is little information on the performance of Class C fly ash in RCC. Use of Class F fly ash in RCC serves three purposes: (1) as a partial replacement for cement to reduce heat generation, (2) to reduce cost, and (3) as a mineral addition to the mixture to provide fines to improve workability. In general, performance of flyash in RCC has differed from the results expected in conventional concrete only in those instances involving aggregates containing large quantities of natural fines. In proportioning mixtures for minimum paste volumes, one principal function of a pozzolan or other suitable fine material is to occupy space that would otherwise be occupied by cement or water. To occupy this space with water would obviously result in a reduction in concrete strength. The fact that even a small amount of free lime liberated from cement is sufficient to react with large volumes of pozzolans has been demonstrated by agencies such as TVA, USCE, and USBR, which have used fly ash to replace some of the fine aggregate as well as to replace cement. Their tests show continuing pozzolanic activity after years, indicating

that pozzolans can occupy space and also contribute to long-term strength development.[31] Liberal use of pozzolan as cementitious material is possible in many massive RCC applications with low early strength requirements.

2.4--Aggregates 2.4.1 General--The selection of aggregates and control of aggregate grading are important factors influencing the quality and properties of RCC. The variability of aggregates during construction significantly affects the cement and water requirements, which, in turn, affect strength and yield. Requirements for compressive strength and bonding of construction joints are factors that should, therefore, be considered in aggregate specifications. If a higher quality concrete is required, then the specifications should reflect an appropriate degree of control of aggregate quality and grading. In less demanding situations, suitable RCC can be produced using a variety of aggregate sources that may not meet ASTM grading and quality requirements or ACI recommendations for concrete aggregates as long as design criteria are met. A discussion of concrete aggregates is given in ACI 221R and in ACI 207.1R. In the latter, deleterious substances are described as those "that either together or separately render it impossible to attain the required properties of concrete when employing normal proportions of the ingredients." Limits for deleterious material for RCC should be established prior to construction. These limits should be set according to their effect on all of the concrete properties required for the structure or placement involved. Some of the deleterious substances, such as material finer than No. 200 sieve and some friable materials in the upper limiting quantities specified by ASTM C 33, may affect water requirements (hence strength) in conventional plastic mixtures. In stiff RCC mixtures, increased quantities of these materials may actually be used to reduce water requirements so that higher limits may be used without adverse effects. The actual strength requirements for many dams, as discussed in Chapter 5, may be low enough to allow for an increase of several percentage points in the allowable maximum percentages of deleterious substances permitted by ASTM C 33. Table 2.1 provides guidelines for the amount of permissible fines in aggregate for lean RCC based on plasticity. Table 2.1--Maximum permissible fines content
6444444444444444444L444444444444444L4444444444444447 5 * * Maximum 5 5 * *percent passing5 5 Liquid limit * Plastic index * No. 200 5 K))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))M 5 0-25 * 0-5 * 10.0 5 5 0-25 * 5-10 * 9.0 5 5 0-25 * 10-15 * 4.0 5 5 0-25 * 15-20 * 3.0 5 5 0-25 * 20-25 * 1.5 5 K))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))M

5 25-35 * 0-5 * 9.0 5 5 25-35 * 5-10 * 8.0 5 5 25-35 * 10-15 * 6.5 5 5 25-35 * 15-20 * 5.0 5 5 25-35 * 20-25 * 1.5 5 K))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))M 35-45 * 0-5 * 8.5 5 5 5 35-45 * 5-10 * 5.5 5 5 35-45 * 10-15 * 4.0 5 5 35-45 * 15-20 * 2.0 5 5 35-45 * 20-25 * 1.5 5 K))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))M 5 45-55 * 0-5 * 5.5 5 5 45-55 * 5-10 * 5.0 5 5 45-55 * 10-15 * 3.5 5 5 45-55 * 15-20 * 3.0 5 5 45-55 * 20-25 * 1.5 5 9444444444444444444N444444444444444N4444444444444448

Note: The maximum permissible amount passing the No. 200 sieve is dependent upon the plasticity (ASTM D 4318) of all of the fines (washed sample) passing the No. 40 or No. 50 sieve. Experience has shown that results are similar for either sieve. The size can be based on convenience of testng. 2.4.2 Coarse aggregate--For RCC there normally is not enough material-cost savings from using aggregate sizes larger than 3 in. (76 mm) to offset the added batching cost and cost of correcting the increased segregation problems associated with the larger aggregates. Bank or pit-run materials are normally batched with little or no size separation, so there is no cost savings in screening out the larger aggregates. At Tarbela, the bank or pit-run materials contained aggregates up to 9 in. in size. In much of the work, maximum size aggregate (MSA) was limited to 6 in. The advantage of crushing oversize cobbles in bank gravels to reduce waste, improve strain capacity, and minimize segregation should be evaluated. Compaction of RCC is influenced by aggregate size. However, MSA has little effect when the thickness of the placement layers is more than three times the MSA, segregation is minimum, and large vibratory rollers are used for compaction. When smaller size rollers are used for compacting materials adjacent to structures and abutments where high density and strength are needed, MSA should be limited and layer thickness may have to be reduced. There is a greater tendency for aggregates larger than 1-1/2 in. to segregate when deposited. The prevention of segregation should be considered when selecting transporting and spreading equipment and when specifying the placing and spreading methods. If segregation does occur, measures should be implemented to disperse the segregated particles or rock clusters evenly over the uncompacted RCC. If material cost is a principal factor in the selection of the MSA, then the cost of controlling segregation should be considered or the consequences of segregation should be recognized in establishing strength, bonding, and permeability requirements. In massive concrete placements, control of the temperature rise

should have a greater significance than material costs in the selection of the MSA. While the difference in cementitious materials requirements for mixtures with MSA from 1-1/2 to 3 in. is less in RCC than in normal-slump concrete, there is still a saving of approximately 15 percent when using 3-in. MSA. This also results in at least a 15-percent reduction in hydration heat. Where pozzolan is used, the generation of heat may be reduced substantially. The use of aggregate larger than 3 in. may not be justified on the basis of either heat reduction or material cost saving. Aggregate grading requirements for different RCC mixtures have varied significantly. Variations in aggregate gradation in the mixture directly affect variability of the RCC. Consistency can be achieved by separating aggregates into conventional size groups and recombining them in specified proportions. Although some projects have successfully used a single stockpile with an all-in grading, stockpiles separated into two or more size groups have also been used successfully. Where separate stockpiles are used, the split can be made near the midpoint of the grading or where a natural break in size fractions occurs. 2.4.3 Fine aggregate--The grading of fine aggregate strongly influences paste requirements and compactibility of RCC. Gradings of sand within the limits shown in ASTM C 33 have been used. This sand may require more cementitious material than is needed for lean mixtures using aggregate with more fines than ASTM C 33 allows. When no pozzolan is used, a 5-percent increase in the fine aggregate percentage passing the No. 100 sieve may be beneficial. Unwashed aggregates with a much broader gradation range than is specified by ASTM C 33 have also been used successfully. The aggregate grading and fines content affects the relative compactibility of the RCC and may influence the minimum number of vibrating passes required for full consolidation of a given layer thickness. It also affects the water and cementitious material requirements needed to fill the voids in the aggregate and coat the aggregate particles. 2.4.4 Aggregate proportions--The amount of effort required to compact the mixture is directly proportional to the coarse aggregate volume. If there is sufficient paste, a wide range of coarse and fine aggregate gradations is not likely to significantly affect in-place densities of RCC compacted with large vibratory equipment. This may allow the use of available aggregates that do not conform to standard concrete specifications to produce acceptable RCC. The grading of fine aggregate will have an effect on minimum paste requirements. In areas where pozzolans are not readily available, it has been economical and beneficial to blend sands or introduce mineral fines to reduce fine aggregate voids. The proportioning of blended sands or the benefit of adding mineral fines can be determined by their effect on minimum paste volume requirements (Section 2.5.2.3) or by evaluation of test cylinders made with them.

2.5--Mixture proportioning methods for RCC 2.5.1 General--A number of mixture proportioning methods have been successfully used for RCC structures throughout the world, making it difficult to generalize any one procedure as being standard. These methods have differed significantly due to the location and design requirements of the structure, availability of materials, the mixing and placing equipment used, and time constraints. Approaches to mixture proportioning also differ significantly depending on the philosophy of treatment of aggregates as either conventional concrete aggregates or as aggregates used in the placement of stabilized embankments. Three different mixture design procedures are discussed in this report. They are: (1) proportioning RCC to meet specified limits of consistency (Section 2.5.2), (2) relying on trial mixture tests to select the most economical aggregate-cementitious materials combination (Section 2.5.3), and (3) proportioning RCC using soils compaction concepts (Section 2.5.4). Other mixture proportioning methods have been developed by the Japanese Ministry of Construction[32] and by the USCE.[33] 2.5.2 Proportioning RCC to meet specified limits of consistency 2.5.2.1 General--Proportioning for optimum workability suitable for compaction uses the modified Vebe compactibility test as the basis for determining workability and optimizing aggregate proportions. The modified Vebe apparatus consists of a vibrating table of fixed frequency and amplitude supporting an attached 1/3-ft.3- container. A loose RCC sample is placed in the container under a surcharge and the sample is vibrated until consolidated. The vibration time for full consolidation is measured and compared with on-site compaction tests with vibratory rollers. The desired time is determined based on density tests and evaluation of core samples. This vibration time is influenced by mixture proportions, particularly water content, overall aggregate grading, MSA, sand content, and )75-m fines content. Sample mixtures with clean concrete sands and fixed aggregate proportions with 1-1/2 in. MSA generally require a vibration time of 15 to 30 sec to compact. Tests at Elk Creek Dam using 3-in. MSA with higher amounts of material passing the 75-m sieve required vibration times of approximately 10 sec to compact. 2.5.2.2 Water content--RCC mixtures with paste contents in excess of aggregate voids will fully consolidate to approximately 98 percent of their theoretical air-free density. Variations in mixture water contents will directly affect the compactive effort required to achieve full consolidation. The optimum water content of a given mixture is that whose variability has the least effect on compactive effort for full consolidation. The effect of vibration time and water content on the compacted density of RCC containing only fly ash and RCC containing only portland cement is shown in Fig. 2.2 and 2.3. Maximum densities, in percent of air-free density, occurred at a vibration time of 50 sec with very little, if any, increase under extended vibration time. In Fig. 2.2, the lower and upper limits for water content for the fly ash RCC were considered as 115 and 145

lb with an optimum of 130 lb/yd.3-. For the portland cement RCC, the limits were 170 and 200 lb with an optimum of 185 lb/yd.3-. For blends of portland cement and fly ash, with the same aggregates and approximately the same proportions of cementitious materials, the optimum should vary between these two, depending on the proportions of the blend. However, the particle shape of other pozzolans may affect the amount of water reduction associated with some Class F pozzolans. Water demand for a given set of materials will also limit the minimum usable w/(c + p) ratio. Fly ash mixtures have been used at the maximum fly ash to cement f/c ratio and minimum w/(c + p) ratios of Figure 2.1. An increased mixture stiffness generally may be expected as the ratio of fly ash to cement decreases because of the basic differences in water requirement. The Japanese RCD method incorporates a different vibration test for 1-1/2-in. MSA mixtures and for 6-in. MSA mixtures to evaluate workability, called the "VC" (compaction values). Fig. 2.4 shows the variation in VC value with water content. The VC value varies inversely with the unit water content; however, too low a VC value will result in bleeding after vibration. The proper VC value also depends upon the MSA, aggregate quantities, mixture proportioning, performance of the vibratory roller, and temperature; however, it is generally thought to be around 60 sec for the large container and 20 sec for the small container.

When the water content is too low, there will be a point where the strength will no longer increase with a decrease in w/(c + p) ratio. This is because aggregate voids will no longer be filled with paste and entrapped air will be present. Fig. 2.5 shows the variation in strength with water content for a fixed cementitious materials content. 2.5.2.3 Cementitious materials content--The cementitious materials content is dependent upon required strength, bond, and thermal considerations. Higher strength mixtures will require higher cementitious materials contents at a given water content. Greater use of a pozzolan is, therefore, required to minimize heat generation. For a given cementitious materials content, the strength of concrete at a given age will be maximized at the minimum paste volume that fills the aggregate voids. A lower water content will reduce the paste volume to a point where entrapped air voids are not filled and strength will be reduced. At higher water contents with excess paste, the strength will be lowered due to the higher w/(c + p) ratio. Therefore, as the paste content increases, the water content can be reduced and strength is optimized without

losing workability. The use of mortar tests has been found to be a suitable means of determining the w/(c + p) ratio required for strength considerations. By developing a unit mortar content meeting strength requirements, substitution of mortar for coarse aggregate at various proportions will, therefore, determine the water, cementitious materials, and sand contents based upon the mortar required per unit volume of concrete as discussed in Section 2.5.2.4. 2.5.2.4 Proportioning coarse aggregates for minimum mortar requirements--The proportioning of coarse aggregates depends upon the combined effects of aggregate voids, surface area, and particle shape. When gradations are controlled by screening and dividing the aggregates into separate size fractions, the void content may be controlled within limits. Dry-rodded densities and combined gradation control are dependent upon the proportioning and number of separated sizes and the variation of gradations within the individual sizes. Provided the gradation control is satisfactory, an increase in MSA will increase the dry-rodded density and reduce the void content. Also, the total surface area of the combined aggregate will decrease as the proportions of large aggregate in a given unit volume are increased. Particle shape of manufactured aggregates is controlled by the bedding characteristics of the parent rock and type of crusher. Compactibility increases with rounded and cubical shapes and decreases with flattened shapes. For gap-graded materials, the ideal gradation is generally achieved by proportioning the largest size grouping to be 50 to 75 percent of the coarse aggregate with the gap being maintained in the next smaller, or preferably the next two smaller, size groupings. Segregation problems may be encountered with gap gradings because of the increased proportions of the larger size particles. In conventional concrete, the proportions of smaller sizes are generally increased to reduce segregation. From an economic standpoint, this also results in using all size groups and reduces waste in the smaller aggregate fractions. The absolute volume of coarse aggregate per volume of RCC will normally fall within the limits of Table 2.2. Table 2.2--Absolute volume of coarse aggregates per unit volume of concrete C+v,
6444444444444444444444444L44444L44444L44444L44444L44444L444447 5Maximum size aggregate, * * * * * * 5 5in. * 6 *4-1/4* 3 *1-1/2* 3/4 * 3/8 5 K))))))))))))))))))))))))3)))))3)))))3)))))3)))))3)))))3)))))M 5Absolute volume, percent* * * * * * 5 5of unit concrete volume *63-63*61-63*57-61*52-56*46-52*42-485 9444444444444444444444444N44444N44444N44444N44444N44444N444448

For any MSA, the minimum aggregate volume producing no-slump consistency can be established by proportioning the mortar fraction to yield the approximate strength required and adjusting the proportions of coarse aggregate and mortar to achieve a zero slump. The proportions of fine aggregate, cementitious material, and water should remain in a fixed relationship during these adjustments.

At Upper Stillwater, the upper limit of mortar volume just producing zero-slump condition had a Vebe time of five sec. A Vebe time of 15 sec was selected for construction. The procedure used kept the proportions of the mortar constant, increased the coarse aggregate volume, and decreased the mortar volume in equal increments while checking the vibration time for consolidation (see Fig. 2.6).

The outer limit of mortar volume for consistency was reached when the incremental increase in coarse aggregate proportions resulted in a substantial decrease in density for a given compactive effort, as illustrated in Fig. 2.7. A coarse aggregate volume specification, approximately halfway between the minimum producing a no-slump condition and the maximum limit above, minimized control problems during placement. 2.5.2.5 Proportioning fine aggregates for minimum paste requirement--The void content of fine aggregate as determined in dry-rodded weight measurements normally ranges from 34 to 42 percent. The actual void content may be somewhat smaller due to the inefficiency of the measurement. This makes little difference since the minimum cement, pozzolan (if used), air, and water contents required to achieve a solid volume must fill all the fine aggregate voids and coat all the aggregate particles. The minimum paste volume can thus be determined by maximum density curves in much the same way as optimum water content is determined for soils. The procedure is as follows:

1. Using the water-cement ratio or water-to-total-cementitious-material ratio requirements of the mixture, add fine aggregate in equal increments and measure the density of specimens using soil compaction procedures or extended vibration. 2. Plot density versus the calculated paste volumes. 3. Determine the paste volume producing maximum density of the mortar specimens. This paste volume, as a ratio of the total mortar volume, should be increased from 5 to 10 percent in proportioning mass mixtures. For special mixtures designed as bedding mixtures for construction joints, this minimum paste volume ratio should be increased from 20 to 25 percent. 2.5.2.6 Selecting mixture proportions for RCC--The consistency of no-slump mixtures proportioned in accordance with ACI 211.3 will not generally support the weight of large vibrating rollers without some alteration to the procedure. The water contents of the mixtures should correspond more closely to Table 2.3 of this report rather than Table 2.3.1(c) of ACI 211.3. Using the ACI 211.3 procedure and the water contents from Table 2.3, a maximum water-cement ratio by weight of 0.6 is recommended for interior mixtures without pozzolans to assure a sufficient paste volume to fill the aggregate voids. This will produce higher strengths and higher heat rise than normally needed or desired for the interior concrete of a dam, therefore, replacing cement with pozzolan is recommended to the extent necessary to achieve the desired strength requirements or needed reduction in heat of hydration.

Table 2.3--Approximate mixing water requirements for RCC mixes without pozzolans--manufactured aggregates
644444444444444444L4444444444444444444444444444444444447 5 Mix type * Maximum size aggregate, in. 5 K)))))))))))))))))3)))))0)))))0)))))0)))))0)))))0))))))M * 3/8 * 3/4 *1-1/2* 3 *4-1/2* 6 5 5 5 /)))))2)))))2)))))2)))))2)))))2))))))M 5 * Unit water content, lb/yd.35 5 /)))))0)))))0)))))0)))))0)))))0))))))M 5Interior mass * 195 * 180 * 165 * 145 * 135 * 130 5 K)))))))))))))))))3)))))3)))))3)))))3)))))3)))))3)))) M 5Bedding mix * 215 * 200 * 185 * -- * -- * -- 5 944444444444444444N44444N44444N44444N44444N44444N4444448

Note: Although aggregates used in tests represented in this table and Fig. 2.2 and 2.3 were manufactured and some change in unit water contents can be expected when natural aggregates are used, the same basic relationships of compactive effort can be expected with both aggregate types. An alternative method of mixture proportioning involving a maximum-density approach follows. The basic steps to the alternative method are: 1. Determine the minimum paste volume as discussed in Section 2.5.2.5. In lieu of these tests, ratios of the air-free volume of paste to the air-free volume of mortar p+v, of 0.38 for interior mass mixtures and 0.42 for bedding mixtures have generally been found suitable. 2. Select p/c and w/(c + p) ratios from Fig. 2.1 for trial mixture strength. 3. Determine the volume of coarse aggregate V+ca, either by selection from Table 2.2 or by trial as discussed in Section 2.5.2.4. 4. Calculate the volume of air-free mortar/yd.3- V+m, assuming 2 percent entrapped air, from V+m, = C+v,(0.98) - V+ca, where C+v, = the unit volume of concrete. 5. Calculate the air-free paste volume V+paste, using the selected volume ratio of Step 1 as p+v, from V+paste, = V+m,(p+v,) 6. Determine the fine aggregate volume V+fa, from V+fa, = V+m,(1 - p+v,) or V+fa, = V+m, - V+paste,

7. Determine the trial water volume V+w, from V+w, = V+paste, [w/(c + p)]/[1 + w/(c + p)] 8. Determine cement volume V+c, from V+c, = V+w,/[w/(c + p)](1 + p/c)

9. Determine the fly ash or pozzolan volume V+p, from V+p, = V+c,(p/c) 10. Establish the various weights of materials by multiplying the individual volumes by their respective solid volume unit weights. 11. Check the consistency of the mixture, as discussed in Sections 2.2 and 2.5.2.1, to determine the minimum extent of external vibration in seconds needed to achieve maximum compacted density. 12. With the finalized coarse aggregate volumes, run two additional mixtures, one with higher and one with lower w/(c + p) ratios. Plot strength-versus-w/(c + p) ratio for final mixture selection. 2.5.3 Trial mixture proportioning for the most economical aggregate/cementitious materials combination 2.5.3.1 General--Mixtures for a number of RCC structures have been proportioned based on the results of physical tests of samples made from trials using a fixed aggregate gradation while varying cementitious contents and comparing results. Based on these results, supplemental tests may be appropriate at a constant cementitious content while adjusting the aggregate proportions. The most economical combination of cementitious materials and aggregate that provides the required design strength and a field-usable mixture is then selected for the project. The proportioning of these mixtures has resulted in paste contents that essentially fill the voids between aggregates. This procedure has been used with cementitious contents ranging from about 50 to 500 lb/yd.3- with strengths at 1 year ranging from about 580 to 5300 psi. 2.5.3.2 Water content--The water content is adjusted to achieve satisfactory compaction. This corresponds to a moisture level just below where rutting or weaving of the fresh mixture under construction traffic occurs, and just above where the dryness of the mixture causes a significant increase in segregation. Observation of mixing and handling of the fresh mixture with various water additions is necessary to help establish the appropriate moisture content for the trials. The water content determined for one cement factor typically varies little or not at all as the cementitious content is changed throughout a wide range of values.[28,29] During construction, control of water content is largely determined by visual observation for optimum compaction and is confirmed by nuclear density testing. 2.5.3.3 Cementitious materials--The first set of trial mixtures is made without pozzolan and a second set with equal proportions of cement and pozzolan. Additional mixtures with varying pozzolan contents can be made to determine the most economical cement and pozzolan combination that still meets design requirements. When the option to produce fines or borrow suitable natural fines exists, a series of trial mixtures can be made to establish what reduction in cement or pozzolan, if any,

is achievable by adding more fines to optimize the void ratio of the fine aggregate. Decreases of 1 percent cement for every 3 percent of added fines have been experienced with some mixtures, while others have not been beneficially affected. 2.5.3.4 Aggregates--Using the borrow sources available (quarry, gravels, river sands, silts, crusher fines, etc.), the most economical combination of raw materials that can be combined to produce a smooth overall grading within broad limits similar to those shown in Table 2.4 and in Fig. 2.8 is used as the fixed grading for the project and as the basis for mixture designs. Experience has shown that any smooth grading within this range has produced good, mixable, and compactable RCC with aggregates ranging from basalts to granites, limestone, shale, and sandstone; and quarried or natural materials.

Table 2.4--Example of typical mass RCC grading

64444444444444L444444444444444L4444444444444444L44444444444444447 5U.S. standard* * Cumulative * 5 5 sieve size *Percent passing*percent retained*Percent retained5 K)))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))3))))))))))))))))3))))))))))))))))M 5 4 in. * 100 * 0 * 0 5 5 3 in. * 98-100 * 0-2 * 0-2 5 K)))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))3))))))))))))))))3))))))))))))))))M 5 1/2 in. * 95-99 * 1-5 * 1-3 5 5 2 in. * 86-96 * 4-14 * 3-9 5 75-90 * 10-25 * 6-11 5 5 1-1/2 in. * K)))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))3))))))))))))))))3))))))))))))))))M 5 1 in. * 63-77 * 23-37 * 12-13 5 5 3/4 in. * 56-69 * 31-44 * 7-8 5 5 3/8 in. * 43-53 * 47-57 * 13-16 5 K)))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))3))))))))))))))))3))))))))))))))))M 5 No. 4 * 33-43 * 57-67 * 10 5 5 No. 8 * 25-35 * 65-75 * 8 5 5 No. 16 * 19-29 * 71-81 * 6 5 5 No. 30 * 14-24 * 76-86 * 5 5 5 No. 50 * 10-18 * 82-90 * 4-6 5

5 No. 100 * 6-13 * 87-94 * 4-5 5 5 No. 200 * 4-10 * 90-96 * 2-3 5 94444444444444N444444444444444N4444444444444444N44444444444444448

The fine aggregate content in mass RCC usually ranges from about 35 to 50 percent of the combined gradation and is more than is typically used in conventional mass concrete mixtures. This is generally necessary to minimize segregation and prevent aggregate breakage which would otherwise occur as a result of rock to rock contact during compaction. The allowable fines content depends on plasticity. Table 2.1 shows limits that have been used. If the fines are nonplastic, greater percentages are allowed. As much as 10-percent fines by weight of total aggregate have been used in some RCC mixtures, which is more than four times what is normally allowed in graded concrete sand. 2.5.3.5 Selecting the job mixture--Selection of the appropriate job mixture is based on strength and elastic properties tests from the mixtures with different cement or cementitious materials contents. Typically, this includes compressive strength and modulus of elasticity tests at 2, 7, 14, 28, 56, 90, 180, and 365 days age. If required, indirect (splitting) tensile tests are also performed. From these data the effects of cement content and other tested variables such as pozzolan and fines additions are determined and the most economical overall mixture can be selected. A family of graphs can be developed showing the effect of these variables and age on hardened material properties of the RCC. By having adequate data for a variety of early age specimens, semilog plots such as those shown on Fig. 2.9 can be drawn for the various properties in question (compressive strength, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity), and the later-age values can be estimated. These graphs, in turn, can be used to develop a family of curves such as those shown in Fig. 3.1 and 3.2 in Chapter 3.

The required cementitious materials content can be estimated from these graphs for a required strength and age. With this information, further laboratory tests and subsequent delays while waiting for results of different mixtures proposed at any time during the job should not be necessary. Using this mixture proportioning technique, water-cement ratios by weight have resulted that range from about 0.4 to 2.0. Higher strengths have occurred at the lower water-cement ratios but this has been attributed mostly to the corresponding change in paste volume (see Fig. 2.10).[28]

2.5.4 Proportioning using soils compaction concepts 2.5.4.1 General--RCC mixtures have been proportioned using soils-compaction procedures.[34] The procedure is more suited to smaller aggregate mixtures and usually higher cement contents. It involves determining the maximum dry density of materials using modified proctor compaction procedures and can be considered an extension of soil-cement technology. Optimum water contents are established using the same procedures to establish the optimum water content of embankment material and soil cement. To accomplish this with RCC, a modification of the compaction equipment is required. The Northloop Project used a 14-in. diameter container and an equivalent modified AASHTO procedure to determine the maximum dry-density curve for RCC shown in Fig. 2.11.[34] To determine a distinct peak to the maximum-density curve, the cementitious material content of all test specimens should remain constant and the gradation of the aggregates should be in the midrange of the specification limits. Variable results may be expected unless the gradation and moisture content of the aggregates are maintained relatively constant. The peak of the density curve of Fig. 2.11 indicates the point corresponding to the maximum calculated dry

density. The wet density changes very little in the range of this peak even though the calculated dry density is more significantly affected.[34]

RCC has also been proportioned using soils compaction equipment similar to the ASTM D 1557 (modified proctor) test method. Modifications were made to compact specimens in a 6 x 12 in. mold rather than the 4 x 4.6 in. mold to accommodate larger sized aggregate. Compaction is dependent upon the energy imparted to the specimen. The compactive effort of the modified proctor test of 32.6 ft-lb/in..3- has been found to correspond closely to in-place density measurements of the smaller aggregate mixtures for which it is used. It should be noted that this compactive effort may fracture aggregate particles in the laboratory procedure. 2.5.4.2 Water content--The optimum water content for use with soils compaction methods will be dependent on the aggregates used, the cementitious materials content, and compactive effort applied. Loss of strength will occur with a water content below optimum (due to the presence of entrapped air voids) or above optimum (due to a higher w/(c + p) ratio). Water content (by weight) is expressed as a percent of the dry weight of aggregate. This will vary due to the varying specific gravities of materials and values of absorption. This makes it difficult to compare strengths of different mixtures due to the variation of w/(c + p), which is dependent on the SSD water content. Determination of the actual water content will depend on the test method used and can vary due to factors such as hydration, evaporation, pozzolan content, admixtures, and absorption. 2.5.4.3 Cementitious materials content--The cementitious materials content is determined by compressive strength at optimum water contents for different mixtures. Cement and pozzolan have been used for this mixture proportioning method and

are again expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of solids. The cement content, therefore, also can vary somewhat due to variation in physical properties of materials. Cementitious materials contents have ranged from 7 to 15 percent of dry weight of solids that have dry densities ranging from 120 to 140 lb/ft.3-. The range may correspond to approximately 250 to 570 lb of cementitious materials per yd.3- when expressed in weight per unit volume. 2.5.4.4 Aggregates--The work performed at Tarbela Dam used an MSA ranging from 6 to 9 in. In the United States the MSA has been limited to 2 in., allowing use of the full RCC mixture for the soils-approach density testing. The average gradation specified is shown in Table 2.5. Variations in aggregate materials and moisture contents will lead to variations in densities achieved and associated concrete properties. Table 2.5--Typical gradation for RCC aggregates using modified solid compaction methods, cumulative percent passing
644444444L44444444444444444444L444444444444444L444444444444444447 5 *Specification range,* Average * Average 5 5 Size * percent passing *percent passing*percent retained 5 K))))))))3))))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))))M 100 * 100 * 0 5 5 2 in. * 5 3/4 in.* 56-91 * 70 * 9-44 5 5 3/8 in.* 38-80 * 49 * 11-18 5 K))))))))3))))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))))M 5 No. 4* 26-65 * 35 * 12-15 5 10-49 * 25 * 16-24 5 5 No. 10* 5 No. 40* 12-25 * 18 * 2-24 5 5 No. 200* 9-16 * 12 * 3-9 5 -200* * * 9-16 5 5 944444444N44444444444444444444N444444444444444N444444444444444448

2.6--Admixtures The advantages of using admixtures that enhance workability and retard set for keeping conventional mass concrete alive and preventing cold joints, particularly during hot weather, are well established. Water-reducing and set-retarding admixtures have been used effectively at Elk Creek Dam. At Willow Creek Dam[29] and other projects, these admixtures had no discernible affect on low workability RCC. Other work in the laboratory and in field applications has indicated success with higher workability mixtures having Vebe times in the range of 10 to 30 seconds. CHAPTER 3--PROPERTIES 3.1--General The significant material properties of hardened RCC include compressive strength, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, tensile strain capacity, Poisson's ratio, biaxial and triaxial shear strength, volume change (thermal, drying, and autogenous), thermal coefficient of expansion, specific heat, creep, thermal conductivity, thermal stress coefficient, diffusivity, permeability, durability, and unit weight.

Differences between the hardened properties of RCC and conventional concrete are primarily due to differences in mixture proportions, gradings, and voids content. As discussed in Chapter 2, a wide range of RCC mixtures can be designed, just as there is a wide range of mixtures for conventionally placed concrete. It is difficult to quantify typical values for either of them. In general, RCC will have lower cement, paste, and water contents and no entrained air. It also may use silt or other nonplastic fines to fill aggregate voids. Aggregate quality, grading, and physical properties have a major influence on the physical properties of conventional concrete. They can be even more important in RCC. Because some RCC mixtures use marginal or inferior aggregate (by conventional standards), the range in properties of RCC goes well beyond the range of normal properties for conventional concretes. 3.2--Strength 3.2.1 Compressive strength--RCC mixtures proportioned with a paste volume exceeding the aggregate voids exhibit strength and water-cement relationships similar to those found in conventional concrete. Lower workability RCC mixtures may exhibit significant differences in the water-cement ratio to strength relationship. Typical mixtures and strength data of test specimens and cores are given in Tables 3.1 and 3.2. Table 3.1--Comparison of cores to cylinder strength

* Projects that were demonstrations, test fills, field trials, or had relatively low volumes (less than about 35,000 yd.3-) are noted*. Data for other projects (not noted *) represent the average for an entire dam or other large mass. + Maximum-size aggregate in the full mass mix. 3 Where cubes were used the strength has been converted to the approximate equivalent core or cylinder value by applying a reduction factor of 20 percent. *** Except as noted by the following indicators, all cylinders are 6 x 12 in. with the plus 1-1/2 or 2 in. material removed by wet screening and compaction was pneumatic tamping:33 -- 9 x 18 inch cylinders;^ -- modified vebe compaction. ** These cores included lift joints. All other cores generally did not include joints. Table 3.2--Mixture proportions and shear strengths of some RCC mixes

Testing and evaluations at Willow Creek Dam[29] confirmed that the method of cylinder fabrication can have a significant effect on density and compressive strength of low cementitious content mixtures containing large aggregate. The data also showed poor correlation between lab cylinders and core strengths. Other work[12] shows better correlation between cores and lab cylinders for mixtures with higher paste contents. Care must be taken to select appropriate molds and equipment for fabricating laboratory specimens. Correlation between laboratory and field strengths should be established. Tables 3.3 and 3.4 show typical compressive strengths for cylinders from a variety of RCC mixtures. Fig. 3.1 and 3.2 show the strength development of tamped cylinders made with two different sources of aggregate. The comparative strengths at any age are considerably different for mixtures at the same cement content. The cement and aggregate gradation was similar in each mixture. The figures illustrate the influence of aggregate quality on strength for a similar gradation, MSA, and cement type.

3.2.2 Tensile strength--Tensile strength, as a percentage of compressive strength, is generally lower for RCC than it is for conventional concrete.[35] This is particularly true for low-workability RCC mixtures. The ratios of tensile strength to compressive strength for RCC mixtures have typically varied from about 7 to about 13 percent depending on aggregate quality, age, cement content, and strength. Very lean RCC mixtures and/or those made with marginal aggregates have significantly lower tensile strength. RCC mixtures made with conventional aggregates and higher paste contents have significantly better tensile strengths, especially at early ages.

3.2.3 Shear--The shear strength of RCC is discussed in Chapter 5. The resistance to shear of RCC is dependent on its tensile bond properties (cohesion) and angle of internal friction. Minimum strength occurs at construction joints and along the interface between lifts of RCC. Typical test values along the interface between lifts of RCC are provided in Table 3.2. 3.3--Elastic properties 3.3.1 Modulus of elasticity--Principal factors affecting the elastic properties of RCC are age, type of aggregate, strength, and the cementitious materials content. Aggregate such as quartzite and argillite can generally produce higher than average elastic modulus values for a given strength concrete. Similarly, a lower elastic modulus results from the use of a sandstone or similar aggregate. RCC mixtures made with conventional concrete aggregate and a relatively high content of cement or cement plus pozzolan can develop moduli similar to those obtained in conventional concrete. In most mass uses, a low modulus is desired to decrease the crack potential. Lean RCC mixtures using natural or manufactured fines as filler have resulted in very low moduli. Typical moduli of elasticity for a variety of RCC mixtures are shown in Tables 3.3 and 3.4. As seen in the tables, extremely low values of elasticity are possible with RCC. Lean mixtures with low strengths made with fines for filler material can have values of 1 million psi or less. 3.3.2 Poisson's ratio--Limited work has been done on Poisson's ratio for RCC as indicated in Tables 3.3 and 3.4. It appears that values for RCC are similar to values reported for conventional concrete mixtures. A range from about 0.17 to 0.22 has occurred, with lower values occurring at earlier ages and lower strengths. 3.4--Creep Creep is a function of both the properties and total grading of the aggregate and the volume of cement in the mixture. Generally, aggregates with a low modulus of elasticity will produce concrete with high creep. For most mass concrete applications, the ability to relieve sustained stress is desirable to relieve thermal stress. Higher strength mixtures generally have a more rigid cementing matrix and lower creep, which results in increased thermal stress. Lean mixtures and those made with inert fillers of natural or manufactured fines have higher than normal creep. Typical creep values for a variety of RCC mixtures are shown in Table 3.5.

3.5--Volume change 3.5.1 Drying shrinkage--Volume change from drying shrinkage in RCC is minimized by virtue of the reduced water content and typically lower cement content. On the other hand, if marginal aggregates that have a high water demand and resulting drying shrinkage are used to produce RCC, it will have a corresponding volume reduction with moisture loss. 3.5.2 Autogenous volume change--Autogenous volume change is primarily a function of the aggregate and its long-term stability with the cement being used. Each job should be evaluated after a review of a petrographic analysis of the aggregate, review of historical information, and tests, if appropriate. Lower cement factor mixtures tend to be more stable. Natural fines used in RCC may also affect volume change and should be taken into account. As with conventional concrete, the change can generally be expected to be minor, but it should be considered. 3.5.3 Thermal properties--The classical thermal properties of concrete are specific heat, conductivity, and coefficient of expansion. These properties depend mostly on the aggregates and the degree of saturation in the hardened RCC. Typical values for RCC are very similar to values for conventional concrete made with aggregate from the same source. RCC produces an adiabatic temperature rise in a manner similar to conventional concrete. The actual rise (and rate of rise) can only be accurately determined by test. Comparison to other RCC mixtures with aggregates of similar specific heat, with similar densities, and with similar cements provides a basis for reasonable approximations of temperature rise when tests are not available. Table 3.6 shows typical adiabatic and other thermal properties of some RCC mixtures.

3.6--Stress coefficients Thermal stress coefficient is the sustained elastic modulus divided by the coefficient of thermal expansion for the time period being considered.[36] This value indicates the changes in stress level that will develop during the time period under consideration for every degree of temperature change. Higher stress coefficients indicate a higher stress development for any given temperature change. Typical stress coefficients for conventional mass concrete have ranged from about 18 to 52 psi/F. Brittle aggregates, later age, higher strength, and higher cement contents cause the higher stress coefficients. For comparison, stress coefficients for RCC mixtures have generally ranged from about 2 to 25 psi/F. 3.7--Strain capacity Strain is induced in concrete when a change in its volume is restrained. When the volume change results in tensile strains that exceed the capability of the material to absorb the strain, a crack occurs. The threshhold strain value just prior to cracking is the strain capacity of the material. Tensile strains in concrete can also be developed by external loads and by volume changes induced through drying and autogenous shrinkage. The major factors affecting strain capacity are the rate of loading, type of aggregate, shape characteristics (angular as produced by crushing versus natural round), and the cement content. Generally, the hard brittle aggregates such as argillite and quartzite produce lower strain capacity. Crushing or addition of crushed material usually improves strain capacity by increasing tensile strength. This improvement may be offset by an increase in heat generated if higher cement contents are needed because of the harsh nature of crushed aggregate. The strain capacity of RCC is generally low because it usually has a lower cement content or higher pozzolan content, or both, than conventional mass concrete mixtures. This lower strain capacity is usually more than offset by the lower temperature-induced strain resulting from the leaner mixture, a lower modulus of elasticity, and a higher creep rate. As with other material properties, strain capacities of RCC can vary considerably with the wide range of mixture designs and usable aggregates. Table 3.5 provides values for some mixtures. Values of about 50 to 200 microstrain are generally achievable, although higher and lower values can be developed. 3.8--Permeability The permeability of a concrete mass is largely dependent upon the entrapped air and porosity of the hydrated cement matrix and therefore is almost totally controlled by mixture proportioning, quality control, and degree of compaction. When there is sufficient paste, controlled fine-particle distribution to minimize the air void system, and full compaction, RCC will be relatively impervious.[37] In general, an unjointed mass of RCC made from clean conventional aggregates with sufficient paste or very lean mixtures with controlled aggregate grading containing sufficient fines will have permeability values similar to

conventional mass concrete. Test values typically range from 5 to 500 x 10. )12- ft/sec. If seepage occurs in RCC dams, it occurs primarily along the horizontal lift joints and not through the compacted and unjointed mass. Unless special attention is given to these joints, as discussed in Chapter 5, they can be expected to develop seepage as the reservoir is filled. Experience has shown that this seepage will dramatically decrease with time. The greatest reduction occurs within about the first 2 to 20 months. 3.9--Durability Experience has shown that RCC made with a substantial amount of clayey fines will check and crack when subjected to alternating wet-dry cycles. RCC made with nonplastic fines or with no fines has shown no deterioration from wetting and drying. Pavements at heavy-duty facilities such as log-storage yards and coal-storage areas have shown no appreciable wear from traffic and industrial abrasion under severe conditions. The Toutle River debris dam spillway showed only surface wear after being subjected to extraordinary flows of grit, timber, and boulders. This structure was made with RCC containing quality small-size aggregates and a higher cement content than normally used in mass RCC construction. The spillways at both Willow Creek and Galesville Dams are unlined RCC. Neither one is expected to get extended or frequent use. However, they both can be subjected to high-velocity water flows. The rationale for not lining these spillways is the excellent performance of full-scale, large-aggregate, lean RCC mixtures at the Detroit Dam test flume. Additional tests at the Corps' Waterways Experiment Station with smaller samples also showed excellent resistance to erosion. Low head structures at Ocoee No. 2 and Kerrville Dams have been subjected to overtopping without the need for maintenance or repairs. However, caution is still used and spillways subjected to frequent high-velocity flows are conservatively faced with conventional concrete. Resistance of RCC to freezing and thawing has been very good in the field and has also been acceptable in modified tests simulating natural surface frost. Many examples of good field perforfmance exist. However, RCC subjected to ASTM C 666, Procedure A, typically performs very poorly. Large blocks of the Lost Creek test fill material totally deteriorated when subjected to the combined action of salt water, major tidal fluctuations, wet-dry cycles, and freezing and thawing at Treat Island, Maine. It appears that, except for very severe exposure conditions, RCC can adequately resist natural freezing and thawing.[38] When RCC has not contained a fluid paste, it has not been possible to achieve the level of entrained air needed to be effective in resisting freeze-thaw damage. Tests at Willow Creek in both the lab and field showed that even very high dosages of admixture did not result in entrained air. The use of an air-entraining admixture reduced vibration time for compaction of RCC mixtures in TVA tests. However, it is difficult to discern the difference between small amounts of entrained air and entrapped air. Each mixture and project should be considered individually and the effectiveness of the admixture should be

viewed with caution (see Section 2.6). 3.10--Unit weight The unit weight of RCC is typically equal to or slightly higher than for conventional non-air-entrained concrete made with the same source aggregate. RCC has a low air content (generally 1 to 2 percent) and a low initial water content so more solids occupy a unit volume. The increased density is on the order of 1 to 3 percent.

CHAPTER 4--CONSTRUCTION 4.1--General The layout, planning, and logistics for construction with RCC are considerably different than for conventional mass concrete construction. Instead of vertical construction with virtually independent monolith blocks, the placement of RCC involves thin lifts placed over a large area--basically stacking pavement on top of itself. When problems develop in the placing area, they must be resolved quickly as there are no alternate monolith blocks to work on while a problem is studied. It is essential that all materials, access, embedded parts, foundation, and lift cleanup, etc., be planned and readied well ahead of time. It is also essential that the lines of communication between the project engineer and contractor be well established so that they can quickly resolve problems of specification compliance that may significantly impact the progress of the work. Aggregate stockpiling and the concrete plant location can be even more important than in conventional placing practice. Typically, very large stockpiles that could easily be half of the material needed for a season of placement are required prior to the start of RCC work. Some of the reasons for this are: 1. Technical design requirements such as producing aggregate during winter cold so that they are stockpiled precooled for later use. At Middle Fork and Monksville Dams, winter stockpiling resulted in aggregates that remained so cool they had occasional frozen areas exposed as the material was withdrawn during the summer at ambient temperatures up to 80 F. 2. Schedule and cash flow. It may be relatively easy to mobilize and have aggregate production in full operation while work for the rest of the project is just beginning. 3. Construction necessity. The rate of aggregate use during RCC placing may well exceed the aggregate production capacity. With large stockpiles, material that occasionally is produced out of specification limits may be spread over the acceptable material to produce a blend that is within the specification. The location, size, and withdrawing of aggregate from stockpiles must be coordinated with the concrete plant location and method of feed to minimize segregation and variability of gradation. At the very high production rates possible with RCC,

several loaders or a conveyor system may be required to keep the feed bins charged. The lengths of haul, turnarounds, etc., need to be considered so that loading equipment can operate rapidly, efficiently, and safely. The concrete plant layout and location should be selected to minimize energy requirements and be appropriate for the terrain whether the RCC is transported by conveyor or haul vehicle. It should minimize overall haul distances, vertical lift, and exposure of the fresh mixture to sun and weather. Especially if vehicular haul is used, the plant should be located on a raised area so that spillage and wash water drain away without creating a muddy area. The plant location for dams will generally be in the future reservoir area just upstream of the dam and above the cofferdam level or on one of the abutments. Fueling, formwork, assembly of embedded items, etc., should all be scheduled and planned so that the majority of this work is accomplished off the RCC lifts and during shift changes or downtime. All unnecessary vehicles and personnel should be kept out of the placing areas and equipment paths. 4.2--Mixing 4.2.1 General--The RCC concept completely changes the production-controlling elements of massive concrete placements from the rate of placement to the output of the concrete plant. While it is possible to increase production by using larger mixers or by adding mixers and batch plants, these conditions suggest the desirability of continuous mixing to offset the time lost in batching operations. Mixers for RCC should provide sufficient capacity for the typically high placing rates and to adequately blend the ingredients. The mixer must operate with little or no downtime and scheduled maintenance and repairs must be accomplished rapidly. RCC mixtures can be very harsh. The drums or mixing chambers should be designed or coated to resist buildup that tends to result from the high fines content of some RCC mixtures. Even with these precautions, experience has shown that substantial buildup can develop in drum mixers. If the buildup is not removed, a loss in mixer effectiveness results. Mixer drums at Upper Stillwater were coated to reduce buildup. Variations in free-moisture content of the aggregates can be particularly troublesome in initial batches. Most plant operators make the mistake of overestimating free moisture and provide too little water in the initial mixtures. This is particularly undesirable because most initial mixtures will be used for covering construction joints and should be on the wet side for adequate bond. It is much better to start on the high side of moisture and to reduce water in subsequent batches to achieve the desired consistency. Compaction difficulties with a wet batch can be reduced or eliminated by spreading it in a thinner layer when necessary. Accurate and consistent control of cement and pozzolan requires careful attention in the continuous mixing plant or pug mill. This is especially true at lower cement-feed rates. Maintaining sufficient head in the silos, using air fluffers, and the use of vane feeders or positive displacement cleated belt feeders have

been necessary to provide accurate feed. Proper ribboning of the aggregates and cementitious material as they are fed into the mixer is a very important factor in minimizing mixing time and buildup. The exact timing of adding water to the mixture and the angle of its introduction has also been critical. Each plant and RCC mixture design seems to have its own peculiar requirements that can only be determined by trial and error. A variety of mixing plants have been successfully used in the production of RCC. Both continuous mixers and batch mixers are acceptable for RCC production. Sophisticated continuous plants provide mixer control accuracy similar to batch type operations. Continuous mixers generally provide higher output capacity than batch type plants but have much higher power requirements. Properly designed pug mills are capable of handling 3 in. and larger MSA. The use of pug mill mixers for RCC production is rapidly increasing. Continuous drum mixers have been used successfully with up to 6-in. MSA. Batch type drum mixers capable of handling large-aggregate conventional concrete can also be used for large aggregate RCC. However, bulking of the mixture may require a 10 to 15 percent reduction in batch volume. Transit mix trucks are not suitable for mixing RCC with MSA greater than 1 in. as their discharge produces severe segregation. They have been used for RCC having 1-in. MSA. The accuracy of the concrete plant and methods for control of the mixture during production should be studied for their cost effectiveness. If exacting quality control and low variability are necessary, they can be provided in RCC mixtures. 4.3--Transporting and placing 4.3.1 Equipment selection guides--The volume of material to be placed, access to the placement area, available equipment, and capital cost for new equipment will generally be the controlling factors in the selection of equipment and procedures to be used for transporting RCC from the mixing location to the placing area. Essentially, there are three methods for transportation of RCC: by batch, continuously, and a combination of both. To some extent, selection may be influenced by the type of mixing equipment used. However, with the use of proper controls and accessories, such as holding hoppers designed to control segregation, continuous mixers can be used with batch transportation and batch mixers with continuous flow transportation equipment. Field experience indicates that RCC can be compacted at rates of 1000 yd.3- or more per hour with presently available self-propelled vibratory rollers. This rate is significantly greater than that achievable in the past with conventional mass concrete, and new attitudes or approaches to the selection of transportation equipment are appropriate. 4.3.2 Segregation considerations--The type of transporting equipment used to move RCC from the mixing plant to the placement

area will be influenced by the largest aggregate size in the mixture. Experience indicates that 1-1/2-in. MSA concrete can be transported and placed in nonagitating haul units designed for aggregate hauling and earthmoving without objectionable segregation. Three-in. MSA RCC mixtures have more tendency to segregate when they are dumped from this type of equipment onto hard surfaces, but with proper procedures, these mixtures have been hauled and dumped successfully. The problems of segregation occurring during the transportation and placing of 6-in. MSA mixtures have been severe. Recent Japanese practice has used mixtures with limited amounts (not more than about 25 percent of the total coarse aggregate) of 3-in., and even 6-in., MSA aggregate and a larger percentage of fine aggregate and 200 lb/yd.3- of cement. This approach agrees with the gradations discussed in Chapter 2 and has produced RCC mixtures with less tendency to segregate. 4.3.3 Methods--The entire system of mixing, transporting, placing, spreading, and compacting should be accomplished as rapidly as possible and with as little rehandling as possible. Local environmental and placing conditions at different jobsites will affect the reasonable time limits for these operations. The time lapse between the start of mixing and completion of compaction must be less than the initial set time of the mixture under the conditions in which it is used. A general rule to follow with nonretarded mixtures is that placing (depositing), spreading, and compacting should be accomplished within 40 min of mixing. The two prime methods of transporting RCC are by conveyor and hauling vehicle. Transport by bucket or dinky has been used, but this slows the rate of production and efficiency of operation for an essentially all-RCC structure and it is more prone to cause segregation. However, if such a system is already available or necessary for large volumes of conventional concrete, it can also be used for the RCC. Placing by continuous high-speed conveyors from the concrete plant directly to the dam is ideal. Exposure time on conveyors should be as short as practical, with 5 min being desired and 10 min being a normal limit. Covering the conveyor to protect the mixture from drying and from rain should be required for all long sections and preferably the whole system. The conveyor system should be compatible with the forming system and should be specifically designed for RCC of the type being mixed and placed. A well-designed conveyor system should also be capable of handling conventional concretes that may be used concurrently with the RCC. It is especially important that conveyors do not allow RCC or other material to fall onto the compacted RCC surface along the conveyor path (see ACI 304.4R). Because of the rapid rise of RCC dams, conveyor systems should be designed to be raised quickly. When conveyors are located above the lift surface, provision must be made for placing and compacting RCC under them. As with conventional mass-concrete conveyor systems, special attention should be given to belt widths, speeds, protection, maintenance, incline angles, backup systems, spare parts, etc. Belt scrapers should be provided to clean the return belt.

Properly designed charging and discharge hoppers to prevent segregation at transfer points are essential. Continuous belt conveying from the mixer to the final placement area can substantially increase placing rates and significantly reduce other equipment needs with their related labor requirements. Fig. 4.1 compares the achievable average productivity for reduced dam widths when delivery is totally by conveyor and when trucks are used on the dam. Without the conveyor, productivity reduces to very low rates in narrow sections at the top of the dam. Fig. 4.1 is based on a compilation of data at various projects and computed round-trip delivery times.

In addition to the main benefits of full conveyor delivery (no hoppers, fast delivery, less congestion, no haul roads, less maintenance, less labor, elimination of lift surface damage from haul vehicles, and improved productivity), the conveyor can also serve as an access walkway and a support for lights, water, air, and electric lines to the placement area. A plan has even been developed to use the conveyor as a support for a roof or enclosure to protect the placement area from rain and sun. When haul units are to be used to distribute RCC that is conveyed to the lift surface, an arrangement to load haul units continuously will be necessary at the end of the main conveyor. The objective is to allow the mixers and conveyors to operate and discharge without interruption or waiting for the haul vehicles. Because of the relatively high unit weight of freshly mixed RCC compared to the loose soil, rock, or gravel normally hauled in these vehicles, weight rather than the volume capacity will probably control the amount of material hauled per trip. Bottom-dump trailers and scrapers minimize segregation, spreading requirements, and the distance RCC drops, but they are difficult to use near abutments and obstructions. Scrapers have better mobility than bottom dumps of the highway type but tend to tear up the surface when making sharp turns. Scrapers and bottom

dumps have the advantage of depositing material in the layer to be spread as they are moving. Spreader boxes attached to dump trucks and jersey spreaders attached to dozer equipment do not work well with large aggregate (>1-1/2 in.). They tend to cause segregation along the edge of paving lanes, lack mobility, and can result in a series of joints or weakened planes between paving lanes. If vehicles are to be used for transporting RCC, a thorough preliminary study should be made of the haul road system. Problems that may prevent hauling by road include terrain, availability of road-building material, plant location, schedule, and environmental considerations. If the concrete plant is located upstream of a dam, the method of bringing the road through the upstream face system must be worked out in detail and may not be practical for some designs. From a schedule standpoint, raising the roads fast enough to keep up with the rate of rise of the dam may require so much time that it becomes an inefficient system at higher elevations. To avoid slowing down the mixing and placing operations, raising the roads during a 2 to 4 hour/day shutdown period while maintenance and other work is being done should be considered. The roads must be kept at slopes consistent with the equipment's capabilities and safety requirements. Haul roads should transition onto the lift surface at a shallow angle if possible (plan view) so that turning and damage by tires is minimized. If an immediate right-angle turn is needed (from roads that enter directly onto the dam perpendicular to the face), significant scuffing and lift surface damage will result. Operators should move slowly while turning and use the largest turning radius possible. The road should be constructed with clean, free-draining rock or gravels whenever this is possible. In any event, the last portion of the roads prior to entering the lift should be surfaced with large aggregate or material that cleans the tires and prevents contamination of the RCC surface by material picked up on the vehicle tires. RCC extending onto the road will not provide sufficient cleaning action. To prevent lift contamination, it may be necessary to use water sprays to wash vehicle wheels before they are allowed on the lift surface. To minimize adverse affects on the surface, hauling equipment should not travel in a concentrated path on the lift. Regardless of the method of transportation, RCC should generally be deposited on previously spread but uncompacted material. Because of its typically dry consistency, segregation resulting from larger aggregate rolling to the bottom of the slope can become serious if RCC is dumped in large piles. A general rule is to limit the height of a pile to 5 ft. Correcting this kind of segregation is nearly impossible if the rock has already rolled onto a previously compacted lift. Where this condition occurs, the segregated large aggregate must be collected and discarded or broadcast into the RCC layer being spread. 4.3.4 Placing and spreading--A preferred technique of placing RCC is to push an advancing face of each lift progressing from one abutment to the other. The lift extends from the downstream

to the upstream face. Tracked dozer equipment has proven to be best for spreading RCC. It is fast, sufficiently accurate, and contributes to uniformly compacted RCC. By careful spreading, a bulldozer may remix RCC and minimize the segregation that occurs in dumping. Careful attention should be given to assure that remixing is occuring and that the dozer is not simply hiding segregated material. At Elk Creek Dam, RCC mixtures with a target Vebe time of 8 to 10 sec were end dumped in piles on previously spread but not yet rolled material at least 40 ft from the advancing face. Dozers knocked down the piles and spread the RCC forward into thin unsegregated 6 in. thick layers until the full lift thickness of 24 in. was reached. The entire surface of each layer was reworked by at least two passes of the dozer tracks. This dozer action produced an average density of 146.5 lb/ft.3-. The full 24-in. lift thickness was then roller compacted by two-drum 10-ton vibratory rollers. Three D-7 or D-8 dozers spread RCC at the rate of over 900 yd.3-/hr. At Willow Creek, a D-6 with a backup small dozer was sufficient to keep up with high production rates. Dozer tracks can be provided with street pads so that damage to the compacted surface is minimized. Whenever possible, the dozer should operate on fresh RCC that has not been rolled. All turning and crabbing should be done on uncompacted material. When it is necessary for the dozer to drive onto compacted RCC, the operator should limit the movement to straight back and forth travel. Track marks made prior to the mixture reaching initial set can be recompacted by the vibratory roller. RCC that is damaged after the mixture has started to set can be recompacted, but the disturbed area will have little or no strength, even though it may have an acceptable surface appearance. This material can be easily removed by blowing with an air jet even after many hours. Material that is recompacted early will remain cemented in place. The spreading equipment should leave a flat or plane surface before the roller compacts the lift. Depending on the workability of the mixture, ridges or steps between adjacent passes of the dozer blade can result in uneven distribution of compactive effort and variable quality in the RCC. Where special mixture designs are specified for limited areas, for example, at the upstream or downstream face, special procedures are required. If the special mixture is conventional concrete for a formed face, this is placed first and RCC is dozed against it. The conventional concrete is consolidated with immersion-type vibrators while the adjacent RCC is rolled. When the special mixture is RCC, it is practical to leave the area to receive the special mixture uncovered while the interior mixture advances forward. To tie the interior and special mixtures together, the edge of the advancing RCC should not be rolled prior to placing the adjacent mixture. Then the special mixture area is filled and rolled along with the previously placed interior RCC. Special bedding or facing mixture lanes should be at least as wide as the equipment used to place them. When rolling the two mixtures together cannot be accomplished while both are fresh and responsive, the exposed edge of in-place RCC should be compacted

and rolled prior to placing the adjacent mixture. Depending on conditions of structural design, temperature, seepage, etc., the engineer should evaluate whether an interface of bedding mixture is needed between mixtures that are not compacted and rolled together. As a general rule, having a flat surface ready to roll in the least time is more important than having an exact grade but delayed rolling. Typical tolerances for lift thicknesses are on the order of 2 in. The most common compacted lift thickness in the United States has been 12 in. In Japan much thicker sections on the order of 1.6 to 3.2 ft have been compacted in one lift after being spread by dozers in several layers. Within the range of about 6 to 18 in., the large dual-drum vibratory rollers used for compaction can develop about equal consolidation with only 4 to 5 passes. A 1-ft thickness is convenient to work with in the field. This is also about the maximum thickness that can be easily deposited by scrapers and bottom-dump trucks. However, the trend is to use the thickest lifts compatible with the spreading and compaction equipment. Each project should be studied to optimize the benefits of thicker or thinner lifts. Thicker lifts mean fewer lift joints and fewer potential seepage paths, but thinner lifts allow the joints to be covered sooner with better bond potential. Thinner lifts are generally more suited to smaller jobs and thicker lifts more suitable on larger jobs. In extremely rough foundation areas and where the foundation has deep holes, a front-end loader or excavator bucket can be used to reach the placement site to deposit material. This is a slow operation but may be the only practical solution for some locations. The equivalent of a Cat D-3 or D-4 or a JD-350 is needed to start the foundation and for tight conditions. When the lift surface is established, it is desirable to start each lift from the same general area and to begin in a noncritical area such as the downstream rather than the upstream face. A grader may be needed to safely spread the mixture to the outside edge of an unformed downstream face. The blade can be set so that it extends out past the wheel tracks to either side so the equipment and operator are not at the edge of the lift at the downstream slope. The grader is also useful where a narrow zone of higher quality RCC is specified adjacent to the downstream face. Hauling equipment will not be able to dump the mixture in this limited area, but the grader can spread the dumped material into its designated areas. 4.4--Compaction 4.4.1 Roller selection--Maneuverability, compactive force, drum size, frequency, amplitude, operating speed, and required maintenance are all parameters to be considered in the selection of a roller. The compactive output in volume of concrete per hour obviously increases with size and speed of the roller. Job size, workability of the mixture, lift depth, the extent of consolidation due to dozer action, and space limitations will usually dictate selection. Rollers larger than about 5 tons

usually cannot operate closer than about 9 in. to vertical formwork or obstacles, so smaller hand-guided compaction equipment and thinner lifts are usually needed to consolidate RCC in these areas. At Upper Stillwater Dam the vibratory rollers were able to roll up against a 2-ft slipformed curb, eliminating the need for smaller compaction equipment. It appears that the dynamic force is the most critical factor and that vibration or very forceful tamping is essential. In tight areas such as those adjacent to forms and next to rock outcrops, the tamping foot-type compactor is most suitable. It is mobile and can provide high-impact energy to produce good density. However, it usually does not leave a smooth surface and it can sink when tamping RCC placed over an excessive thickness of wet bedding mixture, or when tamping RCC with excess water. 4.4.2 Minimum passes and lift thickness--The minimum number of passes for a given vibrating roller to achieve specified compaction depends primarily on the RCC mixture and lift thickness. Experience shows that lift thickness will be governed more by spreading efficiency than by compaction requirements. Tests should be performed in test fills prior to or during the early stages of construction to determine the minimum number of passes required for full compaction using the design mixture and the planned lift thickness. As a general rule, the compacted thickness of any RCC lift should be at least three times the diameter of the MSA. Typically, three to six passes of a double-drum vibratory roller will achieve the desired density for RCC lifts in the range of 6 to 18 in. thick. This assumes compaction in a timely manner and with appropriate equipment. Overcompaction or excessive rolling actually reduces the density and should be avoided. The Japanese technique of compacting deep lifts of 18 to 36 in. has been effective if they are spread in thinner layers, but compacted in one. This requires more roller passes, on the order of 6 to 15, and special care not to overcompact one part of the lift while a deeper part is undercompacted.[39] 4.4.3 Timing and procedures--The appearance of fully compacted RCC is dependent on the mixture design. If the mixture has been proportioned for paste volumes in excess of minimum, it will exhibit plasticity and a discernible pressure wave can be detected in front of the roller, particularly when two or more plastic layers have been placed. If the paste content is equal to or less than the volume needed to fill all the aggregate voids, rock-to-rock aggregate contact occurs and a pressure wave will not be apparent. The surface of a mixture with excess paste will respond to working and may allow scattered rocks on lift joints to be worked into the surface under the compactive effort of the vibrating rollers. Compaction of RCC should be accomplished as soon as possible after it is spread, especially in hot weather. Typically, compaction is specified to be within 10 min of spreading and 40 min from the time of initial mixing. These times can be increased for RCC mixtures with extended set times. While compaction with rubber-tire rollers has produced high density RCC similar to that achieved with the vibratory roller, there has been a question about the degree of bond achieved at

the interface of the RCC layers. Caution is advised with this equipment until its performance is better evaluated. The fresh mixture surface should be smoothly spread so that the roller drum produces a consistent compactive pressure under the entire width of the drum. If the uncompacted lift surface of less workable RCC is not smooth, the drum may overcompact high spots and undercompact adjacent to them. Each RCC mixture will have its own characteristic behavior for compaction depending on temperature, humidity, wind, plasticity of the aggregate fines, overall gradation, and the maximum-size aggregate. Generally, RCC mixtures should compact to a close-textured, relatively smooth surface. In general, the material should not pick up onto the roller drum, nor should there be free surface moisture or pumping of excess water from the mixture. These conditions can be observed by trained workmen and adjustments should be made in the water content if they occur. However, if surface material is lifted by the roller drum and it is recompacted prior to initial set, an acceptable condition results. Minor damage from scuff marks, unavoidable dozer-tread tears, etc., in the surface of a freshly compacted lift can usually be immediately rolled down with the vibratory drum in a static mode. If the mixture was sufficiently fresh and moist when rerolled, a suitable rehabilitation of the damage will result. If the mixture is too old, severely damaged, etc., the rerolled RCC may look acceptable, but it can and should be easily blown off by an air hose used for general cleanup of loose debris on the lift. In all cases, the joint must be clean prior to placing the next lift to achieve good bond. This is best done by vacuum or air blowing. The USBR tests have shown sandblasting at 24 and 72 hours can actually reduce bond.[40] 4.5--Horizontal joints 4.5.1 Joint development--Horizontal construction joints may be either of the planned or unplanned variety. When an RCC lift is not covered with additional RCC before it reaches initial set, it becomes a cold joint to some degree.[37] Cold joint development results mostly from joint maturity, which is dependent on average surface temperature AST and time of exposure TE. Joint maturity is expressed in degree-hours and is calculated as joint maturity in Fahrenheit in degree-hours = AST x TE joint maturity in Celsius in degree-hours = (AST x 1.8 + 32) x TE For example, for 28-1/2 hours at an average temperature of 70 F 70 x 28-1/2 hours = 1995 degree-hours

The joint is also sensitive to the quantity and characteristics of the cement, and to the effectiveness (if any) of set-retarding admixtures. Each situation is different, but at an approximate surface temperature of 70 F, a cold joint usually begins to occur in about 4 hr, and most likely has developed by 6 hr. A joint that has been exposed 4 to 6 hr before being covered by the next lift will still carry substantial shear load, but it may not be watertight unless it is clean and covered with a slumpable bedding mixture or higher paste-content RCC mixture. After about 2000 degree-hours, a bedding mixture may be necessary to achieve the required shear or tensile strength. Some designers find it prudent to require the bedding mixture (or higher paste-content RCC) after a lift has been exposed for about 1 to 2 days, regardless of the surface maturity. Shear strength, as it relates to design, is discussed in Section 5. 4.5.2 Joint treatment--Treatment of horizontal lift or construction joints differs from that of conventionally placed mass concrete in that there is no surface water gain during set of the concrete. Thus, there is no weak laitance film at the surface. Surface water gain (bleeding) is the result of subsidence during set, when the excess water separates from the mixture and is displaced to the surface by the heavier materials. Bleeding does not occur in properly proportioned RCC. However, it is not uncommon for full consolidation of RCC to bring paste to the surface. This paste is not weakened by subsequent water gain and, if properly cured, does not have to be removed prior to placement of a covering lift. If the construction joint is less than about 2000 degree-hours old and if it has been kept clean and moist throughout its exposure, no joint treatment is required under most conditions. If the surface has been contaminated by dirt, mud, or other foreign elements, they should be removed. If the surface has been allowed to dry out, exceed about 2000 degree-hours of maturity, or became damaged, it should be cleaned and may require a full or partial bedding mixture prior to placement of RCC on it. The Japanese practice of spreading a thin layer of high-slump mortar as a bedding has worked well with their placement technique and careful quality control. This practice was used successfully at Elk Creek Dam. Others have found it to be expensive, time consuming, and difficult to control. Many RCC projects have used a highly sanded conventional concrete mixture for bedding with very good results. The mixture should have a measurable slump and be substantially retarded by admixtures. A 3/4-in. maximum size aggregate is desirable, but aggregate up to 1-1/2 inches has been used. The bedding thickness should average the same dimension as the longest aggregate particle in the mixture. Cores have consistently shown that this procedure thoroughly bonds the RCC layers. The bedding mixture should blend into the lower portion of the RCC lift and not leave a layer or lense of mortar or bedding at the joint. The RCC layer is spread over the bedding while the bedding still retains its slump or workability and the RCC is then compacted into the bedding. Each job and mixture should be evaluated individually for

bedding mixture types and requirements. 4.6--Forms and facings 4.6.1 General--Large surface areas that are not horizontal can be shaped to most desired slopes and configurations, but special consideration must be given to anchorages, appearance, and technique. A variety of construction techniques for providing seepage control are discussed in Reference 37. The height of overhanging sloping forms restricts the areas accessible to the vibratory rollers. These forms should, therefore, be limited in height or hinged at midheight to reduce the volume of concrete that must be placed under the overhang by conventional methods. Conventional jump-form anchors may not have adequate embedment depth for form support when anchored in low-strength RCC and special anchors may be required. Small rollers can be operated within 1 in. of vertical formwork; however, large rollers usually cannot get closer than about 9 in. Good compaction can be achieved at vertical surfaces with 1-1/2 in. and smaller MSA with higher paste content mixtures and careful attention to details with respect to layer thickness and size of roller. After compaction, there is always a small projection of uncompacted RCC above the surface that the roller cannot reach. If this is kept raked away from the form, layer lines will not stand out after removal of forms and surfaces comparable with conventionally placed mass concrete are possible. Handling and raising conventional formwork may become the limiting factor in an RCC mass-production situation. Near the top of a dam, where the volume of RCC per lift is low and the form area for upstream and downstream faces is relatively large, it typically takes more time to set and move the forms than it takes to place the RCC. 4.6.2 Curb forming--One means of containing upstream and downstream faces is using powered curbing machines to slipform conventional concrete curbs or facing elements 24 to 30 in. high against which the RCC placement can be made within about 8 hr. By controlling the curb shape (see Fig. 4.2), it is possible to maintain an average production rate of 2 ft vertical rise per day while simultaneously placing conventional concrete curbs and giving the curbs enough time to develop the required strength.

4.6.3 Precast concrete forms--Slopes can also be controlled with precast concrete panels or blocks. Precast concrete panels consist of relatively thin high-quality concrete slabs with integral and/or external supports for erection. These panels act as insulation themselves or can incorporate added insulation to protect the interior concrete in extremely cold regions. They also can include a heavy-duty flexible impervious membrane attached to the rear of the panel to provide watertightness. This technique, with field splices made in the membrane at panel joints, was used successfully at Winchester Dam. 4.6.4 Uncompacted slope--If no attempt is made to compact the edges of an RCC placement, the sides will assume a natural angle of repose estimated to be somewhere between 40 and 50 deg, depending on the aggregate shape, gradation, and construction control. Any means of containing loose concrete at the edge long enough for even partial compaction results in steeper faces. 4.6.5 Formed upstream face--Conventional forming can be used at the upstream face with the RCC placed directly against it. The resulting surface may have relatively poor quality, unless particular attention is given to the placement and type of mixture used next to the formwork. This technique was used at Copperfield Dam. If improved appearance, watertightness, and surface quality are desired, the form can be moved upstream after the RCC has set, and a cast-in-place conventional concrete cutoff wall or facing can be placed between the form and RCC face. Another approach is to preceed RCC placement with the construction of a conventional concrete wall to serve as the upstream face. This wall can be provided with reinforcement, if needed, and waterstopped joints. The RCC is then placed against the wall but not bonded to it. 4.7--Curing and protection from weather After RCC has been placed and compacted, the lift surface must be cured and protected just as for concrete placed by conventional methods. The surface must be maintained in a moist condition, or at least so that moisture does not escape. It should also be protected from temperature extremes and freezing until it gains sufficient strength. During placing, a brief and very light rain or mist can be tolerated provided that equipment does not track mud onto the RCC or begin to work moisture into the surface so that the compacted RCC is damaged. As soon as damage is evident or the roller begins to pick up material on the drum, placing should be stopped. When conveyors are used for delivery and little or no vehicular traffic is required on the RCC, construction can continue into slightly wetter weather. This may require a gradual and very slight decrease in the amount of mixture water used because of the higher humidity and lack of surface drying. The point at which damage first occurs from operating under conditions that are too wet is obvious and usually occurs suddenly. Immediately after an RCC lift has been compacted, it is essentially impermeable and will not be damaged except by heavy rains provided that there is no activity or traffic on it. After

the surface has begun to dry back naturally to a saturated surface-dry condition, construction can resume. A slightly sloped surface will aid in draining free water and speed resumption of placing operations. If the surface was damaged, some form of surface preparation may be needed. During construction, the compacted surfaces of RCC lifts should be maintained in a damp condition but without ponded water. Where there is little or no traffic, the surface may be covered with plastic or other means to prevent loss of moisture (see ACI 308). In higher traffic areas, water trucks may be required to stay on the placement 24 hr a day, 7 days a week. The trucks must be equipped with fog nozzles that apply a fine mist that does not wash or erode the surface. They can be augmented with hand-held hoses for reaching areas that are inaccessible to the water truck. Provision must be made for maintaining the damp surface while the trucks are fueled, maintained, and refilled with water. Care should be exercised that the trucks do a minimum amount of turning and disruption to the surface. The final lift of RCC should be cured for an appropriate time, generally in excess of 14 days. Curing compound is unsuitable because of the difficulty in achieving 100 percent coverage on the relatively rough surface, the probable damage to it from construction activity, the low initial moisture in the mixture, and the loss of beneficial surface temperature control that is associated with moist curing. Unformed sloping surfaces such as the downstream face of a dam are very difficult to compact and can be considered sacrificial and unnecessary to cure provided this has been incorporated into the design. Uncompacted exposed RCC will be subject to raveling. While the outside several inches will be incapable of achieving any significant strength or quality, they will serve as a protection and a moisture barrier for the curing of the interior RCC. Protection from temperature extremes and sudden wide variations should be provided in environments where it is appropriate, just as for conventionally placed concrete. The lack of contraction and/or frequent monolith joints adds to the concern about cracking from early and/or rapid temperature drops. The low early modulus of elasticity and high creep rates of RCC may reduce temperature-related cracking. Each job should be evaluated for its exposure conditions and material properties. The hydration heat generated by the RCC mass and the continuous placing sequence can combine to allow placing in very cool weather, even when ambient conditions occasionally drop below freezing, provided that the surface stays at least 2 F (1 C) above freezing until it is covered by the subsequent lift.

4.8--Galleries and drainage There are several different approaches to constructing galleries in the dam mass. One method is by conventional forming and another is by placing plain gravel or fine aggregate in that part of the RCC lift where the required gallery will be and later mining out this material to open the gallery. The interior surface resulting from the latter allows inspection of the RCC

after all loose material is removed, but roughness from the fill material remains and some of it will adhere to the RCC. A method to overcome this is to use wood separators between the RCC and fill as each layer is placed. Slipformed curbs were used as gallery walls at Upper Stillwater. Precast concrete sections installed as permanent gallery linings have also been used. The design aspects of galleries are discussed in Chapter 5. Gravel drains, porous concrete, and porous drain tubes have all been used to collect seepage and relieve pressure. In some cases, these techniques can be used in lieu of a gallery. Drain holes have also been drilled from planned RCC construction joints to galleries, and from galleries into the RCC. This drilling can start soon after the RCC is compacted and is normally done with percussion equipment.

CHAPTER 5--DESIGN OF GRAVITY SECTIONS 5.1--General Placing RCC in layers that are compacted by vibratory rollers does not change the basic design concepts for dams, locks, or other massive structures. However, it does affect construction procedures. Design, layout of appurtenant structures, construction planning, and treatment of joints should take into consideration the advantages and disadvantages of the rapid construction that is possible with RCC. Most placements with sufficient length and width to accommodate rollers and spreading equipment can economically benefit from RCC. The designer, in taking advantage of the latitude afforded by RCC construction, must use discretion in balancing cost reductions against technical requirements. The durability and long-term performance requirements of RCC dams are technical factors to be considered. 5.2--Design considerations Gravity structures such as dams[41] are designed essentially for stability against overturning and sliding. Compressive strength by itself is generally not a controlling factor. However, tensile strength and shear strength along the interface between RCC layers is an influencing factor, especially on higher dams and those with steep downstream slopes. The design initially addresses the prescribed loads and load combinations, the section geometry, and foundation preparation. Adequate quality, clean rock foundations and abutments with some roughness are essential for bonding of RCC to rock to minimize or eliminate seepage. The design of gravity structures is controlled principally by foundation considerations. No concrete gravity dam has failed under sustained loading, flood, or earthquake conditions as a result of initial failure in the concrete section above sound base rock. Historically, the failure mode for concrete dams has been by sliding or erosion of the foundation rock. Knowledge of bedding, orientation of fracture planes in the base rock, and other pertinent foundation information is essential. If there is a potential plane of sliding within the foundation, the choice is normally either to excavate below the plane or to provide

sufficient mass to reduce the sliding potential to a safe limit. Sliding planes exposed downstream should be carefully evaluated. RCC offers two additional alternatives in the selection of dam type. If the area of the potential sliding failure plane along the length of the dam is limited, it may be practical to build the lower portion of the dam without vertical joints to bridge across planes of weakness in the foundation. If the area is too wide for bridging, the increased mass required to reduce sliding potential can be provided by low-cost RCC construction. RCC dams, like conventional gravity dams, are typically analyzed as two-dimensional structures using conventional plane stress beam theory or finite element methods. The upstream face is normally vertical for the entire height or for a significant part. An upstream batter near the base may be used to improve stability or resistance to overturning. Downstream slopes have varied between 0.6 and 1.0 horizontal to 1.0 vertical. The slope usually intersects the upstream face at a point near the crest. Starting with a crest width of 15 to 30 ft, the downstream face generally drops vertically to intersect with the slope. A fillet can be added at the intersection to smooth out the face and reduce stress concentrations during overload conditions such as flooding or earthquakes. To fully eliminate stress concentrations in highly seismic areas, the downstream face can be a constant slope from crest to base. This same constant slope will also simplify construction. To mitigate the subsequent increase in volume, the downstream slope can be made steeper without substantial change in stability. 5.3--Stability against overturning Approaches to stability analysis against overturning for RCC dams are similar to those used for conventional concrete structures. For stability against overturning, gravity sections are generally sized for compression over the entire base. In the stability analysis, uplift pressure at the base and along lift joints is usually taken as varying from full hydrostatic pressure at the upstream face to some ratio of the difference between headwater and tailwater pressures at the foundation drains. The uplift pressure at the foundation drains in Fig. 5.1 through 5.3 was assumed at one-third of the uplift pressure at the drains corresponding to a linear pressure transition from headwater to tailwater. A linear decrease in uplift is then assumed from the uplift pressure at the foundation drains to tailwater pressure at the downstream face.

The percent of base area subject to uplift has been discussed by many experienced investigators. While varying percentages have been used, most designers today assume 100 percent of the base area will be affected with time. Fig. 5.1 shows the relationship of base width to dam height requirements, as affected by the location of foundation drains, using the above design assumptions for stability against overturning. High RCC joint permeability can significantly affect uplift pressure intensity and distribution within the body of the dam to the extent that the above assumptions may be unconservative. Various internal drainage systems can be used to effect a reduction of uplift and consequently improve stability, as shown in Fig. 5.1 and 5.2. A method of monitoring the drainage system must be provided to assure that it remains effective during the life of the structure. Design and construction practices with RCC lend themselves to the option of varying the base width and cross sectional shape to improve stability or reduce stress levels. For example, the downstream face of a dam can easily be flattened near the base to reduce stress levels in high dams. The minimum section dam for resistance to overturning is a triangular shaped dam with vertical or nearly vertical upstream face having its foundation drainage system located approximately one-quarter of the base length from the upstream face. Fig. 5.1 shows the effect of the slope of the upstream face on volume requirements. Fig. 5.2 shows the effect of the slope of the upstream face on the net vertical forces that affect sliding resistance. Sources for more detailed information on the design of gravity dams are found in Section 7.7. 5.4--Sliding stability As in a conventional concrete gravity section, resistance to sliding within the concrete section is dependent upon the bond strength (cohesion) of the concrete, the compressive stress on the potential failure plane, and the coefficient of internal friction in the concrete, as shown in Fig. 5.2. The effectiveness of cohesion and drains in providing resistance against sliding is most pronounced near the upstream face. The unconfined shear strength of conventionally placed concrete, as determined by push-off tests (CRD-C 89), generally ranges from about 20 to 25 percent of its compressive strength, but a value of about 10 percent is often used in design. The coefficient of friction within the mass is usually taken to be 1.0. Based on experience to date, the unconfined shear strength of an unjointed section of RCC has varied from 16 to 39 percent of its compressive strength. Tests for unconfined shear strength will not measure pure shear on the forced plane of failure when the test apparatus introduces tension and compression due to eccentricity in loading on the plane of failure. In general, higher shear ratios occur at lower compressive strengths simply because of the higher tensile/compressive strength ratios. The unconfined shear strength of lift joints in

conventional concrete is generally assumed at 10 percent of the compressive strength. For RCC dams, the probable percentage of joint area bonded and the differences in aggregate orientation in the mass compared to the joint should be considered in establishing design values. See Reference 35 for additional discussion of bond strength and factors affecting bond. Determining design values for tensile bond strength and shear strength parameters at lift joints can be done in several ways. Drilled cores can be removed from RCC test placements and tested in shear and direct tension. Individual specimens can be fabricated and similarly tested. Less than acceptable results will require redesign of the RCC mixture, the dam section, the placement method, or a combination of these factors. Low-age RCC may be too green and testing it may indicate significantly less tensile and shear strength than will be available later when the structure is operational. At joint maturities less than about 2000 degree-hours when the subsequent RCC layer is placed, typical shear strengths range from about 100 to 200 psi, even for very lean mixtures. Occasionally, higher and lower strengths have been found. The coefficient of friction along the interface has varied from 0.70 to 2.9, but generally is between 1.0 and 1.4. For initial planning and design purposes, a value of 100 psi with a coefficient of friction of 1.0 is prudent. This may be increased if site-specific information indicates good quality aggregate and should be decreased for poor aggregates such as weathered granite or friable sandstone. Actual values used in final designs should be based on tests of the materials to be used or careful extrapolation from tests on RCC mixtures from other projects with similar aggregates and cementitious materials content. As with any dam design, the designer of RCC structures must be sure that design assumptions are realistically achievable with the type of construction to be used and the quality of aggregate available. The coefficient of friction for concrete placed against hardened concrete is dependent on the roughness and soundness of the hardened concrete and on the moldability of the covering concrete. In conventional concrete, an upper limit of 1.4 is generally assumed to correspond to a cracked joint (no bond) of monolithic concrete and a value of 1.0 is generally assigned to treated construction joints with roughness corresponding to amplitudes of 1/4 in. or more (see Section 11.7 of ACI 318). If the strength of treated construction joints is 50 to 75 percent of parent material, then the coefficient of friction for treated joints would vary from 0.70 to 1.05. Lower values should be used in the design of RCC dams considering the general lack of joint treatment and the variability of conditions existing over such large areas. Design values of 0.7 and 0.8 are normally assumed for relatively smooth contact planes between foundation rock and concrete. If f+v, is the average vertical stress (including uplift), tanN is the coefficient of friction, v is the bond strength, and A is the cross sectional area, the shear-friction resistance to sliding S+r, on a horizontal plane is expressed

S+r, = A(f+v, tanN + v) On sloping foundations, the angle of the slope increases or decreases N dependant on whether the sliding is uphill or downhill. Most agencies require a minimum shear-friction factor of safety against sliding (S+r,/F+H,) of 2 to 4. Such requirements are usually based on normal high headwater and low tailwater conditions, with factors of safety of 1.5 to 2 being allowed under flood conditions and greater than 1.0 for seismic. Fig. 5.1 indicates that minimum volumes for stability against overturning are achieved with vertical or near vertical upstream faces. From Fig. 5.2, it is quite apparent that the slope of the upstream face increases the frictional resistance to shear by a greater degree than it affects base requirements for overturning stability. Fig. 5.3 shows the shear-friction factors of safety for the minimum values of F+V,/F+H, of Fig. 5.2 in terms of bond requirements per hundred feet of dam height. By using the minimum values, Fig. 5.3 discounts entirely the effectiveness of the foundation drains in resisting sliding. It therefore represents maximum values for cohesion requirements in design. Provision should be made to assure bond and/or sliding resistance along lift lines when greater values than those of Fig. 5.3 are used in design. Any drainage system intended to relieve uplift pressure must be monitored to assure success. 5.5--Thermal analysis The principal changes in volume associated with massive placements of concrete result from the changes in temperature that occur during the life of the structure. Drying shrinkage is limited to the exposed surfaces of the mass. Autogeneous changes in volume are normally inconsequential. They are primarily dependent on the quality and quantity of the cementitious materials used but may also be influenced by aggregates. Volume changes of massive placements are principally restrained by the bond of the concrete to the foundation base rock and by the interior of the same concrete mass, which does not change volume at the same rate. Cracking of the mass will occur when restraint of the change in volume exceeds the strain capacity of the concrete. The principal factors affecting cracking are the peak internal temperature reached soon after placement, the average annual ambient temperature to which the mass will eventually cool, creep, the modulus of elasticity, and the degree of restraint acting at the crack location. These cracks appear during the first or second winter season and generally initiate at exposed surfaces adjacent to the foundation where restraint is the greatest. From there, they will propagate inward and upward with continued cooling of the mass. If the change in volume is sufficiently large, the cracking will penetrate the full thickness of the dam and become a source of leakage. Propagation of the crack in the vertical direction is dependent on the distribution of restraint within the mass and is primarily

a function of the base length at 90 deg to the plane of the crack. For this reason, cracking in the longitudinal direction is generally limited to a height of approximately one-quarter of the base length of the dam. For instance, if an RCC dam is built without contraction joints, cracks can propagate to the full height of the dam in the upstream to downstream direction dependent on the thermal change in volume. The designer should also be concerned with cracking that may initiate as a result of rapid surface cooling while the interior mass remains warm and provides restraint to surface contraction. While internal restraint is limited and surface cracks may penetrate no more than 2 to 3 ft as a result of that restraint, they can be responsible for initiating full section cracking that might not otherwise have occurred. The designer has a variety of options that may be used to minimize thermal stresses. These include substitution of pozzolan for some of the cement, limiting placement of RCC to the time of year when cool weather is expected, form insulation, lowering the placing temperature, jointing, and increasing the dam section so that a lower strength with a lower cement factor can be used. The effects of lift height and adiabatic temperature rise versus time and temperature are shown on Fig. 5.4 for a conventional mass mixture at a given constant ambient condition. When the option is available, selecting an aggregate of low elastic modulus and lower coefficient of expansion will help. Liquid nitrogen can be injected into the RCC during the mixing process to reduce its placing and peak temperature. Ice can help precool the mixture; however, the lower water content of RCC will limit the amount of temperature reduction ice can provide. It also adds cost and slows production if extra mixing time is needed to melt the ice. Stockpiling aggregates in large piles during cold weather and reclaiming them in their naturally precooled condition during warm weather has been effective. Postcooling has not been found to be practical in RCC construction.

The exposure of relatively thin lifts of RCC during initial hydration may contribute to an increase or decrease in peak temperatures depending on ambient conditions and the length of exposure. Each situation must be separately and carefully evaluated. For example: 1. The surface absorbs heat from the sun, which increases the temperature of the mixture and increases the rate at which heat of hydration is generated. The longer the surface is exposed, the more solar energy is absorbed and the higher the peak internal temperature will be. Faster placement in this situation will reduce internal temperatures. 2. Placing during the cooler time of year can bring completion of a project before the heat of summer. Under these conditions, materials are naturally precooled and heat of hydration is quickly dissipated to the atmosphere to the extent that peak temperatures exceed ambient temperature conditions. If peak temperature does not come before placement of the next lift, faster placing can increase internal temperatures. Several conditions may contribute to reduce the uncontrolled cracking potential of the mass. They are a high tensile strength and low thermal stress coefficient of the RCC (the stress related to structural restraint and temperature changes, which is a function of its modulus, creep, and coefficient of expansion); or strategically located transverse contraction joints that will not directly affect the structural stability. Such joints may be formed as described in Section 5.6. Various two-dimensional analytical methods are available to provide an estimate of the temperature and stress distribution throughout the structure. Comprehensive analyses include the heat of hydration, climatic conditions, material properties, and placement conditions. Details of a comprehensive evaluation of thermal cracking unique to RCC are discussed in Reference 36. Thermocouples or thermistors, installed during construction, may be used to evaluate thermal computations. Data can be recorded automatically with electronic equipment or manually on a predetermined frequency. A typical pattern for monitoring the temperature of a large dam may consist of three or four judiciously spaced vertical planes of seven instruments each--at the upper, middle, and lower elevations. Within each set of seven, one should be located at the centerline and the others spaced near the faces such that the thermal contours and gradient can be plotted. Stress predictions may be improved with a more correct temperature model obtained from field measurements during construction. For example, Fig. 5.5 shows predicted thermal contours compared to measured values at Willow Creek Dam. Fig. 5.6 shows measured values 18 months later.

During operation, the structure will continually undergo cyclical thermal and volumetric changes. The reservoir will act to insulate the upstream face from the higher amplitude ambient air temperatures (Fig. 5.7). Reservoirs over 100 ft deep may vary annually in the lower half by only 5 F; for example, from 45 F to 50 F. Consequently, a more moderate thermal gradient with its resulting stress will exist in that portion of the structure after the reservoir is filled.

The degree of concern over cracking in an RCC structure should be based on the function of the facility and the public impact in the event that cracking results in significant leakage from a water-control structure. 5.6--Contraction joints One hindrance to more widespread use of the RCC method of

construction has been the reluctance of designers to deviate from the traditional block construction concept. The block monolith concept was initially created as a result of construction limitations rather than design concerns for crack control. ACI 207.1R, "Mass Concrete," discloses that block construction was used in some dams constructed prior to 1900. Prior to 1930 there was little factual information on the control of cracking. In 1930, the ACI Mass Concrete Committee was organized and extensive investigations were first undertaken for the concrete for Hoover Dam in the U.S. Regardless of initial intent, the principal function of contraction joint spacing is to mitigate the effects of foundation restraint and to control cracking in the dam. The principal concerns for cracking in RCC and other gravity dams are appearance, durability, and leakage control. The spacing of cracks extending the full height and thickness of a dam as a result of foundation restraint is directly related to a change in temperature, the time period over which it occurs, the tensile strength of the concrete at the time in question, and the stress coefficient of the concrete over the time period in question. Thermal changes throughout a dam are complicated by many factors but are principally affected by placing temperature, heat of hydration, ambient conditions, construction sequence, and size and shape of the dam. The rate of thermal change is significantly greater at the surfaces. Surface cracking is generally caused by internal restraint rather than foundation restraint and is, therefore, limited in depth. Foundation restraint can contribute to surface cracking in a dam built without contraction joints; however, the propagation of surface cracks relieves the internal restraint condition, thus requiring a continuing decrease in volume for further propagation. In most instances, the critical volume change in the lower portions of the structure can be prevented by cold weather placement and use of low-heat generating concrete. When placement is done in warm or hot weather (in many areas of the world), added measures are required to prevent cracking and, under some conditions, developing the critical volume change may not be preventable. The Alpe Gera and Quaira Della Miniera Dams were constructed in Italy without formed contraction joints. The construction differed from jointed RCC construction only in the method used for compacting concrete. Concrete was transported and deposited in dump trucks, spread with bulldozers, and compacted by means of tractor-mounted internal vibrators. The concrete was of low slump consistency. Contraction joints were cut approximately 12 hr after consolidation by means of vibrating blades mounted on a tractor. The same type of equipment was used in a similar manner to cut contraction joints in the RCC foundation of Ohkawa Dam in Japan[42] as well as other Japanese dams. Similar joints have been installed at Elk Creek Dam without affecting placement rates. To prevent the propagation of uncontrolled cracks from the upper surface, such cut joints need not be spaced closer than the average height of the dam above the foundation (see Fig. 4.1 in ACI 207.2R).

Studies of the heat generation and temperature rise of massive RCC placements indicate that the sequential placement of lifts can have a beneficial effect on crack reduction due to the more consistent temperature distribution throughout the mass. Depending on the environment, the average placement rate can have a more significant effect on maximum temperature rise than the height of lift. Fig. 5.8[7] shows the effect of placing rate and lift height on temperature rise for equal placing and ambient temperatures. With the exception of Elk Creek Dam and the RCD dams in Japan, contraction joints have been eliminated or greatly reduced from most RCC dams either constructed or planned at this time. The need for contraction joints is reduced by anticipated low changes in volume as previously discussed. In Japan, where contraction joints are used, they are typically formed at 49-ft intervals.[23,42]

5.7--Galleries and adits Galleries and adits serve the same purposes in RCC dams as they do in conventional concrete dams. For example, a single foundation gallery will serve as access to the interior of the dam for inspections, a collector of seepage, access for instrumentation and other equipment, and a terminal point for drain holes drilled from the crest or into the foundation. Design requirements for RCC galleries and adits are commensurate with those of conventional concrete dams. Galleries provide the only immediate interior access during operation for inspection, for safety, and to clean or redrill drains to maintain stability as designed. Costs associated with failure or for additional stability to get relicensed can outweigh the costs of construction. Experience has shown approximately 15 percent less productivity for those RCC layers that cross a gallery. They also create a void which, under unique

conditions, may contribute to high stress areas and cracking. Designers of RCC dams should weigh the advantages and disadvantages of galleries and their extent and consider other options. Construction methods for galleries in RCC dams are discussed in Section 4.8. 5.8--Seepage control Seepage into and through a concrete dam, usually an inevitable event, produces concerns for the designer. Under special conditions, such as where acidic water is present, seepage may cause unacceptable leaching of the cementitious material, perhaps leading to eventual deterioration or reduced stability. Seepage may also result in undesirable uplift pressures within the dam if the drainage is not adequate. Methods of seepage control (none of which are without their shortcomings) include attaching a waterproof membrane to the upstream face, using a conventional concrete cutoff or facing that is continuous across RCC lift joints, using a special bedding mixture or joint preparation procedure between the lifts near the upstream face, providing internal vertical drains near the upstream face from the crest to the foundation gallery, using a bedding mortar on the full lift surface, using an RCC mixture with a higher paste content to start the lift,[37,43] or performing special lift surface cleanup. Waterproof elastomeric membranes have been applied to the upstream faces of both Winchester and Galesville dams in the U.S. At Galesville Dam, the relatively thin elastomeric material was sprayed onto the exposed upstream face. It has been unable to bridge cracks and its overall effectiveness has been poor. Treatment consisted of cleaning the surface with water jetting and then using standard spraying equipment, applying a primer coat, and two membrane coats. Other concerns include membrane-face separation resulting from high internal pore pressure or freezing, damage from floating debris, and vandalism. A heavy-duty 0.065-in. polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheet liner was installed at Winchester Dam[37] between the precast facing panels and the RCC. The liner was tied into the foundation by wrapping the liner under the dam along an RCC layer and tying it into an RCC cutoff trench in the foundation. Each joint in the liner was spliced in the field by heat welding. It has performed extremely well, and no seepage has been detected through the dam. Placing a zone of conventional concrete to provide watertightness at the upstream face has had some success. The tendency to crack from shrinkage or temperature drop rendered this zone ineffective as the primary watertight barrier at Galesville Dam. At Middle Fork Dam, the vertical upstream face of conventional air-entrained 1 ft thick concrete, which used aggregates satisfying ASTM C 33 requirements, was considered as a barrier against seepage. It had vertical contraction joints at 15-ft spacings with waterstops and was only partially successful.[44] The slipformed faces at Upper Stillwater Dam are not required to function as a water barrier.[32] Instead, the upstream 13 ft

of RCC contain a higher cement plus fly ash content. A bedding concrete 6 ft wide and 1 to 2 in. thick was placed adjacent to the facing mixture at Middle Fork Dam. It should be noted that cracking from the upstream face will reduce the effectiveness of these seepage controls. For the bedding mixture to be beneficial, it must extend beyond the depth of such cracks. Internal seepage is generally contained by vertical holes located near the upstream face, formed either during construction or drilled during or after construction. At Galesville Dam, 3 in. diameter holes on 10-ft centers were drilled through the galleries into the foundation to varying depths. These drains funnel seepage into foundation galleries where the flow continues by gravity downstream through the adits. Without internal seepage control, uplift pressures may build with time, reducing the effective vertical pressure necessary for stability, as has already been discussed. 5.9--Instrumentation Instruments should be installed at selected locations throughout the dam and its foundation so that measurements can be taken to monitor the structure's behavior during construction and subsequent operation. Of primary importance is the gathering of information by which the structural safety can be determined. Of secondary importance is the use of the information obtained to provide better criteria for designing future RCC dams. This use becomes more important as RCC dams become taller and larger. The number, type, and location of instruments installed during construction of RCC dams becomes a concern in that they may hamper rapid placement, thereby increasing construction costs. The designer, with a clear understanding of the project's purpose, can design an inexpensive but functional instrument package and layout to provide immediate and long-range dam and foundation behavioral data.[40] Instrumentation used in RCC dams is similar to that used in conventional concrete gravity dams (see ACI 207.1R). Embedded instruments can be used to determine temperature, strain, stress, and hydrostatic pore pressure, and to measure cracks. These may be the Carlson elastic wire type or the vibrating wire, both of which require electrical circuitry. Thermocouples installed in the mass concrete during construction in a predetermined grid will provide continuous temperature data during and after construction. Plumblines are reliable instruments for directly measuring long-term structural deflections. External methods of determining information involve precise surveying methods such as can be achieved with electronic distance measurement (EDM). By performing collimation readings along the crest immediately after construction and frequently for the first 5 years of reservoir operation, a behavioral history is recorded of the interaction between the dam, foundation, and reservoir as they settle into place. Triangulation networks can be established to develop the overall three-dimensional deformation of the dam from the major influences of reservoir, temperature, and foundation. To establish base data for the unloading and loading of the

foundation, instruments to measure foundation deformation should be installed shortly before construction begins. Judiciously placed weirs in the foundation gallery gutter will supply information on the volume of seepage and change in flow rates. Abnormal flows may indicate serious conditions in the dam or foundation. Sediment in the gutter may indicate material erosion in the dam or foundation. Periodic chemical analyses of seepage will indicate dissolution of materials. Uplift in the foundation should be measured on a frequency set by the designers. Electric cable embedments can be accomplished during construction by excavating small trenches while the concrete is green or by drilling holes after the concrete has hardened. As is regularly done for conventional concrete dams, instruments associated with RCC dams should be maintained and read at prescribed intervals for an extended period of time after construction to build an historical structural behavior record. Data reduction in the form of measurement-versus-time plots will quickly show continued acceptable performance or trends suggesting careful monitoring. Sudden or accelerated departures from the annual cyclic plots will require immediate attention to determine if the readings were made correctly, the instruments needed maintenance, or a structural anomaly has occurred about which the owner should be alerted. It is advisable to provide the owner of the dam with information about the minimum and maximum readings expected for each instrument. 5.10--Foundation Structural design of the RCC dam, again as in a conventional dam, includes correct interpretation of geology as it will affect stability and deformation of foundation rock. RCC dams are three-dimensional structures capable of responding to foundation strengths and weaknesses. Consequently, two-dimensional seepage and stability analyses may not accurately define the total resistance to the applied loads. If only two-dimensional analyses are made, significantly different foundation deformation moduli of elasticity across the site may cause portions of the dam and/or foundation to be severely overloaded. This may or may not be acceptable or desirable. Each project should be evaluated on a site-specific basis. Foundation shape irregularities such as would be seen in a cross-canyon profile could result in load transfer from depressed areas to intrusive areas, again causing variations in stresses and deflections not computed from two dimensional analyses. Such variations are site specific and may or may not be significant. Foundation grout treatment ordinarily would be developed based on the site-specific needs of each project. Where a complete grouting program is necessary, it will normally consist of consolidation grouting across the excavation contact area to shallow depths--about 30 ft to mitigate differential foundation deformation as determined from the geotechnical analyses--and deep curtain grouting near the upstream face to reduce seepage. Curtain grouting can be performed from the foundation gallery after the structure has reached an elevation such that there is sufficient weight to prevent upward movement of the concrete.

Grouting can also be done using angled holes drilled from the upstream heel while the RCC placements continue above. This approach has proven to be convenient, effective, and a time saver on some RCC projects. It can also be used to provide a second curtain on very permeable foundations. If necessary for stability or for seepage control, drain holes can be drilled behind the grout curtain. Typically, they are spaced on about 10-ft centers, drilled from the gallery or downstream face after the foundation grouting has been completed. Depths may vary from 20 to 40 percent of the reservoir depth. Actual spacing, depth, and orientation are dependent on site conditions. In most circumstances, the reduction in uplift pressure achieved with drains allows a considerable reduction in the mass needed for stability and very significant cost savings. Foundation treatment consisting of conventional concrete placements may be required if final excavation has uncovered faults, seams, or shattered or inferior rock extending to such depths that it is impractical to remove the areas entirely.[29,41] Most projects have found the use of RCC desirable in any area where it can be placed and compacted, with dentil concrete kept to a minimum. Another approach has been to use dentil concrete and mass backfill concrete extensively to create a level zone from which to begin placing RCC. 5.11--Spillways Practice in most current RCC dams has been to design an ogee spillway aligned with the streambed. Gates can be added to control overflow, as was done at Elk Creek. However, in most instances, gates are not used. When the reservoir elevation exceeds that of the spillway crest, the discharge flows unencumbered down the face of the dam. Velocities can be controlled by increasing the crest length and reducing the depth of water over the crest (the canyon width permitting), and/or relying on stair steps or natural roughness to dissipate energy. The downstream face is either formed or unformed, depending upon usage and design needs. Formed faces may consist of conventional concrete formed as 12 to 24 in. high steps that are designed to progressively dissipate the flows and provide erosion resistance. This design was used at Upper Stillwater and Middle Fork dams in the United States. Japanese dams, such as Tamagawa, were designed with smooth, sloping spillway flow surfaces that discharge into stilling basins. Copperfield Dam in Australia and Winchester in the United States are other dams with smooth conventional concrete spillway facings. Unformed faces have the rough textured appearance of the RCC placement. The ogee crest can be effectively shaped with conventional concrete or shotcrete after RCC placement. Loose or uncompacted RCC is removed to provide a sound surface for the shaping concrete, as at Willow Creek and Galesville Dams in the U.S. Another spillway concept was used at Middle Fork Dam. The primary spillway and outlet works are combined in a double-chambered tower placed against the upstream face and connected to conduits in a trench at the maximum section leading

to the control structure at the toe.[44] The conduits were constructed before RCC placement, thus avoiding interference with RCC placing operations. Construction techniques are discussed in Chapter 4. 5.12--Outlet works Current practice in placement of outlet works in RCC design is to locate the conduits in or along the rock foundation to minimize delays in RCC placement.[32,37,44,45] Conduits usually are constructed of conventional concrete prior to initiating RCC placement. Locating the intake structure upstream of the dam and control house and the energy dissipator downstream of the toe also minimizes interference with RCC placement. CHAPTER 6--LABORATORY TESTING AND FIELD CONTROL 6.1--General Because of the rapid rate of placement typical in RCC construction and the fact that layers of compacted RCC can be covered with new lifts within hours, cylinder-test results provide useful historical data, but they are not an effective method for quality control during construction. The emphasis in RCC construction should be on control of materials, mixing, and placing conditions while the work is being accomplished. The quality of placement is dependent on controlling the variables that affect it. If the aggregates are as specified (source, gradation, and quality); the cementitious materials meet requirements; proportioning, batching and mixing, and transporting are as specified; water contents are controlled within limits; spreading and compacting are within the designated guidelines; and an appropriate method of curing is followed, the RCC will be acceptable. For all types of RCC, it is important that qualified personnel be in close contact with the mixing plant at all times to maintain water contents at the optimum level for compaction. The control measures that should be instituted in RCC construction are essentially material dependent. If the mixture was designed for strength and consistency requirements, measurements of consistency should be performed to maintain consistency within the desired range and to augment the judgment based on observations of the inspector and placing foreman. For this type of RCC, adjustments in batch water can be made prior to placement when consistencies approach control limits. Nuclear density meters may be used to determine in-place density and moisture content. If the density is low and the mixture is still fresh, additional rolling can be provided. If the mixture has begun to set or is too stiff to be further densified by rolling, the material should be removed. Unacceptable material can be removed prior to achieving much strength at relatively low cost by backhoe or by front-end loader. During construction of an RCC dam, both the designer and inspection personnel should be aware that occasionally

undesirable material will be placed. Field personnel should not overreact to isolated cases of rejectable materials that do not jeopardize the overall function of the structure. Critical areas should be identified and given more attention to prevent placement of marginal material. Overall conditions should generally be given emphasis rather than overemphasizing individual tests.

6.2--Training and orientation As part of the quality assurance and quality control programs, orientation and training sessions should be held for supervisors, inspectors, and workmen. The differences between conventional concrete, RCC, and embankments should be explained. Key issues should be discussed, such as time limitations for mixing, spreading, and compacting, as well as concerns about segregation, joint integrity, and curing. The tendency is to treat lift surfaces as compacted embankment rather than as fresh concrete. It should be emphasized that although RCC looks and acts like gravel fill in its early stage, it is concrete and should be treated with the same respect as conventionally placed concrete. This includes cure, protection, and care of compacted concrete surfaces. 6.3--Gradation and aggregates On large projects, the high production rates attainable with RCC generally require a large reserve of aggregate be on hand prior to the start of placing. This also has an advantage from the standpoint of gradation control since, during aggregate production, occasional material that otherwise may have had to be wasted can often be used effectively. Rejected material produced during the startup of aggregate crushing or screening operations can be used to develop the floor of stockpile areas while the necessary adjustments are made to the plant. When production temporarily produces material out of specification, large piles often permit spreading the material on the stockpile to produce an acceptably blended material when withdrawn from the pile. This allows systematic and gradual plant adjustments to be made without drastically disrupting production. RCC can be less sensitive to gradation variation than conventional concrete, depending upon the mixtures being used and design requirements. If out-of-specification material is produced, corrections should be initiated as soon as the cause is identified and materials that cannot be salvaged by reworking or blending should be wasted. Large stockpiles also result in better moisture and temperature distribution within the stockpiles which, in turn, provide better mixture control. This is particularly true if reclaim tunnels are used. If the material is withdrawn from the exterior stockpile surfaces, more attention may be needed to control variability in the gradation (see ACI 221R). The moisture content of aggregate stockpiles for aggregates having greater than 1 percent absorption should be maintained at

the highest practical level. Unsaturated aggregates may increase RCC porosity by absorbing water from minimum paste mixtures. 6.4--Proportioning and mixing As with conventional concrete, equipment used for volumetrically proportioning or weight batching of RCC must be carefully calibrated to meet project requirements. This calibration must be maintained throughout the construction period. Experience has shown that the appearance of freshly mixed RCC alone does not provide an adequate indication of the thoroughness with which the material has been mixed. A mixture with homogeneous appearance may not have cement well distributed. A mixture with virtually no cement may handle and appear the same as a lean mixture with cement. Mixer efficiency tests are needed to establish initial minimum mixing times (or retention times for continuous mixers) and maximum mixer loadings. The uniformity of samples from two or more parts of the batch or discharge should be within the limits of Table 6.1. Periodic verification of the mixing time should be made during construction by additional tests. Table 6.1--Maximum allowed variability index values
6444444444444444444L44444444444444444L44444444444444444444447 5 *Sampling at mixer*Sampling at placement 5 K))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))))3))))))))))))))))))))))M 5Cement content * 82.5 * 70 5 5 * * 5 5Moisture content * 91.5 * 75 5 5 * * 5 5Unit weight of the* 98.5 * 85 5 5 air-free mortar * * 5 5 * * 5 5Coarse aggregate * 90.5 * 80 5 5 * * 5 5Content * * 5 9444444444444444444N44444444444444444N44444444444444444444448

Note:

Variability index = (smallest value/largest value) x 100

Beneficial remixing or damaging segregation that can occur in the delivery and spreading process should also be evaluated. A modified approach that takes into account the effect of mixing and handling involves random sampling from the placement. It combines the checking of within-batch variations with batch-to-batch variations. In this modified approach, a sample of RCC is taken from the placing area immediately after spreading but prior to rolling. This is done during the first, middle, and last third of a production shift. Modern laboratory equipment, such as microwave ovens and calcium analyzers, provide results within a few hours. Samples are tested for the unit weight, amount of coarse aggregate, moisture, air content, unit weight of the air-free mortar, and the cement content. By comparing results of the three samples, the variability of the mixture can be established the same day it is tested (see CRD-C 55). At the start of production on a new project, a sufficiently

long mixing duration should be required to assure thorough mixing until test results are available. This can be incrementally decreased until test results show that there would be excessive variability in the mixtures with a further reduction in mixing time. The mixing time established by testing can vary from plant to plant and mixture to mixture. 6.5--Moisture content control The placing foreman or inspector controls mixture water adjustments by observation of compaction during placing. After a mixture design has been established, aggregate moisture contents are continually monitored with adjustments made to the batch weights of various materials so that the saturated surface dry (SSD) design proportioning is maintained. Radio communication should be provided between the placement and mixing plant to provide information for continual and immediate control of moisture. The plant should maintain a record of all water adjustments and total water content in mixtures. Visual observations of compaction are confirmed by in-place moisture and density tests using a properly calibrated nuclear density gage using the direct transmission method. The nuclear gage can be used for hour-to-hour in-place total moisture indications. These moisture indications should be correlated with occasional oven-dried companion test samples. At Galesville Dam, there was an average 2.5-percent difference between nuclear moisture indication and oven-dried moisture determinations. However, no direct relationship could be developed between the two tests. A control chart that shows the moisture content of each test, the standard deviation, the average, and the moving average for the last 50 tests (similar to the one shown in Fig. 6.1 for density) is helpful. The correct moisture for any mixture may vary from day to day and within each day depending on temperature, variations in the quantity and quality of fines, delivery time, etc. Consequently, moistures should be taken during the course of a shift as needed. Where applicable, tests of the RCC Vebe times may be used to control the consistancy of the mixture.

6.6--Workability and measurement of consistency Various methods have been tried in an effort to measure the workability or compactibility of RCC.[28] None of them have been universally successful with all types of RCC mixtures. In general, the consistency of RCC mixtures has varied in stiffness from that of conventional concrete with slumps less than 1 in. to that of granular mixtures that exhibit no slump even under vibration. Vibration has been used in all the methods of measuring the consistency of RCC to date. Early experiments were performed by the Corps of Engineers[36] and the Tennessee Valley Authority.[47] Additional studies were performed by Dunstan,[19] who called the TVA procedure the "Cannon method." The USCE experiments used the standard Vebe test apparatus with and without modification of the surcharge weight. The TVA procedure used a standard unit weight container and vibration table. TVA also ran tests with and without a surcharge weight. By measuring the compacted density of test specimens, TVA found that the maximum compacted density resulting from extended vibration was approximately 98 percent of the theoretical air-free density of the mixture. In general, vibration time to fully consolidate RCC (98 percent air-free density) decreases with increased surcharge. The surcharge effectiveness is limited by the effect of the total weight of surcharge and apparatus on the vibratory output of the vibration table. TVA concluded that mixtures that achieved 98 percent air-free density with vibration times from 15 to 30 sec without surcharge were optimum for their requirements. The surcharge principally affects the vibration time of mixtures stiffer than those used by TVA. Others have found the surcharge to be necessary. The upper limit of consistency measurements with the standard Vebe in Table 2.3.1(a) of ACI 211 is 32 sec. Dunstan clearly showed[19] that the Cannon method and standard Vebe had approximately equal vibration times for consistency measurements up to approximately 30 sec. It appears that the need for Vebe modification or use of added surcharge weights begins when the mix stiffness exceeds a vibration time of 30 sec. TVA found that whenever the vibration time exceeded 60 sec (with or without surcharge) there was insufficient paste in the mixture to fill all the voids at the surface. It also appears that the variability of consistency measurements and compacted density increases directly with mixture stiffness. A mixture with a consolidation time in excess of 45 sec will probably experience periods of unmeasurable consistency, irrespective of the method of measurement. This would therefore appear to be a reasonable limit for use of consistency measurements to control RCC placements. The Japanese RCD method uses two different size containers for maximum aggregate sizes equal to or less than 1-1/2 inches and for sizes greater than 1-1/2 inches. The larger sizes use greater input vibration to offset the size effect of the larger containers. The proper vibration time for the smaller sizes appears to be approximately 20 sec, whereas it appears to be about 60 sec for the larger sizes.

Consolidation is the reduction of entrapped air voids within the mass by rearrangement of aggregate particles. Compaction reduces the volume of entrapped air by forcing the aggregate particles into a smaller volume. The degree to which this is accomplished is dependent on the lubrication of the aggregate particles by the surrounding paste (water, cement, and pozzolan) and the combined effects of vibration and compactive effort. If the paste volume is inadequate or the paste is too fluid, there will be inadequate lubrication of particles for lateral movement and consolidation will be more difficult. There will be little, if any, discernible change in the compacted surface of the RCC to indicate that full compaction has been accomplished. When the paste content is adequate to provide a measurable consistency, paste will rise to the surface and fill the voids between aggregates. The time required for this to be accomplished is an indication of the mixture's workability. 6.7--Compressive strength Compressive test specimens of mixtures having a consistency measurable by vibration time will fully consolidate under extended externally applied vibration. Full consolidation is achieved when paste rises to the surface. Overvibration is not a problem because of the very low entrainment of air in mixtures of this stiffness. Cylinders will require longer periods of vibration than the consistency measurements because of the difference in shape of the containers. A surcharge weight may be needed for mixtures that require more than 30 sec of vibration for consolidation by the standard Vebe. Test specimens molded in this fashion correlate extremely well with cores when tested at the same age. Test specimens of mixtures of unmeasurable consistency will not fully consolidate under external vibration and must be molded by some other means.[29] At Willow Creek, the tamped specimens of the leaner mixtures were consistently higher in strength than the vibrated specimens. With the exception of the upstream concrete, the cores at one year correlated reasonably well with the 9 x 18 in. test specimens. The cores of richer mixtures also correlated with the 6 x 12 in. Vebe molded specimens. The key to preparing test specimens of unmeasurable consistency RCC appears to be that of correlating the compactive effort in tamping the cylinders with the compactive effort of the field placement. 6.8--Density Due to limitations in some laboratory techniques and equipment, density and compressive strength cylinders made in the laboratory may not be representative of the quality achievable in the field. If these limitations are not recognized, they can result in the unwarranted use of extra cement or fly ash, a more restrictive aggregate specification than is required, or overdesign. During construction, comparisons should be made to see how closely laboratory procedures simulated field compaction and achieved similar qualities. Low densities can be the result of various deficiencies, including high or low moisture, insufficient rolling, a vibratory

amplitude or frequency inappropriate for the material, time delay before rolling, poor gradation or segregation, and nonrepresentative testing. The deficiency should be promptly identified and corrected. Two approaches to quality control of RCC density are by method and by performance. For routine control during construction, specifying a method of spreading and a minimum number of passes with required rolling equipment has been successful. Specifying performance with a minimum density and an average required density regardless of the number of passes is an alternate approach requiring more testing but providing tighter control of placement. Density tests should be performed to verify that the specified method is routinely providing the required density and should be taken on a random basis to provide the necessary coverage of each lift. As with moisture, a chart should be kept showing tests performed each day, the standard deviations, density for the day, and the moving average of the Fig. 6.1 shows a density control chart from Willow 6.9--Placing and joint bonding An important element of quality control in RCC is visual monitoring of the delivery, dumping, and spreading operation. Segregation, contamination, and timeliness should be carefully monitored and procedures should be immediately corrected when seen to be deficient. This includes preventing contamination of lift surfaces by hauling equipment, preventing the freshly spread compacted surfaces from drying, avoiding segregation and monitoring joint maturity in degree-hours (see Section 4.5.1). To assure proper bonding, the joint RCC is to be placed must be clean and surface develops, or if its specified joint treatment is necessary prior to This may include cleaning the surface a bedding mixture. or lift upon which fresh damp. When a dry or damaged maturity limit is exceeded, placing the next layer. with air jets and providing the number of the average last 50 tests. Creek Dam.

6.10--Frequency of testing during construction Table 6.2 chart shows a recommended range relative to field testing frequency. Table 6.2--Recommended testing frequency
644444444444444444444L444444444444444444444L4444444444444447 5 * Frequency range * Purpose 5 5 Type of test * volume per test * of test 5 K))))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))M 5Gradation * * 5 5 Coarse aggregate * Daily or every *Record/control 5 5 Fine aggregate * 3000 yd.3- placed *Record/control 5 5 Sp. Gr., Abs., * once/week *Record/control 5 5 Dryrodded U.W. * * 5 K))))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))M 5Cement * Varies *Record 5 K))))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))M 5Density * Once/1000 yd.3*Control 5

5 * placed (min) * 5 K))))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))M 5Moisture * Once/3000 yd.3*Record/control 5 5 * placed * 5 K))))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))M * Twice per shift *Control 5 5Temperature K))))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))M 5Consistency test (if*three times per shift*Record/control 5 5used) * * 5 K))))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))))))))3)))))))))))))))M 5Compressive strength* Once per shift *Record 5 5cylinders * * 5 5for 28, 90, and * * 5 5365 day tests * * 5 944444444444444444444N444444444444444444444N4444444444444448

6.11--Grade and alignment control The compactive equipment used in RCC construction is typically insensitive to minor and gradual variations in lift thickness. A tolerance of about 15 percent variation in the lift thickness is reasonable, with maximum limits of 3 in. in an 18-in. lift. These limits are easily achieved by using a standard rotary-beam laser level and a rodman with a receiver target who spot checks and assists the spreading equipment operator. More accurate control can be achieved through the use of laser-controlled equipment, provided the job and the method of placing and forming the upstream and downstream face warrants this kind of expenditure. Where an RCC lift thins down as it spreads onto a rising foundation area, the lift should be terminated before it gets too thin (approximately twice the MSA). Alignment control can be provided by laser or by conventional survey, depending upon what is required considering both appearance of the finished structure and technical requirements. The top edge of unformed sloping faces should be given particular attention. One procedure has been to slightly overbuild each layer past the design line and then paint a line on top of the lift at the location where the subsequent layer terminates to act as a placing guide. It is extremely difficult to build back a lean area if the width of any layer is not spread and compacted out to the design line. However, it is also easy to overbuild and waste a substantial amount of RCC. CONVERSION FACTORS 1 1 1 1 1 ft in. psi lb/ft.3lb/yd.3t+c, = = = = = = 0.305 m 25.4 mm 6.895 kPa 16.02 kg/m.30.5933 kg/m.3(t+F, - 32)/1.8

CHAPTER 7--REFERENCES AND INFORMATION SOURCES 7.1--ASTM and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers sources The standards of the American Society for Testing and Materials and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers applicable to materials and properties referred to in this report are listed below with their serial designation, including the year of adoption or revision. The standards listed were the latest editions at the time this report was prepared. Since these standards are revised frequently, generally in minor details only, the user of this report should check directly with the sponsoring group if it is desired to refer to the latest edition. 7.2--ASTM Standards C 33-86 C 94-86a C 150-83a C 260-77 C 494-82 C 512-82 C 618-83 Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates Standard Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete Standard Specification for Portland Cement Standard Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete Standard Test Method for Creep of Concrete in Compression Standard Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolans for use as a Mineral Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete Standard Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing Standard Test Methods for Moisture-Density Relations of Soils and Soil Aggregate Mixtures Using 10-lb (4.54-kg) Rammer and 18-in. (457-mm) Drop

C 666-84 C 1557-78

7.3--U.S. Army Corps of Engineers standards CRD-C 36-73 CRD-C 39-81 CRD-C 44-63 Method of Test for Thermal Diffusivity of Concrete Test Method for Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion of Concrete Method for Calculation of Thermal Conductivity of Concrete

CRD-C 48-73 CRD-C 55-85 CRD-C 89-64

Method of Test for Water Permeability of Concrete CE Test Method for Concrete Uniformity Method of Test for Longitudinal Shear Strength, Unconfined, Single Plane

7.4--ACI standards and committee reports 201.2R-77 (Reapp 1982) 207.1R-70 (Reapp 1980) 207.2R-73 (Reapp 1986) Guide to Durable Concrete Mass Concrete for Dams and Other Massive Structures Effect of Restraint, Volume Change, and Reinforcement on Cracking of Massive Concrete Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for No-Slump Concrete Guide for Use of Normal Weight Aggregates in Concrete Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting and Placing Concrete

211.3-75 (Revised 1980) 221R-84 304R-85

304.4R-75 (Revised 1985) Placing Concrete with Belt Conveyors 305R-77 306R-78 (Revised 1983) 308-81 (Revised 1986) 318-83 Hot Weather Concreting Cold Weather Concreting Standard Practice for Curing Concrete Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete

The above publications may be obtained from the following organizations: American Concrete Institute P.O. Box 19150 Detroit, MI 48219-0150 ASTM 1916 Race St Philadelphia, PA 19103 U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Experiment Station P.O. Box 631 Vicksburg, MS 39180-0631 7.5--Cited references [1] "Concrete Gravity Dam Built Like Earthfill," Engineering

News-Record, V. 173, Dec. 24, 1964, p. 32 [2] Wallingford, V. M., "Proposed New Technique for Construction of Concrete Gravity Dams," Transactions, 10th International Congress on Large Dams (Montreal, 1970), International Commission on Large Dams, Paris, V. 4, pp. 439-452. [3] Raphael, Jerome M., "The Optimum Gravity Dam," Rapid Construction of Concrete Dams, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1971, pp. 221-247. [4] "Fact Sheet on Sly Creek Dam," Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1973. [5] Lowe, John, III, "Use of Rolled Concrete in Earth Dams," unpublished discussion to "Utilization of Soil-Cement as Slope Protection for Earth Dams" by W. G. Holtz and F. C. Walker, First Water Resources Engineering Conference, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1962. [6] Catanach, Richard B., and McDaniel, Thomas N., "Cement Stabilized Fill for Conduit Support," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 97, SM6, June 1971, p. 959. [7] Cannon, Robert W., "Concrete Dam Construction Using Earth Compaction Methods," Economical Construction of Concrete Dams, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1972, pp. 143-152. [8] Tynes, W. O., "Feasibility Study of No-Slump Concrete for Mass Concrete Construction," Miscellaneous Paper No. C-73-10, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Oct. 1973, 29 pp. [9] Hall, Donald J., and Houghton, Donald L., "Roller Compacted Concrete Studies at Lost Creek Dam," U.S. Army Engineer District, Portland, Oregon, June 1974, 56 pp. [10] Johnson, Horace A., and Chao, Paul C., "Rollcrete Usage at Tarbela Dam," Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 1, No. 11, Nov. 1979, pp. 20-33. [11] Chao, Paul C., "Tarbela Dam--Problems Solved by Novel Concretes," Civil Engineering--ASCE, V. 50, No. 12, Dec. 1980, pp. 58-64. [12] Cannon, R. W., "Bellefonte Nuclear Plant--Roller Compacted Concrete--Summary of Concrete Placement and Evaluation of Core Recovery," Report No. CEB-76-38, Tennessee Valley Authority, Knoxville, 1977, 10 pp. [13] Hansen, K. D., "Roller Compacted Concrete, Water Control Applications in the U.S. and Canada," Portland Cement Association, Denver, July 1979, 3 pp. [14] "A First in Alaska--Roller Compacted Concrete," Alaska Construction and Oil, Nov. 1978, pp. 30-32. [15] Sivley, W. E., "Zintel Canyon Optimum Gravity Dam," Transactions, 12th International Congress on Large Dams (Mexico City, 1976), International Commission on Large Dams, Paris, V. 5, pp. 141-145.

[16] Schrader, E. K., "Roller-Compacted Concrete," Military Engineer, V. 69, Sept.-Oct. 1977, pp. 314-317. Also, republished by Portland Cement Association. [17] Schrader, Ernest, and McKinnon, Richard, "Construction of Willow Creek Dam," Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 6, No. 5, May 1984, pp. 38-45. [18] Price, A. C., "The Engineering Characteristics of Dry Lean Concrete as Applied to the Construction of Gravity Dams," PhD thesis, University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1977. [19] Dunstan, M. R. H., "Roller Concrete for Dams--A Laboratory Study of the Properties of High Flyash Content Concrete," Technical Note No. 105, Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London, May 1981, 94 pp. [20] Dunstan, M. R. H., "Trial of Lean Rolled Concrete at the Tamar Treatment Works," Report to Southwest Water Authority, June l977, 24 pp. [21] Dunstan, M. R. H., "Rolled Concrete for Dams--Construction Trials Using High Flyash Content Concrete," Technical Note No. 106, Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London, May 1981, 96 pp. [22] Oliverson, James E., and Richardson, Alan T., "Upper Stillwater Dam--Design and Construction Concepts," Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 6, No. 5, May 1984, pp. 20-28. [23] Hirose, Toshio, and Yanagida, Tsutomu, "Dam Construction in Japan: Burst of Growth Demands Speed, Economy," Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 6, No. 5, May 1984, pp. 14-19. [24] "Development in Japan of Concrete Dam Construction by the RCD Method," Japan Ministry of Construction, Tokyo, 1984. [25] Bush, E. G. W., "Rollcrete in Revelstoke Cofferdam," Proceedings, CIRIA International Conference on Rolled Concrete for Dams, Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London, June 1981. [26] Wu, T. H., "Soil Mechanics," Allyn & Bacon, Inc., Boston, 1967, p. 93. [27] Terzaghi, K., and Peck, R., Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1967, pp. 15-84. [28] Schrader, E. K., "Compaction of Roller Compacted Concrete," Consolidation of Concrete, SP-96, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1987, pp. 77-101. [29] "Willow Creek Dam Concrete Report," U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Walla Walla, Oct. 1984, V. 1 and 2. [30] Cannon, Robert W., "Proportioning No-Slump Concrete for Expanded Applications," Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 4, No. 8, Aug. 1982, pp. 43-47.

[31] Mather, Bryant, "Use of Concrete of Low Portland Cement Content in Combination with Pozzolans and Other Admixtures in Construction of Concrete Dams," ACI Journal, Proceedings V. 71, No. 12, Dec. 1974, pp. 589-599. [32] "Technical Guide to RCD Construction Method," Technical Center for National Land Development, Japan, July 1981. [33] "Engineering and Design, Roller Compacted Concrete," Engineering Manual No. 1110-1-2408, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C. [34] Reeves, G. N., and Yates, L. B., "Simplified Design and Construction Control for Roller Compacted Concrete," Roller Compacted Concrete, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1985. [35] Cannon, Robert W., "Design Considerations for Roller Compacted Concrete and Rollcrete in Dams," Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 7, No. 12, Dec. 1985, pp. 50-58. [36] Tatro, Stephen B., and Schrader, Ernest K., "Thermal Considerations for Roller-Compacted Concrete," ACI Journal, Proceedings V. 82, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1985, pp. 119-128. [37] Schrader, E. K., "Watertightness and Seepage Control in Roller Compacted Concrete Dams," Roller Compacted Concrete, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1985. [38] Ragan, S. A., "Evaluation of the Frost Resistance of Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavements," Miscellaneous Paper No. SL-86-16, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Oct. 1986. [39] "Studies on RCD Concrete," 36th Annual Academic Presentation, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Tokyo, Oct. 1981. Reprint in English, Shimizu Construction Co., Tokyo, 9 pp. [40] Dolen, T. P., and Tayabji, S. D., "Bond Strength of Roller Compacted Concrete," ASCE Specialty Conference on Roller-Compacted Concrete, Feb. 1988. [41] Design of Gravity Dams, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, 1976, 553 pp. [42] Hirose, T., and Yanagida, T., "Some Experiences Gained in Construction of Shimajigawa and Okawa Dams," Proceedings, CIRIA Conference on Rolled Concrete for Dams, Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London, June 1981. [43] "Membrane-Lined Panels Face New RCC Dam," Highway and Heavy Construction, Feb. 1985, pp. 64-65. [44] Parent, W. F.; Moler, W. A.; and Southard, R. W., "Construction of Middle Fork Dam," Roller Compacted Concrete, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1985, pp. 71-89. [45] Elias, G. C.; Campbell, D. B.; and Schrader, E. K., "Monksville Dam--A Roller Compacted Concrete Water Supply Structure," Transactions, 15th International Congress on Large

Dams (Lausanne, 1985), International Commission of Large Dams, Paris, pp. 215-238. [46] "Lost Creek No Slump Roller Compacted Concrete Investigation," Final Report No. W073, C463, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Portland District. [47] "General Construction Specification No. G-48 for Roller Compacted Concrete," Tennessee Valley Authority, Knoxville, Aug. 1975, Appendix A & B. 7.6--General references Anderson, Fred A., "RCC Does More," Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 6, No. 5, May 1984, pp. 35-37. Andriolo, Francisco Rodrigues; de Vasconcelos, Gustavo Reis Lobo; and Gama, Humberto Rodrigues, "Use of Roller Compacted Concrete in Brazil," Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 6, No. 5, May 1984, pp. 29-34. Boggs, H. L., and Richardson, A. T., "USBR Design Considerations for Roller Compacted Concrete Dams," Roller Compacted Concrete, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1985, pp. 123-140. "BuRec Debuts First Rollcrete Dam," Engineering News-Record, V. 212, Mar. 29, 1984, p. 52. Burns, Cecil D., "Compaction Study of Zero-Slump Concrete," Miscellaneous Paper No. S-76-16, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Aug. 1978. Cannon, Robert W., "Compaction of Mass Concrete with Vibratory Roller," ACI Journal, Proceedings V. 71, No. 10, Oct. 1974, pp. 506-513. Cannon, Robert W., "Laboratory Investigations and Full-Scale Trials by the Tennessee Valley Authority," Proceedings, CIRIA International Conference on Rolled Concrete for Dams, Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London, June 1981. Choudry, T.; Bogdovitz, W.; and Chavarri, G., "Construction of Cofferdam at Guri with Rollcrete," Transactions, 14th International Congress on Large Dams (Rio de Janeiro, 1982), International Commission on Large Dams, Paris, V. 4, pp. 69-84. Concrete Manual, 8th Edition, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, 1975, pp. 17-18. Crow, Roselle D.; Dolen, Timothy P.; Oliverson, James E.; and Prusia, Charles D., "Mix Design Investigation--Roller Compacted Concrete Construction, Upper Stillwater Dam, Utah," Report No. REC-ERC-84-15, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, June 1984, 72 pp. Dunstan, M. R. H., "A Method of Design for the Mix Proportions of Roller-Compacted Concrete to be Used in Dams," Transactions, 15th International Congress on Large Dams (Lausanne, 1985),

International Commission on Large Dams, Paris, 1985, pp. 713-738. Dunstan, M. R. H., "Design Considerations for Roller Compacted Concrete Dams," Water Power and Dam Construction (London), Jan. 1982. Dunstan, Malcolm R. H., "Development of the Rolled Concrete Dam for Milton Brook," Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 5, No. 3, Mar. 1983, pp. 19-31. Dvoracek, J.; Hobst, L.; and Pribyl, F., "Investigation of Gravity Dams Compacted by Rolling High Layers," Transactions, 15th International Congress on Large Dams (Lausanne, 1985), International Commission on Large Dams, Paris, V. 2, pp. 239-248. Gomez LAA, G., "Rollcrete in the Erizana Dam," Transactions, 15th International Congress on Large Dams (Lausanne, 1985), International Commission on Large Dams, Paris, V. 2, pp. 337-342. "Guidelines for Designing and Constructing Roller-Compacted Concrete Dams," U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, 1987. Hansen, K. D., "Roller Compacted Concrete Developments in the U.S.A.," Water Power and Dam Construction (London), Jan. 1986. Hirose, T., "Experience in the Use of Rolled Concrete," Water Power and Dam Construction (London), Mar. 1983. Hirose, T., "Research for the Construction Method by R.C.D. Concrete," Proceedings, CIRIA International Conference on Rolled Concrete for Dams, Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London, June 1981. Hollingworth, F., and Druyts, F. H. W. N., "Experimental Use of Rollcrete on Sections of a Concrete Gravity Dam," Transactions, 15th International Congress on Large Dams (Lausanne, 1985), International Commission on Large Dams, Paris, V. 2, pp. 23-38. Hollingworth, F., and Druyts, F. H. W. N., "Rollcrete: Some Applications to Dams in South Africa," Water Power and Dam Construction (London), Jan. 1986. Holtz, Wesley G., and Walker, Fred C., "Soil Cement and Slope Protection for Earth Dams," Proceedings, ASCE, V. 88, SM6, Dec. 1962, pp. 107-134. Hopman, D.; Keifer, O.; and Anderson, F. A., "Current Corps of Engineers' Concepts for Roller Compacted Concrete in Dams," Roller Compacted Concrete, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1985, pp. 1-10. Houghton, Donald L., "Determining Tensile Strain Capacity of Mass Concrete," ACI Journal, Proceedings V. 73, No. 12, Dec. 1976, pp. 691-700. Houk, Ivan E., Jr.; Borge, Orville E.; and Houghton, Donald L., "Studies of Autogenous Volume Change in Concrete for Dworshak Dam," ACI Journal, Proceedings V. 66, No. 7, July 1969, pp. 560-568.

Houk, Ivan E., Jr.; Paxton, James A.; and Houghton, Donald L., "Prediction of Thermal Stress and Strain Capacity of Concrete by Tests of Small Beams," ACI Journal, Proceedings V. 67, No. 3, Mar. 1970, pp. 253-261. "Instrumentation of Concrete Structures," Engineering Manual No. 1110-2-4300, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., Sept. 1980. "Japan Goes for Rollcrete Dams," Engineering News-Record, Feb. 28, 1985, pp. 22-23. Jones, J. C., and Mass, G. R., "Use of Roller Compacted Concrete in Dam Construction," Proceedings, International Symposium on Problems and Practice of Dam Engineering, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Dec. 1980, pp. 265-280. Karl, D., "Upper Stillwater Dam RCC Construction Program," Roller Compacted Concrete, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1985 pp. 102-110. Klopfenstein, Don, and Klopfenstein, Inez, "Rollcrete Dam--More Strength, Less Price," Pacific Builder and Engineer, July 5, 1982, pp. 9-15. Kokubu, M., "Development in Japan of Concrete Dam Construction by the RCD Method," 52nd International Congress on Large Dams Executive Meeting, Tokyo, June 1984. Kollgaard, E. B., and Jackson, H. E., "Design Innovations for Roller Compacted Concrete Dams," Transactions, 15th International Congress on Large Dams (Lausanne, 1985), International Commission on Large Dams, Paris, V. 2, pp. 191-194. Krauch, H. W., "Rolled Lean Concrete at Itaipu Dam," Proceedings, CIRIA International Conference on Rolled Concrete for Dams, Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London, June 1981. LaVilla, G., "The Technique of Placing Rollcrete as Experienced at Tarbela Dam During 1978-1980 for the Construction of Additional Works at the Service Spillway," Proceedings, International Symposium on Problems and Practice of Dam Engineering, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Dec. 1980, pp. 265-280. Logie, C. V., "Economic Considerations in Selection of a Roller Compacted Concrete Dam," Roller Compacted Concrete, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1985, pp. 111-122. Masatane, K., "Development in Japan of Concrete Dam Construction by the RCD Method," Reprint, Technical Lecture, 52nd Executive Meeting of the International Congress on Large Dams, Tokyo, June 1984. Mass, G. R., "Roller Compacted Concrete Provides Economical Solutions for Dam Constructions," Concrete, July 1983, pp. 32-35. Maynard, D. P., "Properties of Cores from Full Scale Trials," Proceedings, CIRIA International Conference on Rolled Concrete for Dams, Construction Industry Research and Information

Association, London, June 1981. Morsman, D. E.; Lawler, L. E.; and Seimears, J. R., "Construction of Two Spillways Using Roller Compacted Concrete," Roller Compacted Concrete, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1985, pp. 62-70. Nagataki, S.; Yanagida, T.; and Okumura, T., "Construction of Recent RCD Concrete Dam Projects in Japan," Roller Compacted Concrete, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1985, pp. 90-101. "New Materials and Methods Help Seal Second RCC Dam," Highway & Heavy Construction, Jan. 1985, pp. 38-40. "Nuclear Testing for Density Control of Concrete Pavement," Publications CDOH-P and R-R-77-4, Colorado Department of Highways, Denver, June 1977. Polivka, Milos; Pirtz, David; and Adams, Robert F., "Studies of Creep in Mass Concrete," Symposium on Mass Concrete, SP-6, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1963, pp. 157-285. Published Discussions on Roller Compacted Concrete, 16th International Congress on Large Dams, Paris, V. 5, pp. 278-346. "RCC Dam Changes U.S. Ways," Engineering News-Record, Nov. 21, 1985, p. 16. "Reservoir Will Add Seven Billion Gallons of Storage," Public Works, Aug. 1985, p. 112. Richardson, A. T., "Upper Stillwater Dam, Roller Compacted Concrete Design and Construction Concepts," Transactions, 15th International Congress on Large Dams (Lausanne, 1985), International Commission on Large Dams, Paris, V. 2, pp. 143-156. Robertson, James A., "The Use of Stabilized Soil as a Material in Dam Construction," PhD thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 1984, V. 1 and 2. "Rolled Concrete Triumphs," Engineering News-Record, V. 209, No. 17, Oct. 21, 1982, pp. 34-37. "Rollcrete Dam Near to Completion," New Civil Engineer (London), Feb. 18, 1982, p. 6. "Roller-Compacted Concrete," Engineering Manual No. 1110-2-2006, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., 1985. "Roller Compacted Concrete: Questions, Answers, Insights--ACI Forum," Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 6, No. 5, May 1984, pp. 46-49. Saucier, K. L., "Investigation of No-Slump Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) for Use in Mass Concrfete Construction," Proceedings, CIRIA International Conference on Rolled Concrete for Dams, Construction Industry Reserch and Information Association, London, June 1981.

Schrader, E. K., "Design for Strength Variability: Testing and Effects on Cracking in RCC and Conventional Concretes," Lewis H. Tuthill International Symposium on Concrete and Concrete Construction, SP-104, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1987, pp. 1-25. Schrader, Ernest K., "First Concrete Gravity Dam Designed and Built for Roller Compacted Construction Methods," Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 4, No. 10, Oct. 1982, pp. 15-24. Schrader, Ernest, "Shotcrete Reduces Cost of Spillway Crest Construction," Concrete Construction, V. 29, No. 7, July 1984, pp. 633-639. Schrader, E. K., "Willow Creek Dam--An Optimum Gravity RCC Dam with Vertical Upstream Face," Proceedings, CIRIA International Conference on Rolled Concrete for Dams, Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London, June 1981. Schrader, E. K., "World's First All-Rollcrete Dam," Civil Engineering--ASCE, V. 52, No. 4, Apr. 1982, pp. 45-48. Schrader, E. K., and Thayer, H. J., "Willow Creek Dam--A Roller Compacted Concrete Fill," Transactions, 14th International Congress on Large Dams (Rio de Janeiro, 1982), International Commission on Large Dams, Paris, V. 4, pp. 453-479. Shimizu, S., and Takemura, K., "Design and Construction of a Concrete Gravity Dam on a Weak Bedrock," Transactions, 13th International Congress on Large Dams (New Delhi, 1979), International Commission on Large Dams, Paris, V. 1, pp. 519-545. Springenschmid, R., and Sonnewald, P., "Permeability, Frost Resistance, and Crack Prevention of Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC)," Transactions, 15th International Congress on Large Dams (Lausanne, 1985), International Commission on Large Dams, Paris, V. 2, pp. 73-88. "Texas Detention Dams Built of RCC," Highway & Heavy Construction, Mar. 1985, p. 35. "Utah Dam Faces Slipformed," Concrete Construction, V. 27, No. 9, Sept. 1982, pp. 713-714. "What is Roller Compacted Concrete?," Concrete Construction, V. 27, No. 9, Sept. 1982, pp. 709-711. "With Rollcrete, Dambuilders Outrun Winter," Engineering News-Record, V. 213, Dec. 13, 1984, p. 24. Yamaguchi, T.; Harada, J.; Okada, T.; and Shimada, S., "Construction of Tamagawa Dam by the RCD Method," Transactions, 15th International Congress on Large Dams (Lausanne, 1985), International Commission on Large Dams, Paris, V. 2, pp. 89-116. 7.7--Gravity dam design references "Design Criteria for Concrete Arch and Gravity Dams," Engineering Monograph No. 19, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Feb. 1977.

Design of Gravity Dams, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, 1976, 553 pp. "Earthquake Analysis and Design of Concrete Gravity Dams," Engineering Technical Letter No. 1110-2-303, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., Aug. 1985. "Earthquake Design and Analysis for Corps of Engineers Projects," Engineering Regulation No. 1110-2-1806, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., May 1983. "Gravity Dam Design," Engineer Manual No. 1110-2-2200, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., Sept. 1958. "Sliding Stability for Concrete Structures," Engineering Technical Letter No. 1110-2-256, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., June 1981. "Standard Practice for Concrete," Engineer Manual No. 1110-2-2000, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., Sept. 1985. "Structural Design of Spillway and Outlet Works," Engineer Manual No. 1110-2-2400, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., Nov. 1964. THE FOLLOWING DISCUSSIONS, WHICH WERE PUBLISHED IN THE MAY-JUNE 1989 ACI Materials Journal (PP. 332-334), ARE NOT PART OF THE REPORT ACI 207.5R-89, BUT ARE PROVIDED AS ADDITIONAL INFORMATION TO THE READER. Roller Compacted Mass Concrete. Report by ACI Committee 207 Discussion by Pat Creegan, J. J. Sled, and Authors By PAT CREEGAN FACI, Vice President, Engineering-Science, Inc., Berkeley, Calif. The committee is to be commended for a fine report, as far as it goes. Considering the thermal cracking experienced in virtually every roller compacted concrete (RCC) dam constructed to date, however, it is believed that that "red flag" should have been raised for the profession, rather than have the subject merely alluded to. In advancing from proven cast-in-place gravity dam construction, with costly cooling systems to dissipate the heat of hydration, to unproven RCC construction, without such cooling systems, the committee failed to adequately respect the properties of the material that we are working with. ACI 207.5R states in Section 2.3.1 that "Consideration must be given to the generation of heat by the cementitious materials of the RCC mass." It also goes on, in Section 3.3, to very well outline the elastic properties of RCC, and in Section 5.5, to give valuable

information on the thermal analysis. The warning is implied but never really given. Alternatively, the report states, "As with conventional concrete, there does not appear to be a limit to the size of structure that can be designed and built with RCC." That statement, without the qualifiers that it deserves, is quite misleading. As suggested at the 16th USCOLD Congress in San Francisco this summer, why don't we start looking at RCC as a new material for dam construction? Why don't we recognize that it is going to crack and leak? Acceptable quantities of leakage can be permitted to pass through the dam for all to see, or, alternatively, be handled through an interior drainage system, or sealed off by a preplanned post-construction grouting program. Unacceptable quantities of leakage could be avoided by considering the RCC as the ballast zone of a composite dam, where the other zone is the impervious barrier. By J. J. SLED Senior Engineer, B.C. Hydro, Structural Department, Hydroelectric Engineering Division, Vancouver, B. C., Canada Chapter 5 of the report presents recommendations regarding the selection of dimensions of roller compacted concrete (RCC) dams to satisfy overturning and sliding stability requirements. The writer concurs that the basic design approach for evaluating overturning and sliding stability of roller compacted concrete dams should be similar to that used for conventional concrete structures; however, the uplift criteria presented in Fig. 5.1 are at variance with the published criteria of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR),[28] the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps),[49] and the U.S. Federal Regulatory Agency (FERC).[50] In all cases the criteria presented in Fig. 5.1 is less conservative. It would be unfortunate if the claimed economies of RCC were perceived to be due simply to more liberal design criteria. As well, the plotted curves on Fig. 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3 are incorrect. The plots are unchanged from the report, "Roller Compacted Concrete," (ACI 207.5R-80). It is hoped that these curves have not been used to select the proportions of any dams during this period. The criteria presented in Fig. 5.1 differ from the published USBR criteria.[48] Their recommended drainage efficiency for a "line of drains at a distance from the upstream face of 5 percent of the maximum reservoir depth at the dam" and at "a lateral spacing of twice that distance will reduce the average pore pressure at the line of drains to tailwater pressure plus one third the differential between tailwater and headwater pressures." The definition contained in Fig. 5.1 indicates greater drain efficiency. It is understood that the USBR criteria[50] also require that the base pressure as computed without uplift be compared with the uplift pressure on a point-by-point basis to determine whether cracking occurs. Where the uplift pressure exceeds the base pressure, cracking and headwater uplift is assumed to occur. This would negate any contribution of drainage if the drains were located in the downstream area of the dam.

The definition of uplift in Fig. 5.1 is similar to that recommended by the Corps,[49] but their recommended drainage efficiency is much less, being 25 to 50 percent rather than the 66.7 percent indicated in the figure. The FERC guidelines[50] require that, when the drains are located more than 5 percent of the head from the upstream face, a determination of cracking be made on a point-by-point basis by comparing the foundation pressure computed without uplift to the assumed uplift pressure. This again would greatly reduce the efficiency of drains not located very close to the upstream face. Although assumed values for the weight of concrete or water are not given, the values plotted for k = 0 and k = b in Fig. 5.1 suggest that assumed weights of about 150 and 62.5 lb/ft.3- have been used for concrete and water, respectively. The shapes of the curves in Fig. 5.1 between these end points are incorrect. Based on the criteria presented in the figure, the optimum location for the drains would be as close to the upstream face as practicable. The shapes of the curves presented appear to be the basis for the statement that the optimum location of the drainage system is approximately one-quarter of the base length from the upstream face. This is incorrect. Similarly, the curves of EFv/EFh in Fig. 5.2 are also incorrect with the plotted shape conveying a misleading indication of the variation with drain position. It is assumed that the values plotted in Fig. 5.2 are for the minimum required base widths indicated in Fig. 5.1. The caption of Fig. 5.2 is incorrect. The foregoing errors have lead to similar errors in Fig. 5.3. The curves in Fig. 5.3 can be correct only for one value of k/b. (Fig. A and B modify Fig. 5.1 and 5.2 and give values of points on the curves.) It is questionable whether it is appropriate to include recommendations on uplift and selection of dam cross sections in a report on roller compacted mass concrete. The subject is much more complex than the brief discussion presented. The writer suggests that Sections 5.3 and 5.4 either be deleted entirely or only contain information regarding the variations of the properties of roller compacted concrete that would need to be accounted for.

REFERENCES [48] "Design Criteria for Concrete Arch and Gravity Dams," Engineering Monograph No. 19, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Feb. 1977. [49] "Gravity Dam Design," Engineer Manual No. 1110-2-2200, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., Sept. 1958. [50] "Engineering Guidelines for the Evaluation of Hydropower Projects," Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Office of Hydropower Licensing, Washington, D.C., July 1987. COMMITTEE CLOSURE Members of Committee 207 believe we have been fair and impartial in presenting various opinions and options relative to the use of roller compacted concrete (RCC) in dam construction. RCC itself is simply concrete that has been compacted by a roller. The quality of that concrete is very much mixture dependent. We believe that the report contains adequate cautions and guides taken as a whole and decline to debate sentences taken out of context. We are unable to respond to generalities discussed by Mr. Creegan. In response to newspaper articles alleging health and safety hazards, a department of the army investigative team, including Lewis A. Tuthill, a member of ACI Committee 207 as an independent consultant, evaluated the safety of Willow Creek Dam in October 1988. The final report stated, in part: "The RCC design and construction concept, particularly in its use for dams, has received criticism by some observers as being inferior to conventionally formed, plastic concrete that has been historically used in such mass placement applications. It is our consensus view that such criticism is not warranted and is without merit. Even though RCC differs from conventional concrete in its required placement consistency, its strength and durability are not compromised. Even though noticeable leakage has prevailed at Willow Creek along the continuous lift line accumulations of segregated coarse aggregate, the strength, stability, and safety of the structure has been no less than it would have been had conventional concrete been used." ACI Committee 207 concurs with this statement. It is true that RCC construction is not compatible to the use of post cooling piping, but other methods of limiting peak temperatures are available and discussed. Throughout the report the committee tried to red flag areas that need special attention. One of these is thermal analysis. We agree totally that the dissipation of heat problem didn't go away and we certainly didn't say that the engineer should ignore it. Section 5.5 of the report is devoted entirely to thermal considerations. It discusses special conditions that the designer should be aware of when dealing with RCC. Reference 36 provides additional information that addresses thermal issues in more detail. Considerations for mass concrete (regardless of how it is placed), are covered in Committee Report 207.1R and 207.2R. The consideration of different approaches to leakage through the dam

is appropriate and this too is covered in the document. The committee wishes to thank Mr. Sled for his discussion concerning Sections 5.3 and 5.4 and Fig. 5.1 through 5.3. Fig. 5.1 through 5.3 were developed by a committee member during preparation of the 1980 report. They were reviewed by the committee at that time and again during preparation of the 1988 report without comment. Apparently no one else checked the curves for other than the extreme positions of the drains, which are correct. The committee member who developed the curves acknowledges they are incorrect. Using 150 lb/ft.3- for concrete and 62.4 lb/ft.3- for water, the correct formulas for the assumed uplift conditions are b/h = {10.4 / [25* (1 - 2*k 2 + Fv/Fh = (b/h)* [75 + (1 + 2*k)] / (1 - c) - 3.47* 4*k)]} ^ .5 31.2* c - 10.4* 31.2

where c = i * h / b. All other notations are as shown on the figures. The computations from which the original curves were developed no longer exist and the author is unable to duplicate them. He assumes the error occurred in the development of the algebraic expression for b/h. The curves for Fig. 5.1 and 5.2 are correct as shown in Mr. Sled's Fig. A and B.

The uplift assumptions used in the development of Fig. 5.1 and 5.2 were provided to indicate the basis on which the curves were developed. They were not presented as a recommendation for design by the committee. The paper is a state-of-the-art report. In the paragraph preceding the one providing the uplift assumptions, the general use of words "usually taken" and "some ratio" clearly indicate that different criteria are used. Committee 207 includes representatives of both the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (as well as other agencies and design organizations) who are thoroughly familiar with their criteria. Obviously, the committee recognizes other criteria are used.

Mr. Sled expressed concern about dams that may have been proportioned by the incorrect curves. While the committee regrets the error, it is highly unlikely that any major structure would be proportioned solely on the basis of curves from a committee report. Uplift criteria have varied substantially with time as well as with various agencies and design organizations. The error in the curves is well within the range of criteria differences. Mr. Sled also raises the question of checking uplift pressure on a point-by-point basis with base pressures computed without uplift to determine if cracking should be assumed. The same criteria states that if the computed base pressure exceeds uplift, there is no concern for overturning. One of the benefits of doing a stability analysis for full base in compression, including uplift assumptions, is that it negates the need for the step-by-step comparison, except for upstream batters greater than approximately 0.4 with drains located close to the upstream face. Actually, the step-by-step comparison criteria allow the dam to be proportioned with less than the full base in compression considering uplift. It is not, therefore, an extra design conservatism since it provides for a reduced base. On the question of gallery and drain location, the revised figures clearly show that it should be located near the upstream face to be effective in reducing volume requirements. However, its location should also allow for the placement of RCC between the facing concrete and the gallery. Fig. 5.3 does not require revision since it is based on the minimum values of Fig. 5.2 that were not in error for the assumptions provided. There are obvious differences of opinion among designers as to what is and is not conservative and the degree of conservatism that should be applied under a given set of conditions. Dams are not simple triangles, as depicted in Fig. 5.1 and 5.2, and the exclusion of the normal free board and crest dimensions from the computations is an obvious conservatism. Let it suffice to say that no other type dam can match the safety record of the concrete gravity section, in spite of our continuing ignorance concerning uplift.