Chuong 1

CHAPTER 1: CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
Lesson #1: A big picture about Digital Signal Processing
Lesson #2: Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog conversion
Lesson #3: The concept of frequency in CT & DT signals
References: Joyce Van de Vegte, Fundamentals of Digital Signal Processing, Chap. 1, 2
John G. Proakis, Dimitris G. Manolakis, Digital Signal Processing, Chap. 1
Lecture 1: Lecture 1: A big picture about A big picture about
Digital Signal Processing Digital Signal Processing
Outline:
1. Signals
2. Digital Signal Processing (DSP) 2. Digital Signal Processing (DSP)
3. Why DSP?
4. DSP applications
Learning Digital Signal Processing is not something you accomplish; its a journey
you take.
R.G. Lyons, Understanding Digital Signal Processing
* * * * * * *
Signals Signals
Function of independent variables such as time, distance,
position, temperature
Convey information Convey information
Examples:
1D signal: speech, music, biosensor
2D signal: image
2.5D signal: video (2D image + time)
3D signal: animated
11--D signals D signals
ECG
EEG
Color image
Speech signal
22--D image signals D image signals
Binary image??? Color image Grey image
(indexed image)
2.5 2.5--D video signals D video signals
33--D animated signals D animated signals
Outline:
1. Signals
2. Digital Signal Processing (DSP)
3. Why DSP?
4. DSP applications
Discrete Discrete--time signal vs. time signal vs.
continuous continuous--time signal time signal
Continuous-time signal:
- defined for a continuous duration of time
- sound, voice
Discrete-time signal:
- defined only for discrete points in time (hourly,
every second, )
- an image in computer, a MP3 music file
- amplitude could be discrete or continuous
- if the amplitude is also discrete, the signal is digital.
Analog signal vs. Analog signal vs. Digital Digital signal signal
Analog signal Digital signal
00 10 00 10 11
What is Digital Signal Processing? What is Digital Signal Processing?
Represent a signal by a sequence of numbers (called a
"discrete-time signal or "digital signal").
Modify this sequence of numbers by a computing process
to change or extract information from the original signal
The "computing process" is a system that converts one
digital signal into another it is a "discrete-time system or
"digital system.
Transforms are tools using in computing process
Signal processing systems Signal processing systems
Processing
Analog signal
x(t)
Analog signal
y(t)
Analog signal processing
Processing
A/D
D/A
Analog signal
x(t)
Analog signal
y(t)
Digital signal processing
implementation implementation
Performed by:
Special-purpose (custom) chips: application-specific integrated
circuits (ASIC) circuits (ASIC)
Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA)
General-purpose microprocessors or microcontrollers (P/C)
General-purpose digital signal processors (DSP processors)
DSP processors with application-specific hardware (HW)
accelerators
Use 3 basic operations:
Addition
Multiplication
Delay
Combine these operations to accomplish
processing: a discrete-time input signal
another discrete-time output signal
An example of main step: An example of main step:
DT signal processing DT signal processing
From a discrete-time input signal:
{ 1 2 4 -9 5 3 }
Create a discrete-time output signal:
{ 1/3 1 7/3 -1 0 -1/3 8/3 1 } { 1/3 1 7/3 -1 0 -1/3 8/3 1 }
What is the relation between input and output signal?
+
Two main categories of DSP Two main categories of DSP
- feature extraction
- signal recognition
- noise removal
- interference
Digital Signals
Analysis Filtering
Measurement
Digital Signals
- signal recognition
- signal modeling
........
- interference
removal

Outline:
1. Signals
3. Why DSP?
4. DSP applications
Advantages of Digital Signal Advantages of Digital Signal
Processing Processing
Flexible: re-programming ability
More reliable
Smaller, lighter less power Smaller, lighter less power
Easy to use, to develop and test (by using the
assistant tools)
Suitable to sophisticated applications
Suitable to remote-control applications
Limitations of Digital Signal Limitations of Digital Signal
Processing Processing
A/D and D/A needed aliasing error and
quantization error quantization error
Not suitable to high-frequency signal
Require high technology
Mixed Signal Processing
Outline:
1. Signals
3. Why DSP?
4. DSP applications
Radar
Biomedical Biomedical
Analysis of biomedical signals, diagnosis, patient
monitoring, preventive health care
Speech compression Speech compression
Speech Speech
recognition recognition
Communication Communication
Digital telephony: transmission of information in
digital form via telephone lines, modern technology,
mobile phone
Image processing Image processing
Image enhancement: processing an image to be more
suitable than the original image for a specific application
It makes all the difference whether one sees
darkness through the light or brightness through
the shadows
Image compression: reducing the redundancy in the
image data
UW Campus (bmp) 180 kb UW Campus (jpg) 13 kb
Image restoration: reconstruct a degraded image using a
priori knowledge of the degradation phenomenon
Music Music
Recording, encoding, storing
Playback
Manipulation/mixing
Finger print recognition Finger print recognition
Noise removal Noise removal
Lecture 2: Lecture 2: Analog Analog--to to--Digital and Digital and
Digital Digital--to to--Analog conversion Analog conversion
Outline:
1. A/D conversion 1. A/D conversion
2. D/A conversion
ADC ADC
Sampling Sampling
Continuous-time signal discrete-time signal
Analog
world
Digital
world
Sampling
Sampling Sampling
Taking samples at intervals and dont know what happens in
between cant distinguish higher and lower frequencies:
aliasing
How to avoid aliasing?
Nyquist sampling theory Nyquist sampling theory
To guarantee that an analog signal can be perfectly
recovered from its sampled values
Theory: a signal with maximum of frequency of WHz must
be sampled at least 2Wtimes per second to make it possible
to reconstruct the original signal from the samples to reconstruct the original signal from the samples
Nyquist sampling rate: minimum sampling frequency
Nyquist frequency: half the sampling rate
Nyquist range: 0 to Nyquist frequency range
To remove all signal elements above the Nyquist frequency
antialiasing filter
Anti Anti--aliasing filter aliasing filter
m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
frequency
Analog signal
spectrum
Anti-aliasing
filter response
0 W 2W =f
s
3W 4W
frequency
0 W 2W =f
s
3W 4W
m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
frequency
Filtered analog signal
spectrum
Some examples of sampling frequency Some examples of sampling frequency
Speech coding/compression ITU G.711, G.729, G.723.1:
fs = 8 kHz T = 1/8000 s = 125s
Broadband system ITU-T G.722:
fs = 16 kHz T = 1/16 000 s = 62.5s
Audio CDs:
fs = 44.1 kHz T = 1/44100 s = 22.676s
Audio hi-fi, e.g., MPEG-2 (moving picture experts group),
AAC (advanced audio coding), MP3 (MPEG layer 3):
fs = 48 kHz T = 1/48 000 s = 20.833s
Sampling and Hold Sampling and Hold
Sampling interval T
s
(sampling period): time between samples
Sampling frequency f
s
(sampling rate): # samples per second
Analog signal Sample-and-hold signal
0 1 2 3 4
Quantization Quantization
Continuous-amplitude signal discrete-amplitude signal
Quantization step
Coding Coding
Quantized sample N-bit code word
1.5V
0.0V
0.5V
1.0V
1.5V
0.82V
1.1V
1.25V
Example of quantization and Example of quantization and coding (1) coding (1)
Analog pressures
are recorded,
using a pressure
transducer, as
voltages between
0 and 3V. The
Digital code
000
001
010
Quantization
Level (V)
0.0
0.375
0.75
Range of
analog
inputs (V)
0.0-0.1875
0.1875-0.5625
0.5625-0.9375
signal must be
quantized using a
3-bit digital code.
Indicate how the
analog voltages
will be converted
to digital values.
010
011
100
101
110
111
0.75
1.125
1.5
1.875
2.25
2.625
0.5625-0.9375
0.9375-1.3125
1.3125-1.6875
1.6875-2.0625
2.0625-2.4375
2.4375-3.0
Example of quantization and Example of quantization and coding (2) coding (2)
An analog voltage
between -5V and 5V
must be quantized
using 3 bits. Quantize
Digital code
100
101
110
Quantization
Level (V)
Range of analog
inputs (V)
each of the following
samples, and record
the quantization error
for each:
-3.4V; 0V; .625V
110
111
000
001
010
011
Quantization parameters Quantization parameters
Number of bits: n
Full scale analog range: R
Resolution: the gap between levels Q = R/2
n
Quantization error = quantized value actual value
Dynamic range: number of levels, in decibel Dynamic range: number of levels, in decibel
Dynamic range = 20log(R/Q) = 20log(2
n
) = 6.02n dB
Signal-to-noise ratio SNR = 10log(signal power/noise power)
Or SNR = 20log(signal amplitude/noise amplitude)
Bit rate: the rate at which bits are generated
Bit rate = n.f
s
(bps)
Noise removal by quantization Noise removal by quantization
Q/2
Noise
Error
Q
Quantized signal + noise After re-quantization
Non Non--uniform quantization uniform quantization
Quantization with variable quantization step Q value is
variable
Q value is directly
proportional to signal
Non-
uniform
Output
proportional to signal
amplitude SNR is
constant
Most used in speech
Input
Uniform
AA--law compression curve law compression curve
<
+
+

+
=
1 ) t ( s
A
1
,
A ln 1
) ) t ( s A ln( 1
A
1
) t ( s 0 ,
A ln 1
) t ( s A
) t ( s
1
1
1
1
2
1.0
s
2
(t)
- 1.0
- 1.0
1.0 0
A=87.6
A=1
A=5
s
1
(t)
ITU G.711 A ITU G.711 A--law curve law curve
2
1
7/8
6/8
1.0
Code-word format:
Sign bit
0/1
Part 1 (3bits)
000 111
Part 2 (16bits)
0000 1111
1.0 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16
1/8
8
6
7
5
4
3
5/8
4/8
3/8
2/8
0
ITU G.711 standard ITU G.711 standard
Input range Step size Part 1 Part 2 No. code
word
Decoding output
0-1
...
30-31
2 000 0000
...
1111
0
...
15
1
...
31
32-33
...
62-63
2 001 0000
...
1111
16
...
31
33
...
63
64-67
...
124-127
4 010 0000
...
1111
32
...
47
66
...
126
128-135 8 011 0000 48 132 128-135
...
248-255
8 011 0000
...
1111
48
...
63
132
...
252
256-271
...
496-511
16 100 0000
...
1111
64
...
79
264
...
504
512-543
...
992-1023
32 101 0000
...
1111
80
...
95
528
...
1008
1024-1087
...
1984-2047
64 110 0000
...
1111
96
...
111
1056
...
2016
2048-2175
...
3968-4095
128 111 0000
...
1111
112
...
127
2112
...
4032
Example of G.711 code word Example of G.711 code word
A quantized-samples value is +121
Sign bit: 0
Part 1: 010
Part 2: 1110 Part 2: 1110
Code word: 00101110
Decoding value: +122
A quantized-samples value is -121
Code word: 10101110
Lecture 2: Lecture 2: Analog Analog--to to--Digital and Digital and
Digital Digital--to to--Analog conversion Analog conversion
Outline:
1. A/D conversion 1. A/D conversion
2. D/A conversion
DAC DAC
Anti Anti--imaging filter imaging filter
Images
Anti-imaging
filter
m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
0 W 2W =f
s
4W = 2f
s
frequency
Original two-sided
analog signal spectrum
Lecture 3 Lecture 3
The concept of frequency in The concept of frequency in
CT & DT signals CT & DT signals
Outline:
1. CT sinusoidal signals 1. CT sinusoidal signals
2. DT sinusoidal signals
3. Relations among frequency variables
Functions:
+ < < + =
+ < < + =
t ), t f 2 cos( A
t ), t cos( A ) t ( x
a
Mathematical description of CT Mathematical description of CT
sinusoidal signals sinusoidal signals
Plot:
+ < < + = t ), t f 2 cos( A
t
x
a
(t)
Acos
T
p
= 1/f
Properties of CT sinusoidal signals Properties of CT sinusoidal signals
1. For every fixed value of the frequency f, x
a
(t) is
periodic: x
a
(t+T
p
) = x
a
(t)
T
p
= 1/f: fundamental period T
p
= 1/f: fundamental period
2. CT sinusoidal signals with different frequencies are
themselves different
3. Increasing the frequency f results in an increase in the
rate of oscillation of the signal (more periods in a
given time interval)
Properties of CT sinusoidal Properties of CT sinusoidal
signals (cont) signals (cont)
For f = 0 T
p
=
For f = T
p
= 0
Physical frequency: positive Physical frequency: positive
Mathematical frequency: positive and negative
The frequency range for CT signal:
- < f < +
) ( ) (
2 2
) cos( ) (

+ +
+ = + =
t j t j
a
e
A
e
A
t A t x
Lecture 3 Lecture 3
Outline:
Functions:
+ < < + =
+ < < + =
n ), n F 2 cos( A
n ), n cos( A ) n ( x
Mathematical description of DT Mathematical description of DT
sinusoidal signals sinusoidal signals
Plot:
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0
-2
-1 . 5
-1
-0 . 5
0
0 . 5
1
1 . 5
2
Ti m e i n d e x n
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Properties of DT sinusoidal signals Properties of DT sinusoidal signals
1. A DT sinusoidal signal x(n) is periodic only if its
frequency F is a rational number
2. DT sinusoidal signals whose frequencies are separated by
an integer multiple of 2 are identical
3. The highest rate of oscillation in a DT sinusoidal signal is
obtained when:
or, equivalently,
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
F = 3/24
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
F = 3/12
F
0
= 1/8 F
0
= 1/4
) 2 cos( ) (
0
n F n x =
Illustration for Illustration for
property 3 property 3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
F = 3/6
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
F = 3/4
F
0
= 1/2 F
0
= 3/4
- or -1/2 F 1/2: fundamental range
Lecture 3 Lecture 3
Outline:
CT signal Sampling DT signal
x
a
(t) x
a
(nT)
) t f 2 cos( A +
+ nT f A ) 2 cos(
Sampling of CT sinusoidal signals Sampling of CT sinusoidal signals
s
f
f
F =
) t f 2 cos( A +
( )
+ =
|
|
\
|
+ =
Fn A
f
n f
A
S
2 cos
2
cos
) 2 cos(
Normalized
frequency
CT signals DT signals
2 F =
2 f =
Relations among frequency variables Relations among frequency variables
+ < <
+ < <
f
2 / 1 F 2 / 1 +
+
2 / f f 2 / f
T / T /
s s
+
+
s
f
f
F =
Exercise 1 Exercise 1
Consider the analog signal
a) Determine the minimum sampling rate required to avoid aliasing
] [ , 100 cos 3 ) ( s t t t x =
b) Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate f
s
= 200 Hz. What is
the DT signal obtained after sampling?
c) Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate f
s
= 75 Hz. What is
the DT signal obtained after sampling?
d) What is the frequency 0 < f < f
s
/2 of a sinusoidal signal that yields
samples identical to those obtained in part (c)?
Solution Solution
a) Determine the minimum sampling rate required to avoid aliasing
f
max
= 50 Hz f
s
= 100 Hz
b) Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate fs = 200 Hz.
] [ , 100 cos 3 ) ( s t t t x =
b) Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate fs = 200 Hz.
What is the DT signal obtained after sampling?
c) Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate fs = 75 Hz. What
is the DT signal obtained after sampling?
|
\
|
= = n n n x
2
cos 3 ) 200 / 1 ( 100 cos 3 ) (

\
|
=
|
\
|
= = n n n n x
3
2
cos 3
3
4
cos 3 ) 75 / 1 ( 100 cos 3 ) (

Solution Solution
d) What is the frequency 0 < f < fs/2 of a sinusoidal signal that
yields samples identical to those obtained in part (c)?
3
2
cos 3
75
2 cos 3 2 cos 3 ) (
] [ , 2 cos 3 ) (
0 0
0
n n
f
n
f
f
n x
s t t f t x
= = =
=
) ( 25
2
3
2
75
2
3 75
0
0
Hz f
k n n
f
f
s
=
+ =
An analog signal is sampled at its Nyquist rate 1/T

s
, and
quantized using L quantization levels. The derived signal
is then transmitted on some channels.
Exercise 2 Exercise 2
(a) Show that the time duration, T, of one bit of the
transmitted binary signal must satisfy
(b) When is the equality sign valid?
) L /(log T T
2 s
A set of analog
samples, listed in
table 1, is digitized
using the
HW HW Problem Problem 11
Digital code
000
Quantization
Level (V)
0.0
Range of analog
inputs (V)
0.0 0.3125
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sample(V) 0.1111 0.6250 0.9555 3.4373 4.0500 2.8755 1.5625 2.7500 4.9676
1
2
using the
quantization table
2. Determine the
digital codes, the
quantized level,
and the
quantization error
for each sample.
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
0.0
0.625
1.250
1.875
2.500
3.125
3.750
4.375
0.0 0.3125
0.31250.9375
0.93751.5625
1.56252.1875
2.18752.8125
2.81253.4375
3.43754.0625
4.06255.0
Consider that you desire an A/D conversion system, such that the
quantization distortion does not exceed 1% of the full scale
range of analog signal.
(a) If the analog signals maximum frequency is 4000 Hz, and
(a) If the analog signals maximum frequency is 4000 Hz, and
sampling takes place at the Nyquist rate, what value of sampling
frequency is required?
(b) How many quantization levels of the analog signal are needed?
(c) How many bits per sample are needed for the number of levels
found in part (b)?
(d) What is the data rate in bits/s?
A 3-bit D/A converter produces a 0 V output for the
code 000 and a 5 V output for the code 111, with
other codes distributed evenly between 0 and 5 V.
other codes distributed evenly between 0 and 5 V.
Draw the zero order hold output from the converter for
the input below:
111 101 011 101 000 001 011 010 100 110
Determine whether or not each of the following signals
is periodic, specify its fundamental period.
) 6 / 5 cos( 3 ) ( ) + = t t x a
) 3 / 4 / cos( 3 ) 8 / sin( ) 2 / cos( ) ( )
) 8 / cos( ) 8 / cos( ) ( )
] ) 6 / ( exp[ 2 ) ( )
) 6 / 5 cos( 3 ) ( )
) 6 / 5 cos( 3 ) ( )

+ + =
=
=
+ =
+ =
n n n n w e
n n n h d
n j n y c
n n x b
t t x a
Consider the following continuous-time sinusoidal signal
+ < < = t t f t x
a
, 2 sin ) (
0
Its sampled version is described by values every T (s) as the formula below
+ < < = = n n
f
f
nT x n x
s
a
, 2 sin ) ( ) (
0
where f
s
= 1/T is the sampling frequency.
s
a) Plot the signal x(n), 0 n 99 for f
s
= 5 kHZ and f
0
= 0.5, 2, 3, and 4.5
kHz. Explain the similarities and differences among the various plots.
b) Suppose that f
0
= 2 kHz and f
s
= 50 kHz.
(1) Plot the signal x(n). What is the frequency F
0
of the signal x(n).
(2) Plot the signal y(n) created by taking the even-numbered samples of
x(n). Is this a sinusoidal signal? Why? If so, what is its frequency?

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CHAPTER 1: CHAPTER 1:

Lecture 1: Lecture 1: A big picture about A big picture about

An analog signal is sampled at its Nyquist rate 1/T

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