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THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

THE BROADWAY SERIES OF ENGINEERING HANDBOOKS

VOLUME XX

THE

STABILITY OF ARCHES

BY

ERNEST

H.

SPRAGUE,

A.M.Inst.C.E.

ASSISTANT AT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON; LECTURER AT THE WESTMINSTER TECHNICAL INSTITUTE; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF ENGINEERING AT THE IMPERIAL CHINESE RAILWAY COLLEGE, SHAN-HAI-KUAN

WITH FIVE FOLDING PLATES AND FIFTY-EIGHT DIAGRAMS

LONDON

SCOTT,
8

GREENWOOD
1916

&
E.G.

SON

BROADWAY, LUDGATE,
[A^

rights reserved^

PREFACE
The
present book
is

an attempt to put before

tbe reader the principles upon which the stability of

has

an arch is determined. Much ingenuity been displayed in devising satisfactory

of investigation either for assuring the

methods

stability of, or for estimating the actual

maxiIn

mum

stresses in,

an arch-ring.

Most

of these

depend ultimately on the

plification there is

elastic theory.

using indirect methods for the purpose of sim-

always the danger of losing

sight of the degree of approximation attained,

and there

is

the added difficulty always insepar-

able from graphical methods of assuring the

necessary accuracy.
in

This

is

particularly the

case in the graphical investigation of the stresses

tion has been given to the elastic theory,

is

an arch-ring, and therefore particular attenwhich

general deductions of this theory have
all

our ultimate standard of reference.

The

been confirmed by
ticularly for arches

recent experience, par-

which are moderately flat and as modern arches in masonry and concrete
are usually of this type, the elastic theory
af-

fords the

most

satisfactory basis of investigation.

VI

PEEFACE

acknowledge particuMelan's " Theorie des Gewolbes und des Eisenbetongewolbes im besonderen," Handbuch fiir Eisenbetonbau, Vol. I, and to " Leitfaden fiir das Bntwerfen und die Berechnung gewolbter Briicken," by
desires to
larly his indebtedness to Prof.

The author

G. Tolkmitt.

EENEST SPEAGUE,
University College, London.

A.M.Inst.C.E.

May,

1916.

Preface

.....
CHAPTER
I
. . .
.

CONTENTS
'"
. .

PAOES

Introduction
Histovioal

.1-10

Details

Strength
Problem

Terms Used

Early Arches Classification Particulars o Bridges Constructed

CHAPTER
II

of Materials Used.

The Thbee-Pinned Arch

Arch Critical and True Lines of Pressure The Linear Arch Conditions Necessary for its Determination Three-Pinned Arch -^Its Advantages Construction of the Line of Pressure, and Determination of the Thrust, Shearing Foroe and Bending Moment Eddy's Theorem Illustration of the Methods Used, and Comparison of the Results Three-Pinned Spandrel-Braced Arch Example of ihe Determination of the Stresses therein (i) by a Force Diagram, (ii) by
of the

H-36

Influence Lines.

CHAPTER
The Elastic Theory of the Arch

III

37-48

Austrian Experiments Experiments with Polarized Light Horizontal and Vertical Displacements Due to Bending, to Axial Thrust, and to Change Fundamental Equations Reof Temperature marks on the Assumptions Made Allowance for Thrust and Change of Temperature.

CHAPTER
The Two-Hinged Arch

IV
49-64

Advantages and Disadvantages Determination of the Line of Pressure^Horizontal Thrust, Graphically and by Calculation Method of Reaction Locus Applied to a Parabolic Arch and to a Circular Moment by Influence Line Arch Bending Method,


vm
CONTENTS

CHAPTER V
The Hinseless Akch
.
.

Advantages and Disadvantages General Expression Example of Determination for Bending Moment

....

PAGES
65-82

of the Horizontal Thrust, Bending Moment and Method of Influence Lines M. MesStresses

nager's Method.

CHAPTER
Masonry and Conogete Arches
Critical

VI
.

83-102

Conditions of Stability Stresses Rule of the Middle Third Formula Least Work Position of True Line of Principle Pressure^Joints of Rupture Curves of Minimum
Line of Pressure
for
of

and
oal

Maximum Thrust Construction

Line
of of Fictitious

of the Critl.

Pressure^Reduoed Load

Curves

Joints^Oglio Bridge Sirq^ plified Treatment for Small Arches .Asymmetric Loading Adjustment of the Arch to Suit the Load Adjustment of the Load to Suit the Arch Intermediate Piers, Stability of the Abutments

Method

CHAPTER
Problem to be Considered, and

VII
. .

Desion of Masonry and Concrete Arches

its

103-120

Empirical FormulsB for Thickness of Arch-Ring Form of the Arch-Ring Thickness of Abutments ^Dimensions of Piers ^Tolkmitt's Method^Thickness of
Solution

the Arch-Ring

Best Form of ArchExample.

CHAPTER
VIII

121-134 Loads and Stresses Effect of the Load Weight and Strength of Arch Dead Load Live Load Highway Materials

Railway BridgesEquivalent Distributed Load Example Stresses in the Arch-Ring Position of the Critical Sections Stresses by the Elastic Theory Example.
Bridges
. .

Appendix

135-138

Ordinates of a Circular Arc Constructions for a Parabola Tangent to a Parabola Construction tor a Flat Circular Arc.

Index

139-14X

CHAPTBE

I.

INTRODUCTORY.
1.

Whether we

tural or
say,

regard the arch from an architecfrom an engineering standpoint, that is to

of its

from its artistic or its scientific side, the elegance form and its combined lightness and strength

make it an object of the first interest to constructors. The scientific aspect of the subject dates no further
back than about 200 years, but during that period
has received
its full
it

share of consideration by mathe-

maticians and engineers.

On

the architectural and

practical side the use of the arch goes back to a re-

mote

antiquity, although not so remote but that inits

dications of

origin are traceable.

is

In the English
only once men-

translation of the Bible the arch

tioned (Bzek. XL. 16), and then only on account of

a mistranslation,

we

are informed.

In Chaldea and

forms and in many ruins of ancient cities, such as Persepolis, no trace of it is found. In all probability it had its origin and reached its highest development in China for scattered over this vast country from south to north are fine examples of arched bridges In the mountains which divide of great antiquity.
in early times
of arch,
;

Egypt

we

find only the simplest

Manchuria from China, fine arches exist in the Great Wall built some 300 years B.C., which are still in excellent preservation, and the bridge of arches which
1

THE STABILITY OP ARCHES

of crossing in the thirteenth cen;

Marco Polo speaks

tury serves
its

purpose equally well to-day whilst all over China the arch has figured as a favourite feature in architecture and landscape gardening, as

may
2.

be seen in their pictures and pottery. Owing to the tendency of the arch under norto sink at

mal conditions

the

crown and thereby

it

to

cause spreading at the abutments,

lateral support, in

requires strong

consequence of which the earliest examples at Nippur in Chaldea, about 4000 known B.C., and at Dendera and other places in Egypt about 3500 to 3000 B.C., were used below ground These were of unburnt brick, and not more level.

r'

.^^^^ ^^
Pig. 1.
ft.

S^
Pig.
2. if

i
we

than 6

span.

The

favourite construction in the

East at this early period was to build the arch,

may
of

so

call

it,

of horizontal slabs projecting

one over

shown in Figs. 1 and 2, a fine example which is the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae. Examples of this method of construction are found in
the other, as

Egypt, Greece, Assyria, Italy, Mexico, India, China,

and elsewhere.
zontal
thrust,

Such
and

structures,

however, cannot

be regarded as true arches, because there

this

is no horimust be regarded as the

essential feature of the arch.

fact,

Horizontal thrust, in
dis-

appears at
for, as

first to

have been regarded with

say,
.

favour,

the

Hindus
its

" the

arch never

sleeps," meaning, of course, that

it is

always exerting

a thrust tending to

destruction.

INTRODUCTOBT

Primitive arches of the form shown in Fig. 3 are found at Deir-el-Bahri and in the round towers of Ireland. Fig. i is an example from the Great Pyra-

FiG.

3.

Pig.
5,

4.

mid

whilst in Fig.
is

which occurs

also

in

the

Pyramids,

shown

a combination of both types,

Fig.

5.

shows another arrangement in the tomb pyramid at Gizeh. In this we have an early example of the semicircular arch, a favourite form in ancient China, which appears to have been introduced into Europe by the Etruscans, who were of
whilst Fig. 6
of the

eastern origin.

This people transmitted

it

to the

Eomans, who excelled in this class of construction, of which they have left numerous examples, the

THE STABILITY OF ABCHBS

at

Pont du Gard and the Aqueduct

particularly fine specimens.
3.

Tarragona being

The

scientific

treatment of the subject began

Previous to this we have no evidence, and we can scarcely suppose that the

about 1712 with Lahire.

theory of construction in general had received

attention,

much
meit.

because
science

the general

condition
as
to

of

chanical

was not such

permit

Most

of the bridges of ancient date, outside of mili-

tary bridges, were constructed by builders

who

be-

FiG.

6,

longed to

close

corporation,

and these expert

art,

constructors

moved from

place to place constructing

bridges from their practical knowledge of the

without

much

consideration,

we may

suppose, of

the mechanical principles involved.

Lahire (1712),

however, considered the equilibrium of the voussoirs,

which form the arch-ring, by treating them as a system of frictionless blocks acted on by the load and by the mutual reactions between their faces. Eytel-

INTEODUCTORY

wein advanced the discussion by introducing the

frictional

resistance of the surfaces;

(1730),

Coulomb

(1773), Boistard (1822), Navier,

and Couplet and

others are associated with the early history of the

theory.

M6ry

first

introduced the idea of the line

of pressure, whilst the

names

of

Lam6, Clapeyron,

Eankine, Moseley, and

of the subject.
4.

many

others of first-class re-

putation are associated with the later development

From an
(a)
(6)
(c)

architectural standpoint arches

may

be classified as i^
Semicircular or

Norman
is,

arches.

Segmental, that

less

than semicircular.

Pointed or Gothic.

(d)
(e)

Horseshoe or Etruscan.
Elliptic or pseudo-elliptic.

5.

The masonry arch

consists of the arch-ring

and

Spandrel

Pig.
its

7.

abutments, which take the end thrust (Pig. 7), and intermediate piers perform the same function in the case of a series of arches. The arch-ring itself


6
consists of

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

wedge-shaped stones or voussoirs carebonded together. The cenvoussoir at the crown of the arch is known as

fully fitted, or of bricks

tral

the keystone, and those adjacent to the springings as the imposts.

bed-joints,
to

The bearing surfaces are known as the and these are perpendicular or nearly so the under surface or soffit of the arch, which suris

face

also spoken of as the intrados

is

whilst the

outer surface

called the extrados.

The spandrels

or haunches are the lower portions of the extrados,

and the spandrel filling or backing is the material between the extrados and the roadway. 6. Modern arches may be classified as
:

(a)
(&)
(c)

Metal arches.

Masonry and brickwork

arches,

Concrete and reinforced concrete arches.

difference in theory consists in the fact

The main
tensile stress,

that metal arches

may

be subject to considerable

whereas masonry and concrete arches are designed with a view to completely avoiding any
tension in the arch-ring under
ing, whilst reinforced
all

conditions of load-

concrete arches, though often

designed in the same way,

fer tensile stress
if

may

be permitted to suf-

properly reinforced, with a con-

sequent saving
Increased

of material.

knowledge

of

theory

has

naturally

tended to lighter construction and increased length

Few of the ancient bridges had long Those in China and the East are always quite short. In England the longest span masonry arch is over the Dee at Chester, the clear span being 203 ft., whilst in America the longest span is at Washington, of 220 ft. The masonry arch near
of

spans.

spans.

INTEODUCTOEY
Trezzo in
is

Italy, built in

1380 and destroyed in 1416,

ft.

therefore remarkable in having a span of 251

of

la 1906 a three-hinged arch completed

for long
is

plain concrete
of

wag

at

Ulm

in

Germany
of this

215

ft.

span, but

span bridges

type armoured concrete

generally

preferred.

Such an arch was conft.

structed over the Tiber in Italy, having a span of

328

ft.

with a rise of 32-8

(See " Engineer," 16

May, 1913.) 7. For very large spang it is necessary to use steel and iron. The table on next page, giving particulars
of various typical arches

arranged in accordance with

of

their

spans, will be found useful for the sake

comparison.
8.

The strength

of

masonry and concrete arches

loaded under similar conditions varies directly as the

strength of the material and the depth of the keystone,

crown.
ties at

and inversely as the radius of curvature at the These considerations indicate the possibiliour disposal for increasing the span. The

following figures are approximately the crushing

strengths of the materials in

common

use.

Crushing Strengths of Arch Materials.

Good brickwork in Portland cement Cement concrete

....
we

150

tons/ft.

'^

Granite

Bessemer
Cast steel

steel

100 to 180 1600 3000 3600 5000

Cast iron

From

these figures

see that, under proper con-

ditions, cast iron

should be a very suitable material

it

for arches,

though
it

has in recent years been custo-

mary

to regard

with suspicion on account of a few

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

INTRODUCTORY

eg

C5


10

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

There seems no reason, however,

isolated failures.

why

cast iron should not be used for structures in

,

compression, or subject to moderate tension, pro-

vided

it is

used in such a way as to avoid

unknown

initial strains.

If

we compare
a
great

the strengths of different arches as

suggested above, with the help of these figures,

find

we

variation in

their relative strengths.

Thus, for example, the figures in the last column

below represent the relative strengths of the bridges

named

Name.

CHAPTBE

II.

DISCUSSION OF THE PROBLEM.

Theee- Pinned Arch.

arch

The problem to be solved in connection with the may present itself in various ways. Firstly, the form of the arch may be given and the material of
9.

which it is constructed, the nature of the supports and the load liable to come upon it, and it may be required to determine the degree of stability
sesses and the
it

posarise
;

maximum

stresses that

secondly, the distribution of the load

may may be

given,

and

it is

required to determine the form of arch best

;

adapted to the circumstances

the arch

thirdly,

the form of

may

be

fixed,
it.

and the load

are in

distribution

may

be arranged to suit

Two modes
carrying out

of procedure

common
the

use in

the

investigation of

stability of

masonry and concrete arches. The simple and older method which is best adapted to the treatment of small spans is based upon the determination of the critical line of pressure for the arch and the given load upon it whilst the more modern and accurate
;

method aims

at finding the true line of

pressure by
is

means
sally

of the elastic theory.

This method

univer-

applied to metal arches which are statically

;

indeterminate
of

and though
(11)

less reliable in the case

masonry and concrete the results have been shown

12

THE STABILITY OF AECSES

experimentally to be trustworthy within the limits of

accuracy required.
10.

The Linear Arch. Let ABCD

(Fig. 8) be

one

of the voussoirs of a

masonry arch-ring, and let BFAD be the load upon it. Then if Wj be the resultant of their weights, and P, Q be the resultant reactions of

the adjacent voussoirs, then these three forces P, Q, and Wj being in equilibrium, must pass through the

Pig.

8.

same point
forces,
forces.

and be proportional

to the sides of a

triangle S, 1, 2 having its sides parallel to the three

by the well-known theorem

of the triangle of

Thus the

side S, 2
;

g represents the pres-

sure Q on the face CD and this force reversed then becomes the reaction on the adjacent block CDHG it intersects the resultant load Wg on the second voussoir and so determines the direction of the thrust E on the next one, and so on. In this way, proceeding from voussoir to voussoir, we obtain a linkpolygon for the given loads whose links represent
;

the lines of action of the forces acting at the voussoir

joints.

This link-polygon

is

the line of pressure for

DISCUSSION OF THE PROBLEM

13

the arch, and since a polygon of rigid jointed rods

coinciding with
this
this
it

would be

in unstable equilibrium,

polygon

is

often spoken of as the " linear arch,"

term being applied to the ideal arch for the

given load system, which has no bending

at

moment

any point along

it.

It is clear,
is

however, that the

position of the linear arch

indeterminate unless

the magnitude direction and position of one of the

forces
is

known

in

other words,

although any

number
fix

of

polygons

may

be drawn for the given

loads, three independent conditions are necessary to

that particular one

pressure,

which is their true line of and unless three such conditions are known
it is

the problem of finding

that
is

statically indeterminate,

to say, is impossible of solution

by means

of the
If,

simple laws governing the statics of rigid bodies.

for example,

we know
must

three points through which the

pass, as in the case of a threefriction of the pins is neglected,
;

line of pressure

pinned arch, when the

the ends
is fixed,

then the problem can be easily solved

but

if

one of

by doing away with the

pin-joint,

then some other condition becomes necessary, such

as a knowledge of the direction of the thrust at the

and if both ends are fixed, by doing away with the two end joints, then some other condition must be given or assumed before the true line of pressure can ,be found. In the case of a masonry or
fixed

end

concrete arch therefore, which

joints,

is

usually without

at all on known, three other conditions are necessary for its determination, and these are derived from the elastic

no points

the line of pressure being

properties of the arch-ring.

11.

For the above reasons, and because the exact

14

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

is

determination of the linear arch

both troublesome

and uncertain
ferred to

in

such cases,

it

has often been pre-

make metal
;

arches pin-jointed at the

crown and springings and even in the case of masonry and concrete arches semi-rigid joints are sometimes introduced at the crown and springings to fix more definitely the position of the line of pressure. Thus in the case of a bridge over the Enz, near Hofen, plates of lead ^ in. thick were
placed over the centre third of the joints, thereby

ensuring
lies

tliat

the line of pressure

within
cases

this

space; and in
rockers
or

other

granite

hinges of cast iron or steel have

been used, as shown in Fig. 9

whereby,

if

we

neglect the effect

of friction, the line of pressure is

constrained to pass through the

axis of the joint,

and in any case

cannot pass far from

12.

it

unless the joint seizes through

age and rust or excess of pressure.

The Three-pinned Arch.

its

If

we assume

that

the line of pressure passes through the axis of the

three pins, then exact position becomes easy of
statical

determination from simple

alone
;

considerations

and

for this reason, the results being

more

assured, arches of this type have been preferred,

where theory alone would recommend an arch-ring

without
joints. Moreover, the effect of temperature changes has no appreciable influence on the stresses

in this type of arch.

sure.

Method I. Determination of the Line of PresSuppose A, B, C (Fig. 10) to be the three

DISCUSSION OF THE PEOBLBM

pins of an arch, and Wj, W^,

15
to be

Wj,
it.

W^
Set

any
the

system of vertical loads upon

with any pole
vertical

down

loads to scale along a vector line

0, 1, 2, 3, 4,

and

construct a link-polygon Aabcde,

at at

which may begin

through

A, and which ends on the

e.

Then

this

will

be an

equilibrium polygon for the loads, but will not be

the linear arch unless
it

passes through A, B, and C.

parallel to
it.

Join Ae, and draw

05

This deter-

PlG. 10.

which will be But if the link-polygon is to pass through A and C, its closing line must be parallel to AC, and therefore the pole must lie on a line parallel to AG drawn through 5.
mines the
vertical forces at
G,

A and
is

the

same wherever the pole

taken.

In order to make the polygon also pass through

it

must have a

vertical

depth

at

equal to

B BE

16
hence
to

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

its vertical
it

make

equal to

depth B'E' must be increased so as BE, and this may be effected by

:

decreasing the polar distance in the ratio B'E' BE. If then a new pole 0' be taken on the line through

then a

and so that O'H' OH = B'E' BE, polygon starting from A should pass new through B and C, and this will be the linear arch
5 parallel to

AC

required
pressure.

that

is

to say,

it

will be the true line of

Pig.

H.

13.

Method

II.

This

method has the advantage

that

it

may

be applied as well to forces which are

For example, suppose A, B, C (Fig. 11) and W^, Wg, Wj, W^ are any loads. Construct their vector figure 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and with any convenient pole Oj construct a link-polygon
not vertical.
are the pins

DISCUSSION OF THE PROBLEM

a,
b,
c,

17
first

d for the loads between

A and
e.

B, the

and

last links of

which meet
and
if

in

Then

a line Ej

through

e parallel to 0, 2

represents the line of action

of the resultant,

we draw through A and B

polygon in a and
d, and ad divides the two parts which

parallels to

it,

to cut the

join ad, a line through Oj parallel to

resultant

0, 2

at the point 5, into

;

represent the pressures on the pins

will

but this polygon

it

not be part of the linear arch unless

also

passes through

must have
B.

its

Join
if

AB
a

and B, and in order to do this it closing line ad to pass through A and and through 5 draw 55' parallel to it

new pole be taken anywhere on this new polygon starting through A will pass through B also. Similarly, if we draw any linkthen
line,

the

polygon for the loads between

viz. 2, 6

pole Og, and find the pressures at

B and B and C

with any
as before,

and

6, 4,

a line through 6 parallel to

BC

determines the line on which the final pole must be taken to make the polygon pass also through B and
C.

Hence

if

we

take the point

it

as pole and start

a polygon from A,

should pass also through

and C and be therefore the required linear arch. The Beaction Locus. This 14. Method III.

method

consists in finding the reactions due to each

individual

load

and from them

determining

the

resultant reactions

by compounding the individual

of these resultants being

components.
in

One

known

magnitude, direction, and position, we have the three necessary conditions for fixing the line of
pressure.

Let A, B,

(Fig. 12) be the three pins

etc.,

of the arch

and

let

Wj, Wg,
suppose
2

be any loads on

it.

Then

if

we

first

all

the loads removed

18

THE STABILITY OP AECHES.

except Wj, the line of pressure for this load will

pass directly through

load between these points to deflect

and C, because there is no it. Produce

BC Wj

therefore to cut the line of action of the load

in D.

Then the

reaction at
is
1,

must

also pass

through D, and
actions 1, 2 at
Similarly,
if

AD
and

therefore

its

direction.

triangle of forces 0,

2 being
at

now drawn,

the re-

2,

due to

Wj

are found.

we suppose

all

the loads except

W^

Fig. 12.

removed, the line of pressure will pass directly through A and C. Hence if we produce the line
joining

to

to out

Wj

in B, the reaction at
if

must pass through E, and

triangle of forces
1, 3,

1-3 represent "Wj, a

4 will give the values of the

reactions at

A and B

due

to

W2.

If these are the

only two loads

2, 1, i,

we may complete
will be seen that

the parallelogram
3,

0, and

it

is

the resultant reaction at B, and

Oo

is

the

DISCUSSION OF THE PEOBLEM

resultant

19
a
it

reaction

at

A.

If therefore

we draw

link-polygon with

as pole, passing through A,

should pass also through

linear arch required.

C and B and

will be the

In this
loads

way the reactions due to any number of may be found for each in turn, and these may
means
of a vector

then be compounded by

polygon
Either

to give the resultant reactions at of

A and

B.

these being

known

the line of pressure can be

difi&culty.

drawn without further

If

we suppose

the loads

Wj

and

change their position, the points

points in

Wj to continually and E will move

along two straight lines which are the locus of the

across the arch.

as

which the reactions intersect as a load moves For this reason they are known the reaction locus for this particular case, and it
soon as the reaction locus
difficult
is
it

will be seen that as

known,

will be

no more

to find the reit is

actions in the case of a two-pinned arch than

in

the present case, though the locus itself is not so

simply determined.
15.

Determination of

the

Thrust,

Shearing

Force,

and Bending Moment at

of Pressure.
effect

The

means of the Line

is

any Point by Eddy's Theorem.

is

on any section which

produced by the

usually analysed into (1) a thrust, (2) a shearing force, and (3) a bending moment. When
external load
these are

known we have

all

that

is

necessary for
all of

the calculation of the stresses.

at

Now

these are

once readily found at any section so soon as the

line of pressure is

known.

For suppose abed

(Fig.

13) to be a portion of the line of pressure for an

arch and

AB

to be

any section

of the arch-ring,

20
whose
tion C,

THE STABILITY OF AECHES

axis passes through the centroid of the sec-

and

let

the resultant thrust

acting along

cb cut the plane of the section in the load-point L.

Then

the magnitude of

will

be

known from

the
if

corresponding ray 0, 1 in the vector figure,

and

Pig. 13.

components le and eO normal and we parallel to the section AB, these components will be the values of the normal thrust N on the section and
resolve
it

into

the

shearing force S.

Also because the resultant

passes through

at a distance

CL

from the axis

value

of
is

the arch

it

causes a bending

moment whose
C.

r,

where r

= CP

is

the perpendicular distance

of the resultant

from the point

Draw CQ

verti-

H
DISCUSSION OF THE PEOBLEM
cal to cut

21

in Q.

Then

the triangles

CPQ, TOl

are similar, and therefore

or

CQ CP = 01 H CQ = 01 OP
:

But 01 measures the

lever-arm about C.

resultant E,

and
is

CP
;

is its

Therefore

01 CP
.

the bending
.

moment
is

at the section

and

is

equal to
at

H CQ

that
is

to

say, the bending

moment

any

section

measured by the product of the horizontal thrust

measured in the scale
pressure,
tercept between the axis of the arch

of loads, into the vertical in-

and the

line of

measured

in the scale of lengths.

This important theorem is known as Eddy's Theorem, and is very convenient in the graphical treatment of the arch because the intercepts between the line of pressure and the arch-axis give a visual
perception of the relative values of the

bending

moments

at various points, similar to

that

which

the bending

moment diagram does

vertical loads.

in the case of

beams under
16.

Application of the Preceding Methods to

the Caseof a Three-Pinned Arch with Distributed Loading. Let ACB (Fig. 14) be a circular arch of

150

ft.

span and 15

ft.

rise,

with pin joints at A, B,

and
foot

C,

and suppose the dead load to be 26 cwt. per run over the whole span, with an additional
of 18 cwt.

live load

per foot run on one- half the

span.

It is required to find the thrust, shear,

and

bending

moment at any point. Method I. By Means of the Line

of Pressure.

In a case of this kind the line of pressure may be expected to lie so near the axis of the arch itself

22

THE STABILITY OF AECHBS

under ordinary conditions that the vertical intercepts between the two curves will be too small to ensure
It will therefore be an adreliable measurement. vantage to distort the vertical scale of the drawing

by magaifying

its vertical dimensions, say five times. This should not be done graphically, because the errors will be multiplied to the same extent, but the

ordinates should be calculated by the formula or by

DISCUSSION OF THE PROBLEM

the Table oa page 135.
liptical

28
get the el-

In this
is

way we

curve

ACjB which
ACB.
BCj
in

a parallel projection of
are then joined

the circular arc

BCj and ACj

and produced on the

to cut the resultants of the

two loads
to

ribs ACj,

and B.

This determines

the directions of the reactions at

A and B due
if

each of these loads taken separately, and

set

we now
the

down

0.1=
whose
of

97"5 tons and 1

B = 165 tons
. .

magnitudes
Pg

of the reactions

due

to these loads in-

dividually will be given by the triangles Pj

.

and

sides are

directions

the forces,

drawn parallel to the and if we complete the

parallelogram OPjlPj, Oo,

reactions
at

OB

will be the resultant

and A.

The polar distance

scales

65 tons, but the actual horizontal thrust of the

arch will be five times greater than this, on account
of

the vertical

distortion,

and

will

therefore

be

65 X 5

325 tons.

Next draw
These lines

FG

parallel to

and join AF, GB.

will be tangents to the line of pressure,

and since
sist of

this

curve

will, for

uniform loading, con-

parabolic arcs, these arcs

may

be drawn in to

touch the tangents AF, FCi and C^G,

GB

by the

method described on page 138.

This determines the line

bending

moment

at

of pressure, and the any point may now be found by

line of
it

measuring the vertical ordinate between the

pressure and the arch- axis in feet and multiplying

by the polar distance,

at I span scales 4'6

viz.

65 tons.

For example,

from the left-hand abutment the ordinate ft. and the bending moment there is thereX 65 tons

fore 4-6

ft.

299 tons

ft.

The

thrust in the arch at this point

may

be found

24

THE STABILITY OF AECHES

to the curve,
viz.

by drawing the tangent

HH^

and

Oh

parallel to

it.

Its actual direction

can be found

by making ak
required,

=
if

^ ah, when

and

we

resolve

Ok will be the direction Ok into components Ofc',

and radius of M, these will give the values of the normal thrust and of the shearing force at M, and in the same way the values of the thrust, shear, and bending moment at any other point can be found, and curves of thrust and shear constructed therefrom. Let Va, H (Fig. 17. Method II. By Calculation. the vertical and horizontal components of the 15) be
k'k parallel respectively to the tangent

the arc at

Fig. 15.

reaction at A, and Vb,

H be those
+
^ x 67-5

at B.

= lU-l tons, 148i tons. and Va = 262^ - lU} Taking moments about 0, we have
X 15 + 97-5 x 37-5 114| X 75 = 328i tons = the hor. thrust.

Then Vb = 97-5

Further tan eA
tanfi^B

-2=3-11 -4514. = Vb^ 1141 = ^=3486

.-.

61^

= 24 18'; =
19 13'.

~ H
= =

6,.

328

Ea = Eb =

H H

sec

6Ia

sec

(9b

3281 x 1-0972 3281 x 1-0590

= =

359-9 tons.

347-4 tons,

DISCUSSION OF THE PEOBLBM

25

To
(Fig.

find the
16).

bending moment at the point

at

M
x y

The bending moment

-^

M
<^j

= Va

x 37-5 -

X 165 X 18-75.

Now ^ = R

cos <^ - R cos and 752 = R2 - (S whence E = 195 ft. 37-5

1923.
.-.

15)^

= E =

(cos

cf>

- cos
ft.

<^|,)

30

- 225

.-.00= 180

sin

<f)--

<^

= ir

5'andcos<^=-9812.

195
Also cos ^0

=^ = 195
=

'9231.

.-.

2/

195 (-9812 --9231)

195 x -0581

11-33

ft.

Fig. 16.
.-.

the bending

moment

at

=
18.

148|- X 37-5

- 328i x 11-33 - 82-5 x 18-75 5555 - 3718 - 1547 = 290 tons ft

.

Method

procedure the

By Influence Lines. In this bending moment at any section due to

III.
is

a unit load in any given position

found by draw-

26

THE STABILITY OP ARCHES

ing an influence diagram for the particular section

"Moving Loads by Influence Thus, if we require to find moment at any section D (Fig. 17) an the bending influence line must be drawn for this particular section to show the bending moment there for a unit
considered.

(See

Lines " in this Series.)

<i.

B,

Pia. 17.

load placed anywhere on the span.

Now
is

the actual

bending
vertical

moment

at

any section

the difference
to

between the positive bending moment due

forces, less the negative

the

bending moment

But when a unit load any point distant x^ from the end A, the bending moment at D due to the vertical forces is represented by a triangle AjD^B, for which 1 X aij (Z - a;,)
due to the horizontal thrust.
acts
at

D,I),=

tons

ft.

Also

1 X X,,

Yu =

^1

and taking moments about C

H.2/
X,
I

^-J-,

from which it appears

DISCUSSION OF THE PROBLEM

that
for

27

H varies as x^, and that the influence diagram H therefore a triangle whose maximum ordinate
ig

is C,C.,.

But when the load

is at

the centre

a;,

and therefore the maximum value

whilst the bending the force
triangle

of

is

to

moment
Hy.

at

any point x due

of

will be

The ordinates

the

AjC^Bj therefore when multiplied by y will moment at the point D due to the horizontal thrust, and the actual bending moment at
give the bending

will therefore be given

by the

vertical intercept

between the two triangles AjDjBj and AjC^Bj.

Thus

in the present case

we construct an influence

diagram for ^ span by setting up

CA =J^= iy,
^

^^Q ^ ^^'^^ 4 X 15

-=

28-325 tons,

the ratio being actually multiplied by the unit load

of 1 ton say.
If

we suppose CjCj drawn 2-8325

in.

ins.

long the scale will be 1

10 tons.

Join AjCj,

BjCj. Then the triangle A^CjBj is the influence " diagram for the horizontal thrust H, or the " H-line
as
it is

called.

Next
~

set

up
112-5

DjDj =

^1^^

'^i)

= Ix

=
is

28|. tons,

and join D^A^, D^Bj.

Then AjD^Bj
of the
at

the influence

diagram for the vertical forces.

The ordinate

at

any point

shaded area will

now

give the bending

moment

due

to the unit at

load at the given point.

The bending moment

of loads in

due

to

any given system

any position
the

may now

be readily found

by

multiplying

ordinate under each load by the magnitude of the

28
load and

THE STABILITY OF AECHBS

summing
the results.
if

Also by a well-known
the load
is

property of influence lines,

distributed the bending

uniformly

moment

will be given

by the

area of the influence diagram under the load multiplied

by the load per unit length.

effects

The maximum and minimum

be
easily investigated in this

may
ft.,

therefore

way.

In
13-96

the
ft.,

present

case
ft.

AjNi

59'75

DjDj =

CA
ft.
;

9-58

Hence the area AiDjN = i x 59-76 x 13-96 =

417-2 tons
the

area

NC1C3

i x 9-58 x 15-25

73-05

tons

ft.

and the area Bfifi^

tons
.-.

^ x 9-58 x 75

359 3

ft.

the positive bending

ft.

moment due

to

2-2 tons p.

2-2 (417-2

- 73-05) = 757-1
to

tons

ft.,

and the negative bending moment due

1-3 tons p.
-.

ft.

1-3 x 359-3

467-1

ft.

the resultant bending

moment = 290-0 tons

thus checking exactly with the calculated result.

This will not, however, be the

maximum
it

bending
the

moment
at
live

as

is

often assumed, because

will be seen

once that the

to the point at ^

maximum value

will occur

when

load covers the left-hand portion of the arch

up

only, in

which case the bending

viz.

moment

span will be greater than before by the

at

amount represented by the triangle NCiCj, 7305 tons ft. The maximum bending moment
span
19.
is

therefore 290

-f

73

363 tons
is

ft.

Example

braced Arch.

-This type of arch

of

Three-pinned

Spandrel-

very economical

stability of Arches.]

Fia. 18.

[To face p. 28.

DISCUSSION OF THE PROBLEM

29

and convenient of construction in positions to which adapted, and is consequently commonly used. The maximum and minimum forces occurring in each member are best found in one or other of the First, a unit load is placed at any following ways. one of the top joints, e.g. at Tg (Fig. 18), and the reactions at B, BqI due to this load are found by
it is

constructing the triangle of forces hb^a,

reciprocal figure or force diagram
is

fig.

1.

then drawn in

the usual

way

for the

whole structure, from which

the forces in each

forces are

member may be scaled off. These tabulated, and when each is multiplied by

the actual dead or live load which occurs at any joint, the force in any
will be

member which
and
it

that load produces

known

will therefore be easy to select

that combination of loads which produces either the

maximum
member. is drawn

or the

minimum

force in

any particular
each bar in

By

the second method, an influence line

for the

moment

of resistance of

which the maximum or minimum force which can occur in it may be deduced vof the usual way, by loading exclusively either the positive
the structure, from
or negative areas.

In order to compare the two methods, which

be used mutually to check each other,
sider the case of the three-pinned arch
18,

may

we

will con-

shown

in Fig.

which we
1-^

will

suppose to carry a uniform dead

load of

tons per foot and a live load of 1 ton per

foot, distributed

a platform.
bolic arc of

along the upper chord by means of The lower panel-points lie on a para90 ft. span and 15 ft. rise.
1 ton load

Method

I.

Suppose a

placed in suc-

cession at each of the joints T( Tj, T2, T3 of the top


30
chord.

THE STABILITY OF AECHBS

Force diagrams are drawn
for

each case in

the usual
forces in

and (iii) and the each member are scaled off and tabulated
as
in
(i),
(ii),
:

way

shown

as follows

DISCUSSION OF THE PKOBLEM

31

32
20.

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

Method
II.

By

Influence Lines.

In

apply-

method to find the maximum force in any bar of a framed structure, as in the present case, an influence line must be drawn for the bending moment about the moment centre, from which the maximum bending moment can be found and the maximum
ing this
force in the bar deduced.

Fig. 19.

For example, if we require to find the force in the bar TjTj say, of the preceding example, an influence
line is

B2,
if

drawn for the bending moment about the point which is the moment centre for that bar, because an imaginary section be taken through the three
T^To, TjEj,

members

and B^B^, by taking moments

about the point Bj, the

unknown

forces in the bars

DISCUSSION OF THE PROBLEM

TjB.j,
tion,

33

B^Ba are eliminated from the resulting equaand the moment of the force in the bar TjT2
B.,,

about the point

will be in equilibrium

with the

bending
force

moment round
T^Tj x T2B2

that point

due
;

to the external

forces on the one side of the section

in
is

and since the

the

equal to

bending

moment, the value of T^Ti is found by dividing this bending moment by the length of the lever arm T^Bj.
It is therefore required,
first

of all, to construct

an influence diagram for the moment about B^,

showing

how

this

moment changes

as a unit load

moves over the arch. Now the actual moment at any point is the difference between the positive moments due to the vertical forces and the negative moments due to the horizontal thrust of the arch, and we have shown already, in 18, how an influence diagram may be constructed to show this.
Thus, in the present case, to find the force in the
bar T1T2,
the L.H. end,
for the

when a unit load is at Tj say, 15 ft. from we first construct the influence diagram point Bg. Make

CiC
^

-^ =
iy,

^Q ^

4 X 15
1 in.

^f

19-8 tons

ft.

Using a scale of
Next make

10 tons, CjCg

= 198

in.

DjDj = 3jL^i)_ = ^Q

^ ^^

= 20 tons ft. =

2 ins.
at
ft.,

and complete the diagram. The intercept B^E 15 ft. from the L.H. end then scales 35 tons

and the

force in

TjT2

is

therefore
3-5

3-5
T2Bij

52
ft.

tons.

6-75

Similarly,

when

the unit load

is

at T2,

30

ft.

from

34

THE STABILITY OF ABCHBS

the L.H. end, the intercept on the influence diagram scales 7'0 tons ft., and the force in TjTg is then

7'0

6'7o

1-04 tons, and so on.

to find the force in a

Next

say BjBj.

lower chord member, In this case the point Tj will be the

moment
have
its

centre,

and the influence

ordinate

line for

will

maximum

= ^^ by
4y

the

same

reasoning as before, where y^ is the height of the The point Tj above the. springing-joint = 20 ft.

maximum

value of the bending

moment due
30 tons
ft.

to

will therefore be

CO =

=
=

Also
to the

the ordinate for the bending

moment due
12-5 tons

vertical forces for the position Tj will be

B,B4
^

^^ ^ ^^ 90

ft.

If we plot these values and complete the diagram we find from it that for a unit load at Tj the bending moment about Tj is EjE^ =2-5 tons ft., and the force

in

B,B =

-i

^!^____ =
arm
of

- 0-23 tons

ft.,

lever

BjBa
because the

the

negative

sign indicating tension,

moment about Tj is clockwise. To find the force in a diagonal member. Suppose we consider, for example, the diagonal T^Bj. The moment centre for this member will be the point X
in

which the bars TjT2 and B^Bg cut by the section

a/3 intersect.

Now

if

the unit load be on the

left Tj,

M
and when
it is

= Vb' M .

H2/2

(1)

on the right

of

Tj


DISCUSSION OF THE PEOBLBM 35
.

M, = Vb
but
if

(Z

- ) - Hy,
,

(2)

the unit load be distant v from T

Vb =

I
.

- V
=

and Vb'

j-.

.-.

M, =
^

I
.

M (Z

H2/,

(1')

and M,

~ ^
i

- u) - Hj/,

(2')

The

first

terms in these two equations are both

lines,

represented by straight
the expression

and

if

we put

in

u,

we

get for the ordinate at the

;

extreme right the value u

the expression

and
u)

if

we put
get
Z

o in

{I

^re

- m as the
left.

value of the ordinate on the extreme

If

we

now draw
line F<j,
t^,

in the lines to

GF^, FGj, and drop verticals

in
ij

from Tj and T^
bending
alone.
triangle

meet them
at

and

t^,

the broken

G represents the influence diagram for the

moment
If

due to the

vertical forces

then

we

set

up

KL = 2^

Iv

as before, the

FKG

will be the influence line for the

bend-

ing

moment due

to the horizontal thrust

H.

The

first of

these bending

moments

will cause tension in

the bar TjBj and the second

effect of

compression.

The

any load on the moment at X can now be found from the influence diagram, and the force which it causes in the bar TjB^ can be deduced by
dividing this

moment by
arm Xx

the lever arm.

tjtg
ft.,

Thus, for

example, in the present case,

whilst the lever
is

scales S'd tons,

15'4

which makes the

36

THE STABILITY OF AECHBS

TjBj

tensile force in the bar

0'22 ton

unit load
for

is at Tj.

Similarly, the force

when the may be found

for

any other position of the unit load, and, therefore, any system of loads in any position on the span. Having thus found for any particular bar the force caused in it when a load is placed at any point of the

span, the

maximum force which will

of loading

occur in

it

under

any arrangement
because
in

can easily be derived,

when

calculating the

maximum

tensile force

any member, all the temporary loads which cause compression, and therefore diminish the tensile force, must be left out of consideration and similarly when
;

calculating the

maximum

compressive force
tension

all

those

temporary loads
omitted.

which cause

must

be
this

By

comparing the results obtained above by

it

method,

will be seen that they agree closely with

those obtained by

Method

I.

CHAPTEE

III.

THE ELASTIC THEORY OP THE ARCH.

21.

When

an arch has

less

than three
fix

joints, the

three conditions necessary to

line of pressure of

the position of the

must be made up by a consideration

It

the elastic properties of the arch-ring.

elastic

has

been objected to the

theory that the arch-ring

not being homogeneous throughout, especially

joints exist, the theory

when
;

cannot be properly applied

but this objection has

little
is

force in fact, because the

arch-ring in such cases

usually composed of dis-

tinct parts, like voussoirs,

joints sensibly

normal

to the axis,

which are bounded by and there is no

theoretical objection to neighbouring parts having

different coefficients of elasticity, so long as the parts

themselves have uniform elastic properties.

The theory

is,

however, somewhat complex, and

ap-

involves assumptions and simplifications more or less

approximate, so that the results derived from

plication

its

have until comparatively recent years been

rightly regarded with a certain

amount

of suspicion.

This distrust has been largely removed by the careful

and complete

series of

experiments carried out by

the Institution of Austrian Engineers and Architects, the results of which were published about the year

1900.

These experiments

were
(37)

made on arches

of


38

THE STABILITY OF AECHES

masonry and brickwork and of concrete, plain and armoured, having spans of from 1'35 to 23 m. (75"4 The large brick ft.) span, and 4-6 m. (15-1 ft.) rise. and stone arches of 23 m. span were built in Portland cement mortar, 1 cement to 2 '6 sand. The crown thickness was 0'6 m. (1 ft. llf ins.) and the thickness at the springings was 1-14 m. (3 ft. 7i ins.). The concrete arch was 0'7 m. (2 ft. 3^ ins.) thick throughout, whilst the Monier arch was 0-35 m. (1 ft. 1| ins.) at the crown and 0-6 m. (1 ft. 11| ins.) The longitudinal rods were 0'55 at the springings. in. diameter, and the transverse rods 0'276 in. diaThe width was 2 m. meter, the mesh being 2-^ ins. (6-56 ft.). The loading was applied gradually from one abutment to the crown, and the distortion of the axis was carefully measured until the arches showed signs of collapse. From these measurements the values of E were calculated and were found to be as
follows
:

For masonry
brickwork

60,400 kg./cm.a
27,800
,,

246,000 plain concrete reinforced concrete 333,800

.

= = = =

858,000 393,000
3,475,000 4,700,000

lb./in.2

At a certain

critical

load cracks began to appear

in the arch-ring

of

between J and ^ or between | and the span, and at the supports, agreeing in

general with the position of the joints of rupture as

deduced from theory.

The breaking
Masonry
Concrete

loads were as follows

Brickwork arch

....
. .

67"5 tons.

74-02

,,

83-27

,,

Monier concrete

146-12

THE ELASTIC THEOEY OP THE ARCH

The breaking load
for the

39

masonry arches exceeded

the critical load by about 30 per cent, for the brick-

work arches by about 59 per cent, for the plain concrete by 31 per cent, and for the reinforced concrete by 86 per cent. The general result of the experiments was to show
that the elastic theory might be applied with confi-

dence to arches of masonry, brickwork, and concrete

of

such proportions as are

direct

outcome
ft.

of

and 58'6

rise

now common, and as a them a stone arch of 213 ft. span was built over the Pruth in Austria.
is

full

account of these experiments

given in

Volume I, "Handbuch fiir Bisenbetonbau". The general accuracy of the elastic theory
arch
is

of the

also confirmed
light.

by experiments on models
Dr. E. G. Coker,
this subject,

under polarized
directed

who has

made many experiments on

has kindly

my

attention to a

memoir

of

M. Mesnager

("Determination complete sur un module r^duit des

tensions qui se produiront dans un ouvrage.
nales des Fonts et Chauss6es
") in

Anwhich the author

describes a glass model of a bridge over the

Ehone
This

which was constructed

the

for the

purpose of checking

results as calculated in the usual

way.

model, examined under polarized

neutral axis of the arch-ring
plied,

light,

gives

an
ap-

ocular demonstration of the change of position of the

when

the load

is

which

is

quite in accordance with the deduc-

tions of theory, whilst the stresses obtained

optical

by the

method did not

differ

more than 14-7 per

cent, as a

maximum, from

the results of the elastic

method.
22.

The Development of the

Elastic

Theory of

40
the Arch,

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

Angular Distortion of a Rib due
to

Bending.

Let a be the area of a horizontal

strip of

the cross-section of an arch-ring (Fig. 20), distant

from the axis CO through the centroid of the section, and let AjBj, A^B^ be neighbouring sections, 8s
apart.

Then

if

the arch-ring bend through an angle

Pig. 20.

S6

Sx

on the length is the change

length Bs at

is applied, and if produced thereby on the distance u from the axis CO, then the

Ss

when

the load

of length

stress induced

is s

= B
is

Sx
.

-,

and the moment

of re-

sistance of the. strip

therefore
.

sau

= E

-~
Ss

u.

The
is

total

moment

of resistance of the cross-section

therefore

E = sFl 2|B.g-.a.
or since

hx

= u
\_

SO

Ss

and since for any given cross-section

of

an arch-ring,

THE ELASTIC THEOEY OF THE AKCH

B, 8s and 86
sensible error,

41

may
we

be regarded as constants without

get
.

E = E
or since

^ 2 [au^l
os
.

[au'^]

I
i^, Ss'

E = EI
and since

for equilibrium the

moment

of resistance

E
to

must be equal and opposite the bending moment due to the external forces,
of the cross- section

we

get

M
that
is

= EI.f^or8e = ^-*Ss

EI

to say, the angle of flexure

,

due to the bend-

mg moment
Hence,
other,
it,

is

proportional to

^.
be applied to

if

a rib be fixed at one end and free at the

of loads

and a known system

the bending
total

moment
angular

at every point will be

known
its

and the

displacement

between

extremities will be

A6
23. Horizontal

'^]
C
(Fig.

('

to

Bending.

Let
is

and Vertical Displacements due

21)
rib,

be the centre of

gravity of a small segment of

section to turn through an angle 86

and suppose this on the length 8s,

when the
material,
free

load

applied, due to the elasticity of the

and

end

y be the vertical distance of the below C, and x the horizontal distance

let

between them.
8s,

suppose

to

Due to the flexure of the element move to B', and let 8a;, By be the

horizontal and vertical displacements of

due

to

42

THE STABILITY OP ARCHES

Then
since these displace-

the change in angle 8^.

ments are very small, BB' is sensibly perpendicular Hence in the to CB and 8a; is perpendicular to y. similar triangles CDB, BD'B'
8a;

BB
= ^,
CB'

~^

i^CB^^
and similarly ^
-^

Hence

the horizontal displacement

is Sa;

-y.he

(2)

Fig. 21.

and the

vertical displacement

is

Zy

= x.^e

(3)

Introducing the value of

he

= M.83 we
EI

get

Sa;

M.Ss
2/

EI

(4)

and

hy

X.

M.
EI

hs
(5)

These are the small horizontal and vertical components of the actual displacement due to flexure

on a small length
zontal

hs of the rib,

and the

total hori-

and

vertical

displacements

between

the

extremities will be the

or
Aa;

sum
r
2/

of all these

= S

M
"

8s(6)

EI EI

and

\y =

Sp

(7)

THE ELASTIC THEORY OF THE AECH

24. Horizontal

43

and Vertical Displacements due

to Axial Thrust.

Let N be the normal

of the rib,

thrust on

any cross-section
if

whose area
if

is

A.

Then
s,

the resultant act along the axis, the stress on the

section will be uniform, and

s

we denote

it

by

then

N
X-

The compressive
be

strain

on a small length
8s,

Ss will therefore

E^

_8s

^ N

AE

and

if

we

de-

note compression by the negative sign, the total

compression along the whole length will be

As =

N
AE'

and the corresponding horizontal and

vertical dis-

placements due to the thrust are therefore

Aa;

- 2

rN
Lae

(8)

and

A2/= - 2

44

THE

TABILITY OF AECpES
displacement

total horizontal

EI
and
total vertical

r^

8a;

+ 2

[a^

8a;]

(12)

displacement

EI
It is

m-^y
fiat

+ 2

[a/!

Sy]

(13)

only in very
is

arches that the effect of the

its

thrust

appreciable,
it

and as

inclusion complicates
to

the formulae
neglect

will be desirable in the first case

its effect,

and

to investigate later

what alloweffect of

ance should be

made we

for

it.

Likewise the
be
left for
first of all

change

of

temperature

may

future conthe, stresses

sideration, whilst

discuss

due to bending which form by

tribution to the actual result.

far the principal con-

27. Primary Equations of Condition for a Hingeless Arch, As we have already seen, the problem of the arch requires three independent con-

ditions for its solution,

and these conditions

are, for
its

an arch without

joints,

derived necessarily from

elastic properties.
If we assume that the abutments are .rigid, so that when the load is applied the span remains unaltered,

then the total horizontal displacement as expressed

by equation (12) must be zero. Further, if the level of the supports remains the same, then the total vertical displacement as expressed by equation (13) must also
be zero.
Finally,
if

the ends of the arch-ring are as-

sumed
arch

rigidly fixed in direction, so that

however the
its

itself

may bend under

the load, the slope of

axis at these ends is unaltered, then Afl in equation (1)

will also

be zero, and therefore

if

we

consider only


THE ELASTIC THEORY OF THE ABCH
the bending

45

as constant,

moment due to the load, and consider we get from the above conditions

^Mt/.Ss^Q
. .

(14)

.Ma;
.

(15)

and 2

may

- =

(16)

These are the fundamental equations of condition upon which the solution of the arch problem depends,
whatever variations
them.
be

adopted in applying

In the special case when the moment of inertia

of the arch-ring is constant, I
will also

disappear

from the equations, and

of the arch
is

if,

as

is

often done, the axis

8s, Bs

divided into equal lengths

too,

being

then also constant will vanish

and the above

:

equations will then reduce to the simpler forms

[M.y\

(14')

% [Mx\
0;

(15)'

and 2 [M] =

(16)'.

Sometimes
arch-ring

also,

when

the

moment

of inertia of the

is variable,

with the object of simplifj'ing

as possible, the lengths hs are

the equations as

much

so chosen as to keep the' ratio

constant, in

which
as

case the equations take the

same simple forms

those last derived.

These, however, are merely convenient variations

in the

method

of applying the

fundamental equations.

28.

Remarks on the Assumptions.

the load
is

As

regards
alter

the

first

assumption that the span does not

the centering of an arch

when
cause

applied, this is not exactly true, beis

when

removed the

46

THE STABILITY OF AECHES

if

material necessarily yields,

elasticity,

only on account of

its

no allowance were made for this the alteration of form might seriously affect the stresses. In arches up to about 150 ft. span, however, the and
if

centering

is

usually built so that the rise

is

greater

by about ^^^ of the span, or by the amount of its probable deflection. The abutments may also yield to a certain extent, and any increase
than the
final rise

in the

span will cause an increase in the horizontal

-J^ ft.,
"),

thrust amounting to about 17 tons for every

according to Balet ("Analysis of Elastic Arches

whilst a rise in temperature of 15 F. will cause an

increase of about 3 tons in the thrust per foot of
width.

In masonry and concrete fluctuation of tem-

is less than for metal arches and may be taken as not more than 20 F. in this country, and

perature

less

when
ins.

the average depth of filling exceeds about

30

As

regards

the third assumption,

the

fixure of the terminals is never absolutely rigid, be-

cause the elasticity of the abutments will permit a

slight rotation.
slight in

This

effect

must, however, be very

safely be disregarded,

most cases and may

especially

when

the depth of the arch-ring increases

towards the abutments.

29.

Temperature.
12),

Allowance for the Thrust and Change of It has been shown in sect. 26 (eq.

that the total horizontal displacement of the

free

end of an arch

rib is given

by the expression

ihl

Alii

and
22/
.

if

we assume
ill

the span to remain unaltered, then

13).

-"^

- S,^.Sx+'S,at.Sx=0 (equation
AHi


THE ELASTIC THEOEY OF THE ARCH
The value
of a for stone

47

and concrete varies from

0000044 to -0000078 per degree Fahrenheit, and t need not be taken higher than about 20 F. for high-

way

bridges.

The

effect of

the axial thrust

is

to

shorten the span, and

its effect

may

therefore be re-

garded as equivalent to a
involving

fall

in temperature,
effect.

cluded as such in the temperature

and inThe terms

are,

however, always very small in comto allow for

parison with those involving the bending moment,

them.

and a small correction may be applied Thus in the formula for H, sect.

31, viz.,

H
the effect of the thrust
for

may

be sufficiently allowed
V
I
.

by adding

to the

denominator the term

n A,
.

where - is the mean length of the horizontal segn ments into which the span is divided, A is the mean area of the cross-sections, vis the distance of the centre of curvature at the crown from the X axis, and

is

the radius of curvature at the crown, the value

flat

being usually nearly equal to unity for

arches.

The maximum
values

stresses

due

to

change of temperature

usually arise at the crown and springings, and their

may

be estimated with sufficient accuracy by

:

means of the following formulae due to Melan For the horizontal thrust due to change of temperature

48

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

jj

45
4

Eatl
hh'
of the

where

is

mean value

moments

of in-

ertia of the cross-sections

the arch and the rise of

tively, a,nA h'

and h, h' are the rise of the Hne of resistance respec.

=h

-r

-psi)

a'PPJ'oximately.
to

The bending moment

of

at the

crown due

change

temperature then becomes

j^

15

Ea<

and the extreme

perature are
(a) at

stresses

due to change

of

tem-

the crown

s,

=
==

Bai A! ( 16 hh'

^V
tj
4

(b)

at the springings

Si

Eat ^fl

CHAPTEE

IV.

THE TWO-HINGED ARCH.

30.

The two-pinned

arch having joints at the abutis

ments, but continuous at the crown,

for steel bridges.
to be gained

chiefly used

No

particular advantage appears

at the abut-

by employing pin joints

ments
is

only, because the determination of the forces

a statically indeterminate problem, whilst the conis

struction

complicated by introducing pin joints

any except small arches the extra rigidity gained by dispensing with the crown pin does not
for

and

appear to be

sufficient to
>

compensate

for the other

disadvantages.

The
one
of

actual calculations are, however, less complex

than in the case of the hingeless arch, because only

elastic condition is necessary to replace the loss

one pin.

This condition
to

suming the span

may be derived by asremain unaltered by the loading.

We

then have by equation 14 of last chapter

Now

by Eddy's Theorem

(sect.

15)

if

ACB (fig.

22)

be the axis of the arch, hinged at

A and B, and ADB

is

be the line of pressure, whose polar distance

bending moment

M at any

point

is H, the CD, where

CD

is

the vertical intercept between the axis of the

arch and the line of pressure, measured in the hnear

(49)

50

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

If

scale of the drawing.

we introduce
get
.

this value into

equation (14) above,

we

'B-.GB.y
I

gs"

(17)

and

if

we suppose

the axis divided into small equal

Fig. 22.

lengths
thrust

Ss,

Ss

being constant and the horizontal

this reduces to

H being also constant,

%m^]
But
is

0.

CD

at

any point

= ED - EC =

- y where z

the ordinate of the line of pressure and y that of

arch-axis.

the

Hence

THE TWO-HINGED ARCH

equation (18)

51

we
-

get

m
or

ru

= rS
I

whence r

(19)

[r
when
the cross-section of the arch-ring
is

rect-

angular, since I
the ring,

-- where

is

the thickness of

we

get

m
u-yl
.

(20)

^ J

numerator and denominator of these expressions may obviously be found by measurement from the drawing and subsequent calculation
of the

The values

and summation, and

if

the

polar distance corresin the

ponding to the trial-polygon AI'B be changed

inverse ratio -, the equilibrium -polygon

drawn with
;

the

new

pole will be the true line of pressure

or

true polar distance

^m
is

(21)

assumed polar distance

or in the special case

when

the value of I

constant

1_ %[u.y]
It

may

be remarked that the determination of the

value of r fixes the value of the polar distance and

52

THE STABILITY OF AECHES

therefore of the true horizontal thrust of the arch,

and when
drawing the
31.

this

is

known
etc.

there

is

no

difficulty in

line of pressure or in calculating the

bending moments,

Example.

It will

be of interest to consider,

by way

of comparison, the

same arch and the same

II,

loading as in the example of chapter

the arch-ring will

except that

now

be made continuous at the

ft.

crown. 15
ft.,

This arch was 150

span, with a rise of

.

loaded with 26 cwt. per

foot,

with 18 cwt. per

foot additional load covering the left-hand half.

Method
If

I.

Calculation of the Horizontal Thrust.

an arch

of

span

carry a uniform load of

.

per

foot run,
sect. 27,

we have by

the fundamental equation (14),

My .Bs =
I
is

0.

Now
the

M at

any section

the difference between

the bending

moment on

a simply supported
in

beam

of

same span and loaded

if

the same manner and

the bending

Hence

moment due to the horizontal thrust H. we denote by p, the bending moment on

the simply supported beam,

M
^s

/x

- Ky.

Consequently the above equation becomes

5!,

(f^

- ^y)y

Q
8s

= HS 2/2.
J.

whence

-j^approximately.

THE TWO-HINGED AKCH

63

|_
or exactly

ds

B
2/2
.

ds

or,

if

we assume the

arch-ring to be of uniform cross-

section,

=i'^j^.
\y^
.

ds

Fig. 23.

Now
and
..^

M-

=^
=
-

x{l - X)

(Fig. 23)

a;

E
(Z

sin

0.

= |(^-Rsine)

|+E8ine

= |(^-E2sin2.).
Also
2/

E(cos
/[2

- cos _ ^2

a),

sin a

= ^

and ds =
a)
^

B>

dO.

J-w
'

gi^2

^"N

E(cos e - cos

dO

H = -^
2
E2(cos $ - cos ay. 'R.de

54

THE STABILITY OF ABCHES

to
oos o(a - 4 sin 2a)
^

which reduces
j-(sin
ij

a-acos a)- sin'o+

i(o

j_

2K

5 i sin 2o)

f - sin 2a

a oos' o

Now
37' 12"

in

our case sin

-39476 radians,

a = 3846176, a = 22 and E = 195 ft.

Inserting these values

we

get

187'55

as

the value of the horizontal thrust.

Now

the hori-

zontal thrust due to a uniform load on one-half the

span

is

one- half of the horizontal thrust

is

when
ft.

the

whole span

covered.

Hence

for a load of iv

=
we

2-2 tons per

on the

left-hand half of the arch

TT Hj =

get

2-2 X 187-55

one Q tons, 206-3

4-

and

for a load of 1*3 tons per

ft.

on the right-hand

half of the arch

we
1-3

get

H,
Hence

X 187'55 2

= ,010. 121-9 tons.

is

the horizontal thrust due to both

H
which
is

206-3

121-9

328-2 tons,

slightly greater

than the horizontal thrust

when

the arch was 3-pinned.

The bending moment at any point can now be - Hy. = readily found from the equation ^The arch was Graphically. 32. Method II. = 10 ft., and the span drawn to a scale of 1 in.

/u,

having been divided into sixteen equal parts, the

loads on these were set off along a vector line as

shown
tion,

in Plate

I,

to a scale of 1 in.

= 20

tons,

and

a pole Oj having been chosen in a convenient posia link-polygon,

AFF

Bj,

was constructed,

pguTGONf

Stability of Arches.]

Plate

i.

[To face page 55.


THE TWO-HINGED ARCH
55

and the closing line 0-17 put in. A line O^a was then drawn through Oj parallel to ABj, dividing the vector line into two parts at a which represent the vertical loads on the pins. The position of a will, of
course, be independent of the position of the pole
Oj, but
if

the link-polygon

is to

pass through

as

well as A, the pole

a, for it is

must

lie

on the horizontal through

only so that the closing line can be horitrue pole

a,

zontal.

The

horizontal through
at the

must therefore lie on the and the polar distance O^a must

same time be such as to satisfy the condition The axis of the arch was therefore divided into equal lengths Ss, and verticals EP were drawn through the mid-points of these. The lengths
(21') sect. 30.

of these verticals in

were then measured,

in. scale.
:

for convenience,

in.

units and the corresponding ordinates of the

-^

arch with the same

These lengths were

found to be as follows
Ordinate.

56

THE STABILITY OF AECHES

the

Now

assumed polar distance was 5

3-25

ins.

there-

fore the true polar distance is

5 ins. X
If

16'25 ins.

= 325

tons.

we draw

a line through the pole Oj parallel to

the closing line

ABj

of the link-polygon, this deter-

mines the

vertical reactions at the supports,

and

if

we

take the true pole on the horizontal through the

point a so obtained, a

new link-polygon

starting from
will be

one pin should pass through the other, and

the true line of pressure.

The values

of the

bending moments cannot as a

rule be found accurately

from the bending moment

lies

diagram, because the line of pressure

the axis of the arch
;

very near

has been found, the

the arch-ring

when the horizontal thrust bending moment at any point of

but
readily calculated by subtract-

may be

ing from the bending

the bending

cause on a simply supported

moment which the load would beam of the same span

to the horizontal thrust.
at

moment due

Thus the bending moment

case will be

^ span in the present

2-2

TLy

+
X

37-52

\ wx^ - Nt,. X = 325 x 11-3+ ^ x - 148| X 37-5 = 335-5 tons/ft.

The graphical determination

found to be quite as
calculation, for
reliable as

of the thrust will be

when determined by

on account

of the fact that difference

terms are involved, the arithmetic must be more than

usually accurate to obtain a reliable result.
33.

Method

III.

By means

any point on the arch, the reactions at the supports A and B must intersect on the line of action of the load in some
Locus.
single load
rests at

When a

of

the

Reaction

THE TWO-HINGED AECH

point

57

(Pig. 24)

horizontal thrust of the arch

whose position may be found if the is known. For if nl be

the horizontal distance of

port,

from the left-hand supfrom the similar triangles CAD, cad

z

cd

nl

ad

_Va H

W
H H

(1

n)

whence z = - (1 -

n).

Parabolic Arch,

If

arch to be a parabola, and the

we suppose the axis of the moment of inertia of

the ring at any point to be proportional to the se-

cant of the inclination, then denoting the

inertia of the arch-ring at the

moment
I,

of
its

crown by

and
J
'

value at any other section by

I,

we have

ds

dx

and

= ^>^-y^^^t^=^^y.dx-,^f.dx.
i
'

I
nl,

Now when
/i

is

less than
.

= Va

a;

= W(l -

n)x,


58
and when x
/n

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

is

greater than
.

nl,

= Va =

a;

- W(a; -

nl)

= Wn(i -

x).

Therefore
I

jxy

.dx

W(l -n)x .y .dx +

where y

^n{l - x)y dx
nl

Jo

Jo

jK-ii
V

^)

= W(l -

w)

i^ r x\l - x)dx +

'Jo
= W/.ZM1 Also
^0
(1

^^^
^

{'

x{l

- xf dx
.

Jn!
..).

+ ^ -

1>^(1

(ia;

A
(1

'^^^

.-.

W^w

- )
h
.

+ w + n -

n^)

and therefore z
This
is

5(1

n')

the equation to the reaction locus, and to

facilitate the plotting of it

values of
ii

are given beof

low
span
n
zlh

for different values of

:

up the centre

the

THE TWO-HINGED AECH

" Graphical Statics ")

59

where a and

/3

have the meanI

ings

shown

in Fig.

25 and k

~,

being the

Fia. 25.

moment
stant,

of inertia
its area,

of the arch-ring

assumed con-

A
I

and

r the radius of the circular arc.

Table

60

THE STABILITY OF ABCHES

Table
II,

giving values of

y.

stability of Arches.]

Plate

ii.

[To face page 61.

THE TWO-HINGED AECH

consideration,

61

no sensible

difference will be caused

by regarding the curve as parabolic.

This has been

The reaction was calculated from the tabular values above. The span was divided into sixteen equal parts, and verticals were drawn through the mid-points of each
done
in the present instance (Plate II).

locus

of these to represent the lines of action of the loads,

as in the former solution.

actions

The

directions of the re-

due to each load in turn were then determined by joining the pins A and B to the points in which
each load intersects the reaction locus.
of forces

triangle

was then drawn for each load, as shown, from which the magnitudes of the reactions were
found.

Their values at

were then plotted from

to 16, giving 0'16 as the resultant reaction at A.

The vertical loads 16-1', 1''2' etc., were next compounded with this reaction, and a link-polygon was drawn starting from A. This polygon passed through
B, as
it

should do, thereby checking the accuracy of

It is therefore

the drawing.

the true line of pressure.

The

polar distance found in this

way

scaled 330 tons,

as against

3282

tons by calculation.

It will therefore

be seen that either of the graphirelied

cal

methods may be

upon

to give

a result

sufficiently near the truth for all practical purposes.

An absolute check should

all

not in any case be expected,

because the assumptions are not exactly the same in

three cases.
34.

Construction of an Influence Line for the

Bending Moment
Parabolic Arch,

at
It

any Section of a Two-pinned has been shown above that the

is

horizontal thrust for a parabolic arch

wi

w (1 -

w) (1

+ w

w''')

62
where n
one end.

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

and x

is

the distance of the load

W from

Hence

for a unit load

.

(1

w) (1

+ W
n be
calcu-

h
If the values of

for different values of

lated

from

this

formula and the results plotted at the

fair

corresponding points, a

curve drawn through

position on the span.

the points so obtained will give the horizontal thrust

when

the load occupies

any

moment M at any point is due to the same equal to the bending moment load on a simply supported beam less the bending moment H?/ due the horizontal thrust therefore

Now

the actual bending

/jl

= ^

By

(Pig. 26)


THE TWO-HINGED ARCH
fluence diagram for values of
fore the values of

63

from which therey can be found directly.

,

By way

of

example and

for the sake of

comparison

with the 3-pinned arch already considered, an influence diagram will be

of the

drawn

for a

2-pinned arch

same span and

rise for a section

aX

\ span.

The

following table will facilitate the calculatipn

of the ordinates of the Values of (1 - n)

.

H
(1

line
-|-

n -

n'')

for Different Values

of

11.

n= n (1-m)
-

05
{1

10

15
09C

+ n-n^)

031

061

20 25 -30 35 40 45 50 116 189-159 174 188 193 195

If

we

multiply each of these values by -

= - =

10,
to

in the present case

we

get the values of

due

a unit load in the corresponding positions.

These

values

when

plotted will therefore give the

this

line,

and the ordinate between

will give the values of

and the triangle ACjB

on the span.

M for a unit load in any position The values of M at once follow. The
of

bending moment at the section for any system

concentrated loads in any given position
fore be easily found in the usual

may

there-

way by

multiplying

each load into

its

ordinate on the diagram and sumto sign.

ming the results with due regard same time the influence area will

At the

give the value of

M for a distributed load.

nn CG,
at
* 1

Now in the present instance

37-5 x 112-5

i span

-A-^ =
2;a

- x)

^gq ^ ,,.3

.q 2-49.

64

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

influence diagram will therefore be as

The

shown

in

Fig. 26,

and the bending moment

at ^

span will be
2 '2 tons per
tons per
ft.

found by multiplying the area

ft.,

AC^E by
2-2,

the negative area

and the negative

EDDj also by area BD,D by 1'3

ft.,

tons per

CHAPTBE

V.

THE HINGELESS ARCH.

35.

An

arch without hinges

joints,

is

not only less flexible

than an arch with

but tbe resistance which

the fixed ends offer to bending assist in relieving the

stresses in other portions of the arch,

when

other

conditions remain the same.

Its

main disadvantages

are that the calculation of the stresses requires great

and the results obtained by graphical methods are not to be trusted except as a check on the calculations. At the same time the stresses due to change of temperature may appreciably increase the stresses due to the loading. If, however, the
accuracy,

arch can be erected in cold weather, the

effect

of

any

rise in

temperature will be to cause a reduction

stresses,

in the

maximum

and the

fixure of the ends

will therefore

have a beneficial

effect in this respect).

As the cost

of construction is in general not greater

than in other kinds of arch, the advantages appear

to favour this type, so that the theoretical difficulties

appear to be the sole reason

why

the hingeless arch

for long

has not been universally adopted

spans,
in

where the any case.

difficulties of

erection are the

same

36. General

ment

at

Expression for the Bending Moany Section of a Symmetrical Hingeless

(65)

66

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

Arch under Vertical Loading.

sure (at present

Let ACB

(fig.

27)

be the axis of the arch, and AjCjBj be the hne of pres-

unknown)

for the load

by Eddy's Theorem,

sect. 15,

the

upon it. Then at bendingmoment

aay point

is

represented by the product of the hori-

zontal thrust

H and

the vertical intercept between

the arch-axis and the line of pressure at that point.

Thus

at the point C,

x COi.

Pig. 27.

Let a horizontal line A2B2 be taken as the X-axis,

and

its

mid-point

as origin,

and

let

the vertical

and the line A^Bj in D. Then CCi = CiD - C^D - CCj. .-. = H(CiD - CjD -y) = B. .GJ) --H.[G^T> + y). = the bending moment due But X CjD = to the same system of loads on a simply supported beam. .-. = ;a - H(C2D + y).
through
cut
it

in Cg

ft.

But CoD

+
I

X where

z is

the

mean

ordinate of the trapezium A^AjBgBj.

.-.

M=
M

yu

- H^/

B.Z,.

H Zk

.X.

Let Xj

H !A
I

-^andX, =
X,.

B..z

Then

ny

- X^x

THE HINGBLBSS AECH

Introducing this value of
(15),

67

into equations (14),

and (16) of

sect. 27,

we

get

2^.Ss-H2f


THE HINGELESS ARCH
69
values of I at six equidistant sections were estimated
to be as follows
:

Section.

70
error
it

THE STABILITY OF AECHES

is

easy to find a slope such as will divide

the arch-ring into a convenient

which
Bs so

will close

up

at the point 7.

number of parts, and The values of

arch,

found are then set off along the axis of the and the loads Wj, Wg, etc., acting on these lengths are assumed to act at their mid-points.

The corresponding values

of

8a;

measured along

the horizontal are given in the following table along

with other data required for solving the equations

(22), (23),

and
;

(24).

Column

gives the

section

considered
of

column 2 gives the

ft.,

vertical ordinate y'

the arch-axis at the section.

get

^2 [y] = 79'40

and as n

By =

addition

14

we we have
in order

79-40

f-

=
the
0,

11 '34

ft.

as the

mean
8s

value.

Now
in

that

condition

0,

or

our case

which drawn at this distance above the line AB. Column 3 gives the values of 2/ = 2/' - 11"34. The algebraic total of this column should be zero, but due to unavoidable small errors we find it to be - 0'04. This error is
be
satisfied,

Sy =

may

the axis AjBj, from

the values of y are measured, must be

then distributed equally in column

ing the error of the total to

4,

thereby reduc-

0-002.

Column 5

gives the values of x' corresponding to the values of

y',

measured from the left-hand end

is

column 6 gives

the horizontal lengths of the segments &x into which the arch
divided,

and column 7 gives the loads on

left

these segments, viz. for 2-2 tons per foot on the

half

and 1'3 tons per foot on the right half of the span. These loads were next plotted on a vector line, and a

THB HINGELESS AECH

71

72

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

for

bending moment diagram was drawn

usual way, as
if

them

in the

they were on a simply-supported

of

beam, and the values

at each section so

the bending

moments

/j,

found are given in column

/J^y

8.

Column

9 gives the values of

;

as obtained" from

columns 4 and 8 whilst column 10 gives the squares of column 4.

Inserting the values of
2//.?/

and %y^ so found

in

equation (22),

we

get
tons/ft.^
ft.2

g^yy^ 63974
^y'^

^3

210-92

If

we

include the effect of the normal thrust on

the arch the denominator will be increased by an

amount which

is

approximately equal to
I 8s
v_
I

R n.A,

where v is the distance of the centre of curvature at the crown from the horizontal axis of eo-ordinates = about
191
ft. ft.

in

our case, and since

3
=

and A
is

2'5 sq.

say

the

value of the above

If

term

approxi-

mately 6

tons. tons.

we

take this into account

we

get

H
by

= 295
fix

In order

to find the values of x^

and

x.^,

and

there-

the position of the line of pressure and the

/jx

bending moments, the values oi

in equation (23) are

and

x^ required

found and tabulated below.

THE HINGELESS ARCH

Table
1 II,

78
and
Xj.

fm- the Calculations of Xj

74

THE STABILITY OP ARCHES

fixing couples at the
for

The
found

supports can

now

be

AAi = ^A - AA2 = 12-73 - 11-34 = 1-39

ft.

and BBj = b - BB^ = 12-25 - 11-34 = 0-91 ft. and Ma = X AAj = 295 x 1-39 = 410 tons/ft. and Mb = X BBi = 295 x 0-91 = 268-5

H H

taking

The value of the reaction at A can be found by moments about B. Thus Va X 150 + Mb - Ma - (165 x 112^ + 97-5 x 37i) =
whence Va

149 tons.

The bending moment

found from the equation

at

any

section can 'then be

-M =
=
Thus

IX

- Ky -

B.Z,

- B.^^ "
I

''^

fj.

HU
we

+
get

ZA - Zb
..).
I

at section 1

M=1740
and

- 295 (- 7-934 + 12-49 + -0032 x = 1740 - 1406 = 334 tons/ft.,

at section 7, near the centre,

66-4)

= 4980 - 295 (3-606 + 12-49 + 0032 = 4980 - 4760 = 230 tons/ft.

x 3 90)

38.

Treatment of the Hingeless Arch by means

of Influence Lines.^In order to investigate the

worst conditions of loading at any given section of
the
arch-ring, the

most convenient method

it

is

to

construct an influence line for the thrust, bending

moment,
vestigate.

or other effect which

is

desired to in-

We have seen in chapter V,

able conditions

sect. 34, that

under

suit-

^~ .Ss=

and that

if

the arch-axis be


THE HINGELESS AECH
so divided as to

75

make

y- constant, then %[y]

of

= 0, and

in equations 22, 23,

and 24

chapter v

we have

(23), and X, = |f (22), X, = ^ (24) where Xj = H ^J^-^ and X^ = H (see sect. 36).
.

Having then divided up the

so as to

axis of the arch- ring

make - constant

in the

way

already ex-

the position of the x axis is drawn in and this determines the values of the intercepts y between the x axis and the arch-axis.

plained

(sect. 37),

as before,

Graphical Evaluation of the Terms

Let

Syn?/,

%y^, etc.

ADjB

(Fig.

29)

represent

the

influence line

Pig. 29.
for

bending

supported
acts

moment for a unit load on a simply beam AB. Then when a unit load Wj
.

in

moment
ing

/aj

any position C, Wj COj is the bending which it produces at a given section D.

if

Similarly

a load
ft,^

Wg

act at E,
it

Wj EBj is the
.

bend-

moment
.

which

produces at D, and so on for

other loads.
is

Hence
.

the total bending

etc.

moment
.

at

Wj CCi + Ws EBj +

5W

/>.

76

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

Let AjCjBi, A1B2B1, AiPjBj be the bending moment diagrams for loads Wj, Wj, W3. Then the bending moment diagram for the total load is made up of the ordinates of these triangles and therefore the ordinate DjDj is the sum of DjOi, Djfe, and DjC. But D./l represents the bending moment at D due to the load Wj acting at C = Wj CCj similarly DJ) represents the bending moment at D due to Wj acting at E = Wj BEj, and so on. Hence the total ordinate D2D3 represents the
.

value of 2W/U., and therefore

ordinates y,
%fi.y is

if

the loads

W are the

for

represented by the ordinate z

D^Dg
these

of the

bending

moment diagram drawn

loads, at the section

under consideration.

We

therefore set off the values of y vertically along a

(ii),

vector line

Plate III, and with

any pole O^ we
off

construct a link-polygon AjCj.

Also setting
(i),

the

values of y horizontally as at
the

with a pole Oj at

same polar

distance as before,

we draw
Then
first

a link-

polygon for these so-called loads.

cept

the inter-

wwj

cut off on the

axis

by the

and

last

links gives the total

this axis

mpment

of the forces

y about

52/^.
ft.

In the present case mm-^

Similarly
if

2 x

5-8

ft.

11-6

we suppose

the same

points as before loaded with the values of x instead

of those of y, the ordinates of the link-polygon will

give

the value of %nx.

The

so-called loads

x are

and any pole O3 being taken, another link-polygon AjCj is drawn, and its closing line AgCg. Then the ordinates
(iii),

therefore plotted along a vector

Une in

of

this figure represent the values of

%iix for

any

section, whilst the intercept G^^

on the

vertical axis

of the arch,

between the

first

and

last links

produced

THE HINGELBSS AECH

to cut
it,

77
of the

represents the

sum

of the

moments

X loads about that axis.

Hence

2C3,.

represents the

value of 2*^ for the whole arch, and therefore

X,
^

^
S,x'

4^

tons.

2C3TO

If therefore

we suppose 2C^n
X^

to represent the unit

load to scale, the value of the ordinate z^ at

any

point gives the value of

point,

for a unit load at that

and

is

therefore the influence diagram for Xj.

Similarly since

H
if

= ?/^ =

^2

we suppose 2wtWj

to represent the unit load to

scale, the value of the ordinate

Zg at any point will

be the
point,

horizontal thrust for the unit load at that

accurately the curve which envelops

the unit load in any position.

and consequently the link-polygon, or more it, is an inIt

is

fluence line for the value of the horizontal thrust due

to

therefore

spoken of as the
Finally,
if

H
set

polygon.

we

down

the values of unity to any

scale along a vector line at (iv)

and with any pole

or-

O4 construct another link-polygon A4C4B4, the

dinates

Z4 of this polygon will give the values of

for

21 X

yu,

the polar distance

of

any position of the load. = ^w = 07 where n

then

If
is

the

we make number
and the

the unit loads,

= n
Now

\z^,

ordinates of the polygon measured to twice the linear

scale are the influence values for X^.

In this

way we have
of

influence diagrams representXj.

ing the values

H, Xj,

the bending

moment

at

any section

of the arch is

78

THE STABILITY OF ABCHBS

M=
If therefore

/x

- (H2/

Xio;

X2).

we adhere

to the scale of the

Xj diagram
alter the

that

is

to say, twice the

Hnear

scale,

and

ordinates of the

H diagram

in the ratio -^

and
js^,

the

ordinates of the Xj diagram in the ratio

where

y and x are the values taken at the point for which

the value of

is

required, the algebraic

will

sum

of the

corrected

ordinates

determine
X^a;

the

influence

line for the values of

Hy +

+ X2

at the section

considered.

In order to obtain an influence diagram for M,

therefore,

we
fj.

construct the influence line for the

values of
is

at the section considered.

This diagram

a triangle, and using the

same

vertical scale, viz.

twice the linear scale, the ordinate of this triangle

on the
x'

vertical axis of the arch,

should measure
in,

-^

X.

The

triangle being
will

drawn

the init

fluence line for

be the diagram between

for the values of

and the curve already found X^x + Xj.

Hy +

In Plate III the above procedure

is

illustrated.

Having drawn the curves AgCj, A3C3, and Afi^B^, the ordinates of the first two polygons are altered in
the ratio

-2 and by changing

the polar distances

in the inverse ratios.

This has been done for two

A at the extreme left, and which the corresponding values In this way the new of X and y were measured. polygons Aja, AjC^, Ajfo, AjC were obtained. The
sections, viz. the section

the

section 6, for

HnilrTt

30

Co

io

So

.^^. 55

iSo

'T MO

Staiilify of Arclies.

Plate

hi.

[Tofo,ce pnqe 79.

THE HINGELESS AECH

79

ordinates of the Xj and X2 polygons were then added

and those

of the

polygon subtracted, the result

A4OHB4.

being the curves A4C7B4,

case, since there is

In the

first

no bending moment at A for a freely supported beam, the curve obtained is the influence diagram for the bending moment at A, and its area, as measured by planimeter was found to be

+ 222

sq. ins. for the left-hand half of the girder,

sq. ins.

and - 2-17

for the right-hand half.

There-

fore since the left-hand half carries a load of 2-2 tons

per foot and the right-hand half carries a load of 1'3

tons per
foot,

drawing was
is

1 in.

and remembering that the scale of the = 20 ft. and that the vertical scale

twice the linear scale, the total bending

to the

moment

at

A due

whole load

is

(2-22 x 2-2

- 2'17 x

1-3)

X i^S tons/ft.

412-6

tons/ft.,

which checks closely

with the result hitherto obtained by calculation (see

p. 74).

In the second case, dealing with the bending

moment
^i^^^i
axis

at section 6,

having obtained the resultant

curve for the values of

is

Hy +
its

Xja;

-1-

Xg, the triangle

drawn having

intercept on the vertical

the distance of the section from the left-hand

The shaded area then represents the influence diagram for M, and the algebraic sum of its areas, which is here negative and represents - 154 tons/ft.,
end.
is

the bending

moment

at section 5.

In this
at

way

influence lines for the bending

moment

any section may be drawn, and it is then easy to see what distribution of loading will produce the most severe moment, 'and to obtain the value of it. Now the maximum stresses due to the bending moment are always much in excess of the stresses

80
due
of

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

to the axial thrust,

and therefore the distribution

which determines the maximum bending moment at any section may be taken as that which
load

produces

maximum

stress at the section.

Also the

normal thrust
is

for this loading

proximately from the formula

1^

may be found ap= H seci^, where

makes with the

the angle which the

section

vertical.

39.

By way

of illustration

suppose

we

require the

worst conditions

of stress for the section 5.

Having

constructed the influence diagram for the bending

moment
positive

at this section,

we

find that the areas of the

and negative parts are + 132, - 308, and + 36 sq. ft., or + 66; - 154, and + 18 tons/ft. per

ton of load covering these segments.

sultant bending

Hence

the re-

dead load of 1'3 tons per ft. = (66 + 18 - 154) x 1-3 = - 91 tons/ ft., and the maximum positive moment due to the
to the
live

moment due

load of

'9

ton per foot covering the two extreme

(66

segments

is -9

18)

75-6 tons/ft., whilst the

maximum
load
is '9

negative bending

moment due

to the live

The actual greatest and least values of the bending moment at the section are therefore - 91 + 75-6 = - 15-4 tons/ft., and - 91 - 138-6 = - 229-6 tons/ft.
x 154 138-6 tons/ft.

The horizontal

thrust

for these conditions of

loading are found from the

line to be
<f>

260 tons

= 16^. and 376 tons respectively, whilst .-. N = 260 sec 15f and 376 sec 15^ resp.
= 270 and 390 M. Mesnager's Method.
in " Engineering,"
tons.

This method

is

described

17 March, 1916.

It affords

an easy

means

of calculating the stresses in a concrete arch

THE HINGELESS AECH

which
to the
satisfies the conditions that its axis is
its

81
paraboHc

and that

moment

of inertia increases according

law

I cos 6 -

inertia at the crown,

at
if

where I is the moment of and I is the moment of inertia

I,,,

any other section inclined 6 to the vertical. Then the thickness at the crown is /, the thickness at
If

any other point

the arch

is built in this

way

the

^cos 6 bending moments

at

any point can

easily

Fig. 30.

be found graphically, by the following construction,

" a proof of which is given in the issue of " Engineering

referred to above.
let

Let

ACB
a

be the arch axis, and

W be a load in any position.

E
draw
6

and through

horizontal

Make CE = i CD Make FG.

82

THE STABILITY OP ARCHES

I

CO =
Also

let

CD and through O draw HK horizontal. E be the point in which the line of action of
FG.
Join

outs

OM

parallel to

draw OL, EH, EK, and from EH, EK. Join EM, EL. Then the
two
lines

intercept between these

gives at every point the

and the arch

for the

axis

bending moment

arch

produced by the load

triangle

on the same scale that the

LEM

represents the bending

moment

pro-

duced by the same load on a simply supported girder. Thus ET represents the bending moment
on the arch-ring
the bending
to the

same
all

scale that

ES

represents

moment on

a simply supported girder.

the vertical lines in the

Since the ratio of

figure will be the
distortion,

same whatever the scale of vertical a diagram may be drawn to a large scale,

and

this

diagram can then be used for finding the

its rise

bending moments on an arch of the above type,

whatever

and span, the

result being rigidly

accurate so long as the work done in compressing

the arch-ring
is

negligible in
it,

done

in

bending

comparison with that an assumption usually regarded

as sufficiently accurate for practical purposes.

CHAPTEE

VI.

MASONRY AND CONCRETE ARCHES.

40.

Previous

to

the development of

the elastic

theory, the investigation of the stability of masonry and

brickwork arches was always carried out by testing

whether an equilibrium polygon could be drawn

lie
if

to

within the middle-third of the arch-ring

because

this were possible it was argued that the arch would be stable. This method of solution, however, gives no clue to the actual stresses set up, because and the actual line of pressure is undetermined therefore where the greatest economy of material is desirable and necessary, as in the case of very large
;

arches, the determination of the actual line of pres-

sure

is

required,

and

this is only possible

;

by means

of the elastic

theory of the arch

but in the case of

small bridges, in which the thickness of the arch-ring

is

rate

secondary importance, the older and less accumethod may be used and is useful in checking the results obtained by calculation.
of

41. It

has already been explained

that, treated

as a statical problem,
is possible,

no solution for a hingeless arch

It

because the three conditions necessary to

fix

the position of the line of pressure are absent.

was, however, realized by the early engineers that an

arch must necessarily be stable provided that :-^

(83)

84
(1)

THE STABILITY OF AECHBS

There
is

no tension

at

any

joint of the arch-

ring.
(2)

That the crushing strength

That the Une
of at

of the material is

not exceeded.
(3)

thrust

angle with the normal

nowhere makes an any bed-joint greater than

the least value of the friction angle.

These are the three fundamental conditions of

stability for

an arch-ring.
satisfied,

Now
it

in

order that the

first of these

conditions
easily be

may

be

may

shown

-^
M

that,

assuming a linear
it is

distribu-

tion of stress,

only necessary

for the line of thrust to lie

within
for

certain critical limits,

which

rectangular

cross-section

are

the
'

middle-third
;

points of

the

arch -ring
frictional

or

if

we

allow for
it

"'

resistance,

may

be

taken, according to Scheffler, that provided the line

of pressure lies within the

middle half the primary

of a

condition of stability

is satisfied.

For when the resultant thrust on any section

structure acts out of centre in the plane of the princi-

pal axis, the stress at any point distant y (Fig. 31) from the axis through its centroid is given by

XX

the formula

where
is

e is

the eccentricity of the resultant thrust,

of this thrust

the

component
is

normal to the

section,

and y

to be taken positive or negative according

MASONRY AND CONCRETE ARCHES

as
it is

85

on the same side

of the axis

XX

as the re-

sultant or not.

Now

for a rectangular section

86
of

THE STABILITY OP AECHES

two kinds, which may be described as
and
effect,

active

and

passive forces, standing to one another in the relation

of cause

the passive forces being called into

;

play by the active forces

forces will not increase

after they

and since these passive have once pro-

that the passive forces will be the least

duced equilibrium with the active forces, we conclude which are required to produce equilibrium." In other words, we assume that Nature effects her
purpose with the least expenditure of mechanical
energy.
It follows

from

this " Principle of

Least

Pig. 32.

Work
one
is

" that of all the equilibrium -polygons that

can

b3 constructed for a system of loads on an arch, that the true line of pressure which
lies

nearest to

the axis of the arch-ring.

For

if

AA',

BB'

(Fig. 32) be

two neighbouring sections, unit distance apart, and s is the stress at any distance y from the axis C'C, then

=
s"

where
a

is

the stress at unit distance

from the neutral axis NN, and since the strain-energy

in tension or

compression per unit length

is

^ volume

the total stram- energy developed between the

MASONRY AND CONCBETB ARCHES

two sections
will be given

87

by the expressions
fl

^b 8y
.

Sxs'^

+ ^y

E
Sx.s-

~2E"
^x
.

b.Sy + ^yb.

s}

A +

i,^

88

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

shown
at A, B,

extrados towards the springings as

and

C.

This indicates that the Hne of pressure has

passed outside the middle-third limits.

cal position

In the

criti-

when

the line of pressure just touches

the middle-third lines as at A, C, and

sections at

(Fig. 33), the

which contact

first

occurs are

known
first

as

the joints of rupture, because the arch will

~7777777777777T7777777T7~77~'

yield

TTTTTTTm-rrr^

FiQ. 33.

at these points,

and the equilibrium-polygon

is

then

known

as the critical line of pressure.

Should the arch yield in the manner indicated

above, the critical line of pressure
is

known

as the

curve of

minimum
is

thrust,

because the horizontal

thrust of the arch

then the least that can occur

first

consistent with the

condition of stability.
is

On

the other hand,

that
of
it

if

the arch

so shaped or so loaded

yields as
is

pressure

shown known

in Fig. 34, the critical line

as the curve of
is

maximum
then the
limitations.

thrust,

because the horizontal thrust

greatest that can occur within the

same

43. Construction of the Critical

Line of Pres-

sure.

Reduced Load Curve.

it is

In dealing with the

load upon an arch

usual to consider a portion

MASONRY AND CONCRETE ARCHES

of the arch contained

89
sec-

between two longitudinal

tions 1

ft.

or 1 m. apart, as the case

may

be,

and
and

to
its

assume that the weights

of the arch-ring

Pig. 34.

load act vertically

sate side, because

and

this

assumption

is

on the

if

the arch- ring have a rise equal

to or less than half the span,

any horizontal forces

jBlling

due

to

earth pressure or other causes will increase

its stability.

Usually an arch has a concrete

over the haunches, as shown in Fig. 35, upon which

Fig. 35.
rests the earth or other material.

These materials
is

may

be of

much

less

specific

weight than that of

it

the arch-ring.

In such a case

convenient to

construct a reduced load curve by diminishing the

ordinates of each material so as to obtain a diagram

which represents the amount

of

masonry haying the

90

THE STABILITY OF AECHES

same weight. Thus, e.g. if the weight of the archring be 160 lb. /ft.*, that of the concrete backing 140 lb./ft.3, of the earth filling 100 lb./ft.^ and if there is also a live load of 200 Ib./ft.^, the ordinates between the line EB' and the extrados are reduced in the
ratio

j^^ giving the curve eB'

the ordinates above

BB'D
last,

are reduced in the ratio ^|^ and added to the whilst the live load will be represented by
of

an additional height
scale of the drawing.

masonry

of

-|^2.

ft.

on the

In this way

we

get the line

HH'
of

which

is

the reduced load curve,

it

such that

the area

HH'CAB. below

represents a quantity

masonry whose weight

44.

is

equivalent to that of

the combined weights of the other materials.

Method of

Fictitious

Joints.
is

A
it

further

simplification in the construction

introduced by

disregarding the actual voussoirs and having constructed the reduced load curve, dividing
tical strips of

into ver-

equal width.

If

these widths are not

large, their resultant

weights

may

without sensible

error be taken as acting along their centre lines.

For

if

we

take the trouble to consider the load resting on each voussoir, as

is

often

done, and

compound

it

with the
itself,

weight of the voussoir

the

difference in the results obtained

will be quite inappreciable, be-

cause the weight of

the

tri-

angular prism ceb (Fig. 36) is so small compared with the pressures on
its

faces that the line of pressure is not

it

sensibly deflected by

in passing

from cb to

ce,

and

therefpre no appreciable error is

made in regarding thg

MASONRY AND CONCRETE ARCHES

91

load as consisting of segments bounded by vertical

planes,

whose weights are assumed

if

to act along the"

mid-ordinates, and

these planes are equidistant, the

weights contained by them are proportional to the

mid-ordinates under the
these

reduced load curve, and

may

therefore be used as vectors to represent

them.
46. Construction of the Critical Line of Pressure for iViinimum Thrust at the Crown, and for

Curve

Pig. 37.

Symmetrical

Loading.

Having

constructed the
it

reduced load diagram and divided

into vertical

strips of equal width, vectors O'l, 1'2, etc. (Fig. 37),

are set off proportional to the mid-ordinates,

and

a,

92
pole

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

being taken on the horizontal through o, a linkis

polygon ab to h
to cut the first
etc.

drawn, whose sides are produced

ab produced in the points
1',

liijk

2',

Now

if

we

consider the equilibrium of any por-

tion of the arch-ring, such as

AA'B'B, and assume

the line of pressure to act at the upper middle-third

point

at the

crown, then

if

B" were by chance the

lower middle-third line

point of rupture, the resultant thrust at this point

will just be tangential to the at

must be such as to pass through the point 3" in which the resultant of the
B",
its

and

direction

load intersects the horizontal thrust through C, ac-

cording to the principle that

when

a body

is in equi-

librium under the action of three forces, the directions

of those forces

must pass through the same

point.

B"3" will therefore be the direction of the resultant

thrust at B".

But

if

we

find that B"3"

produced

cuts the lower middle-third line,

B" cannot be the

point of rupture, because this occurs at the point

where the
line.

line of pressure touches the middle-third

D" in the same and seeing if it cuts the lower middle-third line, and so on until we arrive at a point, say B", where the line B"5" first touches. This will be the joint of rupture, and a line through
therefore try the point

We

way by

joining D"4"

the point on the vector figure parallel to B"5" will determine the pole 0' which corresponds to the
critical line of pressure.
If the

link-polygon

is

now

redrawn with this

pole, the result will

be the

critical

line of pressure for

If,

minimum

thrust at the crown.

it

however, no such tangent can be found,

does

not necessarily follow that an equilibrium-polygon

cannot be

drawn lying

within

the

middle-third

JB R C K
I

E>RIDiE

OVER

THE

Oglip RivEf?

J??^

CLEwr; SPfl"/

^CALE
Slabilili/ of Arclies.^

'

t'xtH

a 2 f^lfiM-S-

Plate

iv.

[ J'o

face page

'J3.

MASONRY AND CONCEETB AECHES

limits, for this

93
start-

ing at a point below

46. In order

may sometimes be effected by C at the crown.

to

make

clear
is

the above descripin

tion the line of pressure

drawn

Plate

IV

for
is

a bridge over the Oglio, in Italy.

of

This bridge

brickwork and has a clear span of 21 m. and

a rise of 11-9

m.

The arch
27 "5

is

a circular arc, the

radius of the intrados being 24 4 m. and the radius

of

the extrados

m. with a crown thickness

is

of 1-4

m.

The width
is

7'5

m. 2000

The weight
kilo,

of

the

brickwork

taken
to

as

per

cub.

metre, the load

up

DE
m.

being also brickwork of

approximately the same weight.

Eadius of
zontal

DB =

54-5
is

From

DE

to the hori-

PG
m.
is

the backing

gravel weighing 1600 kg.

per

c.

GE =

1-1

m.

The

greatest live load to be

carried

8000 kg. per metre run. The half arch was drawn to a

scale of 1 in.

=
at

2 m. and

was then divided

into twenty- two strips

less

each 1 m. wide, with another one of

the end.

width
in,

The mid-ordinates

were drawn

as

shown.

These ordinates are proportional

a scale of 1
in.

to the

weights of the corresponding strips and represent

those weights to

2'"

x T'S" x

2000 kg./cm.' = 30,000 kg.

The

live

load being 8000

kg. per metre will be represented by ^Vinr = '^^'^ ^'^ The ordinates of the gravel are reduced in the ratio z^ws- = T' ^^^ these together with the live load or-

dinates are added to the brickwork, so that

we

get

the reduced load curve representing the equivalent

amount

of brick.

The mid-ordinates

of the

reduced
1 in.

load diagram were then reduced i and plotted along

a vector line as shown, the scale being

now

94
240,000

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

kg..

horizontal through

was arbitrarily chosen on the w and a link-polygon abc was drawn whose links were produced to cut the
pole
o,
.

first

link

in

the

points

1',

2',

6',

7',

etc.

These

points were then projected

upon a horizontal drawn

These represent the

through the upper middle-third point at the crown,

giving
1",

2",

6",

7",

etc.

points through which the resultant pressures on each

section of the arch-ring

must go on the assumption

join the point 12" say, to

that these resultants pass through the lower middlethird point.

Thus

if

we

the lower middle- third point of section 12, viz. P, the

trial line

12"

will be the direction of the resultant

thrust on this assumption.

But when produced

line,

it

passes outside the lower middle-third

and there-

fore the joint of rupture cannot be at

this section.

We
trial

find
lines

that

as

we approach

the abutment the

become more nearly tangential to the line, and in this example we find that it is only when we reach the abutment that the trial line becomes actually a tangent. We therefore draw through 23 a line having this direction, and
lower middle-third
this

determines the pole Oj for the

Starting

critical line of

pressure.

from the upper middle-third

is

point at the crown this line of pressure

drawn

in as

shown.

The

polar distance thus found measures the hori-

zontal thrust corresponding to the critical

hne

of

pressure to the vector scale of 1

in.

= 240,000 kg., and

would

in this case give the actual thrust of the arch

because no other link-polygon could be drawn within

the middle-third iines which would
axis than the one
lie

nearer to the

drawn

in other words, the critical

MASONRY AND CONCRETE ARCHES

95

line of pressure will in this case be the true line of

pressure or approximately
47. Simplified

so.

Treatment of Small Segmental

of small

Arches.

In the case

segmental arches

it

will usually

be found, as in the preceding example,

that the joints of rupture lie so near the springings that

no error worth considering

that
the line of

will be introduced
is

if

we assume
to

pressure

tangential

the

lower middle-third line at the springings

themselves.
tion,

This greatly simplifies the investigaif

because

we

find the centre of gravity of the

reduced

load-area, the

horizontal thrust

acting

through the upper middle-third point

(Fig. 38) will

at the

crown

of gravity in Q,

meet the vertical through the centre and therefore the resultant reaction

acting through the lower middle-third point at the

springing joint must have the direction EQ.

tri-

angle of forces abc will then determine the magni-

tudes of

H and E when W
will

is

known.
itself

Further, experience shows that an arch in process

of construction

support

when extending

96

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

to
it

beyond the abutments

some

distance,

and

it

may

safely be taken that

may

be trusted to do

so in any case as far as a joint

of about 30 (Fig. 39) with the horizontal as in Fig. 39.

AA' making an angle shown

This part of the arch

may
and

therefore be

regarded as forming part of the

abutment
this

itself,

it is

only in

way

that

we can

explain the

some arches which must otherwise be regarded as violating the primary condition
stability of

of Fig. 39.

stability.

In this case the

springing joint
as at AA'.

may

be regarded

48. Construction of the Critical Line of

Pres-

sure for an
metric.

Arch,
the

when

the

Load

is
is

When

Asymasym-

load upon an arch

metric, the difficulty of constructing the critical line

of pressure is greatly increased,

because the highest

point of the curve will no longer be at the centre of

Fio. 40.

the arch as
will,

it

however,

must be for symmetrical loading. It lie somewhere near the centre on the
is

side

on which the load

greatest.

good way

is

therefore to select a point

position

(Fig. 40) in a reasonable

and two other points

A and B on the lower and

upper middle-third lines respectively at points near the springings where we may suppose the joints of rupture


MASONRY AND CONCEETB AECHBS
are likely to occur.
is

97

link-polygon for the given loads

then drawn to pasa through the points A, C, and

as described in Chapter II,

and

if

this lies with-

in the middle-third lines, the

stability is satisfied.

primary condition

of

But if it is found to cut these lines, then the point D where the polygon recedes furthest from the axis should be noted, and a point D' being taken on the middle-third line at this section another link-polygon is drawn to pass through A, D', and B. In the same way it may be found after drawing
the
first

trial-polygon that the points

A and B may

require to be chosen in a different position to enable

the link-polygon to

lie

within the middle- third, and

the trial-polygon will enable us to select the most

suitable positions
;

but

if

no such polygon can be

(i)

drawn, then we must either

ring
;

thicken the arch;

(ii)

alter the

form

of the arch

or

(iii)

alter

the distribution of the load.

49.

Adjustment of the Arch

to Suit the Load.

Let Fig. 41 represent an arch which has been designed

to approximate to the

form desired and which

is

pro-

portioned, as far as one can estimate roughly, to carry

the dead load, the proportions being those

commonly

adopted.

For the sake

of

convenience in drawing

suppose the vertical scale to be magnified four times.

The lower
dead load.

figure represents the arch

and

its

load so

magnified, ac being the reduced load curve for the

five strips of

The area under this curve divided into equal width, and the loads, as represet

sented by the mid-ordinates of these strips reduced

to \ size

were

a? shown,

pole

down along a vector line 0"1 5, Oj was taken as the horizontal

. . .

98

THE STABILITY OP ARCHES

through 5 at any convenient distance and a linkpolygon defgh was drawn,

tersecting in
I.

its first

and
I

last links in-

vertical through

then represents

the line of action of the resultant load

arch.

on the semihori-

Draw through
zontal
5

the mid-point of the

crown a

CL
4

to represent the horizontal thrust at the

Pig. 41.

crown, meet the resultant load in

centre

L and

join the

of the springing joint to L.

presents the reaction at the springing

of pressure acts at its centre.

Then AL rewhen the line

parallel to

Draw oOj
which

AL, and with Og as a new

link-polygon
starting

pole, construct

another
pass

at

A,

should

through G.

This will represent the line of pressure

MASONRY AND CONCEETB AECHBS

if

99

we

neglect any small alteration in the load due to

the modified form of the arch-ring.

We now alter
conform
to this

the axis of the arch so as to

curve,
is

make

it

and the new form of the arch-axis so obtained shown by a dotted line in the figure.
50.

The

Adjustment of the Load to Suit the Arch. third method of design consists in altering the

Fig. 42.

distribution of the load so as to

make

the line of

pressure coincide approximately with the assumed

form

of the arch.

This

may

be effected by altering

the specific weights of the backing materials or

by
of

building openings in the spandrels

when

the load

over

the haunches

is

too great

or
to

by means

transverse arches, etc.

In order

determine the

100

THE STABILITY OP AECHES

distribution of load required to bring about the desired result, the half-span (Fig. 42) is divided into

convenient number of equal parts. Verticals drawn through the points so obtained intersect the At A, c, b, a, C draw arch-axis in the points a, b, c. Perpendiculars to OA and radial lines OA, Oc, etc. OC at A and C respectively intersect in Q, and therefore CQ, AQ are the directions of the line of pressure at C and A. If therefore we take Q as a pole, the lines Qo and Q^ will be the directions of the rays of the vector figure corresponding to the first and last links of the line of pressure, and if we draw lines through Q parallel to the tangents at a, b, and c, these lines will cut off lengths 01, 1-2, 2-3, 3-4 on any vertical which are proportional to the loads on
a
the corresponding segments of the arch.
If,

therefore,

we

set

up ordinates

dd',

ee',

etc.,

equal to these lengths, at the mid-points of the

horizontal segnlents into which the half-span
divided,

was

and draw a

fair

curve

d'e'fg'

through the

point so obtained, this curve will represent the distribution of load

which

will

make

the line of presIf

sure coincide with the axis of the arch.

we

estimate the probable weight of the load and the

arch-ring for the segment adjacent to the crown, and

note that this weight

is

represented by the length

0-1 in the vector figure, the scale of the diagram

will be

determined with
of the loads

magnitudes
scale.

sufficient accuracy, and the on the other segments will be

represented by the lengths 1'2, 2-3, 3'4 to the same

51.

Abutments of an Arch,
if

As we have already
its load,

seen,

an ordinary

flat

arch yields under

MASONEY AND CONCRETE ARCHES

101

the line of pressure rises at the crown and sinks at the springinga;
but
if

the earth yield because the

horizontal pressure due to earth or otherwise forces

the abutment inward, the line of pressure sinks at

the crown and rises at the springings as indicated in

the sketch.

In the

first

case therefore the line of

minimum

thrust should be used, and in the second

case the line of

maximum

thrust.

In considering the
fore,
if

stability of

an abutment therethe line of

we

disregard the earth-pressure

t:

Pig. 43.

minimum

thrust

must be assumed as our

critical line

of pressure,

and the arch must be considered as

fully

loaded, because the horizontal thrust is then greatest.

The resultant
is

(Fig. 43) of the load

on the half arch

then found, and a

A of forces determines the values

of

and E.

The weight
shown,

of the

abutment

is

next calculated and compounded with the previous

resultant

E as

We

thus get E' which must

102
lie

THE STABILITY OF AECHES

within the middle- third of the base, and satisfy

the other conditions of stability.

If this does not occur the width or slope of the abutments must be modified until the required con-

ditions are fulfilled.

52.

Intermediate Piers.

In
is

the case of inter-

mediate piers the most unfavourable condition of

the load occurs

when one span

fully loaded

and

the adjacent span unloaded.

In

this case, the line

FiQ. 44.

of

maximum

thrust is

assumed as the

critical line of

pressure for the unloaded span, and the

line of thrust for the loaded span.

minimum

and E^ at the springings The resultant of these is compounded with the weight of the pier W3, and the
resultant thrusts Ej
(Fig. 44) intersect in a.
final resultant cuts the base in L.

The

CHAPTBE

VII.

DESIGN OF MASONRY AND CONCRETE ARCHES.

53.
is

Wheeeas

in the construction of metal arches

it

a matter of small importance what the exact form

of the arch

may

be, in the case of

masonry and con-

crete

it is

desirable that the line of pressure, in the

worst case of loading, shall remain within or not

far outside the middle-third of the arch-ring,

and

in

order that this

may

be so with a

minimum

thickness

of arch-ring the axis of the arch should deviate as

little

as possible from the line of pressure for the

it

load

carries.

In this case the arch-ring will be

will

under pure thrust and the stresses

therefore

have their

least value.

Any

deviation from the true

form necessitates a heavier arch, and, moreover, the

deformations due to the load are increased, the theory

becomes

less

correct,

and the weight and

the problem
is,

cost

of

material are greater than need be, together with the

expense of erection.

Hence
its

to give

the arch such a form that

axis for a definite

mean

load shall coincide with the line of pressure for that

load.

The
it

direct solution of this

problem

is difficult,

though

may

be approximated to graphically by
its

first

designing the arch for

assumed load by any

of

the standard formulae given in the text-books, then

(103)

104

THE STABILITY OP ARCHES

determining the line of pressure for this arch, and

afterwards modifying the form of the arch so as to

make

it

conform to the

line of pressure

or again

the load on the arch

may be

modified by openings or

arches in the spandrels or by changing the specific

weight of the
last chapter.

filling

material, as explained

in

the

54. Empirical Formulae for the Thickness of the Arch-ring at the Crown. The thickness of the arch-ring will depend to some extent upon the load which the arch is likely to carry, and in view of this it is convenient to classify arches under four

groups
(1)

such as arches which form a ceiling

floors.

Light arches which carry only their own weight

light load,

and a

without
(2)

Mean

arches, used in buildings,

which carry a
etc.,

floor, as in

the case of cellar vaults. arches for road bridges, tunnels,

(3)

Heavy

subjected to heavy loads but only slight impact and

vibration.
(4)

Very heavy arches for railway bridges, subject

vibration.
at the

to

heavy loading and strong

The thickness

crown may then be calculated

approximately by the formula

where n

is

the

number

of the

group

to

which the
the ratio

arch belongs in the above classification,

of rise to span,

s is

and I is the span. Thus for an arch carrying a floor and having a span of 3 ft. and with s = 5^ we have w = 2 and


DESIGN OP MASONET,
ETC.,

ARCHES

105

a result rather too large for such small arches.

For n
t

3,1

100

ft.,

= | we =

get
ft.

(-3

+ L\

(3-28
for

10)

4-64

Trautwine's formulm

circular

and

elliptical

arches are as follows

for first-class stone
for second-class
:

:
t
:

0-25

^E +
+
-f-

0-52

0-2

work

K
t

= =

0-281

VE +
:

0-51

0-225

for brickwork or fair rubble

0-333

JB,

0-52

0-267,

where
at the
feet.

is

the radius of curvature at the intrados

I is

crown,

the clear span, and the units are in

Low's formula

t,

0-125

^10{l

h)

2IL

where h

is

the clear

rise,

and

is

the height of the

surcharge above the extrados at the crown.

Bankine' s formulm
t

= ^0-12E

for a single arch

^0-1 7E for a series of arches.

:

Perronet's formula for circular or elliptical arches

t

0035Z.
45) be

65.

Form of the Arch-Ring. Let CCi (Fig.

arch.

the line of resistance for a distributed load of w per foot

on the

At a distance x from the crown

is
I

the

downward load
is

ivdx

and the horizontal thrust

is

H.

Hence

the slope of the curve at this point

tan a

dy
-j^

1 (' == \wdx.

106

THE STABILITY OP AECHBS

Consequently
If therefore

^ = g.
the radius of curvature at the point

E is

E ~

5x2

H'

=Hence
if

sec"

a.

= wE

cos" a
is

Now the normal pressure at Cj

the compressive stress
is

N= H

sec

a,

and

to be the

same

for all

FiQ. 45.

sections the thickness of the arch -ring

must be such

that

the pressure at the crown

"

pressure at Cj
t

H or
K
.'.

sec a
t

sec

a,

or in other words, the projection of

vertical

any section on the crown thickness.

Further
it

must be equal
that
at

to

the

may

be
is

shown

the

crown

E=

where r

the radius of curvature of the

intrados there.

According to the above investigation the proper


DESIGN OF MASONEY, ETC., ARCHES
thickness of the arch-ring at any point

107
be

may easily

found geometrically.
intrados,

and we

set

For if P be any point of the up PQ = t and draw QE hori-

zontal to cut the radius through

in E,

PE

will be

thickness required.

It is usually

suf&cient to

de-

termine the thickness at one other point P' and to

draw a
and
this

circular arch

passing through both.

is

The

position of this second point

at the joint of rupture

depends on the form

of the arch.

For semi-

FiQ. 46.

circular arches

it

may

be taken at the section which with the horizontal (Fig. 46)

makes an angle
and corresponds

of 30

at the intrados with the half-rise

= 2-

The

thickness

is

then

<

sec 60

2t.

For
which

elliptic or pseudo-elliptic

arches the joint of

rupture at the haunches

is

may be
or

taken at the section

inclined at 45 or thereabout (Fig. 47), and

<

the thickness

1 -4 <

may
value

take

.t

where ^
ratio of

depends upon the

more conveniently, we is a co-efficient which rise to span, and whose

:

may be

taken as follows


108

THE STABILITY OF AECHES

For a
ratio

i
1 i 1

k k k

= = =

1-80 1-60

1-40

Fig. 47.

Croizette-Desnoyer's formulae for thickness at the

springings
s.
:

for
to

segmental arches.

8.

DESIGN OF MASONRY, ETC., ARCHES

Trautwine's formula
is

109
2

2E

+ O'lH +

Eankine states that a varies from ^ to ^ radius

the intrados at the crown in existing structures.

of

German
Piers.

practice a

These are usually from 2\

;

0*04

(si

4H).

to 3 times the

thickness of the arch- ring at the crown, except in

the case of abutment piers, which are constructed

when a
either

series of arches are in line

these are

made

sufl&ciently strong to take the

centre thrust from

side

in case of

the collapse of one of the

spans.

Fig. 48.

The

results of these formulae often differ widely

;

from one another

culations

they can

therefore only be recal-

garded as useful for the purpose of preliminary

and the design should be

verified

by the
of

methods already described.

57.

Tolkmitt's

Investigation of the
(" Leitfaden

Form
fiir

the

Arch-Ring.

Tolkmitt

das

110

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

Entwerfen und die Berechnung gewolbter Bnicken," 1912) has dealt with the form of the arch-ring in a more scientific way, and his method of procedure has
found considerable favour on the Continent.
with the line
of resistance for the

He beit,

gins by assuming that the axis of the arch coincides

dead load on

and

then investigates the curve which the axis must as-

sume

in order to satisfy this condition for a given

system of loading.

at the intrados as origin of co-ordinates,

Taking the centre of the crown and ^, r; as

the co-ordinates of any point on the axis,

and

calling

the area under the reduced load-curve

= NMOS,

A =

df and tan

A
,

dr]

Fig. 49.

where a

is

the angle of inclination

PQ8 of the

normal

to the vertical.

Whence '^ =

^=I

(1)

When

is

a function of the co-ordinates this equa-

and its solution determines the form of the arch-ring. In the first place applying the result to a load diagram whose upper boundary is horizontal, and
tion can be solved,

taking the intrados at the crown as origin of co-ordinates,

he shows that the form

of the intrados

may be

DESIGN OF MASONET, ETC., ARCHES

111

expressed approximately by the equation (Fig. 49)

2(1

e)

(i

^^^
e) x^
'

where
and
z is

= ^t

(3)

the height of the reduced load surface above

of
is

the intrados.
at the

The radius crown when a; =

E

curvature of this curve

(1

.)

(4)

and substituting the value

(2)

of

H from this equation in

+
e)

we

get

"

2R2 -

(1

x^ get
. .
.

^^^

With the help

and then by

of (3)

and
{-R

(4)

we

B.
(3)

Q z,

(6)

^=ETi:
Nowletw =
^'

(^)

(8)

The equation

(5)

may

be written

y= 2mB-^^
The compressive
stress at the

...
crown
for
.

(9)

uniform

distribution of stress is
^,

(16)

In designing an arch, assuming the thickness at

112

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

the crown, and the load there, then for a given span we can calculate the proper form of the arch. Thus,
for example,

suppose
s

2lt.,e
Ib./ft.^,

iit.,l

60

ft.

as

above,

and
s

20,000

the weight of the

Ib./ft.'

material of the arch-ring being 120

Then
and by

in

masonry

units will be 166,

(4)

(1

where

H=
(3).

sj,

by (16)

and

= l^hj

=
and by

2(^1^ - l)
(8)

81
^

ft.,

54-2a;2

54-2.

IWV

by

(9)

y
a;

=
=
30
ft.,

54-2a;2

2 X 54-2 X 81

a;2

8780 -

a;^'

and when

= h= g_g^iL-_ =
t,,,

6-2

ft.

the radius of curvaFor given values of I, h, and ture E at the crown decreases or increases according as z becomes greater or smaller that is to say,
;

as the load increases the

arch rises between the

falls.

crown and springings, and as the load decreases it It follows therefore that in designing an arch,
neither the fully-loaded nor the unloaded condition

should be used as the basis of calculation, but rather

a

mean
is

condition, viz. one in which half the

distributed uniformly over the arch
;

moving
for the

load

axis of the arch can, of course, be

an equilibrium-

polygon for one condition of loading only, and the

DESIGN OF MASONEY,

ETC.,

AECHBS

113

deviations of this equilibrium- polygon from the ex-

treme cases above and below

axis of the arch
is

it

v?ill

be least

if

the

made an

equilibrium-polygon for
is

the

mean

load,

where by the mean load

to be

understood

.=*. +

where w is the height of the moving load expressed in masonry units, and e is the height of the dead load over the extrados in masonry units.
Also at the supports y

h,

when x =

-.

A
Substituting these values in (5) and (9)

we

get
(^)

^ = !:(?--

8--^

ett)
into (9)

and putting

this last value of

= p
^

+ m
h

1 8 J

(12)
,

x^

Formula
gives

(10)

is

a quadratic in

R which

on solution

E=

"0^

<

+ ,4163
8
l^

8i F
^^1

V(/

V'

This oombined with (6) gives the horizontal thrust

^-16
+
*

8<g

12~
4
32^^"
l-^

/f?.+i.^^f vc 8 P
)

(14)

114

THE STABILITY OF AECHES

(8)

and since by

m=
i
get

and by
e

(3) e

k2

we
58.
of

8 Hz m=H+ 8A

(15)

Example.
ft.

Given an arch having a clear span

ft.

60

with a rise of 15

and a crown thickness

ft.

of 2
it is

ft.

with a reduced load of 2

over the crown,

required to find the horizontal thrust and the

proper form of the arch-ring.

Here

2ft.
Qtz
/2

+ ^

2ft.

ft.

f^

=-

A= 15

-267

8 X 2 X 4
602

018.

.-.

by

(14)

= =

602 jg- [-267

+
+

-125

+ -018+ =
202-6

V(-410)2 +
ft.^

4x

-018]

225 [-410

-490]

that

is

to say, the horizontal thrust is equal to the

ft.

weight of 202'5 cub.

of the

masonry of the arch-ring.

Further by (15)

m
602

8x202-5x4 ^2^.3^^^ 202-5 -1-8x2x4

24-3a;2

and by

24-3a;2

(12) y

15

24-3

2358 rr2

x^'

15

for

X
y

= =

DESIGN OP MASONRY,

ETC.,

ARCHES

115.

dby(n,B = 5L0.(jl^.^)

= .15

ft.

59. Determination of tlie Tiiici<ness of the Arch-Ring. The thickness of the arch-ring must satisfy the two following conditions first, the permissible stress must not be exceeded, and second, it must be possible to draw an equilibrium -polygon for the given load which shall lie within the middle-third of the arch- ring when the arch is loaded on one- half.

Since the actual position of the line of pressure

is

not known,
dition

it is

not advisable to base the

stress at the
s

first

con-

upon the maximum

edge

of
,
.

the
,
.

arch-ring, but rather

on the value

H -rt which
h

is

the

mean stress at

the crown.

This stress then must

not be exceeded.
dition

Also in order that the second con-

may

be

fulfilled

_ ~

wV^
-06

"g

Vw
Example
stress
is 1.

An

arch of 60

ft.

span and 15

ft.

rise is built of

material whose
Ib./ft^.

maximum

permissible

2000

It carries a load of
if

200
its

Ib./ft.-

Find the
is

least thickness of the arch- ring

weight

150

lb./ft.s

HereZ = 60,. = ?00ft. =

150

J.=20000^^33^^ 150
6

..=

i.60^_J 133

= 1.,..

Example 2. Given

that the load per foot run on

116

THE STABILITY OF ABCHES

is

an arch
50
of
ft.,

w =

600
s

lb.

per

sq. ft.

and the
If

maximum
is

permissible stress

20,000

Ib./ft.^

the span

find the proper rise

and thickness

of arch-

ring.

Height

of filling over

crown

ft.

Weight

filling

material 120

Ib./ft.^

weight of arch-ring

150
-rr

lb./ft.3

Here
units

= 20000 =
i-0\j

OQ la3
,

expressed J ft.

m masonry

ande =

3 X -^|5

2-4ft.,w

150

^=
150
6-6
ft.

4ft.,Z

50ft.

^.=
Then
z

ix50VA=2-lft.
2-4

2-1

-f-

-^^

+ I= =

-^

37-4.

..

2mr - P' when X = ^l = 25

37-4 X 25^

ft.

y ^
60.

h=

2 X 37-.4 X 41

- 625

^9.55^^

Determination of the Best Form of Arch

the Load-Curve has any Form.

when
of

On account
filling

openings in the spandrels, or the use of

materials having different specific weights, or other

causes, the upper boundary of the reduced load-area
is

often not horizontal, as

we have been
is,

assuming.

In the case of ordinary bridges for roads or railways

the deviation from a horizontal line

however,

never very great, and therefore

it

is

permiBsible to

DESIGN OF MASONRY, ETC., ARCHES

assume as a
boundary
is first

117

approximation that the upper

z

a horizontal line at a height

above

the intrados and to determine in this

of the arch.

way
not,

the form

The curve

so found

is

however,

the correct curve, but serves as a basis for further

calculations.

Thus suppose

ABODE

(Fig. 50) to be

the actual

reduced load-area in a given case.

Then

this area

may

be regarded as arising from the case in which

is

the surface

horizontal as indicated by OF, by sup-

posing the part

DEF
of

subtracted, for the corrections

due

to the

change

form

of the

intrados

may

be

regarded as negligible.

Let

W be the

weight of the

material represented by the area

weight represented by
of

ABCF, SW be the DEF, and 8M be the moment

if

8W

about A.

Then

8H and 8E
if

are the corre-

sponding changes in the horizontal thrust

the radius of curvature E, and

H and in

the actual values be

denoted by affixing a dash to the symbols used above,

we

W=W
Then

get for the actual load-area

- 8W, E' H'

= E = H -

8E,

M' =

- 8M,

8H.

since the

moment

of the load-area

may

be

regarded as equal to the product of the horizontal

118

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

and since
be taken

thrust into the rise of the line of pressure,

the points in which the line of pressure cuts the

vertical support reactions in either case

may

as coincident,

we have

the relation

H
Also (E'

- 8H ^

- 8M

H
+
t,)z

~ 8H =

M
+
.

H' and (E

K)z

=
.

H (eq.
.

6),

whence
and

^ M

8M

(17)
^

'

8E =
of

^ = g.^
is

(18)

The values
it falls.

8H,

8M

and 8E are positive

if

the load,

area rises towards the supports, and negative

when

The procedure therefore

first

as follows

H and E are

calculated on the supposition that the surface

of the

reduced load-area

is

horizontal.

is

then

found by the approximate formula

M
8H and 8E

= 8

^'

h h

J.

+ m \W

(19)

15

are next calculated by

means

of formulae

(17) and (18). Thence we deduce the correct horizontal thrust

- 8H and the correct radius of curvature at the crown E - 8E. The form of the arch may now be improved by inserting for E its corrected value in
the equation y
of

2mE is

and changing the value

x^

m so that
=
61.
il.

the curve
;

may

pass through the sup,

ports as before

that

to saj

make y = h when

X h

Example.
15
ft.,
^

In
2

Fig.
ft.,

50 suppose |i

30

ft.,

ft.,

and the slope

of

DESIGN OF MASONRY,

ETC.,

ARCHES
24
ft.,

119

DE
=

to be 1 in 10.

CD =

ft.,

DF =

EF

2-5

ft.

For a horizontal surface CF, by formula

z
1

(14),

8tz

l/z

8tzA\32tz,
+
32 X 2 X
4-

16

3600
16

8x2x4
3600
-475]
"^

15

^(3935)2
ft.

3600

225 [-3935

195 cub,

Also by formula (15)

m
B.

8ILz

8 X 195 X 4

24-1

ft.

8 tz

195

+
/

8 X 2 X 4

and by

(11)

3600

8\h

m
8W =

i15

^) = 24-V
30
ft.8,

48-6

ft.

Then by

the figure

^^ ^ ^'^

and
.-.

8M = 8W

^=
+
h

240

ft.*

by

(19)

M
15

= P
15

/m

^o

h
&

m\&
15
15

"^

15y

3600

+
(17)

/24a
24-1 \

=2666 ft.'

Hence by

8H =
which
is

^ M
'

8M =

-^ 2666

X 240
is

17-5

ft.3.

negative, because
(18)
^

8M
r

negative,

and by
^

8E =

g.^ = M

IZl^ 4

4-4
is

ft.

The actual horizontal

fore

thrust of the arch

there-

H'

8H = 195 -

17-5

177-5

ft.^

120

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

of

and the radius

curvature at the crown

48-6 - 4-4

is
ft.

K
put y

= E - 8E =
if

44-2

Further,

in the equation y =-p,

2wiE - x^ 30
ft.,

-,

we

15

it.

and x
44-2

^l

and the

corrected value of

E =

ft.,

then 15

2m' X 44-2 - 900

where m'

is

the cor-

rected value of m, from which

we
is

get

m =

31 '5

ft.

The corrected form

y

of the

arch

therefore
31-5a;2

mx
2ot'E'

31-5a;2
a;2

2 x 31-5 x 44-2

x^

2780

CHAPTER

VIII.

LOADS AND STRESSES.

62.

The

weight of masonry and concrete arches and

is

the dead load they carry

so

much

greater than in

the case of metal arches that the effect of impact and

vibration
is

not of

much

importance.

Moreover,

the live load

size that
if

is relatively

so small in bridges of any

the line of pressure for the fully- loaded

it

arch coincide with the axis of the arch,

may

safely

be assumed that under the worst conditions of loadAlso ing it will not pass beyond the critical limits. concentrated loads are so much better distributed by the filling, that they may be dealt with by reducing them to an equivalent distributed load, and it is
further convenient to express the live load as well

as the

filling in

terms of an equivalent weight

is

of

masonry whose density

that of the arch-ring.

Weight and Strength of Arch Materials.


122
63.

THE STABILITY OF AECHBS

Dead Load.

The
itself

dead load consists of the

weight of the arch

it

and the

filling, etc.,

which

carries.

The following
filling

are the average weights

for the materials involved

:
over the extrados at the

The height of the crown may be taken

for

railway arches as
P

ft.

and

for

highway arches as

ft.

where p
foot.

is

P the density of the material in

lb.

per cub.

Average Permanent Load on Boad Bridges.

Iron road bridges : Timber platform and ballast Cross girders
.

100 Ib./ft.M 20 /

,.
^''"

,,

'"'"

,,,

Iron bridges with brick arches Arches Concrete and asphalt Metalling Cross girders
.

48 lb."! 42 100 f 20 J
I

oi n

'"'" ^^" ii, lu 2

64.

Live Load.^

The

following formulae for the

which may be assumed, are given in Melan's " Plain and Eeinforced Concrete Arches'' (translation by D. B. Steinmann)
live load,
:

for

very heavy vehls.

iv

= f 100 + 1^00?\3 +
\
I

f.

i^

f ^2

oe

heavy vehicles
light vehicles

10

= f 100 + -^^
I

^ ^

+^
3e

= ( 100 + ^^^^

-n

^^

+^
e
^_

..

railway bridges

w = ('lOOO + ?0000\3 + e^
is

When

half the arch

I,

loaded

we must

write |J

instead of

LOADS AND STEBSSES

The load
to be allowed for a dense

123
of people

crowd

may be taken Highway

wagons

as 100

lb.

per

sq. foot.

For small spans heavy most severe loading, but for large spans a crowd of people. The axle distances for heavy wagons are about 10 ft., so that for spans up to 20 ft. only one axle at a time comes upon the one
Bridges.
give the
half of the bridge.

In the case

of a bridge

20

ft.

wide, which carries on one half an axle load of 6 tons,

if

we consider the axle load as spread over 10 ft.

width,

the average live load will be

2x6
10 X 10

-12

ton/ft.'''

Taking the heaviest freight wagon of 24 tons, feet long, and a team of six horses weighing -35 ton each, extending over 36 ft., this gives upon a
26
length of 61
ft.

and a width

of

10

ft.

an average

load of

+
24

6 X -35 10 X 61

=
=

-0428 ton.

Without the horses, however, on a length

of

25

ft.

we

24
get
J.U

-096 ton/ft.^

X Ao

In dealing with concentrated loads on small spans

these are supposed distributed over an area
at 36 to the vertical

drawn

from the boundary

of the load.

65.

Railway Bridges.
is

In

the case of locos the

axle spacings are as low as 6

pressure
sleepers,

better

distributed

and

ballast

than in

and although the by means of rails, the case of roadway

ft.,

bridges with a thin roadway, yet even in the case of

spans as small as 30
axles

ft.

the full weight of three

half span.
If the

must be allowed on the

maximum

wheel-load for a 72-ton engine be taken

124

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

48 tons distributed archway (= length of
15 x 12

as 8 tons, this gives a total load of

over a width of say 12

sleepers

ft.

of

+
ft.

ft.),

that

is

to say, over

180

sq.

of surface.

Hence we

get an average of j^/^

"267 ton/ft.^

On

longer spans, however, the equivalent distri-

buted load will diminish as the span increases up to

a certain point.

Thus the following

table gives the

equivalent

distributed

load for railway bridges of

varying span calculated for a

maximum

load of

66-ton engine and 1-ton tender with an increase of

2i per cent for future contingencies.

Span in feet 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 100 150 200 Equivalent load in tons per ft. 3-69 3-11 2-88 2-61 2-45 2-22 2-10 1-93 1-92 1-92
.

66.

Example.
ft.

A highway
rise of

bridge has an opening

It is constructed of

of

100

and a

12

ft.

cement concrete weighing 135 Ib./ft.^, whose compressive strength under test was 4000 Ib./in.^ The permissible

mean compressive
and the height
2
ft.

stress is taken as
of

^^

of

this value,

the surcharge at the

crown
filling

is

The

densities of the concrete

and

are 140
level.

Ib./ft.^

and 100

Ib./ft.^

respectively.

Roadway

Here the height of filling at the crown reduced to masonry units is 2 x if^ = 1'43 ft., and by formula sect. 64, when the arch is loaded on one half we get for the heavy loading

w =100-1Then by
sect.

12000\ 3 4- 1-43 50 ; 3 X 1-43

350

lb./ft.2

59

LOADS AND STEESSES

where
s

125
Ib./ft.''

= 400

x 144

= 57600
ft.,

1 X 100

/_?^ = 1-95
\ 57600

or say 2
^

ft.

The form

of the arch, etc.,

may

then be deduced

as in previous examples.
If

we now put

the value e

-01

into

the

formula

126

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

it,

remote from
k'~

and

for a rectangular cross- section

12

so that the stresses at the edges are

6e\

If,

'{'

?).

however, tensile stresses are not permissible,

e

then

must not bo greater than

where
vi.,
t

for rectangular

cross-sections,

is

the thickness of the archis

ring (see chap,

sultant thrust

p.
lie

86), that

to say, the re-

must

within the middle-third of

this is so, the value of s will

the depth.

So long as

not exceed

N 2,
A

or the

maximum
when

stress will not exis

ceed twice the stress

form.

the distribution

uni-

Now
arches
so that

in the case of
it is
if

masonry and plain concrete

^t,

not usual to allow for any tensile stress,

greater than

e is

the above formula can

of the section in

no longer be used, but that part

occur,

which, according to the formula tensile stress would

must be regarded as

ineffective.

In this case

the effective thickness

be less than

AC of the section (Fig. 51) will its full thickness AB and will in fact be AC = SAL = 3(1^ - e).
maximum
3{it
stress will be

Hence

the
s

N
e]

_
3{t

4N
2e)'

The maximum stress therefore increases very quickly with e and becomes infinitely great when e = -^t, whereas when tensile stress is permissible,
the

maximum

stress in this case will be only four

LOADS AND STRESSES

times the

127

mean

stress.

It

is

therefore very im-

portant that the resultant thrust shall not have a

large eccentricity.

The probable
vyhich

position of the critical sections at

stresses

the

maximum

occur can only be

only in this

found by means
because, as

of the elastic theory of the arch,

it

we have shown,
we can

is

way

that the actual position of the resultant thrust can

be fixed, although

assert

it

will

lie

within

PiQ. 51.

the critical limits provided that an equilibrium can

be drawn for the given loading within those limits

(see

chap.

vi.).

Hence a

limiting value
is

for

the

maximum
reliable.

stress

may be

derived which

tolerably

Tolkmitt in his treatise already referred to

for the half-span loaded with

shows that
foot,

tons per
is

no

line of pressure

can be drawn which

closer

to the axis

than
48'

0-01

^
a

at the

crown

and

U" =

0-0125 -=^ at the springmgs,


128
where
S'

THE STABILITY OF AECHBS

and
8" are the total

Hmits of deviation from

lies at \l

the axis.

The maximum

value of ^8'

from

the crown, and since the thickness of the arch-ring

does not vary

much

within this distance from the

crown, the thickness at the crown

<

may

be

made

6 X -01

^.

Stresses in the Arch-Ring by the Elastic Theory. When the steel reinforcement is asym68.

metric with respect to the axis of the arch-ring, the

centroid of the cross-section
side
is
is

displaced towards the

;

on which the

steel is in excess

or,

where there

only single reinforcement, towards the side on

It is

which it occurs.

only

when
this-

the resultant thrust

passes through this point that the stress over the section can be uniform.
is to say,

When

does not occur, that

is

when

the resultant of the load

eccentric,

the stress will vary over the section,

and its value may

be found without difficulty by the ordinary formula

so long as there

is

no

tensile stress, the

moment

of

inertia being that of the section

reduced to concrete.

When, however,

the

resultant acts outside the

critical limits, so that

tension occurs, the calculation

for although the
it

becomes more troublesome,

reasoning applies as in the case of beams,

centroid of the cross-section,

is

same no

longer true that the neutral axis passes through the

its

position depending

now on

the value of the bending

moment.

Eefer-

ring to Fig. 52, and with the usual assumptions,

we

obtain the following relations

LOADS AND STRESSES

130

THE STABILITY OF AECBE8

a')

c[n^.b + 2mA,'(w .

- 2mA,{h' a')

n)]

2Na;.
,qs

^
n^b

2Na;

2mA,'{n

is

- 2mA,{h' -

n)

If the

reinforcement

symmetrical about the axis

then A,

= A/ and
"

^
n't

2Nn

,g,^

2otA,(2

h)

'

'^

>

In order

to obtain the value of n, taking

moments
-

about a point in the neutral axis,

we

get
a')

N(w -e + r) = c.^--+ A,'s/(m -

A,s,{h'

n)

= c. - + mA, ' "3

.-.

"
.

c^

i-+wA,ci '"

'

3N(a;

r)

c[n^b

3mA,' {n

n - a'f + 3mA,
,n\
'

'^

- nYl 3Nw(re - e + r) _ " v?b + 3toA;(i a'Y + 3mA.(;i' - nf

{h'

' ^

and therefore equating

(8)

and
2

(9)

we

get

a') - 2mA,{h' - n) - e + r) = n^b + 3mA,'( - aj + 3mA.{h' - n)"'

ri^b

2mA,'(w 3(a;

,jq>
^
'

Writing
n^

- r and transforming, this becomes

- 3v.n^ -

^. n[A,'{v
A,

a')

A,{h'

v)\

^[A 'a\v
and
o

a) - A,h'{h' -

v)]

(11)

if
9

A,',

this
,

becomes
,
.
,

/Q

6mA,
b
a')

6otA,

[a'{v

h'Qi'

v)]

(11')

This equation determines the value of x and

'

LOADS AND STEBSSES

then from
(8)

131
arud

or (9) the value of c

may be found
(2).

the stresses in the steel from (1) and

Example (compare Melan's

Concrete Arches
").

" Plain

and Eeinforced
ft.

In an arch

rib of 1

depth, the

extreme moments per foot of width at the most

severely stressed section are

Mj = 14880
to

Ib./ft.

and

Mj = - 9720 lb. /ft. The

to the

axial thrusts corresponding

two cases

of loading

amount

9500

lb.

and

or

A. a'
I

E
I

IT
l~

h.

H*
//

}i
8100
lb.

It/t/JltMlltl/
y

Pig. 53.

respectively.
a'

If

we

take the

amount

of rein-

forcement at

2'11 per cent and a"

0'623 per

cent as obtained from Prof. Melan's. diagrams where

a!

A =A land a" = i,
h
h

and assuming the

steel is

placed

at O-l/i

ring

(fig.

from the upper and lower faces of the arch53), we have for the first case, viz. Mj =

14880

Ib./ft.

by equation

(8)


132
c

THE STABILITY OF ARCHES

=
n?h

2P?l

2mA,'{n -

a')

2mA,(/i'

n)

where
6

P = 9500
;

pounds.

ft.

m=
A,
'

15

a;

^^

x 1

a'

-1

xl;h'=-9 100
(11), viz.

ft.

and n
3

is

found from equation

_ Sv.n^

-^. n\A;{v
a')

- a) -

A.{h'

v)]

+
,

[A:a'(v

A.h'{h'

v)]

=
-i.Kcc 1 odd.

where v =

- r

and r =

M, = 14880 ^=-i^^^ =
Pi

9500

^A.g - a) -

mA/g
A/)

a')

^^ S =

bh

+ m(A +
-

^ 15 X -0211 (0-5 0-1) - 15 X -00623 (0-5 - 01) 1 X 1 + 15 (00623 + 4-0211)

1266 - 03738
1

-08922

+
e

-0633

ft.

-410

1-410
cf

and

= ^+

-5

-0633

-5633.

.w =
.-.

-5633 - 1-566

- 1-003.

n"

3-009w2 - 90w [-00623( - 1-003 - -1)--0211

(-9

+
m3

1-003)]

90 [-00623 x -1 (- 1-103) - -0211 X -9 X 1-903] = 0.

.-.

3-009W
(

n?

- 90 (- -00687 - -04015) + 90 - -000687 - -03613) = + 3-009n2 + 4-2318m - 3-3135 = 0. Whence n = -533 ft.


LOADS AND STEBSSBS
for

133

= -5^
52
51 53

54
2 X 9500 X -533
"

5382 X 1

+ 30

X -00623 (-538 -

-1)

- 30 x -0211

(-9

- -533)

12^?!
28409

=121^=76310
1327

lb./ft.'

-0809 - ^2323

=
c'

630

lb./in.2

- =
e
s.

530 X
h'

^
563

411 lb./m.2

and by

- n

(1)

15 X 530

9 ~

533

533

7950 X

367 '^^ = 5450 533

Ib./in.^

and by

(2)

s,'

= mc
433 ^533

15 X 530

533 533

7950 X

6460

Ib./in.^

It will bs seen that this

method

of calculation is

very troublesome, and consequently

many

attempts
will give

have been made to devise methods which

approximately the same results. None of these appear to be very satisfactory so far as agreement in the
results is concerned,

though possibly

sufficiently so,

considering the general uncertainty of the data.

Prof. Melan proceeds as follows The moment of inertia of the cross-section
:

5[(0^9

x) (2-7

x)a'

{x

- 01) {x -

0^3)a"]

134
where

TKE STABILITY OF AECHES

x=

-15{a' + a") + 715-^

[a'

+ ay + 30 (0-9a' + O-la")
.

where x =

Then E =
X

iPc

m
=

d^c

= moment

of resist-

ance of the section

or E, =

d'^

=-=

9-a;

15

-ptt;

09 -x
m',

p15c

d^ .c = m'

d^c.

The

coefiBcients

and

or the resisting

mo-

ments per unit stress for d = i, depends only on a' and a", and if these are plotted, the values of m and m The chart so formed will be represented by curves. (which is given in Melan's "Plain and Eeinforced Concrete Arches," translated by D. B. Steinmann) is very convenient for designing purposes and particularly when the sections are subject to reversed moments. In the example above the values of a' and a'' there assumed were determined from the chart
for the

assumed value
upper surface

steel

of s

13500

Ib./in.^

30

c.

The

stresses obtained in this

way were
450
295
13,500
6,460
Ib./in.^
,,

in the

of the concrete
,.

in the lower in the

upper

....
.

,,

in the lower
It is

,,

more usual, however, to make the reinforcement the same both on the upper and lower sides.

APPENDIX.
Calculation of the Ordinates of a Circular Arc.

CG =
.:

Jr^ -

-r^

OF =

Jr^ - {^ly.

CE=
2

Jr^ - x' - Jr' - {ilf,

1

and

if

we make ~ =

CE =
and

^r' - x'^ (r - Kf +

Jr'^

-1
r-.

1^

r
and
r^

^n^^
+
i-\

{(h''

^.

Coefficients of '--for different values of

136

THE STABILITY OF AECHES

I

Example. li
h_
0-2.

150

ft.

and h

15

ft.,

then

APPENDIX
Method
II.

137

The following method avoids the neis

cessity of dividing the sides of the rectangle into

equal parts, and

therefore quicker.

Let

CB

(Fig.

Fig. 56.

56) be the base of the

height.

semi-parabola and

BA

its

Join AG.

draw any line draw ab horizontally

cut
it

To obtain Aa, and

to

a point on the curve

t r f

s'

^' a'

in

h.

Erect a

vertical he to cut
c.

Aa

in

Thus
Method

c is

a point on

the parabola.
III.

By

Tangents. hei AT, BT (Pig. 57) be any two

tangents,

and
to

let it

be
Fig. 57.

required to construct a

parabola

touch these

tangents

at

A and
etc.

B.

Divide

BT, ,AT

into any convenient number of

11', 22',

equal parts, as shown, and join

These

138
lines
will
it.

THE STABILITY OP ARCHES

envelop
the
parabola,

and piactically

define

To Draw a Tangent
bola.

Let

it

any Point of a Parabe required to draw a tangent to the

at
it

parabola in Fig. 55 to touch

in

Draw CD
Join CT.

parallel to the base,

any given point C. and make OT = OD.

Then CT

is

the tangent required.

Fig.

58.

To Construct a Fiat Circular Arc the Length of Chord and Rise being given, ^Let AB (Fig. 58) be the chord or span and the rise. With O as centre and radius OC describe a circle. Join AC, cutting this

circle in F,

and make
as

FD =

FO.

Join CD.

Divide

CD,
B6.

CO into
The

many

the arc AC, and

draw Al, A2, A3

points o

on meet Bi, B5, intersection are points on the arc

parts as the points required
to

required.

Similarly for the other half.

INDEX.

Abutment, definition of, Abutments of arch, 100.

5.

58. concrete, 83. 107. form 97. glass model 39. hingeless, 65. history 12. masonry, 83. materials, strength parabolic, 57. theory 45. three-pinned, Arches, classification particulars
circular,
elliptic,
of,

thickness of, 108. Arc of circle, construction of, 138. Arch, best form of, 116.

Cast iron, strength of, 7. Cement concrete, strength Chester bridge, 6.

of, 7.

Circular arc, construction 138. arch, 58.

Coefficient of expansion, 47.

of,

of,

Concrete, strength of, 121. arch, 83. design of, 103. Conditions of stability, 84.

Critical limits, 84.

Critical line of pressure, 83, 88, 96.

of, 1.

linear,

construction
of, 7.

of,

91.

Crown, thickness

of,

104.

of,

11.

D
Dead
load, 122.

of, 5, 6.

of, 8, 9. of, 10.

,

. relative strength

Displacement, angular, 41.

Arch-ring, definition of 5. Austrian experiments, 87.

due to axial thrust, 43.

bending, 41. temperature, 43, 46.

B
Backing,
6.

Distortion of rib, 40.

Bed

joints, 6.

E, values

of, 38.

Bending moment in aroh-ring, Earth, weight of, 121. Eddy's theorem, 19. 19.
hingeless
79.

arch,

66,

Elastic theory, 11, 37. polarized light

experi-

ments, 39. two-pinned arch, 61. Brickwork, strength of ,;7, 121. Elliptic arch, 107.

(139)

140
Equations

THE STABILITY OF ABCHBS

of condition for Live load, 122. hingelees arch, 44. Loads on arch, 121. Equivalent distributed load, Load curve, 88.

124.

Expansion,
Extrados,

coefficient of, 47.

form of, 99. Low's formula for arch-ring,

105.

6.

G
Glass model of arch, 39. Granite, strength of, 121. Gravel, weight of, 121.

M
Masonry arches,
83.

H-line, 27.

design of, 108. Materials, strength of, 121. weight of, 121. Mesnager's method, M., 80. Middle-third rule, 85.

Haunches,

6.

bridges, 123. HingelesB arch, equations for, 44, 45, 65. Horizontal thrust for twopinned arch, 61. by calculation, 52. graphically, 54. by reaction locus, 56.' for hingeless arch, 72.

Highway

N
Neutral axis by polarized light,
89.

Normal

thrust, 80.

Oglio bridge, 98. Ordinates of circular arc, 135.

Impost,

6.

Influence area, 28.

line

method,

26, 62, 74.

7.

Intrados, 6. Iron cast, strength of,

Parabola, construction of, 136. tangent to, 138. Parabolic arch, 57. Perronet's formula for archring, 105.

Pier, definition of, 5. Piers, 102, 109.

Joints of rupture, 38, 88.

Polarized

light,

experiments

K
Keystone,
6.

with, 39. Principle of least work, 88.

B
Badius of curvature, 112. Railway bridges, 123. Hankine's formula for abutment, 109.

Lead

joints, 14.

Least work, principle of, 85. Limestone, strength of, 121. Linear arch, 12. arch-ring, 105. Line of pressure, 12, 85. Beaction locus, 17, 57. determination of, 15. Eeduced load curve, 88.

INDEX
Reinforced concrete, weight
121.
of,

141

Rupture, joint

of, 38, 88.

Temperature

effect, 14, 65.

s
Sandstone, strength weight of, 121.

of, 121.

fluctuation of, 46. Thickness of arch-ring, 115. crown, 104. springings, 108. Three-pinned arch, 11.

Shear in arch-ring, 19.

Soffit, definition of, 6.

example of, 21. Thrust in arch-ring, 19, 46,

6.

80.

Spandrel, definition of, braced arch, 28, 29.

Span

of arches, 7.

Springings, thickness of, 108. Stability, conditions of, 84. Statically indeterminate, definition of, 13.

parabolic arch, 58. Tiber bridge, 7. Tolkmitt's method, 109. Trautwine's formulse for abutments, 109. arch-ring, 105.

Strength of arches, 10.

cast iron, 7. materials, 7, 121.

steel, 7.

Voussoir, definition

of, 6.

Stress due to eccentricity, 84. Stresses in arch, 121, 125.

w
Weight
of arch materials, 121.

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Ilu ^roaiiliiaa <Sri0 of UQineeving ^anibooka. Volume XIII.THE CALCULUS FOR ENGIS. Anduews, B.Sc. Eng. (Lond.), and H. Bryon Heywoo'd, D.Sc. (Paris), B.Sc. (Lond.). 284 pages. 102 Illustrations. With Tables and Worked Examples. Price (Post free, 4s. 4d. home; 4s. 6d. abroad.) 4s. net.

NEERS. By EvvART

Volume XIV.

LATHES;

Their Construction and

A.M.I.M.E.
244
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By G. W. BuRLEY, Wh.Ex., Operation. pages. 200 Illustrations. Price 3s. 6d. net. home; 4s. abroad.)

Volume XV. STEAM BOILERS

BUSTION.
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AND COM-

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Volume XVIL THE STABILITY OF MASONRY AND OTHER STRUCTURES SUBJECT TO THE PRESSURE OF EARTH AND WATER. By E. H. SPRAGUE,
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Volume XVIIL THE TESTING OF

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[IN PREPARATION.] THE STABILITY OF ARCHES. By E. H, Sprague, A.M. I.C.E. calculations for a steel frame building. By W.
Cocking, M.C.I.

C.

PORTLAND cement.
West,
F.C.S.

Its Properties

and Manufacture.

By

P.

C H.

GEAR CUTTING. By G. W. Hurley, Wh.Ex., A.M.I.M.E. MOVING LOADS BY INFLUENCE LINES AND
METHODS. By
E. H. Sprague, A.M. I.C.E.

OTHER
Gleed

DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICE. By W. Clegg. ESTIMATING STEELWORK FOR BUILDINGS. By

and S.'BvLANDER, M.C.I.

B. P. T.

THE THEORY OF THE CENTRIFUGAL AND TURBO PUMP.

By
J.

Cameron.

STRENGTH OF SHIPS. By James Bertram Thomas. MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE. By G. W. Burley, Wh.Ex., A.M.I.M.E. DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS. (In 2 Volumes.) By W. G.
DUNKLEY.

IRON AND STEEL. By J. S. Glen Primrose. ELECTRIC TRACTION. By H. Mannington Bayers. THE DRIVING OF MACHINE TOOLS. By T. F. Shaw.

SCOTT,
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GREENWOOD & SON

E.C.
March, 1916.

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