Altoubat - Early Age Stresses and Creep-Shrinkage Interaction of Restrained Concrete THESIS

Early age stresses and creep-shrinkage interaction of restrained concrete
Altoubat, Salah Ahmed ProQuest Dissertations and Theses; 2000; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses (PQDT) pg. n/a
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EARLY AGE STRESSES AND CREEP-SHRINKAGE INTERACTION OF RESTRAINED CONCRETE
BY SALAH AHMED ALTOUBAT

B.Engr., Yarmouk University, I987 M.S.. Jordan University of Science and Technology, 1990
THESIS
Submitted in partial fulllment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Civil Engineering in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2000
Urbana, Hlinois
UMI Number". 9989929
Copyright 2000 by Altoubat, Salah Ahmed All rights resen/ed.
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Copyright by Salah Ahmed Altoubat, 2000
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 2 THE GRADUATE COLLEGE
MARCH ZQO0 j (date)
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SALAH AHMED ALTOUBAT
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EARLY AGE STRESSES AND CREEPS,HRINKAGE
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INTERACTION OF RESTRAINED CONCRETE
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EARLY AGE STRESSES AND CREEP-SHRINKAGE INTERACTION OF RESTRAINED CONCRETE

Salah Ahmed Altoubat, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2000 David A. Lange, Advisor
Experimental and numerical analyses were performed to characterize the early age tensile creep and shrinkage behavior of normal and high performance concrete. A uniaxial, computer controlled restrained shrinkage test was developed. The experiment tested two identical specimens: restrained and unrestrained. The computer program controlling the test checked shrinkage deformation continuously, and compared it to a threshold value of 5 um, which when exceeded, triggered an increase in tensile load to recover the shrinkage strain in the restrained specimen. Thus, a restrained condition is achieved and the stress generated by shrinkage mechanisms was measurable. The experiment revealed how shrinkage stresses developed and how creep mechanisms reduced shrinkage strain. It was found that the early days of concrete life are characterized by a complex interaction of intemal drying, extemal drying and thermal eects. Restraining shrinkage in the rst days after casting generated signicant tensile stresses, and these stresses led to -acture of the concrete. The rate of stress evolution at early age is an important factor that inuences the time of cracking and stress at failure. The tensile creep of concrete at early age formed a substantial part of the time dependent deformation and reduced the shrinkage stresses by 50 %. A method to separate drying creep mechanisms of concrete was developed. The method combined experimental results of creep and shrinkage of concrete with numerical analysis to separate the drying creep into two components: stress-induced shrinkage and microcracking. The experiment measured the creep and shrinkage of concrete under drying, sealed, and moist curing conditions. The test under moist curing condition gave the basic creep; the test tmder sealed condition provided data on basic creep and stress-induced shrinkage, and the drying test provided data on basic creep, stress-induced shrinkage and microcracking.
A model based on the solidication theory was used to capture the characteristics of the basic creep of concrete. The basic creep function of yotmg concrete was characterized by a high inial rate of creep in the initial 10-20 hours after loading. Then, the rate decreased and the creep inction approached a stable value. The initial rate of creep was sensitive to age at loading at an early age; and, after a few days, the tensile basic creep became age-independent. The combined numerical and experimental analysis revealed stress-induced shrinkage as a major mechanism of drying creep ofplain and ber reinforced concrete. Microcracking forms a signicant portion of drying tensile creep ofplain concrete, but it is less signicant in ber reinforced concrete. Therefore, creep of PRC is dominated by real mechanisms (basic and stress-reduced shrinkage), whereas apparent mechanisms induced by microcracking form a signicant part of the tensile creep of plain concrete. The real creep mechanisms are benecial because they provide tensile stress relaxation, but the apparent mechanisms are associated with microstructural damage and are detrimental. Therefore, ber reinforcement enhances stress relaxation and delays the time of shrinkage cracking. A damage-based model was used to demonstrate the relation between drying microcracking and failure ofrestrained concrete. The model characterized the damage of concrete as a degradation to the secant stiiiess computed from a stress-strain diagram. The model satisfactorily captured the features of failure, and quantitatively demonstrated the contribution of drying microcracking to failure of restrained concrete.
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This work is dedicated to My wife, Ruba Abu-Kaf And To my parents and all of my family members
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like t_o express his deep gratitude and sincere appreciation to Professor David A. Lange for his technical guidance, continuous support, and constructive suggestions throughout the course of this research. The research was supported by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Center of Excellence (COE) at the University of Illinois and by the National Science Foundation (CAREER Award #CMS-9623467). The author would like to extend his sincere thanks and appreciation to Professors J . Francis Young, Neil M. Hawkins, and Emest J. Barenberg for their valuable comments and helpful suggestions while serving on his advisory committee. Special thanks are due to Dr. Greg Banas for his technical help and assistance throughout the experimental phase of this research. Without his help and guidance, the experiment could not have been established and completed. The author would like to express his deep gratitude and sincere thanks to his wife. Ruba Abu-Kaf for her unlimited patience, encouragement, and love during the ve years of~ study at the University of Illinois. The author is deeply indebted to her continuous support and extraordinary efforts to share the bulk of responsibility at home and in raising our two kids Mohammed and Maies. Without her efforts, this work could not have been completed. Special thanks are due to the authors parents and family members in Jordan for their unwavering love, support and encouragement. The author would also like to thank his friends Khalid Ghuzlan, Khaldoon Banil-Iani. and Ghazi Alkhateeb for their help and support throughout this research. Finally. the author extends a sincere thanks to his best colleagues, Nathan Rau, Anne Werner. HakChul Shin and all of the authors colleagues in the Department of Civil Engineering for their iendship and support.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ ..1 1.1 Background .......................................................................................... ........................ 1 1.2 Research Objectives ............................................................................. .. 3
1.3 Scope of Work .......................................................................................................... 4 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................. oooooooooooooooooooooo007

....l. GI1l3.l ................................................................................................. .. -------------------- --7
2.2 Driving Mechanisms for Cracking ...................................................... ---------------------- --7 2.2.1 Autogenous Deformation (AD).......................................................................... 7 2.2.2 Thermal Dilation............................................................................................... l0 2.2.3 Drying Shrinkage (DS) ............................................................ .. -------------------- -- ll 2.2.3.1 Inuence of Shrinkage on Pavement............................... ~ o v ~ ~ ~ ~ - a - . - . - - no I3 2.2.3.2 Inuence of Shrinkage on Material Performance ......... .. .................... ~- 14 2.3 Restrained Test Methods and Stress Measurement ............................ -------------------- ~- l5 2.4 Mechanical Properties.......................................................................... .................... .. 17 2.5 Creep of Concrete at Early Age................................................................................. l9 2.5.1 General Denitions ........................................................................................... l9 2.5.2 Availability of Experimental Data ................................................................... l9 2.5.3 Creep Mechanisms ..................................................................... -------------------- -- 20 2.5.4 Review of Analytical Models..................................................... -------------------- -- 24 2.5.5 Tensile Creep at Early Age .............................................................................. 27 2.6 Creep of Concrete under Drying ............................................................................... 30 2.7 Eect of Fiber Reinforcement on Creep and Shrinkage .......................................... 33 CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE AND TEST MATERLALS ........ 37
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... .................... -- 37 3.2 Experimental Technique ...................................................................... -------------------- -- 37
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32.1 Design Considerations and Requirements ....................................................... 37
3.2.2 Uniaxial Creep-Shrinkage Test ........................................................................ 38

3.2.3 Mechanism ofthe Test ..................................................................................... 40 3.2.4 Analytical Aspects ofthe Test ......................................................................... 41 3.3 Materials and Concrete Mix Compositions ............................................................ .. 43
3.3.1 Materials ........................................................................................................... 43

3.3.2 Concrete Mix Proportions .............................................................................. .. 44 3.3.3 Basic Tests on Aggregates ............................................................................... 45 3.3.4 Mixing Procedures............................................................................................ 46 3.3.5 Hardened Concrete Characterization ............................................................... 46 3.4 Preliminary Stage ....................................................................................................... 47 3.4.1 Typical Results ................................................................................................. 48 3.4.2 Summary ofExperimental Observations ......................................................... 49 3.5 Final Research Plan.................................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS OF DRYING CREEP-SHRTNKAGE TESTS .............................................. 60

4.1 General ..................................................................................................................... .. 60 4.2 Restrained Shrinkage Stress ...................................................................................... 60 4.2.1 Failure ofRestrained Concrete ......................................................................... 61 4.2.2 Effect of Extemal Relative Humidity .............................................................. 62 4.3 Free Shrinkage ......................................................................................................... .. 63 4.3.1 Eect of Fiber Reinforcement on Shrinkage ................................................... 64 4.3.2 Eect of Relative Humidity on Shrinkage....................................................... 65 4.4 Total Tensile Creep .................................................................................................... 65 4.4.1 Eect of Fiber Reinforcement on Total Tensile Creep ................................... 67 4.4.2 Total Creep Coefcient .................................................................................... 67
4.5 Shrinkage Stress-Strain Diagram ............................................................................. 68

4.6 Concrete Humidity and Temperature ........................................................................ 69 4.7 Eect ofInitial Curing on Creep and Shrinkage ...................................................... 70 4.8 Eect ofAltemate Drying / Wetting on Creep and Shrinkage ................................ 72 4.9 Tensile Strength ......................................................................................................... 74
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4.10 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................... 75
CHAPTER 5 RESULTS OF CREEP-SHRINKAGE TESTS UNDER SEALED AND WET CURING CONDITIONS .................................................................................................... 89
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 89
5.2 Sealed Condition ........................................................................................................ 90

5.2.1 Free Shrinkage (Autogenous Deformation)..................................................... 91 5.2.2 Humidity Prole of Sealed Samples .............................................................. .. 92 52.3 Tensile Creep of Sealed concrete ..................................................................... 93 5.2.4 Age at Which Sealing is Applied ..................................................................... 94 5.2.5 Cumulative Stress versus Cumulative Elastic Strain....................................... 95 5.3 Wet Curing Condition................................................................................................ 96 5.3.1 Effect of Wet Curing on Autogenous Shrinkage ........................................... .. 97 5.3.2 Does Wet Curing Aect Mechanical Properties ........................................... .. 98 5.4 Identication of Basic Creep ................................................................................... .. 99 5.4.1 Eect of Fiber Reinforcement on Basic Creep ............................................. 100 5.4.2 Eect of W/C on Basic Creep ........................................................................ 102 5.5 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................ 102
CHAPTER 6 ANALYTICAL MODELS: BACKGROUND AND FORMULATION..................... 113

6.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 113 6.2 Basic Creep Constitutive Laws Formulation .......................................................... 113 6.2.1 Integral Formulation ....................................................................................... 113 6.2.2 Differential Formulation................................................................................. 1 15 6.2.2.1 Maxwell versus Kelvin Chain Model .................................................. 1 16 6.2.3 Aging Creep Based on Solidication Theory................................................ 117 6.2.3.1 Qualitative Description of Aging ........................................................ 117 6.2.3.2 Micro-mechanics ofthe Creep Model ................................................. 118 6.2.3.3 Constitutive Relations .......................................................................... 119 6.2.3.4 Rate-Type Approximation ................................................................... 120
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6.3 Drying Creep Modeling and Mechanisms .............................................................. 121
6.3.1 General ............................................................................................................ 121

6.32 Microcracking ............................................................................................... .. 122
6.3.3 Stress-induced Shrinkage ............................................................................... 122

6.3.4 Formulation for Stress-induced Shrinkage .................................................... 123 6.3.5 Stress-Strain Relation for Microcracking ...................................................... 125 6.4 Components and Sequence ofthe Analysis ............................................................ 126 6.5 Damage and Failure of Concrete ............................................................................. 127 6.5.1 Basic Concepts................................................................................................ 127 6.5.1.1 Damage Threshold ............................................................................... 128 6.5.1.2 Failure Criterion ................................................................................... 128 6.5.1.3 Evolution of Damage ........................................................................... 129
CHAPTER 7 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF BASIC CREEP TEST RESULTS ................... 133
7.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 133 7.2 Basic Creep Analysis ............................................................................................. .. 133 7.2.1 Review of Basic Creep Model ....................................................................... 134 7.2.1.1 Important Comment on Flow Term..................................................... 135 7.2.2 Identication of Model Parameters ................................................................ 135 7.3 Incremental Approach.............................................................................................. 136 7.3.1 Inuence of the Flow Term on the Analysis ............................................... .. 137 7.3.2 Nonlinear Stress Factor .................................................................................. 138 7.3.3 Model Coecients ......................................................................................... 139 7.3.4 Effective Volume Growth v(t)........................................................................ 140 7.4 Analysis Based on Principle of Superposition ........................................................ 141 7.4.1 Creep mctions for Plain Concrete ................................................................ 143 7.4.2 Creep frmctions for Fiber Reinforced Concrete............................................. 144 7.4.3 Eect of Water-Cement Ratio........................................................................ 145 7.5 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................ 146
CHAPTER 8 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF DRYING CREEP MECHANISMS ................ 157

8.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 157 8.2 A Technique to Separate the Pickett Eect Mechanisms ....................................... 15 7 8.2.1 Principal Assumptions .................................................................................... 158 8.2.2 Basic Concept of the Experiment................................................................... 158 8.2.3 Key Features ofthe Method and Analytical Procedures ............................... 159 8.3 Stress-Reduced Shrinkage ....................................................................................... 161 8.3.1 Inuence of Stress on Restrained Shrinkage ................................................. 162 8.3.2 Inuence of Fiber Reinforcement on Shrinkage Behavior under Load........ 163 8.4 Quantication of Microcrackingl Softening .......................................................... 163
8.4.1 Qualitative Analysis for Microcracking and Failure ..................................... 165

8.42 Stress-Strain Relation for Distributed Microcracking ................................... 166 8.4.3 Evolution of Microcracking ........................................................................... 168 8.5 Limitations of the Approach .................................................................................. .. 169 8.6 Signicance of the Approach ................................................................................ .. 169 8.7 Validation of the Approach ................................................................................... .. 170 8.8 Damage-Based Analysis of Microcracking ............................................................ 171 8.8.1 Basic Damage Concepts ................................................................................. 171 8.8.2 Identication of Damage Variables ............................................................. .. 172 82.2.1 Critical Damage Factor ........................................................................ 173 8.2.2.2 Damage Threshold ............................................................................. .. 173 8.2.2.3 Damage Strength Material Parameter S .............................................. 174 8.8.3 Quantitative Analysis for Microcracking and Failure ................................... 175 8.9 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................ 176
CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................... 186

9.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 186 9.2 Experimental Technique .......................................................................................... 186 9.3 Restrained Drying Concrete .................................................................................. .. 187 9.4 Sealed and Wet Cming Conditions ......................................................................... 188
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9.5 Basic Creep Behavior .................................................................................. 9.6 Drying Creep Mechanisms ........................................................................ .. 9.7 General Behavior at Early Age.................................................................... 9.8 Failure Analysis ...........................................................................................
APPENDIX A EXPERHVIENTAL RESULTS FOR RESTRAINED SHRINKAGE TESTS APPENDIX B RESULTS FOR CONCRETE HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT ..................... APPENDIX C ANALYTICAL RESULTS FOR BASIC CREEP ............................................. LIST OF REFERENCES...................................................................................... VITA ........................................................................................................................
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 3.5 Table 3.6 Table 4.1 Table 5.1 Table 7.1 Table 8.1 Table 8.2 Table 8.3 Table A-1
Concrete mix proportions (preliminary stage) ........................................... .. 44 Concrete mix proportions (nal stage) ......................................................... 45 Aggregate properties ..................................................................................... 46 28-day compressive suength and modulus of elasticity ............................ .. 47 Test matrix for Phase I .................................................................................. 51
Test matrix for Phases H and HI ................................................................... 52

Shrinkage stress and age at failure ................................................................ 61 Load prole applied on sealed and wet-cured concrete ............................... 90 Coefcients for linear and nonlinear models of basic creep ...................... 139 Model parameters for stress-reduced shrinkage ......................................... 162 Parameters for strain softening of restrained drying concrete ................... 167 Parameters for microcracking evolution of restrained drying concrete..... 169 Restrained shrinkage results for plain concrete, w/c=0.5, sample #1. age at
drying =14 hours, RH = 50% ...................................................................... 193

Table A-2 Restrained shrinkage results for plain concrete, w/c=0.5, sample #2. age at
drying =14 hours, R1-I = 50% ...................................................................... 193

Table A-3 Restrained shrinkage results for steel ber concrete, w/c=0.5, sample .=-*1, age at drying=14 hours,RH=50% ...........................................................194 Table A-4 Restrained shrinkage results for steel ber concrete, w/c=0.5, sample #2, age at drying =14 hours, RH = 50% ........................................................... 194 Table A-5 Restrained shrinkage results for polypropylene ber concrete, w/c=0 .5, sample #1, age at drying =14 hours, RH = 50% ...................................... .. 195 Table A-6 Restrained shrinkage results for plain concrete, w/c=O.4, age at drying =15
hours, RH = 50% ......................................................................................... 195

Table A-7 Restrained shrinkage results for steel ber concrete, w/c=O.4, age at drying =14 hours, RH = 50% ................................................................................. 196
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Table A-8
Resuained shrinkage results for plain concrete, w/c=0.32, age at drying =14
hours, RH = 50% ......................................................................................... 196

Table A-9 Table A-10 Resuained shrinkage results for steel ber concrete, w/c=0.32, age at drying =14 hours, RH = 50% ................................................................................. 197 Restrained shrinkage results for plain concrete, w/c=0.32, age at drying =14 hours, RH = 80% ......................................................................................... 197 Table A-11 Restrained shrinkage results for plain concrete, w/c=0.5, age at drying =12 hours, RH = 70% ......................................................................................... 198 Table A-12 Restrained shrinkage results for plain concrete, w/c=0.5, age at drying =12 hours, RH = 80% ....................................................................................... .. 198 Table A-13 Restrained shrinkage results for plain concrete, w/c=0.5, age at sealing =15
hours, sealed for 72 hours prior to drying at RH = 50% ............................ 199

Table A-14 Restrained shrinkage results for steel ber concrete, w/c=0.5, age at sealing =15 hours, sealed for 72 hours prior to drying at RH = 50% ..................... 199 Table A-15 Restrained shrinkage results for steel ber concrete subjected to drying/wetting cycle, w/c=0.5, age at drying =15 hours, RH = 50%, wetting applied at age of 67 hours for 24 hours and then exposed to drying ......... 200
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1
Normalized tensile strength, compressive strength, and modulus of elasticity vs. degee ofhydration ................................................................................ .. 34
Figure 2-2 Figure 2-3 Figure 2-4
Time dependent deformations in concrete subjected to sustain load........... 35 Schematic representation of various models of C-S-H .............................. .. 36 Additional ftmctions G(t') and H(t,t_) for early age creep response shown schematically ............................................................................................... .. 36
Figure 3-1 Figure 3-2 Figure 3-3 Figure 3-4 Figure 3-5 Figure 3-6 Figure 3-7 Figure 3-8 Figure 3-9 Figure 3-10 Figure 3-11 Figure 3-12 Figure 3-13 Figure 4-1 Figure 4-2 Figure 4-3
Companion specimens ................................................................................ .. 52 Experimental device showing restrained and ee shrinkage samples......... 53 Parts ofthe experimental setup ..................................................................... 54 Schematic diagram ofthe test mechanism ................................................. .. 55 Aggregate gradation ...................................................................................... 55 General view of experimental setup in the preliminary stage ...................... 56 Effect ofthreshold on stress evolution ......................................................... 56 Free shrinkage and tensile creep of replicate samples with w/c=O.56 ....... .. 57 Shrinkage stress evolution with time of replicate samples .......................... 57 Shrinkage stress evolution with time of replicate samples w/c= 0.48 ......... 58 Stress-elastic strain diagrams for replicate samples w/c= 0.48 .................... 58 LVDT attachment method inuences stress-strain evolution...................... 59 LVDT attachment method inuences modulus of elasticity ....................... 59 Shrinkage stress evolution of different plain concrete mixes ...................... 77 Eect of steel ber reinforcement on shrinkage stress ................................ 77 Shrinkage stress evolution ofplain concrete under various drying conditions ........................................................................................... 78
Figure 4-4 Figure 4-5 Figure 4-6 Figure 4-7
Free shrinkage strain for dierent plain concrete mixes ............................ .. 78 Typical temperature and humidity distribution ............................................ 79 Eect ofber reinforcement on ee shrinkage ........................................... 79 Eect ofdrying condition on free shrinkage (W/c = 0.50)........................... 80
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Figure 4-8 Figure 4-9 Figure 4-10 Figure 4-11 Figure 4-12 Figure 4-13 Figure 4-14 Figure 4-15 Figure 4-16 Figure 4-17 Figure 4-18 Figure 4-19 Figure 4-20 Figure 4-21
Tensile creep for dierent plain concrete mixes ........................................ .. 80 Creep is proportional to 'ee shrinkage (replicate samples)....................... .. 81 Creep/shrinkage ratio for dierent plain concrete mixes ............................. 81 Eect of ber reinforcement on tensile creep (W/c = 0.5) ........................... 82 Creep coefcient evo1u1:ion for various plain concrete mixes ..................... 82 Shrinkage stress-elastic suain diagram for dierent plain concrete mixes . 83 General view of humidity measurement sample and device ....................... 83 Humidity proles for NC-0.5 mix ................................................................ 84 Humidity proles for concrete after 2 days of drying.................................. 84 Eect of initial cming on stress evolution of plain concrete and FRC ........ 85 Eect of initial curing on ee shrinkage of plain concrete and FRC ........ .. 85 Eect of initial curing on tensile creep of plain concrete and FRC ........... .. 86 Shrinkage stress evolution of FRC upon drying/wetting cycles .................. 86 Eect of drying/wetting on free shrinkage and shrinkage recovery of FRC .......................................................................................... .. 87
Eect of drying/wetting on tensile creep of FRC ...................................... .. 87 Humidity prole upon drying/wetting cycle .............................................. .. 88 Evolution of splitting tensile strength (drying curing) ................................ 88 Stress prole applied on wet and sealed concrete samples ...................... .. 104 Free shrinkage of sealed concrete samples ............................................... .. 104 Free shrinkage of sealed and drying concrete .......................................... .. 105 Humidity prole in sealed concrete samples ............................................ .. 105 Free shrinkage and creep strains of replicate samples ............................... 106 Creep and shrinkage of sealed concrete with dierent w/c-ratios ............. 106 Free shrinkage and tensile creep of sealed FRC ....................................... .. 107
Figure 5-2
Figure 5-3 Figure 5-4 Figure 5-5
Figure 5-6
Eect of age at sealing on ee shrinkage and tensile creep ...................... 107

Stress -cumulative elastic strain diagrams at dierent curing conditions . 108
Eect ofmoist curing on early age shrinkage (w/c=0.5) ........................... 108

Effect of moist curing on early age shrinkage (w/c=0.4) ........................... 109 Stress-strain diagram of sealed and wet-cured concrete ............................ 109 Creep and shrinkage ofFRC tmder dierent curing conditions ................ 110
Figure 5-11
Figure 5-12 Figure 5-13
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Figure 5-14 Figure 5-15 Figure 5-16 Figure 5-17 Figure 5-18 Figure 6-1 Figure 6-2 Figure 6-3 Figure 6-4 Figure 7-1 Figure 7-2 Figure 7-3 Figure 7-4 Figure 7-5 Figure 7-6 Figure 7-7 Figure 7-8 Figure 7-9 Figure 7-10 Figure 7-11 Figure 7-12 Figure 7-13 Figure 7-14 Figure 7-15 Figure 7-16 Figure 7-17 Figure 7-18 Figure 8-1 Figure 8-2 Figure 8-3 Figure 8-4
Creep and shrinkage of plain concrete under dierent curing conditions. 110 Effect of ber reinforcement on specic basic creep for NC-0.5 mix .... .. 111 Eect of ber reinforcement on specic basic creep for NC-0.4 mix ...... 111 Effect of w/c-ratio on specic basic creep of FRC .................................... 112 E'ect of w/c-ratio on specic basic creep of plain concrete ..................... 112 Kelvin and Maxwell chain units ................................................................. 130 Solidication theory for basic creep ......................................................... .. 131 Strain softening curve.................................................................................. 131 Damage evaluation from a uniaxial stress-strain diagram ......................... 132 Optimum ts and the ow term for plain concrete (w/c=0 .4) ................... 148 Optimum ts and the ow term for plain concrete (w/c=0.5) ................... 148 Data t of basic creep with and without stress nonlinearity ...................... 149 Non-aging creep frmction obtained by tting data for the NC-0.4 mix 149
Shift in eective volmne fraction due to stress nonlinearity ..................... 150 Eect of age on load bearing volume fraction growth of FRC, w/c=0 .4 .. 150 E'ect of age on load bearing volume action growth of FRC, w/c=0.5 .. 151 Effect of retardation times on the superposition-based analysis, w/c=0.4 151 E'ect of retardation times on the superposition-based analysis, w/c=0.5 152 Extracted creep functions at different ages at loading for NC-0.5 mix 152
Extracted creep functions at dierent ages at loading for NC-0.4 mix 153 Age dependency of the creep frmction for NC-0.5 mix ........................... .. 15 3 Age dependency of the creep function for NC-0.4 mix ............................. 154 Creep functions at different ages at loading for FRC (w/c=0.4)................ 154 Creep ftmctions at dierent ages at loading for FRC (w/c=0.5).............. .. 155 Age dependency ofthe creep function for FRC (w/c=0 .4) ........................ 155 Age dependency ofthe creep ftmction for FRC (w/c=0.5) ...................... .. 156 Eect of ber reinforcement and w/c-ratio on creep function ................ .. 156 Stress-reduced shrinkage for plain concrete (w/c=0.5) ............................ .. 178 Stress-reduced shrinkage for ber reinforced concrete (w/c=0.5)............. 178 Eect oftensile stress on shrinkage (w/c=0.5) .......................................... 179 Components ofthe Pickett eect (w/c=0.5) ............................................... 179
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Figure 8-5 Figure 8-6 Figure 8-7 Figure 8-8 Figure 8-9 Figure 8-10 Figure 8-11 Figure 8-12
Components ofthe Pickett e'ect (w/c=0.4) ............................................... 180 E'ect of microcracking on age at failure of FRC samples (w/c=0.5) ....... 180 Typical stress-strain curves associated with microcracking (w/c=0.5) 181
Model for total creep ................................................................................... 182 Validation ofthe creep model for plain concrete (w/c=0.5) ...................... 183 Validation ofthe creep model for FRC (w/c=0.5) ..................................... 183 Crical damage factors for plain and ber reinforced concrete (w/c=0.5) 184 Damage threshold strain for plain and ber reinforced concrete (w/c=0.5)....................................................................................... 184
Figure 8-13 Figure 8- 14 Figure B-1 Figure B-2 Figure B-3 Figure B-4 Figure B-5 Figure B-6 Figure C-1 Figure C-2 Figure C-3 Figure C-4 Figure C-5 Figure C-6 Figure C-7 Figure C-8
Damage evolution and failure of plain concrete (w/c=0.5) ....................... 185 Damage evolution and failure of FRC (w/c=0.5) ....................................... 185 Humidity prole of HPC-0.32 mix, RH=50% ........................................... 202 Humidity prole for I-IPC-0.32 mix, RH=80% .......................................... 202
Humidity mctions ofNC-0.5 mix, RH=50% ........................................... 203 Humidity prole ofNC-0.5 mix, RH=50% ............................................... 203 Humidity prole ofNC-0.5 mix, RH=80% ............................................... 204
Humidity prole ofNC-0.4 mix, RH=50% ............................................... 204 Incremental-based model for basic creep of plain concrete (w/c=0.5)...... 206 Superposition-based model for basic creep of plain concrete (w/c=0.5) .. 206 Incremental-based model for basic creep of FRC (w/c=0.5) ..................... 207 Superposition-based model for basic creep of FRC (w/c=0.5) .................. 207 incremental-based model for basic creep of plain concrete (w/c=0.4)...... 208 Superposition-based model for basic creep of plain concrete (w/c=0.4) .. 208 Incremental-based model for basic creep of FRC (w/c=0.4) ..................... 209 Superposition-based model for basic creep of FRC (w/c=0.4) .................. 209
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GLOSSARY
Shrinkage Stress: Stress developed in the concrete sample by restraining its shrinkage deformation Drying Shrinkage: Deformation associated with drying of concrete Autogenous Shrinkage: Deformation associated with intemal drying of concrete Tensile Creep: Time dependent deformation of concrete under a sustained tensile load Basic Creep: Creep of concrete when no shrinkage occurs Drying Creep: The creep strain in excess to basic creep in specimens Lmdergoing drying Total Creep: The summation ofthe basic creep and the drying creep Creep Coecient: Creep strain at any point in time divided by the elastic strain at that time Specic Creep: The creep strain per mit stress Free Shrinkage: Shrinkage deformation when no extemal loads are applied on the concrete specimen Creep-Shrinkage Ratio: The ratio between the creep strain to the free shrinkage strain at any point in time Stress-Reduced Shrinkage: Reduction in the shrinkage deformation when tensile load is applied Microcracking Strain: Strain associated with surface microcracking results from the gradient in drying ofthe concrete sample Failure Stress: Stress at which the restrained concrete sample fails Failure Strain: Summation of elastic strains ofthe compensation cycles required to fracture the restrained concrete sample Tensile Strength: Stress at failure in a direct tensile strength test Damage: Degradation in the elastic stiiess ofthe concrete material Critical Damage Factor: A level of damage, which when reached, failure occurs suddenly
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Concrete is generally unique among structural materials in that it interacts with its environment undergoing unavoidable complex physical and chemical volume changes. The process ofhydration and the molecular structure of concrete give certain characteristics to this material such as aging, creep and shrinkage. These characteristics as a group are known as time dependent deformation. Early age deterioration of concrete is a persistent problem that arises because concrete interacts with its environment and experiences complex physical and chemical changes. Volume instability is detrimental to performance and durability of concrete structures because structures are usually restrained. The induced stresses may cause immediate cracking or linger as residual stresses that serve to limit capacity of the concrete material. Such premature deterioration affects integrity, durability, and long-terrn service life of concrete structures. This potential for damage depends on composition of concrete, curing conditions, age and load condition. Recent advances in rapid construction overlay techniques, high early strength concrete technology, and new cement and admixture formulations have renewed concems about volumetric stability of concrete. For example, High-performance concrete (I-IPC) and ber-reinforced concrete (FRC) have been introduced to meet the needs generated by the continuous advancement in the technology of aviation, transportation and other public services; a new class of planes have entered the airways. Boeing for example, is currently producing the new 777 plane. These planes are the rst to use tr-idem wheel congurations in the landing gear. The new landing gear conguration and large passenger capacity produce wheel loads of 50,000 potmds that cause extremely high pavement stress due to interaction of loads associated with the individual tires. The use of low w/c ratio, superplasticizer, silica fume and bers enables producing high perfonnance concrete with mechanical properties adequate for the new loading. However, it aggravates the problem of early age cracking due to autogenous shrinkage caused by the low w/c required for these
materials. Therefore, understanding the behavior at early age (rst days aer placement) is very important for the development ofthese novel materials. Early days after casting is not only important for I-IPC, it also considers one ofthe most critical periods in the life of all types of concrete. The concrete at this age tmdergoes rapid complex volume changes such as autogenous shrinkage, drying shrinkage and thermal deformation that lead to a rapid build up of tensile stresses in the material. At the same time, strength and stiffness of the material is relatively low, but increasing as hydration proceeds. There is a competition inside the material between the development of tensile stress and the development of strength both of which are evolving with time. At stake in this competition is the potential for premature deterioration. The research commrmity has realized the impact of early age damage on various concrete structures particularly in at structures such as pavements, slabs on grade, and parking garages. Early age deterioration has become a hot issue at almost every conference on concrete. In fact, entire intemational conferences have been devoted to early issues, [e.g. Intemational RELEM Symposium Thermal Cracking in Concrete at Early Age, 1994]. Tensile creep and shrinkage are two major mechanisms to consider in the assessment of damage and performance. Shrinkage of restrained concrete components causes stresses in the material whereas tensile creep counteracts the shrinkage as a stress relaxing mechanism and relief part of the induced stress. Therefore, analysis of cracking based solely on a motmt of shrinkage is erroneous. Both creep and shrinkage are to be considered for accurate stress analysis and crack prediction. It has been long recognized that the role of tensile creep is of great importance when the possibility of cracking is to be considered. Shrinkage cracking has always been a major concem for concrete technologists and engineers especially in at structures such as pavement, parking garages and slabs. This concem is usually addressed by specifying conservative joint spacing. However, there is a high economic incentive to reduce the number ofjoints in at structures particularly highway and airport pavement without compromising serviceability, durability and structural capacity ofthe structure due to cracking. The advancement in concrete and construction technology has pushed the envelope of material performance. For example, a 200 feet long by 75 feet wide continuous rtmway slab without joints (or cracks) was made possible by using ber concrete at the
Rockford, IL airport in 1993. The slab length is almost 10 times longer than possible with conventional plain concrete, and it is an inspiring demonstration of one material performance for reducing joints. FAA is moving toward reducing number ofjoints in airport pavement without compromising serviceability, durability and structural capacity of the pavement due to cracking. The potential for early age shrinkage cracking increases because shrinkage stresses are proportional to the length ofjoint spacing. Therefore, the concem of cracking becomes a pressing factor toward tmderstanding tensile creep, shrinkage and their interaction at early age because the key to prevention premature cracking is to keep the built-up stress lower than the tensile strength of concrete at every point in time. The role of tensile creep is extremely important in this regard. In view of concrete microstructure, creep and shrinkage are not independent phenomena. They are inter-related and aected by a common process at the level of microstructure. Although this interaction has been researched for many years, the focus has been exclusively limited to compressive loading in matured concrete. Past research has almost igrored tensile creep behavior at early age. Not only is experimental data on tensile creep not available for early age, but also the current analytical models for stress analysis and prediction of shrinkage cracking utilize creep formulas derived for compressive creep, even though shrinkage involves tensile loading. The models assume similar creep behavior in both compression and tension. This assumption, although inaccurate, is understandable given the lack of data and models for tensile creep. Even ifthe creep mechanism is assumed to be similar in both compression and tension, their interaction with shrinkage is di'erent because compressive creep adds to shrinkage while tensile creep works against it. This research focused on early age shrinkage, tensile creep and their interaction for ber and plain concrete to characterize the behavior and provide experimental data that help in establishing a model consistent with material behavior.
1.2 Research Objectives

The main objective of this research is to provide early age behavioral information on brous and plain concrete that exposed to drying under restrained conditions. The restrained condition simulates evolution of compressive and tensile stresses in real
structures due to thermal and shrinkage induced deformations. Therefore, the shrinkage characteristics are required to assess potential for cracking and to perform correct stress analysis. The subsequent stress development causes the material to creep that in tum plays an important role as a stress relaxing mechanism. This interaction between shrinkage, thermal and tensile creep is the main focus ofthis research. Complexity ofthe interaction is augmented in the rst days after casting due to concomitant physical and chemical changes in the microstructure of concrete. These characteristics require special tesng techniques to be evaluated, and hence, one ofthe objectives in this research is to develop reliable testing techniques and procedures that can be used to generate accurate and reproducible data on tensile creep, shrinkage and their interaction at early age. In addition to behavioral understanding, characterization of various properties such as tensile creep, shrinkage, shrinkage stress, and thermal strain is intended. Experimental evaluation and separation of each property is therefore required. The stresses in the experiment are self-generated by restraining shrinkage and these stresses are due to combined eect of creep and shrinkage, in other words, they are relaxed stresses. The research put special emphasis on tensile creep and its various mechanisms. Basic tensile creep and the effect of concurrent drying forms the bulk part ofthis research, the ptupose of which, is to characterize the role oftensile creep in relaxing stresses, particularly when the concrete is subjected to high stresses that lead to failure. The eect of w/c ratio, ber reinforcement, and curing condition on these properties are investigated. Formulation of analytical techniques for creep-shrinkage interaction based on concrete micromechanics, established facts about concrete microstructure, and the experimental data is another objective. The analytical technique provides means consistent with material behavior, to tmderstand the creep and its interaction with shrinkage at early age. It can be used in models existing in literature for stress analysis and prediction of shrinkage cracking.
1.3 Scope of Work

A tmiaxial restrained test technique was utilized to generate basic experimental data on early age shrinkage and creep. The test simulates evolution of stress in real structures,
and most importantly, it quanties shrinkage, tensile creep, shrinkage stress and elastic moduli of concrete. Separation of creep om shrinkage was made possible by testing and comparing two companion samples, one was restrained and the other was 'ee. Stresses in the restrained sample were self-induced by restraining shrinkage, which, with time, increased and caused stress development that led to acture. Tensile creep tmder the increased, self-induced stresses was evaluated. This condition is of practical interest for two
reasons. First, the load causing the creep is induced by shrinkage and the rate of shrinkage
determines the level of stress. Hence, interaction between creep and shrinkage is more pronounced. Second, the high stress promotes microcracking and non-linearity of creep which are important features when cracking is to be evaluated. The testing system is one of the most promising ideas in the eld of restrained shrinkage and cracking at early age. Since the testing technique is not a standard or conventional test, reliability of the collected data on shrinkage and tensile creep must be ensured. Therefore, signicant ebrts were devoted in this research to develop and design a reliable experiment in terms of accuracy, reproducibility and practicality. To evaluate the eect of concurrent drying on tensile creep, a separate test for basic creep (no drying) was conducted. The basic creep test was conducted using the same experimental setup by applying the load obtained in drying test onto sealed samples. Sealing the sample however, suppresses extemal drying but may not eliminate intemal drying which can not be ignored at early age, particularly for the low w/c-ratio mixes. Therefore, a separate set of basic creep tests (similar to those on sealed samples) was performed on samples subjected to continuous moist condition to minimize intemal drying and the subsequent interaction with basic tensile creep. The three sets oftests under drying, sealing, and moist curing conditions provide insight into the creep-shrinkage interaction and enable quantication of the dierent tensile creep components.
Along with the uniaxial restrained test, the relative humidity and temperature of
concrete and their gradients across the test specimen were measured in order to model their effect on the creep-shrinkage interaction. Normal and high performance concrete were tested to characterize their behavior. Material parameters ofpractical interest such as water-cement ratio and the addition of steel and polypropylene bers were considered to study their inuence on the tensile creep,
shrinkage and their interaction at early age. Literature review of existing mathematical models and theories for the creep of concrete were explored. The best models that suit early age behavior were chosen. Analytical techniques to model dierent components oftensile creep and its interaction with shrinkage were developed accordingly.
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General
Early age cracking of concrete has been a persistent problem, and recent development in construction practice has heightened attention on the issue. It has received considerable attention, since l930s for the construction of dams (ACI Committee 207). Since then, tangible amount of research has been performed to tmderstand the nature ofthe problem yet, its complexities are not fully tmderstood. Fmthermore, recent advances in rapid construction, high early strength concrete technology and new cement and admixtures formulation have renewed worldwide concems about the early age cracking (e.g. RILEM 1994). This literature study focuses on the driving mechanisms for cracking, relevant material properties, and test techniques. Relevant material models are also discussed particularly those pertaining to creep behavior and its interaction with shrinkage.
2.2 Driving Mechanisms for Cracking

Concrete in the hardening phase (aer setting) will generate stresses if volume changes are restrained. Consequently, concrete may exhibit early age cracldng ifthe stresses exceed tensile strength ofthe material. Volumetric instability of concrete has been reported in literature as the main cause of early age cracking (e.g. ACI Committee 224, Rolling (1986, 1993)). In the very early age (hydration period), there are primarily two active mechanisms producing volume changes; autogenous deformation and thermal dilation. At later stage when the concrete is exposed to drying, drying shrinkage acts as a third active mechanism that produces tangible volume change. The following sections discuss particulars ofthese mechanisms.
2.2.1 Autogenous Deformation (AD)

The autogenous volume change has been given a variety of labels in the Literature, some ofwhich include autogenous shrinkage (Ziegeldorf et al., 1982), chemical shrinkage
(Tazawa and Kasai, 1995), autogenous deformation (Mejlhede and Freiesleben, 1996) and self desiccation shrinkage (Paillere et al., 1989). In detailed analysis, it may be necessary to further dene and classify each term for consistency. However, for the purpose of the current work, the term autogenous deformation is adopted. It is dened, as all the extemal volume change that takes place regardless ofthe mechanism provided there is no exchange of moisture with the smrotmding environment (constant mass). The above denition of AD is in accordance with the proposal given in the intemational workshop on AD held in Japan, (Hammer et al., 1998) and adopted in recent work in this eld (Bjcpntegaard, 1999). The autogenous deformation has been considered of minor importance in traditional concrete and has not been distinguished clearly 'om the shrinkage caused by drying except possibly for mass concrete (M.indess and Young, 1981, and Neville, 1996). However, these phenomena seem to be an important cause ofthe observed cracking in modem high strength and high performance concrete structures (Paillere et al., 1989, and Tazawa and Miyazawa, 1993). It has been also reported that the autogenous deformation becomes equal to the drying shrinkage for concrete with a very low w/c-ratio. For instance, Tazawa and Miyazawa (1995) reported autogenous shrinkage that composed 40 % of the total drying shrinkage magnitude at w/c-ratio of 0.4, 50 % at w/c-ratio of 0.3, and 100% at w/c-ratio of 0.17. Autogenous deformation is mainly generated during the rst day, which increases the risk of cracking (Markku and Erika, 1997). It may reach 500 800 microstrain during the rst week. The intemal ingredients and mix composition have the most signicant inuence on the autogenous deformation as the phenomena itself results from the physical and chemical changes ailiated with the hydration of cement particles. The exact breakdowns ofthe inuencing factors on the deformation magnitude are still disputed (Markku and Erika, 1997). However, the w/c-ratio and silica fume has been found crucial factors that affect the autogenous deformation. Lowering the w/c-ratio and/or increased the dosage of silica rme has been fotmd to provide faster development of AD. This is mainly due to the denser cement microstructure and more rened pore structure that results as a consequence of lowering the w/c-ratio and/or adding silica rme (Mejlede and Freiesleben, 1996, and Tazawa and Miyazawa, 1997). High capillary tension and low RH in the pore structure is therefore expected.
The underlying driving force to the occurrence of AD is chemical shrinkage. Chemical shrinkage develops continuously from the point of cement-water contact as a result ofthe loss of volume due to hydration (volume of reactions products is smaller than the volume ofthe reactants). Chemical shrinkage has been measured in literature by measuring the water suction of water-cured cement paste samples Dilatometry method and by weight changes Gravimetry method (Tazawa and Kasai, 1995, and Geiker, 1983). Powers (1948) found that the chemical shrinkage could be approximated by assuming that the reacting water looses 25 % of its volume. Ardoullie and Henrix (1997) have measured the volumetric AD of esh mortar using the condom method. The condom method was developed in Norway, and it measures the volume change of cement paste contained in a rubber membrane, which is submerged into a water bath at constant temperature. The volume change is recorded as the change in the buoyancy. Their results have shown that the chemical shrinkage is equal to the volumetric AD as long as the paste is liquid. Once a certain rigidity of the system of hydrating cement paste has developed, the measured AD is much smaller than the chemical shrinkage because solid structure start to resist the contraction forces set up by the chemical shrinkage. Hence, arotmd the time of setting, the AD changes character, a solid skeleton is formed allowing empty pores to form. The consequence of this is development of intemal water menisci in the capillary pore system which means increase in capillary tension in the pore water and a lowering of the relative humidity (RH) in the empty part of the pores. From that point on, the stresses developed due to self-desiccation drive the autogenous deformation. The period around this point is also believed to be sensitive in terms of cracking since the paste (or concrete) is able to pick up stresses but has very low capacity to withstand them. The dierence between the chemical shrinkage and the AD is because major part of chemical shrinkage is tinned into intrinsic voids (self-desiccation). AD in the rst day can be in the form of expansion, particularly for w/c-ratio higher than 0.4. The origin ofthis expansion is not fully tmderstood. Formation of ettringite has been proposed as a possible cause of early age expansion but this has not been veried by special experiments. Recently Bjqantegaard (1999) has demonstrated the reabsorption of bleed water as a possible cause for this expansion. The above discussion suggests that the autogenous deformation is a complex phenomena yet, one ofthe important driving
mechanisms for cracking of restrained concrete particularly at early age, and it should be carefully considered when the sensitivity for cracking is investigated.
2.2.2 Thermal Dilation (TD)

Thermal stresses at early age have been a major cause for early age cracking of concrete since the beginning of this century. The importance oftemperature effects in hardening concrete has inspired extensive research worldwide in recent years. In 1989 RILEM has established a Technical Committee TC 119, on The Avoidance of Thermal Cracking in Concrete at Early Age. The committee has organized intemational symposiums to rrther expand the existing knowledge ofthe problem (RJLEM, 1994 and RILEM, 1998). Theoretical and experimental studies and worldwide experience were discussed in these symposiums. The key parameter that converts the temperature change into suain in concrete is the thermal dilation coefcient (TDC). Thermal dilation coefcient (TDC) of manned cement paste and concrete has been extensively investigated in literature. The general agreement on the TDC is that it depends
on the moisture state of the pore system (Neville, 1996). Several researchers have
investigated the topic in pure cement paste with the conclusion that fully samrated pore system and empty (dried) pore system give much lower TDC values i.e. around 10-l2xl0';' C, than a partly saturated pore system, with a maximum values in the range of 18-25x10*" C. The high value in partly saturated pore system is believed to be due to some kind of hygrothermal effect (redistribution of pore water and change in capillary tension) which add to the true thermal movement (Power and Brownyard, 1947, Wittmann and Lukas, 1974, and Neville, 1996). The TDC of concrete, on the other hand, is very dependent on the type of aggregate (which constitutes 65-75% ofthe concrete volume) used in the mix since the TDC of dierent minerals are found to vary over a wide range. Limestone aggregate has been found to have a very low TDC (down to 1x10*5/ C ) (Neville, 1996). Measuring the TDC of cement paste and concrete have sometimes been observed to be complicated because of so-called delayed deformations which is caused by a temperature induced shrinkage and swelling. The delayed deformations are probably a relatively slow redistribution of water which state has come out of equilibrium after a temperature change.
(Wittrnann and Lukas, 1974).

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The amotmt ofwork reported in literature on the TDC of yotmg concrete is quite limited and hence, no conclusive behavior ofthe TDC of young concrete can be given today. The general nding is that the TDC starts at very high value (20xl06/ C ) and drops signicantly during setting; i.e. from a few hours and up to 12-14 hours (ACI Committee 517, RILEM, 1998, and Miao et al., 1993). This feature, in the 'esh state, has been attributed to the dominance of water phase that has high TDC as compared to solids. When skeleton is formed, solid behavior can be expected with a much lower TDC. The development ofthe TDC 'om setting and further on (up to 1-2 weeks) is even more uncertain since very few and also contradictory results have been reported. For example, Mitchell et al. (1998) tested the TDC of normal strength, medium strength and high strength concrete at early ages (in the rst 36 hours). Their results have indicated TDC values that are relatively independent of age and typically in the order of 9.5xl0'6/ C. Similar conclusions were reported by other researchers (LaPlante and Boulay, 1994, and Miao et al., 1993). TDC values that are increasing with time were also reported by Wittmann and Lukas (1974) and even decreasing TDC values with time was reported (Emborg, 1989) with no systematic relation to curing conditions or concrete quality.
2.2.3 Drying Shrinkage (DS)

Drying shrinkage (DS) of concrete is dened as the time dependent deformation due to loss of water at constant temperature and relative humidity (RH). It is a characteristic property of portland cement paste and concrete. Extensive research has been conducted in literature to characterize the drying shrinkage of concrete in terms of mechanisms and inuencing factors. The results were summarized by several authors (Bazant and Wittrnann, 1982, Mindess and Yotmg, 1981 and Neville, 1996). The four most prominent shrinkage mechanisms that have been proposed in literature are surface ee energy, capillary tension, movement of interlayer water, and disjoining pressure. These mechanisms are discussed and summarized by Young et al. (chapter 1, physical mechanisms and their mathematical description, in Bazant, 1988). However, mechanisms ofreversible and irreversible shrinkage behavior are not quite understood. It has been indicated that irreversibility of shrinkage occurs only during the rst drying and that shrinkage on subsequent wetting and drying cycles are essentially reversible (Mindess and
ll
Yoimg, 1981). It is generally perceived that more than one mechanism is involved. Hansen, (1987) have identied two distinctive shrinkage mechanisms upon rst drying. They are the Gibbs-Bangham (surface free energy) and the capillary tension mechanisms, ofwhich
Gibbs-Bangham is the major component ofrst drying shrinkage. Gibbs-Bangham is

active between 100% and 0% of relative humidity whereas, the capillary stress mechanism is active in the RH range above 25%. The surface 'ee energy stress-induced mechanism forms 67 % and 85 % ofthe shrinkage measured by Hansen for cement paste with w/c-ratio of 0.6 and 0.4, respectively. He also calculated the true Gibbs-Bangham shrinkage using the elastic modulus ofthe hydration product and f0lIl1d it to be 33 %. The rest of deformation, as per Hansen seems to be due to decrease in interlayer spacing, which is not entirely a reversible mechanism in concrete. This is probably explaining the signicant irreversible component of rst drying shrinkage, which has also been reported by other researchers (Helmuth and Turk, 1967). Therefore, the rst drying shrinkage is of particular importance especially for restrained concrete subjected to drying at early age. It inuences the stress generation and the residual stresses in restrained concrete. The extent of shrinkage depends on many factors, including the properties of the material, temperature and relative humidity ofthe environment, the age when concrete is subjected to drying, and the size ofthe structure (Neville, 1996). The w/c-ratio ofthe mix and the aggregate content are the most inuenced factors on concrete shrinkage. The w/cratio determines the extent of shrinkage ofthe cement paste; shrinkage is larger the higher the w/c-ratio. The aggregate restrains the amount of shrinkage that can actually be realized. The drying shrinkage of concrete at can be estimated om that ofcement paste e P having the same w/c-ratio and degree ofhydration by the following formula (Pickett, 1956) at =e,(lV,)" 2.1
where Va is the aggregate content and n varies between 1.2 and 1.7. The drying shrinkage of normal concrete is therefore much smaller than the drying shrinkage ofthe paste because ofthe restraining e'ect provided by the aggregates. It is typically between 10% to 20 % of
the paste shrinkage. Drying shrinkage is clearly a major cause of volume change of
concrete, which inuences the stress generation and cracking of restrained structures. The
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importance of drying shrinkage can be clearly perceived in pavements and slabs on grade as will be discussed in the following section
2.2.3.1 Inuence of Shrinkage on Pavement

The risk of shrinkage cracking is more pronounced in at structures such as pavements and slabs on grades. Inadequate allowances for effects of drying shrinkage in concrete design and construction can lead to cracking and warping of pavement. The most obvious example is the necessity ofproviding shrinkage control joints in pavements and slabs on grade. The joint spacing highly inuences the slab curling and the suess development (Rolling, 1986, 1993). Warping of slabs results from differential shrinkage between the top and the bottom concrete layers. Curling stresses are normally viewed as a result of temperature gradient through the slab. However, di'erential shrinkage can also cause warping particularly at early age. The curl stress can be calculated by the following equation (Westergaard and Bradbury, 1926,1938)
0' = EaAr
3(1 - #1 )
2.2
where 0' is the curl stress; c, ,c, are curl stress coefcients that depend on slab dimensions and 1'3diI.B of relative stiffness; a is the coefficient ofthermal dilation; E is the elastic modulus; p is the Poissons ratio and Ar is the maximum temperature difference between the top and bottom of the slab. Warping stresses that are caused by shrinkage gradient through the slab can be calculated using the same concept of Westergaard for temperature ifthe shrinkage gradient is known. Shrinkage strain of lab and full-size concrete slabs has been measured in the literature. For example, Nagataki (1970) has measured shrinkage strain in pavement and calculated shrinkage stresses based on the distribution of strains. He indicated that the stresses due to restraint of warping are more important than those induced due to restraint of imiform movement ofthe slab by friction. The study also indicated that the eect of shrinkage is not small and must be considered in the design ofpavement for thermal cycles. However, the traditional practices in pavement thickness design is to neglect the warping stresses due to shrinkage gradient (Huang, 1993). The philosophy that govems the design as per Yoder and Witczak (1975) states that joints and steel are used to relieve and/or take
l3
care of warping stresses, and the design is then based upon load alone when considering thickness. The above discussion indicates the importance of shrinkage on determining joint spacing in concrete pavement and the need to include the shrinkage in the stress analysis and design ofpavement. This inuence is more critical at early age because a combination ofhigh rate of shrinkage and low tensile strength of concrete often exits.
2.2.3.2 influence of Shrinkage on Material Performance

Drying of concrete is govemed by a nonlinear diffusion of moisture with coefcient of diffusivity depending on pore humidity, concrete maturity, and temperature (Bazant and Najjar, 1971). Gradient of moisture and the associated shrinkage in drying concrete is therefore inevitable. Surface cracking occurs when the induced tensile stress in the outer zones exceeds tensile strength of concrete. The characteristics of surface cracking are dierent from those of continuous cracking and fracture. The microcracking density is quite low (Hwang and Young, 1984) and the cracking produced by drying are more likely
ne, densely distributed, discontinuous and can be appropriately modeled as tensile

nonlinearity with strain softening as shown by Bazant and Rashol (1982). Although the drying microcracking are ne and discontinuous, they profoundly inuence the material performance, particularly at early age. For example, the exural strength or modulus of rupture of concrete specimens with no shrinkage cracks was found to be more than twice that with dry shrinkage cracks (Planas and Elices, 1993). The rst crack strength and the eective modulus ofhigh performance ber concrete at early age were signicantly inuenced by surface microcracking as shown by Lim et al. (1999). Planas and Elices (1992) have also shown signicant inuence of the shrinkage stress on the size e'ect in concrete, which plays a paramotmt role in the interpretation of laboratory experiments and in their extrapolation to full-scale structures. Total time dependent deformation is also inuenced by the surface cracking (Wittrnann and Roelfstra, 1980, and Alvaredo and Wittmann, 1993). The above discussion shows the importance of restrained shrinkage of concrete. Its impact is not necessarily a failure in the form of con1:inuous cracldng, but it also changes the mechanical behavior by the nely distributed microcracking. Therefore,
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characterization of restrained shrinkage is essential to understand and to correctly predict the material performance particularly at early age.
2.3 Restrained Test Methods and Stress Measurement

The cracking tendency and ability of material to resist shrinkage cracking can only be judged on the basis of restrained shrinkage test. There is no standard method for testing restrained shrinkage of concrete. However, several methods have been tried and reported in literature. Many researchers have used concrete ring specimens cast around a rigid steel ring. The steel ring provides restraint to the concrete when it shrinks, tensile stresses are induced, and cracking may occur. This method has been primarily used to investigate concrete cracking and the effectiveness of different types and volume actions of bers in controlling cracking of concrete and mortars (Grzybowski and Shah, 1990, Swamy and Stavrides, 1979, Malmberg and Skarendahl, 1978, Sarigaphuti et al., 1993, and Krenchel and Shah, 1987). Calculation of tensile stresses is conceptually possible with this test and attempts to calculate stresses for shrinkage crack prediction have been pursued by Grzybowski and Shah (1990, 1989). However, the stress analysis was based on theory of elasticity whereas concrete is inelastic particularly at early age. A modied ring test in which a concrete ring is cast arormd a Perspex core having a high coefcient of expansion has been also used to provide cracking sensitivity within a short time (Kovler et al., 1993). Raising the temperature of the core material increases the stress in concrete ring. This test provides an eective way to get useful data on cracking within few days. However, this test does not provide actual stress in the shrinking material and does not allow relaxation of stress due to creep. Nonetheless, it could be considered as a qualitative test that serves to compare dierent formulations by determining the time of crack appearance and the width of crack. Doubly restrained plate specimens have been also used to determine cracking potential for concrete subjected to drying conditions (Kraai, 1985). The specimen is restrained at its perimeter by means of stirrups attached to a rigid steel frame. The primary difculty with this test is to determine the extent of restraint. Complex distribution of stress at the restrained ends causes difculties in stress analysis. The shrinkage stress can not be
15
calculated because it is dependent upon the geometry of specimen. To avoid these difculties, researchers have used uniaxial shrinkage tests. Uniaxial restrained shrinkage tests have been performed in dierent ways. One way is by transferring tensile stresses through an epoxy interface between concrete specimen and pre-compressed steel box (Ong and Paramsivam, 1989). Another way is by gripping specimen with ared ends in a rigid frame (Paillere et al., 1989). Linear specimen that is anchored at both ends was also used in literature (Banthia et al., 1993). In these tests shrinkage stress can be measured. The idea of uniaxial restrained beam test has been originally developed in German (Cracking frame) back in 1960s for thermal stress measurement. A concrete specimen is connected to a restraining steel frame by increasing the cross section at both ends in steel crossheads. The restraining force was calculated by using strain gages xed to the surrounding steel frame. The cracking frame provides high but unknown degree of restraint. The frame was improved to provide 100% restraint by controlling the movement ofthe crossheads in 1980s. The new frame has been called "Temperature-Stress Testing Machine. Frill restraint is achieved by computer controlled step motor which moves one of the crossheads in order to compensate for any length change of the specimen. Details ofthese thermal test devices are described in Springenschrnid et al. (1995). Many researchers have exploited the idea of a test frame with adjustable crossheads and used it for early age restrained shrinkage. For example, Bloom and Bentur (1994) have developed a uniaxial restrained shrinkage test. The system allows testing of concrete at early age using a specimen laid in a horizontal position and gripped at both ends. One of the grips is xed and the other is movable. The movement of the free grip is monitored by a displacement gage and periodically recovered by applying tensile load to the specimen. Thus, stresses imder fully restrained conditions can be measured. Kovler (1994) has developed similar system with a closed-loop computer control. Twin specimens are used; one is restrained and the other is free to shrink. A variety ofmechanical properties can be obtained, and more important is that, comparison of results from the two specimens allows for quantication of creep as a relaxation mechanism. This method has the merit of measuring creep strain in addition to shrinkage strains and stresses.
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Another experimental technique to assess the cracking potential of cement-base materials when used as a bonded overlay was developed by Banthia et al (1996). The system provides resuaining to shrinkage at the base ofthe specimen by natural bonding to a rough pre-cast concrete substrate. This system provides a more realistic restraint to bonded overlays. Although crack assessment is possible with this test, it does not provide any quantitative data about shrinkage stresses. The above discussion described a variety oftesting systems that allow the measurement of stresses and assessment ofthe potential for cracking at early age. In such restraining laboratory tests the overall behavior ofthe concrete can only be investigated. They are suitable tools to optimize the concrete mix as to a high cracking resistance. The experimental data can also be as valuable information for checking theoretical models. Thus the models may be calibrated for concrete qualities, cement type, admixtures etc.
2.4 Mechanical Properties

The accuracy of stress analysis of restrained shrinkage depends primarily on how
the required mechanical properties are described. The key mechanical properties required
for the stress analysis at early age are modulus of elasticity, tensile strength and the viscoelastic behavior ofthe material. These properties are rapidly changing at early age especially when the concrete changes from a liquid state to a solid state. Therefore, the development of these properties is extremely important at early age. For instance, the Emodulus reaches measurable values around the time of setting and any length change in the concrete afterward becomes stress inducing if the movement is restraint. Bjrpntegaard (1999) has shown that stresses start to develop as early as 7 hours for restrained concrete with w/c-ratio of 0.4. Laube (1990) foimd that for concrete with w/c-ratio of 0.58, the degree ofhydration was around 20 % when the concrete started to achieve mechanical properties (typically arormd 8-10 hours). He formd that the E-modulus develops relatively fast compared to the tensile strength which illustrates the crack sensitivity of yormg
concrete-an early build-up of stresses is possible with a low capacity to withstand them.
Figure 2-1 depicted the relationship between mechanical properties and degree ofhydration as reported in Gutsch and Rostasy (1995). It has been shown that the concrete has the lowest tensile strain capacity in these early hours (Kasai et al., 1974).
17
Early age tensile strength has not been examined to the same extent as the compressive strength. Several investigations report test results and theoretical models for the tensile strength e.g. Kasai (1974) and Khan et al. (1996). It has been seen for many of the tests that the tensile strength at early age tends to grow faster than the compressive strength. As uniaxial tensile tests are complicated to carry out, other methods are used to determine the tensile strength by relating it to the splitting, exural and compressive strengths. Several models are available in literature and good survey for these models are available in RILEM (1998). However, a high scatter between these relations has been observed and one must be therefore careful when using formulas for tensile strength gain fotuid in literature and codes. The expression must be calibrated to actual concrete mixtures
RILEM (1998).
A number of test results compiled by Byfors (1980) has shown that the E-modulus of young concrete grows more rapidly than the compressive strength. It has also shown that the stress-strain relation at early ages marks nonlinear shape even at low stress levels. Further, it has shown that the E-modulus determined at lower rate of loading is lower than the E-modulus determined by means of dynamic testing due to creep phenomenon in the tests, an effect which probably is very strong at early ages. Many expressions relating the E-modulus to compressive strength is available in literature, (e.g. the AC1-318-89
expression, E, = 4730,/I which has also shown by Oluoktm et al. (1991) to be

satisfactory for yoimg concrete). Good survey of some ofthe expressions is given in RILEM (1998). A multiphase model for concrete has also been developed to describe the stiiess fonnation of concrete and has been veried against tests (Paulini and Gratl, 1995). The most important parameter in the early age stress analysis and crack tendency evaluation is the viscoelastic behavior. The validity and reliability of such analysis depends mainly on how well the viscoelastic model used describes the real behavior of the young concrete. In engineering practices, creep is mainly used to denote the time dependent deformation under load. It relaxes part ofthe stress induced and hence inuences the time
and tendency for cracking. Viscoelastic behavior for young and hardened concrete will be discussed in the next section. However, the rapid change in concrete properties at early age
and the uncertainty ofthe existing expression that describes these properties, require actual
18
stress measurement of restrained concrete to calibrate the various models available in literature. The experimental part ofthis study attempts to provide some data for this matter.
2.5 Creep of Concrete at Early Age 2.5.1 General Denitions

Creep is generally dened as the total strain in a loaded specimen minus the initial elastic strain and the shrinkage in an unloaded companion specimen subjected to a similar environment. This denition assumes that creep and shrinkage are phenomena which do not interact, and hence the total strain can be obtained by summing the elastic, the creep, and shrinkage strains (shrinkage and creep are additive). Although, this assumption has been generally accepted, some researchers have found it to underestimate the total strain (see Bazant, 1988). In the literature, creep is commonly divided into two components: basic creep and drying creep (see Neville, 1996). Basic creep is dened as the creep tmder conditions when concrete is loaded in sealed condition (no moisture exchange with the environment). Drying creep (which is sometimes also referred to as Pickett eect) is the additional creep in excess of basic creep when concrete is allowed to dry while under load. Accordingly, the total creep is the sum of the basic creep and drying creep, although this distinction is not always made. Total creep is assumed in the compliance rnction. Figure 2-2 shows schematically the terms and denitions involved. Only small proportion of creep strain is reversible upon unloading of concrete. This creep recovery depends strongly on load duration, temperature, and relative humidity (Mindess and Young, 1981).
2.5.2 Availability of Experimental Data

Extensive research has been conducted to study the phenomena of creep in hardened concrete. These investigations have been summarized by Neville et al. (1983), Bazant and Wittrnann (1982), ACI committee 209 (1992), and Bazant (1988). However, when conning the scope to behavior at early ages (< 5 days after casting) and in
particular, at very early ages (< 1-2 days after casting), available experimental data and
theoretical approaches become more scarce because ofthe complexity ofthe material at early age. The scatter in reported creep test data for earlier ages is considerable (see RILEM, 1998). It appears that testing and modeling creep in very yotmg concrete is 19
dicult and only few attempts are found in literature. Mitchell et al. (1998) reported compressive creep data for yormg concrete. Normal and high strength concrete were considered and the results of compressive creep for high strength concrete have indicated sensitivity to age at loading in the same way as the normal concrete. At the RILEM Conference (1994) on thermal cracking in concrete at early ages, several authors presented test results and models for viscoelastic behavior of young concrete. For example, Umehara and Uehara (1995) demonstrated the inuence oftemperature on creep of young concrete, the higher the temperature the higher the compressive creep. Westrnan (1995) reported and modeled compressive creep of young normal concrete (w/c= 0.4) and high performance concrete (w/c= 0.3) with silica fume. The age at loading ranges from 13 hrs to 7 days. I-lis results indicated high creep disposition at early age for high strength concrete which, however, rapidly turns into a stiffer response. His results indicated almost no change in response at age of loading beyond 48 hours for the two concrete mixes considered. Morimoto and Koyanagi (1995) have shown compressive and tensile relaxation data of young concrete (w/c= 0.5 and 0.59). Their results demonstrated the inuence of age at
loading and the initial level of stress on relaxation capacity and time. The results also
indicated that the tensile relaxation is smaller and terminates in a shorter time than the compressive relaxation. Shutter and Taerwe (1997) have generated compressive creep data for a concrete mix with w/c-ratio of 0.5 at dierent ages of loading (12 hr, 13hr, l6.5hr, lday, 2days, 3 days, 7days and 14 days) at stress/strength ratio of 20 % and 40%. Their experimental results indicated that the very early age creep strain at the stress level of 40% is markedly higher than the creep strain at 20% which demonstrates the high nonlinearity of creep at early age.
2.5.3 Creep Mechanisms

The mechanism of creep is of utmost important in arriving at an understanding of the creep phenomena. Several theories have been proposed over the years to explain the creep mechanism, but non of these theories has adequately explained all the observed information regarding creep of concrete. On phenomenological basis, several broad mechanisms can be distinguished. Of these the prevalent theories are viscous ow theory, plastic ow theory, and seepage of gel water. These theories are summarized in a book by
20
Neville et al. (1983). It is important however, to
between real and apparent
mechanisms of creep. Real mechanisms are associated with the hydrated cement paste and can be considered to be material properties. Apparent mechanisms are caused by other factors (e.g. microcracking), which modify the anticipated strain. Only real mechanisms will be discussed here and apparent mechanism will be discussed later in section 2.6. Viscous ow theories postulate that creep occurs within the hydrated cement paste Under sustained load, the cement paste undergoes viscous ow causing creep. Plastic theories suggest that the creep of concrete may be in the nature of crystalline ow, i.e., a result of slippage along planes within the crystal lattice. Seepage of gel water theory postulates that hydrated cement paste is a rigid gel. In such gels, application of load causes expulsion ofthe viscous components from the voids in the elastic skeleton. Thus creep occurs due to seepage of gel water under pressure. Since no one ofthe previous mechanisms can account for all the observed phenomena, several hypotheses that ascribe creep to more than one mechanism have been proposed. According to AC1 Committee 209, the main mechanisms that describe creep are
1) Viscous ow of the cement paste caused by sliding or shear of the gel particles
lubricated by layers of adsorbed water; 2) Consolidation due to seepage in the form of adsorbed water or the decomposition of interlayer hydrate water; 3) Delayed elasticity due to the cement paste acting as a restraint on the elastic deformation ofthe skeleton formed by the aggregate and gel crystals; 4) Permanent deformation caused by microcracking as well as recrystalization and formation of new physical bonds. It is generally agreed that viscous ow and seepage contribute to the bulk of creep (ACI209). The main disagreement revolves arotmd the role ofwater in the cement paste. This can be better understood by considering the structure of C-S-H. Several models for the CS-H microsuucture have been proposed in literature of which the three most prominent models are: a) the Powers-Brunauer model, b) the Feldman-Sereda model, and c) the Munich model. These models are described in Mindess and Young (1981) and briey discussed herein. Schematic representation ofthese models is shown in Figure 2-3. In the Powers-Bmnauer model, C-S-H consists of colloidal particles with short- range order over
21
a few layers; not enough to consider the material crystalline. The C-S-H is made of random arrangement ofthese particles bonded together by surface forces and occasional ioniccovalent bonds that links the adjacent particles. The evaporable water held between the sheets is lost irreversibly only at low relative humidity (see Yotmg et al., 1988). Feldman and Sereda envision the structure of C-S-H as a completely irregular array of single layers which may come together randomly to create interlayer space. In contrast to Powers and Brunauer. they consider that water can move reversibly in and out ofthe interlayer space. The interlayer regions also vary randomly in thiclcness. Bonding between layers is through solid-solid contacts formed during drying and disrupted on wetting as per Mindess and Young (1981). In the Munich model, the C-S-H structure is a three dimensional network of colloidal size particles. The binding energy between adjacent particles is dominated by interfacial energies. The inuence of adsorbed water on the surface free energy is important and plays a role on expansion /contraction upon wetting/drying. In light ofthese models several hypothesis that relate creep with the microstructure of hardened cement paste have been suggested. Of these the prevalent creep hypothesis are seepage theory, interlayer theory, and thermally activated creep. However, no single hypothesis can fully explain the property of creep. A good review ofthese hypothesis are presented by Hansen and Young (1991). Reversible and irreversible mechanisms of creep are discussed.
Reversible Creep Mechanisms a) Powers Model- Seepage Theory: The basic assumption is that only water in micropores (adsorbed water) within the C-S-H layers is load bearing. When extemal stress is applied, the intemal stress on the water in micropores is increased beyond the existing disjoining pressure. Consequently, the thickness of the adsorbed lm of water is changed to maintain equihbrium and water diffuses from the micropores to the capillary pores. This process is associated with reduction in the interlayer spacing that leads to bulk reduction in volume (creep). This theory view creep as a result of water diffusion under stress from the micropores to the larger, capillary pores. b) Feldman-Sereda Model- Interlayer Theory: They postulated that, in contrast to the seepage concept of adsorbed water, the main mechanism of creep involves a structural change at the entrances to the interlayer spaces. Under compressive stress, specic regions
22
ofthe entrances to the interlayer surface contact or separate to form new interlayer spaces. Only water in the limited regions ofthe interlayer entances is inuenced by stess. The interlayer water is perceived to be part of C-S-H and is not inuenced by stress. "llre theory view creep as a result of deformation and ordering ofthe assembly of C-S-H particles. c) Munich Model-Thermal Activation Approach: The basic assumption -of this hypothesis is that time dependent strains are the result ofthermally activated processes that can be described by the rate process theory. Creep stains will originate through deformation of a microvolume ofpaste, designated as creep center. Extemal stress and/or temperature provide exta energy to the material and consequently, the creep center deforms to attain a lower state of energy. The energy provided must overcome the energy barrier of the creep center for the deformation to occur. This method applies to reversible and irreversible creep, and it is the only model that has been dened in mathematical terms. The creep stain is given by empirical equation ac = act exp(5) sinh(i)
V
RT
RT
2.3
Where, ac is the total creep stain, r is the load duration, E, is the apparent activation energy ofthe creep centers, Va is activation volume, av is the number of creep centers at the time of loading, R is the gas constant, Tis the absolute temperature, and n is a modeling
constant.
Irreversible Mechanisms: various processes have been proposed to explain the irreversibility of creep strain. Powers related the irreversibility of creep to the formation of new bonds when the gel particles come into close proximity for the rst time. According to Feldman and Sereda, irreversible creep is due to gradual redistribution ofwater which results in a densication and ordering of C-S-H with a net increase in the layer volume. The net result is a more stable C-S-H structure. In addition, they proposed other processes of shear slippage, microcracking, breaking of and re-forming ofbonds to explain the
irreversible creep. The Munich model ofthermally activated creep has irreversibility included through deformation of creep centers. Creep centers are viewed as areas of slip
between adjacent particles. Aging of the paste decreases the potential number of creep centers and the activation volume. The activation energy increases with time and hence, it
23
reduces the creep rate. Benture et al. (1978) related irreversible creep to silicate polymerization ofthe C-S-H. The above mechanisms for creep have been inspired and proposed for matured concrete. Yormg concrete however may include di'erent and/or additional mechanisms. For example, Tanabe and Ishikawa (1993) have foimd strong effect of pore water pressure on the creep behavior ofyoung concrete. Their model considers the e'ect of pore water migration on the creep and relaxation behavior of yormg concrete which seems to be a stong factor. At this point, however, more works are needed on concrete at early age to develop SOl1I1(l. understanding of the creep behavior.
2.5.4 Review of Analytical Models

Two terms are oen used to model the creep behavior of concrete: creep coefcient and creep compliance. The creep coefcient implies that the deformation at time t induced by a loading at time r is subdivided into two parts: the instantaneous deformation (elastic) and the creep. The total deformation can be written as
60') s(r, r) = [1 + (r,r . )]

E(z )
where o"(t') is the stess applied at time t ; E(t') is the modulus of elasticity at time 1" : (t,t) is the creep coecient at t for a loading at t .
2.4
In contrast to creep coecient, the creep compliance J(t,t') combines the elastic and the creep deformation into one function. The total time dependent stain is expressed as
e(r,r) = ./(r,r)o-(r')
which the vast majority was originally formulated for hardened concrete. Some ofthese models are adopted by the contemporary codes such as ACI-209 (1992) and CEB/FIP
2.5
Several models have been formulated for the creep coeicient of concrete at early age of
MC90 (1991). A good survey for the early age models is available in RILEM (1998). For
example the AC1 model predict creep coecient from the following expression
<m=%,-..<o 10+(r-r)
46,, (t,t') = 2.35k,'kkkkkk;
(t _ I 0.6
2.6
2.7
24
where kl -> k; are coecient to coimt for the eect of age and concrete mixture. The CEB/FIP MC90 predict creep coefcient by the following expression
(r.r')=..(r-r)
,8, (r t) is the development of creep with time after loading. The eect of humidity, concrete mixture, and temperature can be modeled. The earliest age at which this
2-8
where a is notional creep that include the e'ect of age and shrinkage (see the code) and
expression could be applied is 12 hours. A primary question remains however regarding the accuracy of these models at early age and only limited investigations available in literature to verify the applicability ofthese models at early age. For example, Guenot et al. (1996) have shown that the creep coefcient by CEB/FIP MC90 gives quite good results when compared to their early age data on concrete with w/c-ratio of 0.5, and high performance concrete with w/c-ratio of 0.3. Similar conclusion was reached by Mitchell et al. (1998) for normal and medium stength concrete but not for high stength concrete (w/c=0.3) for which the CEB/FIP MC90 model fotmd to be underestimating the creep at very early age. For the creep compliance, perhaps the most well known compliance rnction for hardened concrete is the Double-Power Law by Bazant and Panula (1978) and its extension to the Triple Power Law (Bazant and Chem, 1985a) in which the long time creep is better described. However these laws are not valid for basic creep at very early ages. Emborg (1989) has modied the Triple Power Law to predict creep at very early age by adding two additional functions G(t) and H(t,t') of exponential type and the expression becomes
J(r,r') = El#1?-(r'""' +a)[(t - r') - B(r,r',n)]+%_'l +%")

Where E0 , go, , m, oz and n are material parameters. G(t') models the stong agedependence of the instantaneous deformation (load duration 1.4 minutes) and
2.9
H(r,t') models the increase of early age creep when the load has been applied (see Figure 2-4). Westrnan (1995) has used the extended Triple Power Law (with modied early age functions for high stength concrete, see the reference) for early age basic creep and good agreement with test results for high stength concrete (w/c = 0.3) was achieved. Another method to model the creep is to convert the response of the material into dierential forms of equations which can be described by rheological models (see Bazant
25
and Wittrnann, 1982). This approach simplies the numerical computation and better allows the modeling of creep nonlinearity. It is also called rate-type creep method. Some of the researchers who presented experimental results and models for early age creep at RILEM Conference on thermal craclcing at early age in 1994 have used this method in the analysis. New approach that starts rom the microstuctural development of the concrete was used to model creep of young concrete (e.g. Lokhorst and van Breugel, 1995). According to this approach the degree ofhydration proves to be a very fundamental parameter. In the literature, a degree of hydration based creep formulation was developed by Rostasy et al. (1993), yielding the following specic creep rnction .
, r-t PMT) C(tt,ro)=P,(ro) T

I:
2.10
Where I, = lhour and 1-, (re ) and P, (re) are parameters depending on the degree of hydration r, at the time t . Good agreement with tensile creep data of concrete mix with w/c-ratio of 0.65 has been demonstrated at high r, values (>0.52). However, at low ra it seems that the model results in poor prediction of creep as demonstated by Shutter and Taerwe (1997). The latter view the poor prediction at low ro as to the fact that Equation 2.10 provides a linear creep formulation, whereas the very early age creep behavior denitely is nonlinear. Shutter and Taerwe (1997) generated early age compressive creep data for a concrete mix with w/c-ratio of 0.5 at diererit ages of loading (12 hr-7days) at stress/strength ratio of 20 % and 40%. (Their experimental results demonstated the high nonlinearity of creep at early age, and then'they developed a new nonlinear basic creep model for early age concrete in compression based on degree of hydration re and stress level aas fundamental parameters. The expression for the specic creep has the following form I 0.35
C(t t',r,,a) = yo (ra,a)(-it] ,u,(r,)+t t
2.11
This model has demonstated the ftmdamental inuence o_fthe degree ofhydration. The end value ofthe creep as wellas the creep evolutionhas formd_to be inuenced by the
.26
degree ofhydration at time ofloading. Although the model t their results, the validity of the proposed model still has to be checked. The above discussion indicated the current movement ofthe research commtmity toward understanding and modeling early age creep behavior. However, the vast majority of research in area has been focussing on early age creep of concrete in compression though tensile creep is equally important for accurate stess analysis and crack prediction. Nevertheless, the next section is devoted to discuss literature available on tensile creep behavior.
2.5.5 Tensile Creep at Early Age

As mentioned earlier the vast majority ofpast work on the creep of concrete has been concemed with compression creep behavior. Creep in tension however, is of great importance when potential for cracking is to be determined. It is important in estimating the possibility of cracking due to shrinkage and thermal stresses at early age. It is also important in calculation of tensile stresses in prestressed concrete and in the design of
water-retaining stucture. Although the importance of tensile creep has been rlly realized
for long time, tests on tensile creep ofhardened concrete that are available in the literature are very limited and the studies becomes more scarce when conning the scope to early
age.
Most of the work on tensile creep of manned hardened concrete emphasizes the comparison with the behavior under compression, either in terms of magnitude and rate, or in terms ofthe mechanisms involved (Brooks and Neville, 1977, Domone, 1974, Ward and Cook 1969, and lllston, 1965). For example Brooks and Neville (1977) reported test results for tensile and compressive creep of concrete with w/c-ratio of 0.5 at ages of loading of 28 and 56 days. Their results indicated similar initial rate of basic creep in tension and in compression, but in contrast to compression case, the rate ofbasic tensile creep does not decrease with time. On the contary, the rate of creep under drying at 60 % RH was found to be higher in tension than in compression. They noticed also that the basic creep in tension is not appreciably reduced as in compression when age at loading is increased. The basic tensile creep in their study was found to be irrecoverable when tmloading was imposed at the age of 56 days, whereas a recovery of 40 % in compressive creep was
27
observed. Another reported study in literature is by Illston (1965) in which, the inuence of stess level, age at loading, and humidity ofthe environment on tensile and compressive creep were investigated for a concrete with w/c-ratio of 0.4. His results indicated similarities and differences between tensile and compressive creep. The tensile creep is similar to compressive creep in some aspects such as proportionality to stess level rmtil 50 % and the reduction in creep rate as age ofthe concrete is increased. It difers 'om compressive creep in that, the initial rate of creep is higher in tension than in compression, and the inuence of drying at 65 % RH on tensile creep is not signicant as in compression. The existing studies on matured tensile creep are not only limited but also the results are conicting. The following remarks are illustating the scarcity and conicts of existing results. 9 Some researchers have found equal total creep in compression and tension at the same stess level (see Neville et al., 1983). However, Hlston ( 1965) and Brooks and Neville (1977) have found higher initial rate of creep in tension than in compression.
The inuence of age at application of load appears to be similar in compression and

tension as found by Illston (1965). Brooks and Neville (1977) on the contary observed insignicant reduction in basic tensile creep with the increase in age at loading as compared to compression.
Tests by Illston (1965) suggested that the presence or absence of drying at 65% RH has practically no inuence on the magnitude of creep in tension. This is not the case in tests reported by Ruetz (1968) and tests by Brooks and Neville (1977), which indicated increase in tensile creep under simultaneous drying. Domone (1974) also found that tensile creep increases for both gain and loss of moisture.
The inuence of mix proportions on creep in tension is similar to that on creep in compression. However, absorption of water is likely more inuential on creep in tension. Tests by Ward and Cook (1969) indicated for example rapid acceleration of creep rate upon re-saturation under loading. Brooks and Neville (1977) ndings reveals that the total creep in tension of already dried samples is less than the total creep in compression.
28
Microcracking has an important role in creep in tension. The time dependent microcracking creep at high stess/stength level may lead to failure. Al-kubaisy and Yormg (1975) have demonstated the existence of a fracture limit envelope beyond which tertiary creep and time dependent failure is induced. Microcracking eect is not only signicant at high stess/stength-ratio but also at low stress/stength-ratio as suggested by Ward and
Cook (1969).
When conning the scope to early age concrete only very few studies on tensile creep are detected in literature. These studies are even limited in scope and intended to either emphasize the effect of mix parameters on tensile creep (e.g. Bissonnette and Pigeon, (1995), Kovler et al. (1999)) or to explain and model the drying creep in tension (Kovler, 1995,1999). For example Bissonnette and Pigeon (1995) have shown that the w/c ratio and age at loading are signicant parameters for tensile creep. They have demonstated this by tensile creep tests on microconcrete (max. agg. Size of 10mm) with w/c-ratio of 0.35 and 0.55. Prismatic samples (50x50mm in cross section) were loaded by constant stess at ages of 2 days and 8 days and measurement of creep and shrinkage were taken for 45 days in
environmental condition of23 C and 50 % RH. Their results indicated higher specic
creep when w/c-ratio increases. However, this is based on the assumption that creep is proportional to stess regardless of w/c-ratio which may not be true for comparison at early age particularly when normal and high strength concrete are to be compared. They xed the stress in the test but not the stess/strength ratio. Kovler et al. (1999) reported the inuence of silica fume on early age tensile creep of high stength concrete, and microconcrete (max agg. size of 7 mm) with w/c-ratio of 0.33 was only tested. Their tests included only sealed samples (40x 40 mm in x-section) loaded at the age of 1 day. The results showed that the tensile creep of silica fume concrete is greater than of a plain concrete with similar w/b-ratio. In RILEM Conference on Thermal Cracking at Early Age in 1994, only two papers on early age tensile creep were presented. One demonstrated the inuence of temperature on early age tensile creep (Umehara and Uehara, 1995) and the other reported the inuence of stess/stength- ratio on tensile creep at early age (Gutsch and Rostasy, 1995). The later showed that the initial stess/stength-ratio does not exert a very signicant inuence on tensile creep at early age. In addition to that, no creep failure occurred during a period of 168 hours for samples loaded at age of 24 hours even rmder
29
stess/strength of 0.9. This contradicts the existence of fracture limit (0.6-0.8) observed by Al-kubaisy and Young (1975) for hardened concrete. Kovler (1995) presented a phenomenological approach describing the drying creep in tension as a sum of shrinkageinduced creep and creep-induced shrinkage. However, interpretation ofthe experimental data that inspired the model has been changed and revised in Kovler (1999) which negates the applicability ofthe proposed model. He pointed out that the mechanisms of drying compressive creep might not be valid for tension. The drying creep will be discussed in the next section. The above discussion reveals the scarcity of comprehensive data on tensile creep at early age. Apparently there is a need for more work on tensile creep ofconcrete in general and in particular at early age. This research intended to investigate some of the issues pertaining to tensile creep behavior at early age.
2.6 Creep of Concrete under Drying

At simultaneous drying, the deformation of a concrete specimen under sustained load is larger than the sum of the drying shrinkage deformation ofthe specimen at no load and ofthe deformation of the specimen that does not dry (i.e. sealed). The excess deformation is called Pickett e'ect (Pickett, 1942) after the man who rst clearly documented it. LHermite (1959) suggested an empirical linear relation between creep and shrinkage in which the drying creep is considered functions of both basic creep and free shrinkage. Gamble and Parrot (1978) used similar approach in which the drying creep is dependent on basic creep and free shrinkage and they suggested empirical formulas for drying creep. Bazant and Pannula (1978) proposed a model for estimating total creep, which includes empirical formula for drying creep as a rnction of drying shrinkage and mix properties. Thus, all the main known formulas for predicting time-dependent deformation of drying concrete under compressive loading link drying creep with free shrinkage and some ofthem with basic creep. Apparently, drying creep is dependent on both ee shrinkage and basic creep in a complex manner. The interpretation ofthe excess deformation and its mechanisms is still a matter of major controversy among researchers. Two major views exist in the literature regarding the Pickett eect. One is saying that the excess deformation is basically due to the division of
30
total deformation of loaded drying sample into creep and shrinkage components, where in fact, only the total deformation is a well dened quantity. The total deformation does not depend on the internal state of stess and extemal load separately but only on the composite state of stress. Supporters of this view tied to explain the excess deformation by apparent mechanisms related to shrinkage-induced stresses and associated cracldng (e.g. Wittnann and Roelfsta, 1980, and Wittnann, 1993). The second view considers a real mechanism related to material property to explain the excess deformation. This real mechanism of excess deformation has been shown by experiments (Bazant and Xi, 1994, and Reid, 1993). In this regard researchers are divided also into two groups. One group considers the rate of creep to increase as a consequence of drying process (see Bazant, 1988 for list) and in this context generally the term drying creep is used. Another group maintains that creep is unaffected by drying, but the shrinkage is altered rmder load. The shrinkage will be increased under compressive load as noticed by Wittmann and Roelfsta (1980) and far decreased under tensile loads as shown by Wittrnann (1993). In this regard, the term stressinduced shrinkage is used in the literature (e.g. Bazant and Chem, 1985). It has been admitted that neither of the views can alone explain the excess deformation. Meanwhile, a combination of the two views is more acceptable in the research commrmity (Bazant, 1988). Drying creep is now admitted to be the sum of at least two components; an intrinsic drying creep with its own mechanisms and a stuctural drying creep resulting from micro-cracking eect due to the non-uniformity of the free drying shrinkage in the concrete specimen. Accordingly, it now appears that there are two major mechanisms causing the Pickett effect: microcracking and stess-induced shrinkage. Microcracking eect was used by many models to explain the Pickett eect (e.g. Pickett, 1942, and Wittnann and Roelfsta, 1980). The explanation is based on the skin cracking occurred due to nonunifonnity of moisture distibution in a drying specimen. The surface layer ofthe specimen shrinks more than the inner layers at the initial stage of drying. As a result, the surface layer is in tension while the inner layer is in compression.
The tensile stess causes microcracking in the surface layer. Due to the nonlinear inelastic behavior and irrecoverable creep of concrete caused by the tensile stess, the microcracks
cannot fully close when the moisture distibution nally approaches a uniform state. As a result, the measured shrinkage ofthe unrestained specimen is always smaller than the true
31
shrinkage. For drying creep specimen, ifthe whole cross section is in compression, there can be no microcracking eect. Therefore a larger shrinkage will occur in the compressed specimen than in the ee shrinkage specimen which may falsely appear as creep in the traditional denition of creep. Wittnann and Reolfstam (1980) have shown higher shrinkage in specimens loaded in compression than that for the ee of load specimens. The increase in shrinkage stain is proportional to the compressive stess as it minimizes the microcracking to different extents. This led Wittnann to suggest that tensile cracking might perhaps explain all of the excess deformation at drying. The stess-induced shrinkage has a dierent explanation, which is as follows: two moisture-diirsion processes can exist: macrodiirsion and microdiffusion. The macrodiffusion consists of water transport through large pores and has no measurable eect on deformation. The microdiffusion transports water locally between the capillary pores (macropores) and gel pores (micropores), and because it occurs in far smaller pores of molecular size, it affects the deformation rate of the solid amework ofthe cement gel. The movement of water through the gel pores, which are only a few molecules in size, promotes the breakage of bonds that are the source of creep, and thus intensies creep. This mechanism was used by Bazant and Chem (1985, 1987). However, the contribution of each mechanism is not yet agreed upon and remains to be a matter for further research. There was no experimental data in literature that clearly distinguishes between the dierent mechanisms of drying creep until the study of Bazant and Xi was published in 1994. The basic idea was to compare the curvature creep of beams subjected to the same bending moment but very dierent axial forces. The authors found that drying creep has two different sources: microcracking and stress-induced shrinkage. The later was found to increase continuously whereas the former, rst increase and then decrease. The basic principle ofthe experiment limited its applicability to compression. However, for tensile creep, there are no available experimental data on the dierent mechanisms of drying. The explanation for the drying creep mechanisms and the suggested empirical formulas for its quanti.cation were all based on compressive creep results. For tensile creep there is almost no experimental data on the various mechanisms. Furthermore, the mechanisms discussed above may not be valid in tension. For example, the role of microcracking becomes ambiguous in tension, because the tensile load intensies
32
microcracking and will lead to smaller shrinkage than in the ee of load specimen as found by Wittnann (1993). Kovler (1995 , 1999) questioned the role of microcracking and stressinduced shrinkage as mechanisms to explain the drying creep in tension. This research intended to clarify some ofthese matters.
2.7 Effect of Fiber Reinforcement on Creep and Shrinkage

Studies on creep and shrinkage of ber reinforced concrete (FRC) are limited in literature. Balaguru and Shah (1992) summarized some of these studies. The addition of steel ber to concrete seems in general to reduce the shrinkage of concrete to a limited extent. However, the extent of reduction is still debatable. For example, Grzybowski and Shah (1990) have shown that the addition of one percent by volume of steel bers does not substantially reduce the drying shrinkage. On the other hand, Swamy and Stavrides (1979) have reported 15-20 % reduction in shrinkage when 1% (by volume) of steel ber is added. Magnat and Azari (1988) have also reported signicant reduction of shrinkage due to addition of steel bers up to 3 % by volume. On the contary, Edgington er al. (1974) have
reported that the shrinkage of concrete is tmaected by the presence of steel bers.
The e'ect of size and age on shrinkage of ber concrete is similar to that on plain concrete as shown by Chem and Young (1989). Their study also indicated that the reduction in shrinkage is increased with the increase of ber volume action up to a certain percentage beyond which no more reduction is attained. It seems that shrinkage reduction is optimal when volume fraction of steel bers is arotmd 2%. The restaining effect becomes more e'ective at later ages, and is increased as ber aspect ratio is increased. Accordingly, the eect of ber on shrinkage at early age may be negligible, although it is not conclusive at this point. Only very limited studies are available on creep of ber reinforced concrete. The available studies showed conicting results on the eect of ber on creep. The general tend based on matured samples, is to increase compressive creep when ber volume action is less than 1 % (Balaguru and Shah, 1992). Tensile creep of FRC is almost neglected in the literature and no conclusive remarks can be made today. As a consequence, researchers have been using formulas derived for plain concrete in compression, to analyze tensile problems of ber concrete. For example, several models
33
have been formulated in the literature to predict shrinkage craclcing of ber concrete (e g Grzybowsld and Shah, 1989, and Yang et al., 1996). These models utilized creep formulas derived for plain concrete in compression due to the lack of creep data / models for ber concrete in tension. This studyis also intended to provide some data on early age tensile creep and shrinkage of ber concretei , H, . D
1 I I
I
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , > . . - - - - ~ . . . , . . . > - . . . . . o . A . < 4 i . . - . . . . . .., . . . . . . . . ..u
Ll.l
LL.
_....
-.
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CI
o 0 .
.'
~ . .._
<
"a
_
Q
'.
F
ct,
I
Fm
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_........................................ .., ..................... ..

I I I
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-
I ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . ..,. . . . . . . . . 1 I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , . . .._ -
0
v
,
-
__
-Y
l
: '
I
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Degree of Hydration, or
Figure 2-1 Normalized tensile stength, compressive stength, and modulus of elasticity vs degree of hydration (Gutsch and Rostasy, 1995)
34
Stm n to Time
Shrinkage from to
cl) Shrinkage or an Unloaded Specimen Creep on Basis Definition
@ or Additive
o Specimen
True Elastic Strain
SlJ'OlI\
Time
Shrinkage ol
an Unloaded
Stra n
Nominal Elastic
to
bl Change in Strain ol Loaded and
Drying Specimen
@ Creep
Stra n Nominal EKISUC
Strcm
Time
Drying Creep BOSIC Creep Shrinkage
c) Creep ol a Loaded Specimen In Hygrol Equilibrium with the Ambient Medium
Stro n
NO1Il'10l Elastic Strain Time
d) Change in Strain ol a Loaded and DlylQ Specimen
Figure 2-2 Time dependent deformations in concrete subjected to sustain load (Neville, 1996)
35
O O 0
6 og
Q O
1*
0 0
I
0 . 0 -v1,"5O9,, 'o0* o
O$0,. ,4
Q 4
. _
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\I .
O 0,_,_1~ * _ O 0 oggqg + O
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~
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' *0 r 00
10 k F L
'
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,_, 0 ~~ . . v ,_ 090 I 9 . _ + - - - O 0o . 0 + O - O 0 - go " 0 E, O o o o O0 O C 0 oo o .1

i, 9000090 O
'_
o O 01- 00, Q0 O 0 -0 4; ffO

Off
ool ooo 0 Q 0 oooooiq0q

lbl
o0oO
*" 00
~%?,i~
0
:8 =9
0 000000 00 . 000 -\ Q\: - ;\ \ \000'.kiaqooooo \ ,0
\\\ _ /*<"- \ ~-\ \ \ \ >"2*

09
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oz
O
///! @ lo
Q00 O O O O
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C Cloilluy new
i 7/////,j
C-S-Hslveeu C-S-H cuticle:

(BO dtiiwlltd ilruurel
Figure 2-3 Schematic representation of various models of C-S-H (Mindess and Young, 1981)
mm) A
om>34
In ////
--'.'.'.-_;:_;_:,_
171%
l
l|,_ \\
IGH ) 1?
U
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Figure 2-4 Additional mctions G(t') and H(t,t.) for early age creep response shown schematically (Emborg, 1989, graph taken from RILEM, 1998)
36
CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE AND TEST MATERIALS

3.1 Introduction
This chapter describes two major pans: experimental techniques and materials. The rst part presents particulars ofthe testing system. It provides detailed description ofthe various aspects ofthe experiment, its mechanism, and the analytical aspects of the test technique. The second part presents the material tested in the experiment, mix compositions, and basic tests conducted on concrete and its ingredients. It also details the test matrix, and the plan and dierent phases adopted in the research. In addition, results and experimental observations during the preliminary stage are briey discussed.
3.2 Experimental Technique

The research utilizes a uniaxial restrained shrinkage test to provide basic information needed for characterization of restrained shrinkage, shrinkage stress, tensile creep and its interaction with shrinkage of concrete at early age. A Lmiaxial creep-shrinkage test in which restrained and unrestrained samples can be tested simultaneously was designed primarily for the purpose ofthis research. The test is not a standard or conventional test. Therefore, signicant efforts were made during the design and implementation ofthe system to ensure a reliable experiment. The following sections discuss the various aspects ofthe testing system.
3.2.1 Design Considerations and Requirements

Since this test is not a standard test, details and complexities ofthe system were studied
during this project. In addition to the problems encotmtered in conventional tensile test of concrete such as alignment and end effects, the complexity ofthe system is augmented by the testing of early age concrete, which requires special consideration. Several aspects pertaining to the testing system, material behavior, and age must be carefully considered to design a reliable experimental setup. These aspects can be summarized as follows:
37
Specimen geometry must be chosen such that interference between specimen geometry and material response is For example, stress calculated in a plate~type
specimen is not a pure material property, but depends on specimen size and aspect ratio. A uniaxial test can eliminate geometrical efects on measurements of material properties ifproperly designed to maintain uniform state of stress in the cross section of the specimen. Stable and controllable restraint is required in a restrained shrinkage test. The degree and stability of restraint is extremely important for characterizing restrained shrinkage because it determines the level of generated sness and the subsequent relaxation. In this respect the connection between specimen and restraining source must be adequately designed to maintain a stable restraint while at the same time, avoiding slippage and premature failure due to stress concentration. The loading system must be accurate and sucient to provide a rlly restrained test. It must also provide gentle and smooth application of loads without irregularities to avoid load shocks that may cause premature failure, particularly of the young concrete samples. Size and layout of the testing setup must be adequate to test real concrete and allow the test to start as early as possible. A horizontal layout is preferable to allow for testing a few hours after casting. The system must be able to discriminate creep strain from shrinkage and thermal induced strains. This requirement is the key feature ofthe experiment that enable quantication oftensile creep and its interaction with shrinkage and thermal strain. Restrained and unrestrained samples must therefore be tested. The experiment must also allow measurement of shrinkage loads. High accuracy displacement and load measurement devices are required. These aspects and requirements were compiled into the design of the experiment. Details ofthe setup are presented in the following section.
3 2.2 Uniaxial Creep-Shrinkage Test

The experimental apparatus was developed based on a uniaxial system suggested by Bloom and Bentur (1994) and upgraded by Kovler (1994). It was modied to carry out 38
tests on concrete containing coarse aggregate with a maximum size of 25.4mm. The basic idea ofthis system is to test two identical dog-bone samples; one is restrained where load developed by drying shrinkage is measured, and the other is free to shrink where deformation is measured as shown in Figure 3-1. Each specimen is 1000 mm long and 76.6x76.6 mm in cross-section. The specimen cross section is gradually enlarged at both ends to t into the grips. The grips were designed to provide full restraint and to avoid stress concentration. so that a imiform state of stress could be achieved within the specimen. The two samples were laid horizontally in a controlled environmental chamber. The restrained sample was motmted on a W36 steel I-beam, one end ofthe restrained sample was xed to a reaction block attached to the I-beam and the other end was movable and connected to a hydraulic actuator through a load cell. The system was stif enough to provide a fully restrained test. A general view of the experimental device is shown in Figure 3-2. The longitudinal shrinkage was measured by a linearly variable displacement transducer (LVDT); .'= 2.54 mm AC-AC. Each measurement was an average value of 100 readings per second of the LVDT. Such a procedure permitted very high accuracy and reproducibility of linear displacement measurement of less than : 0.1 um. To avoid inducing premature failure ofthe young concrete specimens, three things were considered in the design ofthis setup. First, the grip at both ends was of special shape, characterized by gradual widening of the intemal section to reduce stress concentrations. Second, swivel-joints were installed at the connection between the grips and both the load cell and the reaction block (xed end) to substitute for possible misalignment of the load. Third, deformation was recovered gently and at a rate of 0.5 um/second to avoid irregular compensation of deformation. Measures to reduce ictional resistance were taken by using a Teon plate with a low coefcient of iction tmderneath the concrete sample in addition to the use of lubricating oil. The measured value of friction force did not exceed 15 N, and was therefore neglected at data analysis. A computer-controlled hydraulic actuator loaded the restrained specimen according to a special program. The load was measured by a load cell, and the test was controlled by a
39
computer via Labview. Various components ofthe experimental device are shown in Figure 3-3 and summarized as follows: 1) The concrete beam (1000 mm long and 762x76.2 mm in cross-section) ared at both ends to t into the grips; 2) The specimen grip characterized by gradual increase of the intemal section to fully t end of specimen and to eliminate stress concentration; 3) A Hydraulic servo-actuator (MTS) with a load capacity of 114 ICN and a stroke of: 76.2 mm. A servo-valve of 10 gpm and nominal pressure of 20 MPa delivered by l0 gpm hydraulic power supply; 4) An [NSTRON 8500 Plus Controller with a GPIB 24-pin standard (IEEE-488) computer interface; 5) A computer (Apple CENTRIS 650) with Labview Software custom-developed for this test. The Hardware is NB-MIO-l6XH-18 A/D Board and NB-GPIBFINT board; 6) A modied Trans-Tek LVDT extensometer (i 2.54mm) instrumented through the
strain channel of INSTRON 8500 Plus. 3.2.3 Mechanism of the Test

The test is characterized by a illy automated closed loop control, a high accuracy of measurements, and a so and smooth loading. The restrained condition is simulated in the test by maintaining the total defonnation ofthe restrained sample within a threshold value of 5 um. This was achieved by applying extemal loads to recover the deformation when exceeded the assigned threshold value. A computer program was written to control the test via Labview and record the measured data. The longitudinal shrinkage was measured by LVDT, each measurement was the average of 100 readings in 1 second. The computer- controlled test checked shrinkage deformation continuously and compared it to the threshold value, which when exceeded, triggered an increase in tensile load by the actuator to recover the shrinkage strain and restore the specimen to its original length. In this way, a restrained condition was achieved and the stress generated by shrinkage mechanism was measurable. The small threshold value was required to capture the gradual evolution of tensile stress and to avoid large, sudden, and irregular compensation of deformation, which may cause premature failure ofthe specimen. Hence, the rst recovery
40
cycle began when the absolute value ofthe total restrained shrinkage exceeded 5 um. Load was then applied to recover the strain elastically and the load was recorded and maintained constant until further compensation deemed necessary. The computer also recorded measurement of shrinkage deformation of the unrestrained sample. Comparison of the ee shrinkage results with the shrinkage ofthe restrained specimen revealed the contribution of creep as a relaxation mechanism and enabled discrimination of creep strain 'om shrinkage strain. The discrimination between creep and shrinkage strain is essential in characterization of material properties for input into models for material response to early age drying. Figure 3-4 shows schematically how creep strain can be calculated 'om the restrained and ee shrinkage test. The ee shrinkage was measured 'om the free shrinkage specimen and the restrained shrinkage was based on the recovery cycles in which the specimen was brought to its original position by the applied tensile load. Each recovery cycle consisted of shrinkage and creep strain recovered by instantaneous elastic strain that was induced by incremental tensile load applied by the actuator. Therefore, the sum of the elastic strain at any time is equal to the combined
shrinkage and creep strains. Knowing the 'ee shrinkage component, the creep strain can be
quantied. A variety of mechanical properties of concrete at early age such as components of strain, shrinkage stress, moduli of elasticity and creep coecient were determined in this experiment. The following section details the analytical aspects ofthe test that allow the measurement of these properties.
3.2.4 Analytical Aspects of the Test

As mentioned in the previous section, the deformation of the restrained sample was maintained close to zero all the time. Consequently, the total concrete strain is close to zero. However, the individual elastic, creep, and shrinkage components of strain have nite values. Equation 3.1 govems the test and explains various components of strain.
80) =8.(r)+8.(r)+8.,.(r) = 0
where 8(t) is the total strain at time t. The elastic strain can be expressed as:
3.1
4I
.52 ac (t ) Em
where E(t) is the elastic (secant) modulus of concrete. The creep strain can be related to elastic strain through creep coefcient by Equation 3.3:
3.2
am=%%mn
where (r) is the creep coefcient, dened as the ratio between the creep and elastic strain. ifthe elastic and creep components of strain are combined, a reduced (eective) modulus can be obtained as in Equation 3.5:
U) U)
an=g%0+uo%*no r
where E,_,,(r) = l%;f()t)-
34
3.5
Since stress in this test is increasing gradually, creep of concrete progresses more slowly
than under a constant stress 0' applied from the beginning of the test (Bazant, 1972). A
reduced creep coefcient r7(r)(r) must be therefore used in Equation 3.5, where r;(r) is aging coefcient and its magnitude generally falls between 0.6 and 0.9 for ordinary hardened concrete and between 0.9 and 1.0 for young concrete (Gilbert, 1988). In this research this coeicient is assumed to be 1.0 since only young concrete is considered. For the restrained test, Equation 3.4 may be written as:
Egg!-) = -55}, (I)

The tangent modulus of concrete can also be calculated in this test as a result of incremental application of load during cycle compensation in which deformation is
3.6
recovered elastically by increasing the load to keep the specimen at zero strain. The tangent modulus E,(r) can be calculated om the following equation:
._m am
The creep coeicient (t) can be calculated as:
5.7
42
"(')(') ' 8.0) ' -..<r>h+ 8.0) 1

from the classical denition in the literature, which is usually dened at a certain age, as the ratio ofcreep strain determined at that age to the elastic strain at the time of load
_ Q2 _
U) _
3'8
It is necessary to emphasize that the creep coefficient dened in Equation 3.8 is different
application. In this research, the elastic strain varies with time and the creep coefcient is dened as the ratio of creep snain to the corresponding elastic strain at the time considered.
3.3 Materials and Concrete Mix Compositions

The research was conducted in two phases; the preliminary phase in which the main focus was to develop a reliable experiment and the nal phase in which the main focus was to characterize the material behavior. Normal concrete (NC) was only used in the preliminary phase, whereas normal and high performance concrete (HPC) were used in the nal phase. Plain and ber reinforced concrete (FRC) mixes were tested for each type of concrete. The mix proportion and parameters are relatively different in each phase. In this
section, type and properties ofthe material used in the experiment along with the
experimental techniques are presented. The concrete mix proportions for the two phases are also presented.
3.3.1 Materials
Materials used are Type I Portland cement (Manufactured by Saylor), crushed limestone aggregate with a maximum size of 25 mm, and natural sand. The gradation of coarse and ne aggregates satised ASTM C33 requirement and the ne aggregate had a neness modulus of 2.2. Silica fume was used in the HPC mix (microsilica controlled density EMS 956 supplied by Elkem Materials Inc.), Superplasticizer (product ofW. R Grace Co.) and tap water. Two types of bers were used in the FRC mix; steel ber 30mm long and 0.4mm in diameter (manufactured by NOVACON) and multiple design polypropylene ber MD (Fibermesh bers).
43
3.3.2 Concrete Mix Proportions Typical normal and high performance concrete mixes were tested. A typical normal
concrete mix for pavement was tested since the main motive driving this study was the application in airport pavement. The concrete mix proportions used in the construction of Roclcford Airport (1993) was used as a control mix design in this study. In the early stage ofthis research (preliminary stage), when the main focus was to develop a reliable experimental setup and procedures, three normal concrete mixes with w/c ratio of 0.48, 0.51, and 0.56 were tested to study the reliability and sensitivity ofthe test. Steel ber with a volume action of 0.6 % was only used in FRC mixes. Mix proportions ofthe concrete tested in this stage are presented in Table 3.1. In the nal stage when the main focus was to characterize the material behavior, I-IPC mix with w/c of 0.32 and two normal concrete mixes with w/c of 0.4 and 0.5 were tested. Steel and polypropylene bers with volume fraction of 0.5 % were used in this stage. For normal concrete, paste volume action was held constant at 35 % throughout the whole experiment. Mix proportions ofthe concrete considered in the nal stage are presented in Table 3.2.
Table 3.1: Concrete mix proportions (preliminary stage) Component Mix # 1 Mix # 2 Mix # 3 925.8
741.8
l
i Coarse Agg. kg/m

i Fine Agg.kg/ms Cement kg/mi =
925.8
741.8 421.4
925.8
741.8 421.4
421.4
_
l
Water kg/mi
Steel Fiber kg/m Paste volume W/C ratio
214.9 46.8 0.349 0.51
71') 7
-.~~a
210.0
46.8 0.349 0.48
I I
46.8 0.349 0.56
44
Table 3.2: Concrete mix proportions (nal stage) HPC- 0.32 PC Coarse Agg.kgm3 974.1 SF 974.1 PC 925.8 NC-0.5 SF 925.8 PP 925.8
741.8 421.4
NC-0.4 PC 925.8
741.8 480
l
PP
925.8
741 .8 1 480 l
SF 925 .8
741.8 480
Fine Agg.1<g/m p 622.8

Cementkg/m3 i 533.1
622.8
533.1
741.8 741.8
421.4 421.4
Silica fume kg/ms Waterkg/m3 Superplasticizermll m3
117.0
208.0 954.8
117.0
208.0 954.8 210.7 210.7 210.7 192.0 192 .0 192.0 i 565. 1 t
--- l -.
565.1= 565. l
,
Fiber kg/mi
Paste volume
--0.4
1 39.2
0.4
-~ 39.2
0.344 0.344
W/C ratio
PC: Plain concrete
0.32
0.32
l 0.5
0.5
' _- 1 39.2 4.55 0.344 0.344 I 0.344 10.344 0.5 0.4 1 0.4 I 0.4
4.55
l
1 1
HPC: High Performance Mix
NC-0.5: Normal Concrete with w/c of 0.5
SF: Steel Fiber Mix
PP: Polypropylene Fiber Mix
3.3.3 Basic Tests on Aggregates

The batched concrete included both ne and coarse aggregate. Sieve analysis, specic gravity and moisture content tests were conducted for ne and coarse aggregates. Sieve analysis of all aggregates were conducted according to ASTM C 136, Standard Test Method for Sieve Analysis ofFine and Coarse Aggregate. The results are given in Figure 3-5. In addition, coarse and ne aggregate tests were performed according to ASTM C 127, Standard Test Method for Specic Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate, and ASTM C 128, Standard Test Method for Specic Gravity and Absorption ofFine Aggregate, respectively. Aggregate properties are Qven in Table 3.3.
45
Table 3.3: Aggregate properties Aggregate Type 7 Specic Gravity (SSD) Coarse Aggregate 2.636 Absorption Capacity % 1.73 Moisture Content % -1.7 i
NaturalSand
2.642
1 .3
1 -.3
3.3.4 Mixing Procedures

Concrete mixtures were mechanically mixed in a Lancaster pan mixer. It tumed out however, that standard mixing procedures of plain concrete are not the most proper procedures when bers are added, at least for the mixes considered in this study. Several trials of FRC were made using dierent method of mixing. The optimum method that produced homogenous ber distribution with minimal ber balling will be described. The process was initiated by mixing the dry ingredients for 3 minutes. Part of the water was then added and the material mixed for another two minutes. The mixed material was then reblended manually and another part ofthe water with superplasticizer was then added and mixed for 1 minute. The bers were then added in two doses, at each time, the material mixed for one minute and nally the rest ofthe water was added and mixed for two minutes. These procedures were consistently used throughout the whole research.
3.3.5 Hardened Concrete Characterization

Compressive strength and modulus of elasticity ofthe nonnal concrete were determined. The compressive strength was determined in accordance with ASTM C 39, Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. The modulus of elasticity was determined in accordance with ASTM C 469, Standard Test Method for Static Modulus ofElasticity and Poissons Ratio of Concrete in Compression.
The results at 28 days for the mixes used in the nal stage are presented in Table 3.4
46
Table 3.4: 28-day compressive strength and modulus of elasticity NC - 0.5 Compressive Strength 36.6 NC 0.4 43.6
U) 2"0
HPC - 0.32 56.4
12" (MP4)
Modulus ofElasticity (GPa) * calculated from AC1 formula 28.0 35.6*
3.4 Preliminary Stage

This section explains the early stage of research in which the main focus was to establish a reliable experiment and test procedures for early age creep and shrinkage. A vertical layout ofthe experimental set-up was designed in which the test specimens were mounted vertically in a 114 ICN Universal Testing Machine. The bottom grip ofthe restrained specimen was rigidly attached to the base of the machine, whereas the top grip was movable and was connected to the machine through a load cell. A swivel-joint was installed between the grip and the load cell to minimize eccentric loading. The free shrinkage specimen was mounted on the base ofthe machine. A general view for the experimental set-up in the early stage is presented in Figure 3-6. The deformation measuring devices (LVDTs) were attached to the surface of the grip, hence the measured deformation encompassed whatever happened between the two grips. Several runs were carried out to tune the machine and the controller for the proper loop parameters that ensured smooth, gentle and stable test. Concrete specimens were cast, covered with plastic sheets and stored in a humidity chamber for 18 hours, the earliest possible time at which specimens were installed in the machine. At this age, it was possible to handle the specimens with the vertical layout of the experiment. Specimens were left unrestrained for l-2 hours after exposure to minimize the e'ect ofthermal shock that may cause premature failure as described by Kovler (l995a). The relative humidity and temperature ofthe drying environment were recorded at every shrinkage-measurement time interval (10 minutes). The environment was not well
47
controlled, the relative humidity (RH) varied between 40 % and 55 %; the temperature varied between 21 and 23 degrees C.
3.4.1 Typical Results

To decide on the proper threshold value for the test, several nms were conducted with dierent threshold values ranges between 10 and 20 microstrain. The results indicated that the smaller the threshold value. the more uniform the stress evolution. Figure 3-7 presents two stress curves for dierent threshold values. The threshold snain adopted in the preliminary experiment was l0 microstrain To evaluate reproducibility of the experiment, replicate samples were tested at different times. Replicate samples were initially prepared from the normal concrete mix with w/c ratio of 0.56. Typical results of the shrinkage and creep are presented in Figure 38. The results indicated a reasonable consistency of the experiment and the resolved creep strain was almost half of the shrinkage strain. Evolution of the shrinkage stress for the same samples indicated satisfactory reproducibility as shown in Figure 3-9. Similar sample to sample variation in the stress evolution and stress-strain cu.rves was obtained with a concrete mix with w/c ratio of 0.48 as indicated in Figures 3-10 and 3-l l. Despite the consistency of the stress-strain relation om one sample to another, it was noticed that the stress strain relation of the test samples did not agree with literature values at this age. It is known that the modulus of elasticity of concrete may reach 20 MPa in 24 hours, however the calculated values from the test results ranged between 8 and l2 MPa. The experimental procedures and methods of measurement were re-examined and it tumed out that the attachment of the LVDT on the surface of the grip resulted in errant measurement of the elastic strain due to grip-specimen interaction (slippage between the grip and the specimen). The error was substantiated by the very small measurement the experiment was dealing with. As a result, a partially- restrained test was induced and false measurements of elastic modulus were obtained. Subsequently, the resolved creep strain was also including the slip error that was tmknown in the experiment. The problem was then corrected by attaching the LVDTs to the concrete specimen directly. The shrinkage stress measured in the experiment was subsequently increased which indicated a fully restrained condition. The calculated modulus of elasticity agreed reasonably with normal
48
values for concrete as shown in Figures 3-12 and 3-13, respectively. Reproducibility of the test was maintained with the new attachment ofthe LVDTs and will be addressed in the results obtained using the new conguration ofthe experimental set up adopted in the nal
stage. 3.4.2 Summary of Experimental Observations

Based on the results om the preliminary stage and performance of the experiment, the following observations can be made: 9 The experiment is reliable and can be used to produce reliable data on restrained shrinkage and tensile creep of concrete at early age. Reproducibility of data is acceptable and falls within the normal scatter of material properties. 9 Tensile stresses generated by restraining shrinkage are signicant within the rst days and the role oftensile creep in relaxing shrinkage stress is substantial, and it reduces the stresses by 50 %. The test is able to detect the sensitivity of creep and shrinkage to various material parameters such as w/c ratio and cement paste content. 9 To ensure realistic strains measurement, the LVDT must measure the deformation of concrete sample free from erroneous deformation due to interaction with the test machine and end grips. The LVDTs must therefore be attached directly to concrete sample. 9 As the case in every tensile test, alignment is important to avoid eccentric loading. The rigid attachment of the specimen to the base of the machine was not proper. Swivel joints must be installed at both ends to minimize eccentric loading. 9 Vertical alignment of the test impedes restraining the sample earlier than 18 hours. Horizontal layout overcomes this problem and enables testing to start as earlier as the time set of the concrete.
The above observations and remarks drove the adoption ofthe experiment to
characterize the early age tensile creep and shrinkage of concrete. The research moved
toward designing a horizontal layout of the system in which the above mentioned shortcomings were improved in the new experimental set up. The following section descnbes the nal research plan 49
3.5 Final Research Plan

The nal research plan included designing a new horizontal layout of the experiment, which could be installed in a controlled environmental chamber. The horizontal lay out system described in Section 3.2 was adopted in the nal stage. In this stage, the testing suategy was primarily divided into three phases as described below
Phase I: A series of restrained shrinkage-creep tests were conducted under drying condition of 50% RH and 23 C. Plain and ber reinforced concrete samples were prepared from normal concrete and HPC and tests were replicated as needed. Results om this part enabled characterization of total tensile creep, shrinkage, and their interaction. Tests under combinations of sealing/drying and drying/wetting were conducted on some samples to provide further insight of the behavior. Shrinkage loads measured on the tests conducted in this stage were used as the load prole for tests in Phase II and Phase I11.
Phase H: Similar samples as in phase I were tested under sealed condition, in which samples were prepared and sealed prior to testing. Loads obtained in phase I were imposed on the sealed samples in the same pattem as obtained in drying test. Extemal drying of concrete samples was suppressed by sealing but intemal drying was not eliminated in this part particularly at early age. Therefore, the results for creep included part of the interaction with shrinkage due to intemal drying. Only samples om nonnal concrete with w/c of 0.4 and 0.5 were considered in this part to demonstrate the test methodology and its validity.
Phase III: Tests in phase H were repeated on similar samples and subjected to the same load proles, but the sealing condition was replaced by continuous moist curing. Instead of sealing the test sample, it was covered with moist cloths that remained moist during the test duration. Extemal and intemal drying were suppressed in this case and subsequently the measured creep tumed out to be pure material characteristic that had no interaction with shrinkage. The testing strategy adopted in the nal stage provided basic data that were required to characterize early age creep and shrinkage of concrete. It also allowed 50
separation and identication ofthe dierent mechanisms of creep and its interaction with shrinkage. Along with the creep-shrinkage tests, humidity and temperature ofthe concrete were measured. In addition, split tensile strength tests on 6x12 in cylinders and direct tensile strength tests were performed to determine the tensile strength evolution with time. The same experimental setup was used to conduct the direct tensile strength of concrete. At the end of the creep-shrinkage test, the sample if intact, was unloaded and then loaded to failure to determine the tensile strength at the end of the test. The test matrix for the nal stage is summarized in Tables 3.5 and 3.6. The outcome of this stage was used to characterize the early age behavior and modeling of creep-shrinkage interaction. Analysis and presentation of test results in the following chapters consider only the outcome of these phase.
Table 3.5: Test matrix for Phase I Mix Identication

1
{ Drying Test @ RH V Htunidity/ 50 %

i1
Tensile Strength
l :
Combined Curing Additional Tests
1 1
80 % X I
Temp
NC-0.5
Sealing / Drying
NC-0.5-SI-' I
l
X X X
X
E 1
1
X
1
X
I
1) Sealing / Drying
I 2) Drying / Wetting
NC-0.5-PP NC-0.4
NC-0.4-SF
X
X
fI
X X
X
I-[PC-0.32 Y
X
X
X X
X '
X
X
E C-0.32-SF
51
Table 3.6: Test matrix for Phases II and III Mix Identication NC-0.5 NC-0.5-SF NC-0.4 NC-0.4-SF I Sealed condition X X X X
I
Wet condition X X X X
/ IR HumidityXTemp X
I
I
Restrained
FIGS Shrinkage
Specimen
Specimen
" 51 iUj176.2X76.2 mm T T 1000 mm
-z
fP
e__
P=0
l:lL:l
Figure 3-1: Companion specimens
_Y_
52
f,
;.._
Restrained Sample
Free Shrinkage Sample
Figure 3-2: Experimental device showing restrained and ee shrinkage samples
53
Restrained Sample
Free Shrinkage Sample
GageLength
/ \
LVDT-
24.5 1n
3x3 111
.'.. :1 ,. v _
, '
. .-.
r._. a .
I.
8in Hydraulicig Actuator INSTRON 8500 Controller
Computer
Figure 3-3: Parts ofthe experimental setup
54
Free Shrinkage
Strain
\ Creep
+ Shrinkage Recovery cycle
Threshold
Drying Time
Figure 3-4: Schematic diagram of the test mechanism
100
_,-a -
(/9)
80
n o 9 0 -I .|.l u n 1 ,... n
Coarse Aggregate
60
-40
20
Natural Sand
. . . .. 0 | r 0 u
F
.
Pass Cummu ng atve

0 0.001
1 21
0.01
0.1
"0
Sieve Size (inch)

Figure 3-5: Aggregate gradation
55
Figure 3-6: General view of experimental setup ir1 the preliminary stage
1.2
W/C = 0.51
1 Q_3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
'----
_____.;: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. -
0.6
kageStress 0.4 (MPa) Shr'n
Q2
------------------------- --. .............................................. 4

1
QQJ
-_l
- - ~ - ~ - - - - - - -- i --------- -8 --Thresho|d = 10 migrgstrain

_ . . . . . . ._! ................. ._
I I
i 7 7
- - - - -Threshold = 20 microstrain
l 1 1
50
100
150
20
Drying Time (hrs)
Figure 3-7: Effect of Threshold on Stress Evolution
56
300
'1
__-0 4" J 1 4
200
100
~
,0
f
_,4- _ _
,'
Stra1tm) n(|
-I- Free shrinkage (spec. 1) -*'Creep strain (spec. 1) - - 9 - - Free shrinkage (spec. 2) - - 9 - - Creep strain (spec. 2)
-100
1
200
-200 O
50
100
Drying Time (hrs)
150
Figure 3-8: Free shrinkage and tensile creep of replicate samples with w/c = 0.56
1.4
W/C = 0.56
1.2 1
... ........................................................ .. ..,_,,._ -1. . . . . . . . . . . ___-r . ..
0.8
0.6 0.4
- -
.-
............
,
. . . . . ..l I I
-----Spec.2
..
.................._......-.....................
...............................
Stnkage Q2 Shr ress(MPa)

0 0
. ........................................... ..
50 100 150 200
Drying Time (hrs)

Figure 3-9: Shrinkage Stress evolution with time of replicate samples
57
....................
0 0 a a
""""""
....... ..,f
(MPa) Stnkage ress Shr
.
..-.:r:.t;Spec..2.
..
I .....; I . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
. . . . . . . - ~ . . - . . . - . - . _ - - - - - - - . . . . . . . - - ~ > - - - . . . . . . - . . - - .-
P 1 .
50
1 00
1 50
200
Drying Time (hrs)

Figure 3-10: Shrinkage stress evolution of replicate samples w/c = 0.48
1.6
j
T
"'
w/c = 0.48
A
1.2 - .................................................... ..,.-+.'....

.
I
I I I
A"
0.8 - -
(MPa) Stress kage Shr n

0
Q_4 _ .............................................. ..
'
'
* Spec- 1 --'1--Spec.2
. ........ ..
1 1
I
__
40
80
120
160
200
Elastic Strain (um)

Figure 3-11: Stress elastic strain diagrams for replicate samples w/c = 0.48
58
1.6
W/C = 0.56
1.2 -.. . . . - . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V . . . ..
;
I
f
0.8 -- . . t . . . . . . . . . . .
F 1.
R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7..............-.......-...................->.... C I I
StShr MPa) 0.4 ----- -- -----;~-I------------------ -- -'LVDT on concrete nkage ress( I " I -----LVDTongrip
I
40
80
120
160
200
Elastic Strain (nm)

Figure 3-12: LVDT attachment method inuences stress - strain evolunon
2.510
-I- LVDT on concrete - -* - - LVDT on grip
210
4 _
(MS Pa)
-5 .
510 ~
Modu E u astc
110 -
h---__ -___
W/C = 0.56
-1--__
__--.------1
5000
50
1 00
1 50
200
Drying Time (hrs)

Figure 3-13: LVDT attachment method inuences modulus of elasticity
59
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS OF DRYING CREEP-SHRINKAGE TESTS

4.1 General
This chapter presents and briey discusses the results of creep-shrinkage testing on concrete samples subjected to drying in the rst days after casting. The results include restrained shrinkage stress, ee shrinkage, total tensile creep, creep coefcient, elastic response with time, humidity, and temperature measurements. Typical data is illustrated by gures in this chapter, and additional test results are documented in Appendices. The effect of ber inclusion, w/c ratio, drying condition, and initial curing condition on early age behavior under a restrained condition are also discussed.
4.2 Retrained Shrinkage Stress

The tensile load required to restrain shrinkage deformation of the test sample was measured in the experiment. Mean shrinkage sness was then calculated by dividing the measured load by the cross section of the test sample. Typical results are presented in Figures 4-1 and 4-2, and additional data are presented in Appendix A. Figure 4~1 shows the eect of w/c-ratio on stress development. The shrinkage stress at any given time is inversely related to the w/c-ratio of the concrete mix. For example, the induced stress at the age of 70 hours was 1.76 MPa, 1.7 MPa, and 1.1 MPa for the control (plain) concrete mixes with w/c-ratio of 0.32, 0.4, and 0.5, respectively. The tensile stress developed in the restrained sample was high enough to acture the test sample for all mixes tested; however, the time to acture was different from one mix to another. The mix with a low w/c-ratio tended to fracture at earlier time than the mix with a high w/c-ratio as seen in Figure 4-1. This behavior was primarily due to a high rate of early age shrinkage for the low w/c-ratio mix, which led to a rapid stress development. Typical values for the calculated failure stress
and the age at failure are presented in Table 4.1.
60
The inuence of adding 0.5 % by volume of steel bers to the concrete mix on shrinkage stress is shown in Figure 4-2. The steel ber reinforcement delayed the 'act"ure time, and the delay was more pronounced in mixes with low w/c-ratio as presented in Table 4.1. The delay in fracture time, as compared to the control mix, was 4-4.6 %, 20.8 %, and 13.5 % for the mixes with w/c-ratio of 0.32, 0.4 and 0.5, respectively. However, the shrinkage stress at failure is not signicantly inuenced by the addition of bers. It is almost of the same order of magnitude as the control mix. The delay in fracture of ber concrete may therefore be attributed to the bers enhancing relaxation by creep. or improving the ability to distribute stresses and reduce damage at the micro-level.
Table 4.1: Shrinkage stress and age at failure Mix Identication

I-[PC-0.32-PC
Direct Tensile Stress (MPa)

1.759
Dela< Stre ss/Stre

0.757 0.770
Age (hrs) 69.5 100.5

144.7 174.8
Strength (MPa) 2.325 2.465 2.649 2.790 2.214 2.307 2.083
ngth
factor
l
NA 1 .446
I-[PC-0.32-SF NC-0.4-PC NC-0.4-SF NC-0.5-PC

NC-0.5-SF NC-0.5-PP
1.898 2.130
2.221
0.804 0.796 0.805 0.766 0.906
NA
1 .208
1.782
1.767 1.887
159.5
181.0 134.5
'NA I 1.135
0.843
I-IPC: High Performance Mix NC-0.5: Normal Concrete with w/c = 0.5 PC: Plain concrete SF: Steel Fiber Mix PP: Polypropylene Fiber Mix Delay factor = FRC fracture time / PC fracture time
4.2.1 Failure of Restrained Concrete

Tensile stress is not the only factor goveming the failure of restrained concrete. It can be seen from Figure 4-1 that, at the age of 70 hrs, the difference between the mean stress of the 1-[PC-0.32-PC mix and ofthe NC-0.4-PC mix is almost negligible. However, the 1-{PC mix failed at that age while the mix with w/c-ratio of 0.4 sustained the stress for a longer period of time. Therefore, cracking criteria based on mere comparison of the tensile
stress with the tensile strength at every point in time is deceptive in the case of restrained conditions. For example, the tensile strength ofthe HPC mix is higher than the tensile strength ofthe NC-0.4 mix at the age of 70 hrs, yet the former failed despite the almost equal stresses at that age. This discrepancy can not be explained solely by strength factor, and other mechanisms must be involved. The other important factor that must be considered to predict shrinkage cracking time is the stress history, particularly at the very early age. Examining the results in Figure 4-1 reveals a high rate of stress evolution in the HPC mix in the rst 24 hours. A tensile stress of 1.0 MPa was induced in the HPC mix at the age of 24 hours, whereas the stress developed in the NC-0.4 mix was aroimd 0.3 MPa. The high stress at this early age suggests that permanent damage at the micro-level reduces the integrity ofthe material and leads to failure sooner than what the strength criterion theoretically requires. Therefore, the stress history at the very early ages is a critical factor that inuences the performance and durability ofthe material in the long rim, even ifthe material sustains these stresses without fracture. The early age damage caused by rapid development of stresses may be responsible for the poor performance at later ages as seen in the early age failure of the HPC samples. The contribution of bers in this scenario is to reduce the rate of stress evolution by improving relaxation characteristics, redistributing the intemal stresses and hence, minimizing the subsequent damage. Another important behavior observed in res1:rained experiments is that the failure stress was signicantly lower than the nominal tensile strength ofthe material. The results in Table 4.1 indicate that the ratio between failure stress to direct tensile strength at the corresponding age is approximately 0.75 to 0.8. The explanation is related to static fatigue and intemal damage accumulation under sustained loads. The static fatigue represents a slow crack growth under sustained load that eventually leads to failure. This experimental observation is important because strength alone is often considered as a criterion for cracking.
4.2.2 Effect of Extemal Relative Humidity

Two sets of test were conducted under drying condition of 50 % RH and 80 % RH to examine the eect ofrelative humidity ofthe drying environment on restrained shrinkage characteristics. Typical shrinkage stress obtained for normal concrete and HPC
62
under different drying conditions is given in Figure 4-3. The stress evolution at early age was not very sensitive to the drying conditions considered in this work. The failure stress in the case of 80 % RH was higher than that in the case of 50 % RH. This may be attributed to the positive inuence ofhigh RH on elastic modulus and strength The high RH reduces skin microcracking and improves hydration. Fracture ofthe normal concrete samples was delayed under the 80 % RH by around 14 % whereas the HPC samples failed at almost the same age as that under 50 % RH. Despite the higher failure stress exhibited by the samples tested imder 80 % RH, the rate of early age stress evolution was not signicantly altered. Thus, the contribution of drying is not dominating the behavior at the very early age, particularly for the HPC. Stress evolution at early ages seems to be driven mainly by autogenous deformation and thermal eects.
4.3 Free Shrinkage

The free shrinkage was determined from the unrestrained specimen by measuring deformation over a concrete gage length of 24.5 inches. The measured values of the free shrinkage represent mean values over the cross section. Figure 4-4 shows typical results of ee shrinkage for the tested concrete mixes, and more data are documented in Appendix A. In the early hours of exposure; the normal concrete samples experienced either no shrinkage or minimal expansion. This period varied between 0 hours, in the case of HPC samples, and 7 hours for a mix with w/c-ratio of 0.5. The reason behind this dormant period is probably the disturbance ofthermal and moisture equilibrium upon exposure. There is no denite answer why this behavior was experienced, and the behavior is not widely discussed in the literature. However, Kovler (l995a) has also observed this behavior, and he has called it thermal shock, an abrupt cooling associated with removal cf formwork. The rapid evaporation of water from the surface causes cooling ofthe sample and rapid reduction in temperature of 3 to 5 degrees C within the rst few hours of exposure. In this experiment, the sample at this time is still tmrestrained to avoid stresses from the thermal shock. Aer the sample reaches thermodynamic equilibrium with the environment, the temperature retums to room temperature. This increase in temperature causes the expansion observed in the beginning ofthe test. The deformation in the rst 10 hours is primarily
63
driven by a combination ofthermal and drying (intemal and extemal) eects. Ifthe thermal effect dominates this period (e.g. the case ofw/c-ratio of 0.5), expansion is observed, but if drying dominates the period (e.g. the HPC sample) shrinkage is observed. Measurement of concrete temperature and relative humidity indicates that the thermal e'ect inuences the rst two days. Figure 4-5 presents typical results of intemal humidity and temperature measurement. The temperature variation is apparent, and this variation is accompanied by relative humidity changes. The relative humidity starts to decrease after the cooling period until it reaches a Then, it recovers back to nearly its original value in 24 hours.
The reduction in humidity is partially associated with the increase in temperature (e.g. when temperature increases by 1 C, the RH decreases by approximately 2 %). The reduction in humidity may also be attributed in part to the rapid diirsion of capillary water in the rst hours of exposure. Initially, the diffusion occurs through a water-solid media that promotes the drying. After that, diffusivity of concrete reduces by several orders of magiitude when the diiision becomes through a vapor-solid media. Consequently, redistribution of water occurs in the pore structure and the humidity starts to increase. After the very early ambiguous period, the shrinkage occurred at a rapid rate until the age of 50 hours when the thermal effect became negligible and the rate of shrinkage decreased aerward. At the age of 50 hours the shrinkage strain reached 100, 125, and 160 microstrain, which corresponds to 46.8 %, 50.4 %, and 76.2 % ofthe shrinkage at failure for the mixes with w/c-ratio of 0.5, 0.4 and 0.32, respectively. The shrinkage during the critical rst 50 hours may be attributed to the combined eect of autogenous and drying shrinkage. The HPC samples experienced 76 % of the failure shrinkage strain in the rst 50 hours. The high rate of initial shrinkage in HPC was promoted by self-desiccation, a chemical process oen occurs in concrete with low w/c-ratio. Clearly, the ee shrinkage at early ages is inversely related to w/c-ratio, which is expected for concrete.
4.3.1 Effect of Fiber Reinforcement on Shrinkage

The addition of steel bers to the concrete mixture did not alter the shrinkage
behavior ofthe mixes. Typical free shrinkage curves ofber and plain concrete mixes are presented in Figure 4-6. The addition of 0.5 % by volume of steel bers (SF) to the
64
concrete mix did not inuence the shrinkage of concrete, and the variation between shrinkage of steel ber mixes and conuol mixes can be considered to be within the intrinsic scatter ofthe measurement. However, it seems that the addition of 0.5 % by volume of polypropylene ber (PP) increases the free shrinkage ofthe concrete in early age. This increase may be linked to the ability ofpolypropylene ber to control plastic shrinkage cracking and the associated localized damage in concrete sample. The initial micro-damage intensity (prior to loading) ofPP is therefore lower than that in plain concrete. As a result, more intact material per unit volume is expected and higher shrinkage strain is reected on macro-level. The explanation ofthis phenomenon is related to the fact that PP have a much smaller cross-section than steel bers, and are therefore more numerous and have closer ber spacing for a given volume fraction. Consequently, the stiffness ofthe PP concrete material at early age is less inuenced by the initial micro-damage as compared to plain concrete. This explains the high modulus ofPP samples, which leads to the high stress development. Accordingly, the early failure of the PP sample and the higher failure stress as compared to the control mix in Table 4.1 is explainable.
4.3.2 Effect of Relative Humidity (RH) on Shrinkage

The effect of relative humidity ofthe drying environment on free shrinkage can be seen in Figure 4-7. Slight variation in the free shrinkage for samples subjected to drying environment in the range between 50 % and 80 % RH was observed. However, the dierence was not signicant in the very early age (rst two days). Despite the slight reduction in 'ee shrinkage with the increase in the RH, the overall behavior is not signicantly altered for the range adopted in the experiment. Therefore, extemal drying alone does not explain the early age free shrinkage behavior even for normal concrete, and other mechanisms must exist. The free shrinkage at early age is controlled by a complex interaction between intemal drying, thermal eects and extemal drying.
4.4 Total Tensile Creep

Typical results of early age tensile creep for the three concrete mixes tested in this study are presented in Figure 4-8. Test results for various mixes are available in Appendix
65
A. The test results reveal the creep strain as a signicant part ofthe concrete deformation at early age. The resolved creep strains at the time of failure reached 100, 150 and 110 microstra.in for the concrete mixes with w/c-ratio of 0.32, 0.40 and 0.50, respectively. The corresponding cumulative elastic strains at failure for the same mixes were 110, 100, and 106 microstrain (see section 4.5). Clearly, the tensile creep strain was at least of the same order of magnitude as the elastic strain. Tensile creep, therefore, was able to enhance the cracking strain capacity of drying restrained concrete by a factor of two. The tensile creep induced by drying stresses is proportional to the free shrinkage strain. Figure 4-9 presents typical results of the creep and shrinkage and the reproducibility of replicate samples. Comparison of the results om replicate samples revealed the interaction of creep with shrinkage; the resolved creep was larger in samples exhibited greater shrinkage strain. Therefore, drying increases tensile creep at early age, a behavior consistent with the concept of drying creep, also called Pickett effect (Pickett, 1942). Interaction of creep with shrinkage at early age is an important element in the deformation analysis of restrained concrete, and it can be expressed as the ratio between the tensile creep to free shrinkage. This ratio is a meaningful index as it reects the reduction of the build up of tensile strain in the restrained concrete and, consequently, the degree of stress relaxation. The results of this research indicated ratios in the order of 0.5 to 0.6 at failure for all mixes. However, the rate of evoluon with time was typically high in the rst two days of exposure and then decreased aerward to asymptotically approach a stable value. Typical results ofthe creep/shrinkage ratio for the three concrete mixes are presented in Figure 4-10. It can be generally stated that the ratio of creep to shrinkage (around cracking time) for concrete in restrained condition is 0.5 regardless of the material. Therefore, the tensile creep serves to reduce the build up of stress by 50 %. Given the elastic failure strain mentioned above for the tested concrete mixes, an analysis based on free shrinkage strain alone would predict failure at 35, 45, and 50 hotus for the mixes with w/c-ratio of 0.32, 0.4, and 0.5, respectively. However, since the creep reduced stresses far below tensile strength at those ages, the failure time was extended to 70, 145 and 160 hours, respectively. The failure time was doubled for the HPC mix and tripled for the other mixes solely due to creep. The role and importance of tensile creep as a relaxation mechanism is clear from the results, and it must be considered in the analysis of shrinkage stresses and prediction of
66
shrinkage craclcing. Neglecting tensile creep would result in severe loss of accuracy in the analysis. The ratio of creep to shrinkage in the restrained test is probably the best parameter to accotmt for creep in a coupled creep-shrinkage analysis.
4.4.1 Effect of Fiber Reinforcement on Total Tensile Creep

A slight increase in total creep due to steel ber reinforcement was observed in the tests. However, this increase was only observed when the stress exceeded halfofthe tensile stength (nonlinear range). This suggests that steel ber reinforcement successfully distributes load, and thus engages a great volume ofthe matrix in carrying tensile load, particularly in the nonlinear range. On the other hand, similar creep behavior was observed in the polypropylene ber and plain concrete mixes. This suggests that polypropylene ber reinforcement does not enhance the creep behaviorl relaxation of concrete at early age. Figure 4-ll presents typical results oftotal tensile creep for ber and plain concrete mixes (w/c = 0.5). Clearly, the ber inuence on total creep was minimal for the volume action used in the experiment. Despite the slight increase in total creep due to steel ber reinforcement, it can be generally stated that the ber reinforcement with a volume fraction of 0.5 % does not substantially inuence the total tensile creep. However, a signicant delay in fracture was observed when steel bers were included. Thus, the delay in fracture observed in the steel ber concrete cannot be explained solely by relaxation due to creep, and other mechanisms must exist to count for this delay. This suggests that bers may inuence the results of creep by inuencing the creep mechanisms that are related to damage and microcracking. The inuence of ber on creep mechanisms will be discussed in Chapter 8.
4.4.2 Total Creep Coefficient

Creep coecient is another important parameter to describe creep behavior of concrete rmder restrained conditions. The coecient is dened as the creep stain divided by the corresponding cumulative elastic stain at the specied time. This denition, as mentioned in Chapter 3, is different from the classical denition in the literature, which is dened as the creep stain at any time divided by the elastic stain at the time of load 67
application. The creep coecient, as dened in this study, is useful for the prediction of shrinkage cracldng at early age because the elastic modulus of concrete changes signicantly in the early days after casting. This parameter more realistically describes the behavior of a restained test that is characterized by a gradual increase ofthe tensile load, since creep progresses more slowly rmder a gradually increasing load than that tmder a constant load (Bazant, 1972). It also eliminates the history dependence in the analysis as the creep coecient at any point in 1:ime includes the contribution of all previous stess and time steps. Typical results of creep coecient for the tested mixes are presented in Figure 4-12. The creep contribution increased rapidly in the very early age (within the rst two days). This is attibuted to the high rate of shrinkage and the consequent stess development observed in the very early age. The creep coefcient continued to increase after the rst two days but at lower rates and reached a value of 0.9, 1.5 and 1.0 at failure for mixes with w/c-ratio of 0.32, 0.4 and 0.5, respectively. The creep coecient at failure indicates that the tensile creep doubles the failure stain capacity of the material irrespective of the w/c ratio and the failure time.
4.5 Shrinkage Stress-Strain Diagram

The shrinkage-induced stess obtained in the experiment was plotted against the cumulative elastic stain results om the compensation cycles. Typical results are presented in Figure 4-13. These curves cannot be interpreted as the instantaneous stess-stain diagram because of the time and drying eects on these curves. However, they can be used to characterize the damage caused to the material by drying and sustained loads. The degradation ofthe stiffness caused by the drying and sustained stess may be used to quantify the damage and its impact on acture time. The secant modulus of elasticity calculated om the cumulative stain and the cumulative stress is a good index of either degradation due to damage or stiening due to aging. It is well established in the literature that the modulus of elasticity of concrete increases with time due to aging effects. However, the results of elastic modulus resolved from the creep-shrinkage test were not following this trend. The reasons for the difference are related to drying/damage/aging interaction. The results in Figure 4-13 roughly indicate
68
this interaction for the tested mixes. For example, the curve ofthe HPC mix is characterized by a continuous degradation ofthe secant modulus, in other words, damage and drying e'ects are dominating over the aging effect. This is mainly due to the early rapid development of stesses caused by the high rate of shrinkage explained earlier. The e'ect of extemal drying is also sigricant since the HPC included silica rme as a constituent, which needs moisture to hydrate. The drying also causes skin microcracking that soften the response of the material. For these reasons, a degradation in modulus was seen in the HPC samples. The mix with w/c of 0.4 indicated almost linear behavior of the stess-stain curve (constant E). This suggests that the degradation of modulus by microcracking cormteracted the stiening due to increased mattn-ity. Thus, the elastic modulus remained almost the same. The mix with w/c of 0.5 exhibited the greatest degradation of modulus until the age of 85 hours, when the aging e'ect seemed to dominate the behavior. As will be presented in the next chapter, the sealed concrete samples always exhibited stiening because the effect of extemal drying was eliminated. A main point to consider here is that the secant modulus can be used as an index for the damage caused by drying.
4.6 Concrete Humidity and Temperature

Relative humidity and temperature ofthe concrete were measured during the experiment. A separate specimen with the same cross section as the one used for the restained shrinkage test was used to monitor the concrete temperature and humidity. Several PVC tubes were installed at dierent depths across the sample thickness and lled with plastic ller before casting. The ller was taken out before starting the measurement and the pipe was sealed with a rubber stopper. The main purpose ofthe tube was to provide a liner against water vapor emission from the side ofthe hole and hence permitted measurement of RH of the material at the specied depth. This approach has been used successfully as reported in the literature and recommended by some researchers (e.g. Goran, 1997). An Omega R.H30 humidity meter with RH30-2 probe was used to measure the humidity. The accuracy ofthe RH30 meter was -J: 3 %. The probe was inserted in the PVC tube at the time of measurement. An O-ring was attached to the probe in order to seal
69
the pipe after insertion. The temperature was measured by inserting thermocouples in the concrete sample. The humidity specimen was subjected to drying from the sides only; the top and bottom sides ofthe specimen were sealed to provide symmetical drying as in the restrained shrinkage sample. General view ofthe humidity sample is shown in Figure 4-14. The results ofhumidity measurement ofvarious mixes are presented in Appendix B. A typical humidity prole ofthe NC-0.5 mix is presented in Figure 4-15. Due to symmetry in drying, the humidity prole over only halfofthe specimen thickness is shown in Figure 4-15. To view the prole over the whole thiclmess ofthe sample, a mirror image can be assumed. The results indicate a drying gradient across the sample. The exterior 1-inch was subjected to substantial gradient in drying in the rst 7 days. However, the gradient was not signicant in the rst 24 hours. This may explain the similar shrinkage behavior exhibited during this period by samples subjected to 50%, 70% and 80% RH. As mentioned earlier, the free shrinkage ofNC-0.5 samples subjected to these drying environments exhibited similar behavior tmtil the age of 50 hrs which corresponds to 36 hrs (1.5 days) of exposure, and the humidity measurements support this nding. As mentioned earlier, autogenous deformation due to intemal drying was the major source of shrinkage in the rst 48 hours of drying, particularly for the HPC mix. The intemal drying was reected in the RH measurement. Typical proles of RH after 48 hours of exposure are presented in Figure 4-16 for the three mixes. Clearly, the RH in concrete is proportional to the w/c-ratio. For example, the HPC-0.32 mix exhibited intemal RH prole after two days of drying that is 5 % less than the NC-0.4 mix and 10 % less than the RH prole for NC-0.5 mix. The dierence in the RH values in concrete reects the degree of intemal drying exhibited by these mixes.
4.7 Effect of Initial Curing on Creep and Shrinkage

The insignicant effect of ber addition on total tensile creep and shrinkage rmder drying condition may be attributed in part to the bond characteristics between bers and cement matrix. Debonding and low bond stength may result as a consequence of early age exposure to drying and thus hinder the inuence ofbers. To examine this hypothesis,
70
initial curing period was adopted to improve bond stength characteristics. The curing method adopted was the sealing ofthe concrete samples to promote hydration for a period of 3 days before exposure to drying conditions. For this purpose, plain and steel ber concrete samples were cast and restained rmder this condition. At the age of 14 hours, the samples were sealed and restained through the following three days. The samples were then tmsealed and exposed to extemal drying while restaint was maintained tml failure. Typical stess evolution for these tests is presented in Figure 4-17. The shrinkage stess during the sealed period was low compared to the rmsealed tests, but was not eliminated, as sealing could not suppress the intemal drying. Despite the low evolution of shrinkage stess during the rst three days, the samples subjected to initial sealing surprisingly failed earlier than the corresponding drying samples with no initial curing. The failure stess however, was similar in all cases. This trend was observed in both plain and ber reinforced
concrete.
The stess evolution immediately aer exposure increases rapidly for two possible reasons. First, initial sealing increases maturity and elastic modulus ofthe sample by
improving the hydration of cement and, subsequently, the restraining stess. Second, the
exposure shock seems to accelerate the shrinkage regardless of the age at exposure as shown in Figure 4-18 for ee shrinkage. Therefore, the initial curing improves the stength and the stiffness of the material and reduces the shrinkage. On the other hand, it increases the magnitude of stess and the potential of early cracking. The balance between these two aspects must be considered to optimize the strength and reduce the risk of early cracking. The initial sealing ofthe samples reduced the initial free shrinkage as compared to drying samples. However, it did not eliminate the shrinkage totally because intemal drying was not eliminated. The autogenous shrinkage after the rst three days composed at least 30 % ofthe total shrinkage for the NC-0.5 mix, as seen in Figure 4-18. This means that sealing concrete in the eld alone (e.g. protective curing compounds) would not eliminate the development of shrinkage stresses in the very early age. The total tensile creep of initially sealed samples was smaller in magnitude than the creep of drying samples as shown in Figure 4-19. For example, the tensile creep at failure for the initially sealed plain concrete sample was 80 microstain compared to 110 microstain for the drying sample. Similarly, the total tensile creep at failure ofpre-sealed
71
FRC sample was 99 microstain compared to 134 microstain for the drying sample. This dierence in creep may not be attributed to real mechanisms but rather to apparent tensile creep mechanisms such as drying microcracking. Furthermore, the dierence in the accumulated elastic stain at failure between the pre-sealed and drying samples was ofthe same order of magitude (arormd 30 microstain) as the dierence in tensile creep. For instance, the elastic stain at failure of pre-sealed samples was 75 and 76 microstain for the plain and the ber concrete mixes. respectively. The corresponding elastic stain at failure ofthe drying samples was 106 and 108 microstain. This indicates that the higher total creep tmder the drying condition can be attibuted to the eect of drying on microcracking. The contibution of bers to the increase in tensile creep was not altered by the initial sealing period. In both cases (pre-sealed and drying) the FRC mix exhibited similar level of increase in total tensile creep. The effect of ber on delaying acture was also similar; the delay factor dened in Table 4-1 ofthe initially sealed FRC was 1.12 compared to 1.135 for drying FRC. Based on these observations, the hypothesis stated above regarding the possible enhancement of creep characteristics of FRC by initial curing is not
justied, at least for the sealing condition and duration considered in this study.
4.8 Effect of Altemate Dryinglwetting on Shrinkage and Creep

Concrete in the eld may be subjected to altemate dryingwetting cycles. The restained shrinkage of concrete subjected to this condition is therefore, of practical interest. To examine the behavior, a sample from the NC-0.5-SF mix was restained while subjected to drying in the rst 3 days. The sample was then covered with wet cloths for the following 24 hours and then uncovered and exposed to drying for the rest ofthe test duration. The stess evolution is presented in Figure 4-20. In the rst three days, the shrinkage stess developed as usual in the drying test and reached a value of 1.44 MPa. Upon wetting, the stess relaxed at a high rate to 0.08 MPa in 23 hours. The shrinkage stess however, started to increase upon re-drying but at a lower rate than in the initial
drying. For example, it took the sample only 50 hours to develop a stess of 1.4 MPa in the
initial stage, whereas, it took 72 hours to reach that level of stress once again upon re-
72
drying. The reduction in the rate of stess development is attributed to the low rate of shrinkage evolution. Figure 4-21 presents the result of free shrinkage upon the drying-wetting cycle. The initial rate of shrinkage is high. However, the free shrinkage sample exhibited swelling at a high rate upon the wetting, which reduced the shrinkage stain 'om 142 microstain to 69 microstain in 23 hours (51.4 % of the initial shrinkage was recovered upon wetting). This indicates a signicant recovery of early age initial shrinkage upon wetting, which caused the stess to drop off signicantly. Upon re-drying however, the sample shrunk at a rate much lower than initially observed in the rst drying. For example, the free shrinkage increased om 69 microstain to 126 microstain in 72 hours upon re-drying, whereas it increased om 0 to 142 microstain in 54 hours in the initial drying. Clearly, the rst drying shrinkage in the very early age is critical and the potential for cracking can be reduced if it is controlled. The total tensile creep was also aected by wetting. Figure 4-22 indicates reduction ofthe total tensile creep om 75 microstain to 45 microstain upon wetting (40 % of the total creep). This reduction is attibuted to the decrease in tensile load and the associated recovery of tensile creep. It seems that the recovery in creep upon rst wetting is also signicant. Thus, drying/wetting cycles inuenced the restained shrinkage and creep behavior at early age. However, no conclusive remarks can be drawn om the results because ofthe limited tests conducted and the multitude of parameters involved such as time of application, duration and number of cycles. Along with the measurement of creep and shrinkage, the internal humidity of the concrete was measured. Figure 4-23 presents the humidity measurement with time. It can be seen that the wetting caused the humidity to decrease, which is cormterintuitive. Furthermore, this reduction in humidity was associated with expansion (swelling). This behavior was replicated in other samples. The explanation may be related to the alteraon of intemal thermodynamic equilibrium upon wetting. It is possible that, wetting of the concrete surface alters the equilibrium between capillary water and the stessed micro-pore water. For equilibrium to re-establish, water moves from the capillary pores to micro-pores. This movement ofwater reduces the relative humidity and causes the micro-pore to open up (expansion).
73
4.9 Tensile Strength

To determine the tensile stength of the creep samples, splitting tensile stength tests were conducted at dierent ages for all concrete mixes considered in the study. The evolution of splitting tensile stength was then established. The e'ect of ber on splitting tensile stength was found insignicant. Therefore, the ber and plain concrete stength test results were combined to establish the time evolution curve of the splitting tensile stength by data t. A logarithmic relation was found to t the data reasonably well as shown in
Figure 4-24. The following relations were determined for the mixes considered in this
study
w/c = 0.5 w/c = 0.4 w/c = 0.32
0' = 2.1151 logr - 2.027 5,, = 2.1443logt -1.320s 6,, = 0.8706logr +1.3516
4.1 4.2 4.3
Where 0' is the splitting tensile stength in MPa and t is the age in hours. in addition to splitting tensile stength, direct tensile stength tests were conducted for the mix with w/cratio of 0.5. The direct tensile stength test was performed using the experimental setup used for creep test. It tumed out that the dierence between the direct tensile stength behavior and splitting behavior is signicant, particularly in the rst days after casting. Therefore, the use of splitting stength as the tensile strength for creep analysis in the very early age leads to false relations between creep and stess/stength ratio. A relation between the splitting stength and direct stength must be established for accurate creep analysis. It was formd that the direct tensile stength of drying samples can be realted to the splitting tensile stength by the following equation
illdl) =1.377 -0.00571

6,, (dry)
1 5 room 4.4 1 2100hrs
15-Yl= 0.2
<Y,,(dry)
74
Where 0', is the direct tensile stength in MPa. In addition to the inherent dierences between splitting and direct tensile stength tests, the discrepancy is probably augmented by the specimen size and geomety (l50x300 mm cylinders were used for splitting test and a rmiaxial specimen with a cross section of 76x76 mm for direct tensile test). The specimen srze and geomety inuence the drying behavior and the associated cracking, particularly at early age. For a realistic representation oftensile stength for creep analysis at early age, the direct tensile stength must be evaluated for all creep tests.
4 10 Concluding Remarks
The shrinkage stess evolution at early age is substantial. It has signicant impact on material performance and can lead to acture ofthe material. The stength criterion, which is usually implemented for estimating time of rst crack, is erroneous if considered alone. Static fatigue and damage accumulation seems to promote failure at stess level less than the theoretical tensile stength. The rate and history of stess evolution are two important factors that inuence the time of cracking and the failure stess. These parameters must be considered in the analysis for accurate prediction of shrinkage cracking. The very early days of concrete life are characterized by a complex interaction of intemal drying, extemal drying and thermal effects. The free shrinkage of normal concrete and HPC in the rst two days forms a signicant portion of the early age shrinkage, and it is also driven by a complex combination of internal and extemal drying. Extemal drying alone cannot explain the free shrinkage in the rst two days and other mechanisms must exist. The addition of bers (0.5 % by volume) does not aect the free shrinkage at early age. Total tensile creep at early age forms substantial portion ofthe time dependent deformation. Its cross-dependence with the ee shrinkage can be expressed as the ratio oftotal creep to free shrinkage. This ratio is important and can be roughly taken as 0.5, which indicates that the creep relaxes the shrinkage stess by 50 % for normal and high performance concrete.
75
Although the addition of steel bers slightly increases the total tensile creep, stress relaxation caused by total tensile creep cannot solely explain the delay in fracture time when bers are included. However, it seems that the ber addition inuences certain creep mechanisms that aect the fracture behavior as the ber samples last more than plain concrete samples before failure. Initial cming of concrete does not change the restrained shrinkage behavior of FRC as compared to plain concrete. However, the potential for cracking of concrete generally increases as the initial curing improves stiiess. The balance between improving strength and stiiess of concrete and the risk of cracking must be therefore considered Alternate drying and wetting signicantly aects the creep and shrinkage behavior at early age. The shrinkage stress relaxes rapidly upon the rst wetting and developed
once again but at a lower rate upon drying. Creep and shrinkage recovery of restrained
concrete is also inuenced by wetting/drying application.
76
2.5 2
................................................................................ ..
1.5 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -1 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' "' ''''''''''''''' ''''''''" =
(MPa) Sthrr'nekage ss
S
_""'' W/C = Q40
0.5
O
------------------------------------------------ -- -- W/C = Q_5Q
50
100
150
200
Age (hrs)
Figure 4-1 Shrinkage stress evolution of different plain concrete mixes
2.5 2 ................................................................................ ..
1_5
.......................................................................... ..
1
(MPa) Stnkage ress
Shr
Q_5
""""""""""""""""""" "" --w/c=o.3o -w/c =0.s2 SF --w/c =o.so s|= .................................... .. 7 ~w/c=0.so
i . . _ \
50
100
150
200
Age (hrs)
Figure 4-2 Eect of steel ber reinforcement on shrinkage stress
77
2.5
2 .
0.-
,
_. o"'.-' ,-'.. ." . ' ' i
n 4".
1.5
I
1 _ .
-'._
,0 .
..'_,-
__.- .-0
_.
.'. _,-0"
x.,!.1" . ' t
It 0' ' .' 0 -'
(MPa) 0.5 StShr nkage ress

0 Q
_,- 3'
O
P. 0 O
--w/c= .2RH=50% -w/c = 2 RH = so % --------w/c = 0 RH = so % ----~---w/c = GOOD . O1U'lOJ(.|O 0 RH = so %

100
Age (hrs)
50
150
Figure 4-3 Shrinkage stress evolution of plain concrete under various drying conditions 50 Q
_50 ___,...
.................................... ..
... . . . . _ _ _ _ _ . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . ..
W/C=0_32
~w/c = 0.50
-100 -150 -290

. . .. . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . .. . . ... .. . . . . . . . .. . . , . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...................................................................... ..
/ (pm Shr Free m) nkage
-250
300
50
100
150
200
Age (hrs)
Figure 4-4 Free shrinkage strain for dierent plain concrete mixes
78
100
J
0 I I
xr
96
._
'-. -. _ _ -____
92
%)ld y Hum' tve

~
88
-- Relative Humidity CpmeT(earcn e)ertu Co

0
84
- - - - - Temperature
~___
Reercnate Co
120 14 80
20
40
60
80
100
Drying Time (hrs)
Figure 4-5 Typical temperature and humidity distribution

50 O
-50
-0
-100
-150 -200 -250
'"'-W/C "W/C -W/C -"" W/C
w/c = o.so PP
= = = =
0.32 SF 0.32 0.50 SF 0.50
e(;mlm)
nkag
Shr Free
-300 350 O 50 100 150
200
Age (hrs)
Figure 4-6 E'ect of ber reinforcement on ee shrinkage
79
50
or --
-50
-RH=so% -RH =10 % '-RH=80%
100
/m) (pm nkage

-150
Shr Free
200
-250
-50
so
100
150
200
Drying Time (hrs)
Figure 4-7 Effect of drying condition on free shrinkage (w/c = 0.50)
160 140 120

-n. sr
mlm) 100
80
Creep
60 40
Tens e
20 0 0 20 40 60 80
'-W/C = 0.32 "W/C = 0.40 '"WlC = 0.50
100
120
140
160
Age (hrs)
Figure 4-8 Tensile Creep for different plain concrete mixes
80
200
o
4g_
100
_.'* 4I* 4}
A.
-4
lm)
_
n(im Stra
-100
'Creep Spec. 1 --Shrinkage. Spec. 1 -Creep Spec.2 Shrinkage Spec. 2
-200
-300
50
100 Age (hrs)
150
200
Figure 4-9 Creep is proportional to free shrinkage (replicate samples)
0.6
_.*
4,4
' i
40*
1 <1 .
0.5 0.4
_ l
nkage
0.3
;
0.2
_'_W/C
T Creep/Shr
0.1 O -0.1
W/C
0.32 0.50 0.40
20
40
so
so 100 Age (hrs)
120
140
160
Figure 4-10 Creep/shrinkage ratio for dierent plain concrete mixes

81
140
pm/m)
._
100 30
5Q 40
' Plain Concrete -Steel Fiber " Polypropylene

.
Creep ( stra n
20 O -20 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0 6 08 1
Stress I Strength
Figure 4-11 Effect of ber reinforcement on tensile creep (w/c = 0.5)
1.5
cent
1
_* T
_,o
44
Creep Coeff
0.5
-w/c = 0.32 - w/c = 0.40 -vv/c = 0.50

0 20 40 60 so
Age (hrs)
100
120
140
160
Figure 4-12 Creep coefcient evolution for various plain concrete mixes
82
2.5
il
1 Q
1.5
Stirkess (MPa) age Shr
0.5 [
l
;
-w/c = 0.32 -w/c = 0.40 -w/c = 0.50

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0.5 -20
Elastic Strain (um / m)

Figure 4-I3 Shrinkage stress-elastic strain diagram for different plain concrete mixes
Figure 4-14 General view ofhumidity measurement sample and device

83
100 93 96 ...... ....,__

-
. . . 4* . . ., ..T.
--._'_,--.........._......__,<-
a
--------- - - - - - ' """. _- I __-, '-
5
8
_
_ , . . - . - -- ..... -->----0.-.-.'..'.T . . . . . . . . , . . . ._ __ -- -- -Q , ------ --- -- -
__,,-. _
._
.1
ty%
_. -4.
--
_,-0"
Q -
1' "'
"__
1 r
_ ._,__
--q
V
-
V @ .' '
Hum'd
atve Re
92 90 88 _ 86
._/."?z<.:
',"
,
_'.'
l ~_\
.. , _} _ .1, mi __i= .--v--_. _-Q,-"

@.
-'-1day -----" 2days '

. --- 4day$
i//- /'
E '1'
/
RH = so %
"*" 3daY$
Age at Exposure = 14 hrs
-ll 6days -
Sdays
~-*- 7days 0.5

0.75 1 1.25 15
84 T 0.25
Depth (inch)
Figure 4-15 Humidity proles for NC-0.5 mix
100

98 96
/0 ly
_k 4
94 92
4! .
'
Hum'd tve Rea

90
-I
-w/c = 0.32 -w/c = o.so -w/c = 0.40

I
88
RH=50%
as 0.25
0.5
0.75
1.25
15
Depth (inch)
Figure 4-16 Humidity proles for concrete after 2 days of drying
84
2
j '
.9
.
0
,0
._ .
1.5
. .
..4~--I.
.'
Q.
..;;..,,
0,.
Q;
..
. . . V . ..
-"-'8.
,.
0.5
..._..':..-
0'
'4
.,
44
Pa) Stress(M kage
4'
"
'
-I--PC-0.5-drying
*SF-0.5-drying - "------PC-initially sealed SF-initially sealed '
Shr'n
"' ~' - ~ Sealing period
-0.5
50
100
Age (hrs)
150
200
Figure 4-17 Eect of initial curing on stress evolution of plain concrete and PRC
50
Sealing
O
_ ,_ __ _ """
A
-50
-'- SF-initially sealed ""~"" PC-initially sealed - - --'--" SF-0.5-drying '- PC-0.5-drying
-1DQ
\
Stra kage n
-150 1
\\
Q 1
-200
.0
~--__.
.."\
-
Shr'n Free
-250
so
1oo Age (hrs)
150
200
Figure 4-18 Effect of initial ciuing on free shrinkage of plain concrete and FRC
85
150
100
Q,
~ ~ _,~
_.v0
I
50
'
'
,',
It .0-.
I
_./' 1.
4,
I
- PC-0.5-drying -100
-*- SF-0.5-drying
/ (pm Stra Creep m) n
1
0
=~''''
__.--__jIIII....--"
PC-initially sealed
150 200
Sealing period
""'--" SF-initially sealed
50
Age (hrs)
Figure 4-19 Effect of initial curing on tensile creep of plain concrete and FRC
2
~ ,
7
<
Drying
Re-Drying
tting
>
/'\
%/
MPass Stre kage
1:.
0.5-
Shrn
0 _ 0 30 60 90 120
WIC = 0.50
150 180
Ag e (h rs)
Figure 4-20 Shrinkage stress evolution of FRC upon drying/wetting cycles
86
50
D rying
<(
Re-Drying
)>
Lnztling
W/C = 0.50
-50
E
100
I (pm Shr Free m) nkage

-150
30
60
90
120
150
180
Age (hrs)
Figure 4-21 E'ect of dryingwetting on ee shrinkage and shrinkage recovery of FRC

80
W/C = 0.50
60
-A. &r
mlm)
40
20
Wetting Straep Cre n

<(
0 30
DI'Vin9
60
+'
i i L
90
Re-Drying
120
)>
150 180
Age (hrs)
Figure 4-22 Effect of drying/wetting on tensile creep of FRC
87
so 1
ty%
Initial Drying
Wetting
>
-
Re-d rying
H
-
'
_*- _'t==Ii
Hum''vde Re at
Depth = 0.5 inch f w/c = 0.5
j
75 0 50 100
1 J
150
Drying Time (hrs)
Figure 4-23 Humidity prole upon drying/wetting cycle
__.l _.;A- ,
. . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . .._.._._,_........;. _ -~" __."' - -a.
Qt
4'
."
I
,'
. Q ....;. . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..,........................ I
, O
(MPa)h Strengt
O '6
"""""" W/C = 0.32

A
-----w/c=o.4
' W/C = 0.5
'
Tens t e ng Spt
0
O
50
100
150
200
Age (hrs)
Figure 4-24 Evolution of splitting tensile strength (drying curing)
88
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS OF CREEP-SHRINKAGE TESTS UNDER SEALED AND WET CURING CONDITIONS

5.1 Introduction
Knowledge of basic tensile creep is essential to characterize the behavior of early age tensile creep of concrete and its interaction with shrinkage. The basic creep is a material property that is dened as the creep of concrete when moisture content is held constant. However, Intemal drying at early age is in most cases unavoidable, and it complicates the measurement of early age basic creep of concrete. Therefore, two curing conditions were used in this study to quantify the basic creep: sealed conditions and wet conditions. In the sealed condition, the sample was sealed using a self-stick aluminum foil, while in the moist condition, the sample was covered with moist cloths throughout the test duration. The experimental set-up described in section 3.2.2 was used to measure the creep and shrinkage of sealed and wet samples. Unlike the drying test in which loads were selfinduced, the loads applied in the sealed and wet tests were pre-deterrnined. The loading prole with time was based on the loading history recorded during tests tmder drying conditions. The magnitude and pattem ofthe load induced in drying condition was applied to the sealed and wet samples. This chapter presents and briey discusses results of early age creep-shrinkage tests on concrete samples subjected to sealed and wet curing conditions. The results include free shrinkage, total tensile creep, creep coecient, elastic response with time, humidity, and temperature measurements. Typical results are only presented in this chapter. Additional test results are documented in appendices. Two mixes were tested in this part: NC-0.5 and NC-0.4. Steel ber reinforcement with a volume action of 0.5 % was used in FRC mixes. The eects of ber reinforcement and w/c ratio on the creep and shrinkage behavior under sealed and wet curing conditions are discussed.
89
5.2 Sealed Condition

The signicance of the behavior of concrete rmder sealed conditions lies in its relation to the basic creep and the interaction between creep and shrinkage. The common practice for many years was to consider the deformation to cease because no shrinkage occurs when moisture exchange with the ambient medium is not allowed. However, this assumption may not hold when young concrete is considered because drying of concrete at early age is driven by other than extemal factors only. Therefore, rrther investigation is required to validate the behavior at early age. For this purpose, samples were cast and sealed with aluminum foil in order to eliminate moisture exchange with the environment. Creep and free shrinkage tests were carried out simultaneously using the same experimental procedures described in Chapter 3, except that the samples were sealed and the load was applied in the same pattern and magnitude as those induced in drying test. The load applied for the various concrete mixes are presented in Table 5.1 and the load pattems are shown in Figure 5-1.
Table 5.1: Load Prole Applied on Sealed and Wet-Cured Concrete

NC-0.5 & NC-0.5-SF NC-0.4-PC NC-0.4-SF
Age (hrs)
Load (KN)
Age (hrs)
Load (KN)
Age (hrs)
Load (KN)
27.50 30.50 33.17 36.50 40.50 47.67 56.08 71.25 87.25 101.33 121.67 143.25 155.84 180.95
1.00 1.65 2.60 3.39 4.41 5.19 6.13 6.84 7.28 7.69 8.35 8.90 9.53 10.25
22.67 27.17 30.50 33.50 36.50 39.83 43.83 50.33 62.33 81.83 108.17 144.67
1.03 2.01 3.05 4.13 5.18 6.12 7.16 8.31 9.23 10.05 11.20 12.37
26.33 30.83 34.50 38.00 41.17 44.83 51.67 62.00 79.17 105.67 139.83 174.83
1.20 2.39 3.58 4.70 5.45 6.52 7.50 8.58 9.64 10.73 11.80 12.90
90
5.2.1 Free Shrinkage (Autogenous Defonnation)

Despite the fact that test samples were sealed against extemal drying, signicant ee shrinkage was measured in the test. Figure 5-2 presents typical results of free shrinkage for the two mixes tested in this study. The results revealed higher shrinkage of the NC-0.4 mix than that exhibited by the NC-0.5 mix. The shrinkage strain at the age of 7 days reached 120 microstrain for the NC-0.4 mix and 82 microstrain for the NC-0.5 mix. lt is well known that concrete with w/c-ratio less than 0.42 will exhibit shrinkage under a sealed condition because of intemal drying (self-desiccation). However, it is less understood that the mix with w/c-ratio of 0.5 will exhibit measurable autogenous shrinkage because intemal structure presumably contains enough capillary water to avoid selfdesiccation. This phenomenon may be explained in part, by chemical shrinkage aliated with cement hydration at early age contributing to the observed deformation. The chemical shrinkage develops continuously 'om the point of cement-water contact as a result of the loss of volume due to hydration (volume of reactions products is smaller than the volume ofthe reactants). Clearly, sealing the samples alone will not eliminate the early age shrinkage, even for normal concrete because ofthe intemal drying and chemical shrinkage. This has an impact on understanding and determination of basic creep of concrete at early
age.
The early age shrinkage of sealed concrete forms a signicant portion of the total drying shrinkage. The exact proportion of these two factors (drying and autogenous) in the total shrinkage, however, is still disputed, especially at early age. Figure 5-3 shows the sealed and drying shrinkage for two mixes: NC-0.4 and NC-0.5. The total drying shrinkage at the age of 7 days is shown in Figure 5-3 as 260 and 230 microstrain, whereas the corresponding shrinkage of sealed samples is 120 and 82 microstrain, respectively. Accordingly, the sealed shrinkage at the age of 7 days is 46.1 % and 35.6 % of the corresponding total drying shrinkage for the two mixes. However, at the age of 2 days, the sealed shrinkage composes 72.7 % and 31.5 % ofthe corresponding total drying shrinkage for the mixes NC-0.4 and NC-0.5, respectively. Hence, at very early ages shrinkage is primarily driven by intemal drying, particularly for the concrete with low w/c-ratio. The
91
observed minor effect of extemal relative humidity on very early age ee shrinkage, as explained in Chapter 4, also supports this nding. These results provoke a question: Can the shrinkage of sealed concrete be considered to be primarily due to autogenous shrinkage, or may there be other mechanisms related to sealing condition? Kovler (I996) showed that sealing of drying concrete causes some swelling. He explained the swelling by the release ofthe surface tension of capillary water due to the change of vapor pressure above water menisci. When concrete is sealed, the vapor pressure increases quickly and changes the meniscus curvature so that the level of water becomes atter, and the average radius of meniscus increases. This releases the capillary surface tension and leads to consequent swelling. In this study, the sealing commenced at the age of 12-14 hours when only minimal drying had occurred and the intemal vapor pressure would not have been signicantly altered by sealing. The observed swelling in the tests was minimal and can therefore be neglected. The early age shrinkage of sealed samples can be primarily considered as autogenous shrinkage. It is a signicant contributor to the total shrinkage measured in early age, particularly for the concrete with low w/c- ratio.
5.2.2 Humidity Prole of Sealed Samples

The measurement of intemal relative humidity in sealed samples indicated some internal drying. The relative humidity of concrete dropped by 6-10 % over a period of drying for 7 days. Figure 5-4 shows typical prole ofthe relative humidity of sealed concrete for the NC-0.4 and NC-0.5 mixes. The results showed reduction in the relative humidity, which is mainly due to the continuing hydration. The relative humidity at depth of 0.25 inch (maximum drying) for drying concrete samples was only 5-7 percent higher than that for sealed concrete samples. This indicates the signicance of intemal drying at early age. One major difference between sealed and drying conditions, however, is that the relative humidity across the sealed specimen is almost tmiform at any given time as shown in Figure 5-4. In contrast, a relative dierence in humidity across the drying sample was quite obvious in Figure 4-15. In other words, no signicant drying gradient occurred tmder the sealed condition. This observation has a substantial inuence on the analysis as will be
92
discussed in Chapter 8. The uniform drying eliminates the gradient in the intemal stress and thus impedes the occurrence ofmicrocracking in the outer skin ofthe specimen. The phenomena of microcracking on exterior surfaces result when the outer layer of concrete dries out at a higher rate than the inner layers. As a result, the outer layer rmdergoes tensile stress which when exceeds the tensile strength ofthe material causes the surface cracking. The microcracking caused by drying gradient has a profound impact on the overall response of material as will be discussed in Chapter 8.
5.2.3 Tensile Creep of Sealed Concrete

Since the sealing of concrete, as discussed in section 2.2.1, does not eliminate autogenous shrinkage at early age, the tensile creep of sealed concrete cannot be resolved from the deformation of a loaded sample alone. Two samples must be tested simultaneously; one must be ee of load to account for autogenous shrinkage and the other loaded as in the drying test. As with the drying test, reproducibility of test results was established rst. Creep tests for the same material, and same load pattem and magnitude were replicated at different times for various mixes. The results were then compared. Typical test results of replicate samples are presented in Figure 5-5. The results indicated that both the ee shrinkage and tensile creep were consistently reproduced. The variation in the autogenous shrinkage, for example, was around 10 microstrain, which lies within the intrinsic variation ofthe material. The experimental set up and procedures were shown to be consistent, and the data on creep and autogenous shrinkage at early age was reliable. The sealed tensile creep, as in the case of drying, was proportional to the autogenous shrinkage; the high values oftensile creep were observed on specimens exhibiting high autogenous shrinkage. This experimental observation reveals the interrelation between tensile creep and autogenous shrinkage. The tensile creep is, therefore, increased by concurrent drying irrespective ofthe source ofdrying; i.e. the Pickett eect is not only limited to extemal drying. The tensile creep - autogenous shrinkage interrelation suggests that creep is inuenced by a common mechanism upon drying. However, the magnitude of increase in tensile creep depends on whether the drying is extemal or intemal. For example, the tensile creep resolved in the sealed experiment was
93
almost equal to the autogenous shrinkage ofthe material at the age of 7 days as seen in Figure 5-6. The same concrete mixes on the other hand, exhibited total creep strain equal to halfof the shrinkage strain in the case of drying. The difference was probably related to the intemal stress distribution and the drying gradient that inuenced the drying creep mechanisms. The dierence in the ratio of creep to shrinkage between sealed and drying tests is a general indication to the existence of different creep mechanisms related to drying gradient and true stress distribution. Further discussion of this matter and the possible mechanisms will be presented in chapter 8. The lower creep in sealed samples is also supported by Powers hypothesis (Powers, 1966) which says that there should be some differences in the creep of sealed and unsealed samples. The dierence according to Powers is arising from the fact that in the sealed sample, the ultimate expulsion of water to the ambient environment is not possible, and hence, the creep is lower than in an rmsealed sample. However, Neville (Neville et al., 1983) doubts whether the eect suggested by Powers is signicant. Steel ber reinforced concrete was tested under sealed conditions to investigate the
effect of ber reinforcement on the early age creep and shrinkage. The results of
autogenous shrinkage for FRC and plain concrete mixes were quite similar; thus, the effect of ber on autogenous shrinkage was negligible. Likewise, the tensile creep was not signicantly altered by the addition of steel bers. Figure 5-7 presents creep and shrinkage results of sealed FRC and plain concrete with a w/c-ratio of 0.4. Similar behavior was also observed in the concrete mix with w/c-ratio of 0.5. It must be noted that for the samples tested in this research, there was a slight increase in tensile creep when steel bers are added to the concrete mix. However, the magnitude of increase oftensile creep was not conclusive as it always lied within normal scatter ofthe material. Nevertheless, the fact that it happened in most specimens indicated a general trend that was related to material behavior.
5.2.4 Age at which Sealing is Applied

The age of concrete at which sealing is applied is a primary factor that aects the level of subsequent swelling and shrinkage. Sealing the concrete, particularly at early age,
94
disturbs temporarily its thermodynamic equilibrium with the environment, and subsequent deformation of concrete is expected to reect this disturbance. The level of disturbance is mainly inuenced by the age of concrete and its moisture content at the onset of sealing. Concrete samples sealed at dierent ages were tested to examine the eect of sealing time on creep and shrinkage. One set oftests was sealed at the age of 14 hours and another set was sealed at the age of 27 hours. The age at the onset of load application was 27.5 hours and same load pattem and magnitude was applied for the two sets. Figure 5-8 presents typical results of ee shrinkage and tensile creep for both tests. The results indicated variation in the magnitude of free shrinkage from the onset of load application. The samples that were sealed at 14 hours exhibited less swelling and more shrinkage than that for the samples sealed at 27 hours. The variation can be explained as follows: when the initial drying period increases, the volume of emptied capillary pores will increase. Hence, the potential formation of water meniscus will be promoted because the intemal vapor pressure decreases upon drying. However, upon sealing, the vapor pressure increases and causes reduction ofthe capillary surface tension, and consequent swelling. The degree of swelling depends on the intemal vapor pressure at the time of sealing and volume and size of empty pores. Accordingly, the impact of sealing on changing the vapor pressure in concrete samples remaining uncured for 27 hours will be more pronounced than in samples sealed at the age of 14 hours. Swelling will be promoted, which means less shrinkage in the samples sealed at the age of 27 hours. As a result, the resolved total tensile creep will be inuenced. Therefore, characterization of drying creep by testing sealed and drying samples will be inuenced by the time of sealing, particularly at early age. Hence, it must be specied consistently in the experiment to avoid misinterpretation of the data. Sealing at the age of 12-14 hours was adopted as a standard time in this research.
5.2.5 Cumulative Stress versus Cumulative Elastic Strain

As mentioned in Chapter 4, restrained shrinkage test samples were all failed during
the drying test. However, the sealed samples were able to sustain the same loads that caused failure in the drying test. Sealing seems to improve strength and stiress of
95
concrete due to improved hydration of cement and hence, the stiress of sealed concrete should increase at a rmique rate. The applied stress was plotted against the elastic strain induced in the concrete. The resulting diagram for sealed concrete was dramatically changed as compared to drying concrete. Figure 5-9 presents typical results for the mix NC-0.5. The secant modulus can serve as an index of either damage (degradation in modulus) due to drying and sustained load eects or stiening due to increased maturity. The shape of the diagram is controlled by the combined eect ofthese two factors. For example, the secant modulus exhibits degradation with time if the drying effect dominates the aging effect, whereas it increases with time when the aging effect is dominant. The results for sealed concrete exhibited increases in the secant modulus with time while drying caused softening (or at best constant modulus) with time. The dierence in the elastic strain between sealed and drying concrete could be related to the drying gradient and the associated microcracking. Moreover, the ratio between the secant modulus of the drying sample to the sealed sample could also serve as a state variable for drying-related damage. Chapter 8 sheds more light on these observations to better understand the drying
creep behavior and the relation between drying microcracking and fracture.
5.3 Wet Curing Condition

Since the sealed curing condition did not eliminate autogenous shrinkage of concrete at early age, the measured tensile creep was not equivalent to basic creep. To evaluate the basic creep, shrinkage must be essentially zero. This research has adopted a moist curing technique to suppress the early age shrinkage. The moist curing method adopted consisted of covering the concrete with wet cloths throughout the test duration. The cloth was kept wet by frequently adding water, and the water temperature was held constant at 23 C (the temperature of the environmental chamber). Creep and shrinkage were measured on samples prepared om two mixes: NC-0.4 and NC-0.5. Tensile loads and ages at load application were the same as that for sealed tests. The only difference was the curing method in which the samples were covered by wet cloths right after demolding and are maintained wet throughout the test duration. This section presents the test results of creep, shrinkage, and stress-strain response.
96
5.3.1 Effect of Wet Curing on Autogenous Shrinkage

The moist curing technique successfully suppressed the early age autogenous shrinkage as shown in Figures 5-10 and 5-ll for plain and ber reinforced concrete. The results clearly indicate substantial reduction in the ee shrinkage ofmoist concrete as compared to sealed concrete. For example, the magnitude ofthe ee shrinkage aer 7 days for the mix NC-0.5 as shown in Figure 5-l0 was substantially reduced from 83 and 98 microstrain (sealed condition) to 7 and 17 microstrain (moist condition) for ber and plain concrete, respectively. Similarly, the shrinkage ofthe mix NC-0.4 is reduced from 121 microstrain to 4 microstrain for plain concrete, and for ber concrete the wet curing counteracted the shrinkage and induced minor expansion of l7 microstrain as shown in
Figure 5-11.
The moist curing not only reduced the absolute shrinkage but also reduced the rate of shrinkage aer the rst 24 hours. Unlike for the sealed conditions, the shrinkage under moist conditions reached a stable value within 24 hours and remained almost unchanged throughout the rest of the test duration. The stability of shrinkage for most ofthe test period eliminated the e'ect of shrinkage on the measured creep. The elimination of shrinkage by wet curing was probably due to two factors. One factor is related to the increase ofthe intemal vapor pressure and the associated swelling following the covering of the sample. This swelling osets the autogenous shrinkage om hydration. The other factor is the replenishment of moisture to the internal system by capillary suction and diirsion, which compensates for the consumed moisture by continuing hydration. The rst mechanism is probably working in the initial period following the covering with wet cloths and may continue for a day or so; the second mechanism plays its role at later stage because diusion of moisture from the surface to the inner material takes some time. The combined eect ofthe two mechanisms was responsible for the elimination of shrinkage. The suppression of shrinkage by wet curing was conrmed by measurement ofthe
intemal relative humidity. The measurements indicated almost constancy ofthe relative
humidity throughout the test duration. This does not mean that self desiccation was totally eliminated because the error ofthe RI-I measurement is within 3 %. The constancy ofthe
97
measured RH explains, at least in part, the observed minimal shrinkage. In addition to that, rmiform distribution of relative humidity across the thickness ofthe sample was observed similar to that for sealed concrete. The consequences of constancy and uniformity of intemal humidity on the analysis of creep data and mechanisms are important for discussion in section 5.4 and in chapter 8.
5.3.2 Does Wet Curing Affect Mechanical Properties?

As mentioned in the previous section, the wet curing reduced concrete shrinkage by providing extra moisture to the system. The consequences on creep measurement were profotmd because the interaction with shrinkage was eliminated. On the other hand, adding water to hardened concrete may result in changes ofthe microstructure, which in turn may a'ect mechanical behavior of concrete including creep. It was desired to examine the inuence of wet curing on mechanical behavior despite the absence of microstructure examination of the tested concrete. The elastic response of the material was used as an index for evaluating the effect of wet curing on mechanical behavior of concrete. Since the sealed and wet samples were subjected to the same stress history, comparison of their responses to stress can be used to qualitatively identify the impact of wet curing on elastic response. Similar impact on both creep and elastic response can be reasonably expected. and hence, the wet curing must aect both of them if it has a real inuence on mechanical behavior. Ifthe wet condition does not alter the elastic response of concrete as compared to that for sealed concrete, it is unlikely that the basic creep behavior be altered. Another possible way to examine the inuence of wet-curing on mechanical behavior is to compare the elastic response upon loading to failure for sealed and wet samples that are pre-loaded by the same stress history and then unloaded prior to the test. In this case the eect of damage accumulation would be encompassed in the response. Either ofthe above approaches could be used to qualitatively examine the inuence of wet curing on mechanical behavior, and data on both was available in this study. The available data on both methods gives the same conclusions however, the second approach is only presented herein. At the end of basic creep test, the sample was unloaded and then loaded to failure. Figure 5-l2 presents typical stress-strain results of sealed and
98
wet cured concrete for the two mixes: NC-0.4 and NC-0.5. The diagrams indicate similar shape and inclination for both sealed and wet cured concrete. The stress-strain diagram is almost bilinear with the pivot point corresponding to the pre-applied stress prior to unloading. Two major points can be seen in the diagrams. First, the modulus of elasticity of sealed and wet-cured samples was almost identical, which means that the inuence of wet curing on elastic modulus is not signicant. Second, the tensile strength of wet-cured concrete only slightly exceeds that of the sealed concrete. Therefore. the dierence in mechanical properties between sealed and wet-cured concrete was minor. Likewise, the basic creep behavior was most likely be rmaected by wet ctuing condition. It seems that the wet curing suppresses the shrinkage of concrete without altering the mechanical behavior of the material.
5.4 Identication of Basic Creep

The measurement of tensile creep under the three different curing conditions provided valuable information on the total creep, basic creep, and drying creep. For example, the drying condition provided data on total tensile creep; the sealed condition provided data on basic creep and its interaction with autogenous shrinkage; and the wet condition provided data on the basic creep. The stress history applied in the test of each mix was identical for the three curing conditions. Typical results of creep and shrinkage under the three curing conditions are shown in Figures 5-13 and 5-14 for the mixes NC0.5-SF and NC-0.4, respectively. Three major points can be seen in these results. First, the resolved tensile creep was directly proportional to the associated free shrinkage. This is primarily due to the interaction between tensile creep and the accompanied shrinkage; the greater tensile creep was observed in specimens exhibited high shrinkage. Tensile creep of concrete was therefore greatest under drying condition and smallest under wet condition. Second, the sealed condition reduced the 'ee shrinkage but the reduction is not substantial for the purpose of basic creep measurement. Consequently the measured tensile creep of sealed concrete was not totally related to basic creep because it included the interaction with autogenous shrinkage. Third, the wet curing suppressed the free shrinkage substantially and maintained it at a minimum level throughout the test duration.
99
Consequently, the measured tensile creep of wet concrete was not inuenced by shrinkage, and it could be called the basic creep ofthe material. In this research, the basic creep as a material property was extracted from the test under wet condition.
5.4.1 Effect of Fiber Reinforcement on Basic Creep

The eect of ber reinforcement on creep behavior of concrete is subtle. In general it seems that the curing condition inuences the effect of ber on creep. In the case of drying, for example, the addition of bers slightly increased the total tensile creep of concrete particularly at high range of stress (o'/ 0', 2 0.6) as mentioned in Chapter 4. However, from material point of view, the real effect on creep due to ber reinforcement can be judged om the basic creep results. Figures 5-15 and 5-16 present typical results of specic basic creep for ber and plain concrete for the mixes NC-0.5 and NC-0 .4, respectively. The stress prole and age at loading were identical for ber and plain concrete of the mix NC-0.5. For the mix NC-0.4, the stress prole and age at loading were not identical for ber and plain concrete but close enough (as shown in Figure 5-l) to compare results. The two mixes exhibited similar behavior at early age. The addition of bers tended to reduce the specic creep in the very early age. The results showed higher rate of creep evolution of plain concrete than that of ber concrete in the very early age. This behavior continued for the rst 6 days before the rate of creep evolution was surpassed by the ber reinforced concrete for the NC-0.4 mix. However, creep measurements beyond seven days were not available to draw conclusions on the rate of creep aer that period. On the contrary, the total tensile creep (drying case) of ber concrete exhibited a rate of evolution similar to plain concrete in the rst two days, and afterward the ber concrete exhibited more tensile creep than plain concrete as shown in Chapter 4. The eects of ber reinforcement on basic and total tensile creep at early age are somewhat conicting, which is primarily due to the type of curing adopted. Dierent curing conditions seemed to invoke dierent creep mechanisms. It is therefore required to dene the curing condition when the eect of bers on early age creep is examined.
7
100
The reduction in basic creep rate of ber concrete at early age can be hypothetically attributed to the ability of ber to control initial (prior to loading) microcracking density in the concrete. Concrete generally exhibits some level of microcracking in the rst l2-24 hours. At the onset of loading, which was arotmd 24 hours in this research, the ber concrete probably included less uncontrolled microcracking density than the plain concrete. As a result, the initial load could be distributed more tmiformly in ber concrete which led to lower intemal true stresses than that in plain concrete where no distribution of stresses had occurred. The dierence in intemal stress intensity drives the dierence in the rate of early age creep between FRC and plain concrete. The impact of ber addition on creep seems to depend on the curing condition and the microcracking density. Wet curing reduced the microcracking density, at least in the early age, and less creep was exhibited. However, the drying condition promoted microcracking density in ber concrete (debonding of bers due to simultaneous shrinkage and load), and more creep was exhibited at high stress range. In other words, part of the tensile creep was contributed by cracking. This hypothesis, however, opposes the role of
ber on controlling cracking and the ability to distribute intemal stresses. The net eect on
creep is probably govemed by the combination of both phenomena, which is a rather complex interaction and many parameters are involved. This complexity may explain the conicting results of the ber effect on creep that are available from the limited studies in literature and the lack of conclusive results regarding the effect of ber on creep (Shah
l992).
The data generated in this research suggested that ber reinforcement generally reduces creep as long as the cracking density is below a critical value. When the cracking density exceeds the critical value, the rate of creep increases. This hypothesis explains why ber concrete exhibited lower basic creep, but slightly higher total tensile creep at high stress ranges as compared to plain concrete. It also explains results in the literature that showed reduction of compressive creep when the ber volmne fraction exceeds l % and increase in creep when the ber volume action is below l % (Shah 1992). The critical cracking density depends primarily on bers volume action, aspect ratio, geometry, and the quality of concrete matrix. Testing the stated hypothesis needs further research, but at
101
this point it is a reasonable interpretation to explain the results ofthis research. Further discussion ofthe contribution of cracking to tensile creep will be discussed in Chapter 8.
5.4.2 Effect of WIC on Basic Creep

It is generally known that the w/c-ratio ofthe concrete mix inuences its creep capacity. However, the e'ect of w/c-ratio on creep at early age, particularly on tensile creep, is less conclusive. Creep is generally lcnown to increase as the w/c-ratio increases; however, in the early age the results ofthe tested mixes exhibited the opposite under restrained condition. The creep ofthe NC-0.4 mix (w/c = 0.4) was more than that of the NC-0.5 mix (w/c = 0.5) as shown in Figtues 4-17 and 4-18 for ber and plain concrete, respectively. Consequently the stress relaxation capacity prior to failure was higher in the concrete mix with a low w/c-ratio. This result was evident not only from basic creep test results, but also 'om the total tensile creep under drying conditions as explained in Chapter 4. The NC-0.4 mix exhibited not only higher drying shrinkage and autogenous shrinkage, but also higher tensile creep capacity as compared to the NC-0.5 mix.
5.5 Concluding Remarks

0 Sealing against drying alone does not eliminate the early age shrinkage even for normal concrete, because of intemal drying. Therefore, the common pracce of considering the shrinkage deformation to cease by sealing the sample is inaccurate for early age concrete. The tensile creep of sealed concrete at early age is not equivalent to the basic creep because it includes part ofthe autogenous shrinkage. 0 The autogenous shrinkage of concrete is a signicant contributor to the total concrete shrinkage measured in early age, particularly for the concrete with low w/c- ratio. It forms a major part ofthe total shrinkage in the very early days. I The creep/shrinkage ratio of concrete under the sealed condition di'ers om that under the drying condition. This suggests that the drying gradient and associated cracking inuence the creep and shrinkage of concrete. The sealed and wet-curing conditions provide a uniform distribution of intemal humidity in concrete, which eliminates the
102
surface cracking and impacts the creep analysis, particularly the drying creep mechanisms. The age of concrete at the onset of sealing inuences its shrinkage and creep behavior. Thus, the experimental procedures must specify the age at which sealing is applied to avoid misinterpretation ofthe collected data. Moist curing can be successfully adopted to suppress early age shrinkage. Its inuence on mechanical properties of concrete as compared to the sealed curing condition is negligible. Therefore, the creep measured tmder the wet curing condition is equivalent to the material basic creep because shrinkage is eliminated om the measurement. Steel ber reinforcement alters the rate and magnitude of basic tensile creep in very early ages. However, whether real or apparent creep mechanisms are inuenced is not immediately obvious. Nevertheless, it seems that the microcracking component of the creep of concrete is inuenced by the ber reinforcement. A hypothesis of the existence of a critical crack density is suggested to explain the creep behavior of ber concrete. When microcracking is below the critical density, bers distribute intemal stresses more rmiformly and reduces the intemal stress intensity, which subsequently lower the creep. However, when crack density exceeds the critical value, the microcracking contribution becomes dominant and the creep of ber reinforced concrete increases. The water-cement ratio of the concrete mix inuences the early age shrinkage and creep behavior of concrete. The early age creep is inversely related to the w/c-ratio of the restrained concrete.
103
2.5
, - _ - - ~ - - - - - - . - - - .4 . . . . . . . . . . -...-........---.....-. ._..._.............. Y n I'D IOOOIOOIIQCOOIIII
.
|- - . - - Q cf.-'
I
---__J
15
..__._._._._;;_. . . _ _ . . . . _;- . . . . . . . . .-----4 . . . . . . . . ..v.?.-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

1-..-I
(MPa) Stress
O5
,............... . ,.,-..r 4
F
. ...... . . . . . ..
.1
_,~'
0 o so
no-0.4 """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""-- NC-0.4-SF - - - - - NC-0.5

1oo
Age (hrs)
150
1 200
Figure 5-1 Stress prole applied on wet and sealed concrete samples
20
"W/C = 0.40
-20
-'"'W/C = 0.50
(rm/m)
kage
-4
-40 -60 -80 -100
Shr'n Free
-120
-14 0
50
100
150
200
Age (hrs)
Figure 5-2 Free shrinkage of sealed concrete samples
104
50
- Sealed - 0.4
O -50 -100
&"_.T Em
- Sealed - 0.5
Drying - 0.5 Drying - 0.4
-150 -200
I (pm Shr Free m) nkage
-250 -300
50
100
150
200
Age (hrs)
Figure 5-3 Free shrinkage of sealed and drying concrete
102
90
No gradient
100 98
. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
W/C = Q_5 3F__ 155

. . . . . . . . . . . . - ..,;.
_...._~
'___-er
.......................
92
._,,_.z_>.... .\ ."
- A\ .,' .-' ... .. . ........... - . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ,2?
ea Are
94 96 98 100
0.4) % (ty w/c =
96 94
.~' -',
-0- Depth = 0.50 inch Depth = 0.75 inch
W, """""""""""" "-5- Depth=1.00inch
/\1.P-9"H .W
. /' -5
-------------------- --x-_- ---- -- - Depth = 0,50 inch

No gradient
W/C = 0.4 SF
- - - - - Depth = 0.25 inch Depth = 0.75 inch
1-
Hum'd ve at
.1
92 90 0 F
Re
~ 102 100 150 200
l (90 % 9//V\ =
50
Drying Time (hrs)

Figure 5-4 Humidity prole in sealed concrete samples
l05
150
Cfeep w/c = 0-4. steel ber

" A
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ";"'"""""'"';::;_1i;'."*':::i." ' ' ' ' ' ' "
5Q
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...._.',..j-.-'f.:- ..................................... ..i .................... ..
-------~- Free shr.-Spec.2

------------ --
0
-,
------------------------------------- ~- Creep-$pe_2
_5O
-1
Hi _________
_ - Creep-Spec.1 ___________ __ i Free shr.- Spec. 1
____________ __
Ia (pm Stn m) r
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' "_'.'.:::-5""'"-'-".'.:;;;;______U"; ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " ' '
Shrinkage
"""""""""
-150
'
' 50
100
1 150
200
Age (hrs)
Figure 5-5 Free shrinkage and creep strain of replicate samples
1so
Creep
100
Steel Fiber
________,,
.f' n... --------- ~--4
1-s
50
7 0
/ (pm m
-------" Free shr. - WIC = 0.4 -------" Creep - W/C = 0.4 - Free shr. - W/C = 0.5 -Creep - W/C = 0.5
-__ ~
Stra n
-100 j
_____________________________________ __
V Shrinkage
-150
so
100 Drying Time (hrs)
150
zoo
Figure 5-6 Creep and shrinkage of sealed concrete with dierent w/c-ratios
106
150
Creep
100
;
__.. .. O. I
------- ..
y .1
um/m)
0 \. . . . . . . . "
-50 -100
--------- Free shr.-PC-0.4

-.---.... C-eep_pC_0_4
Stra n
El...... ............................ ., oreei>sF-<14

Shrinkage
- Free shr.-SF-0.4
150
50
100
150
200
Age (hrs)
Figure 5-7 Free shrinkage and tensile creep of sealed FRC
100
'
/\
C'eeP
Sealed at 14 hrs
'_"-uvO0I'
...ao--1'
_. . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-.'4"" . . . . . . . . . . . ."..Q. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
""
4.
,..x.--*" Sealed at 21 hrs i

_,..'
..
.I".
W/C = 0.5
- . . - . - - - ~ . > - r - - - - r - - . . . x . _ ~ - - - - - . . . . . . . - ~ - . . . . . . . - Y - -.
is-. x . - - - -
n(um/m Stra
"\.-a.
.
- . - - . , . . . . - > - - - . .
'1. W.-
_
_ i
""\._ Sealed at 27 hrs;

\Qr"""%.''-'.;;-"13-I-'8-lib;-'-e'.'.L''-'-li' ' '
._.... ...............................
~ 0
Shmkage Y
50
Sealed5at 14 hrs
100
150 200
Age (hrs)
Figure 5-8 Eect of age at sealing on ee shrinkage and tensile creep
107
2
O O
I. I,
1.5
, .9 - 9.. 0 _e
.*
1 I
r L
"-"
.',P'
-
.'.'5"
(MPa) Stress
0.5
5?
Q
-r"-Dwms-PC --Drying - SF
----'--"Sealed - PC ' ""'"--Sealed - SF "0
Oo.o,O u1'q11
0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Cumulative Elastic Strain (um /m )

Figure 5-9 Stress-cumulative elastic strain diagrams at dierent curing conditions
20
5.
I-Q
y_.
F-T
_r%
.'k\|
.-..-..
'_ -------- """"'.-.-l"-.-
.----
-20
. . .
. .
'
.. I.v"-. 1.. "1 -.3~.C"" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
kage(um/m) ls O
2222
_60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'-1:;. . . . L". .. ..... ... . .. .
99999.0.9.0 .".
(I)(D "Tl Tl
Shr'n Free
-8Q
.......................................... .- P. .._............................... ..
s.,_
.
Sealed ""1.
'
"'-Q..... ___ g._____ _
100
so
'
100
'
"
150
zoo
Age (hrs)
Figure 5-10 Effect of moist curing on early age shrinkage (W/C = 0.5)
I08
50
f\
.... . 0 _ . . . . . . . . .. .-,___,...--'
-0
has
_.__:.----.-------0--"'t......-0--i~~'--"
_
Wet ~
- ............................ .._ T *"'-c-. .
kage(pmlm
50
_............ ....................................... -Nc-0.4 L............................. Sealed .......................... .. .....

' --A---....,_
- no-0.4 NC-0.4-SF NC-0.4-SF
.' J
-
FreeShr n
100
150 O 50 100 150 200
Age (hrs)
Figure 5-ll Effect of moist curing on early age shrinkage (W/C = 0.4)
3
4 '.
25
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...F
...,-erf .......... ..
.-'
2 ....................................... ..f ................................ ..

I
1.5
Stress (MPa)
0.5 Q 0 20 40 60 80
l2222 coco 1 3
100 120
et eal 0.00.0 ."r'P*Eet ' "
- eal
140
1 160
Elastic Strain (umlm)

Figure 5-12 Stress-strain diagram for sealed and wet cured concrete
109
-LU1 @
Basic Creep 5
j 3 ,--n
5w
. __----1 _pn--
8O
50 ...................
'
>5 Cree
'
."- - - ' '

.
-..-.=.~..'.f.?.'.TT.SeaIed.,,,........... ..... ..
..-..---------'-"'0
l 1
...QI-II:
Wet
noanaq;,;..'..'-';-'iiiipa.-|_'-.'ji'-h1nnln-nanny--q---.---_. ' '
on.-3",".
~ -_ _,
Wet
-so ------- (Stum/anm) r
_
nkage
" -1oo -1so ----- -

-200
-250 0
2: 2
Sealed. --------------- - E,'E 5 '5
----- -- Shr Free

50 100
Dry
150
w/c = o.s
200
Age (hrs)
Figure 5-13 Creep and shrinkage of FRC under dierent curing conditions
200
1QQ
> Creep ..
,
.
Basic Creep
. . . . _. . . . . . . ........ .. __;-.-I.-.,,.uuuu--pa an
IIIC ______ D
D
-..-.Q n ~ ~ 0|
F!
..
_
.----_--P
cnnnqonuun'-'
i.-.- > - - . _ .
. - . . . _ . _ _ . . _ . . . . .
(um/m)
~__
Wet Seal
" """"??'~'-'';';I;;';';;';:;';' ' ' " ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
._
Stra n
....- . .
...... ..... ..... . . .. .... . .. ..
... .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
< Shr Free nkage

-300 0 * 50 100 150 200
Age (hrs)
Figure 5-14 Creep and shrinkage of plain concrete under dierent curing conditions
110
40
Load increment
35 30 25
,0
...................................... ..., . .. ' 3 _,..,-~_.... g 1 .

. . . . . . . _ . .._._.,..................... -., , I .-I005 |' I
. . . . .. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . .. . _. . .
W/C = 0-5
. .... .. I
....... ...
..o! 1 . . . In 0 | an . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . ..0 I 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
20
i
""""""""-"""'srasl"n'ss"r'" ...............iitiii1ti.Elai.I1Qqnqtete
MPa) l (Creep pcm ml

Spec'f'
15 10
5
2;;:_
. ;.- .- _
. .-_,.-_.\_ _..\*,. ,
. . . . ..
.........
0
0 50 100 1 50 200
Age (hrs)
Figure 5-15 E'ect of ber reinforcement on specic basic creep for NC 0 5 mix
50
Load increment
40 5:
.': 7: \~. -
W/C = 0.4 _ E
, ,;-. .
30
- _-,. _ 0
..-q....._.{~.,. ..;. _ .
v\ x
2o
/MPa) (um/m f'cCreep
10
--------- Plain Concrete

Steel Fiber
Spec
O
1 .
50
100
150
200
Age (hrs)
Figure 5-16 Effect of ber reinforcement on specic basic creep for NC 0 4 mix
lll
40 30
20
ri NC-0.4-SF """""" NC-0.5-SF
..... -. . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._.,:.......i....... 1
.'
I.
__
r ------ '
__(
---------;;;;_-;;r;-.~-'r= ---------------------------------------- ~4
MPa) l (Crcep umlm e

19
,'\ 1, '
\-
. -f .......... . .;,-:..'.................................................................... ..
0| H p I
Spec'f'
0 I
50
100
150
200
Age (hrs)
Figure 5-17 Efect of w/c-ratio on specic basic creep of FRC
50
40
................................................................................. ..
30
. M.
..
'
I
,'
I _______ -',,_.-.-.,.-- -"'.. Q >
, ~--"r; . .... --,I
............. ................. ..
MPa) l (Crm/ep pem

Spec'f'c
20
. . . . . . .._.q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . ..
'
--------- no-o.s - NC-0.4

. .
10
1,'~.-v;__ _-._,' _\ -.:-e\,.$ .-___-_.
50
100
150
200
Age (hrs)
Figure 5-18 Eect ofw/c-ratio on specic basic creep of plain concrete
l 12
CHAPTER 6 ANALYTICAL MODELS: BACKGROUND AND FORMULATION

6.1 Introduction
Analytical models are required to characterize the interaction between tensile creep and shrinkage at early ages, because direct experimental measurement is not yet possible. This chapter presents and discusses the analytical models implemented in the analysis. Literature backgrotmd and formulation ofthese models are presented. Models for basic and drying creep, basic concepts of damage, and a method to characterize the damage in restrained concrete are discussed in this chapter
6.2 Basic Creep Constitutive Laws Formulation

Basic creep is a material property dened as the creep when no exchange of
moisture between the test sample and the surroimding environment occurs. Mechanisms of
the basic creep and its modeling have been a matter of research since the beginning of this century and a great deal of imderstanding to the phenomena has been achieved. It is generally assumed that the basic creep can be predicted with a reasonable accuracy by the linear viscoelastic theory (Bazant 1988). However, there are two general approaches in the linear viscoelasticity: integral formulation and dierential formulation. Particulars of each approach are briey discussed in the following sections.
6.2.1 Integral Formulation

The integral representation of linear viscoelastic stress-strain relations for agng materials was given by Voltera using Boltzmanns superposition principle (see Bazant, 1988). The constitutive relation is expressed in terms of a superposition integral. The kemels in the integral fonnulation are either the creep or relaxation mction, which represents the response ofthe material to imit step ftmction. For a tmiaxial state of stress and an aging material the constitutive relationship can be written according to Voltera as:
I13
2(2) = ]'J(r,r')do-(r') + 8" (r)

0
6.1
Where a(t) is the strain at time t, 6 (t) is the stress-independent strain (shrinkage and thermal) and J(t,t') is the creep compliance ftmction which is expressed as a sum of the elastic strain at time of load application t and the creep strain at any time t; r >- r , i.e.
J(r,r') = H1:,+C(r,r')
Where E(r') is the elastic modulus characterizing the instantaneous deformation at age
6.2
1' and C(r, r) is the specic creep, and (t,t) is the creep coefcient dened as the ratio of the creep deformation to the initial elastic deformation. Equation 6.1 is a general uniaxial constitutive relation dening concrete as an aging viscoelastic material, based on applying the principle of superposition. It basically states that the response to a sum of two stress histories is the sum of the responses to each of them taken separately. This principle of superposition facilitates the calculation of creep caused by variable stress, and its use in design is permitted by contemporary design codes and recommendations of engineering societies. However, the use of the principle of superposition yields accurate prediction only when the stress lies within the service limits (i.e. less than 50% of the strength). The principle of superposition may be equivalently expressed in terms of the relaxation function, R(r, I) which represents the uniaxial stress 0' at time t caused by a unit constant axial strain imposed at time r and held constant aerwards. This yields the constitutive relation of aging viscoelasticity in the following form:
l
0'(t) = IR(t,r')[de(r') - dr: (r)]

0
6.3
In this research, the integral formulation was not used for the analysis because of the computational diculties associated with this approach and the limitations of the principle of superposition. It is likely that the li.nearity of creep, on which superposition is based, be violated at early age for at least two reasons. First, early age concrete exhibits deviation from linearity in the constitutive stress-strain relation. Second, the generated stresses in a restrained test exceed the service stress limit in most cases, which put the creep
114
law in the non-linear range. Therefore, the superposition principle will not be the most accurate analysis, and a crude estimation of the creep fimction is only possible.
6.2.2 Differential Fomiulation

In this approach, the creep behavior is represented by rheological models composed of elastic (spring) and viscous (dash-pot) elements placed together in a series and/or parallel coupling. The dierential formulation, also called rate type formulation eliminates history dependency in the analysis of creep. It requires only the current values of stresses, strains, and a few hidden state variables to be stored. Therefore, the number of arithmetic operations is signicantly reduced (Bazant, 1972a, Bazant, 1988, and Bazant
and Wu, 1974).

The rate-type formulation of the aging creep law of concrete results in a system of rst or second-order differential equations- with the actual time as an independent variable. It can be based on either Maxwell chain model or Kelvin chain model (Figure 6-l). The Maxwell chain model represent the stress-strain relation as follows: 0' = Z01, Where 0",, is the stress in the ,urh Maxwell tmit. The strain rate in the aging spring is 6' / Eu (t) , and that in the dash-pot is of / r7/J (t) , where r1 represents the age-dependent viscosity of the nth dash-pot. Summing these strains results in the following equation: 0' +-;7o' =E(sso) 6.4
5,.
6.5
Where, so is the stress-independent inelastic strain. A unique characterization of the model requires some relationship between 17,, and E/J to be assumed. A parameter r has been introduced to relate dash-pot viscosity to spring modulus, the simplest fonn of it is 2' = 17 / Ey and has been used in most works (see Bazant, 1988). This parameter is called relaxation time, and also called retardation time. A similar conversion to a dierential type form can be achieved based on Kelvin chain model. The rate of stress in the ,urh spring is Eu (t)s'j , while the rate of stress in
ll5
the prh dash-pot is 17,, (t)s"# . Setting the sum ofthese two stress rates equal to 6' , The
following dierential constitutive law is obtained:

' ' .y+ E,,(f)+'7,,(l)= 0'
65
'l,,(f) 6.2.2.1 Maxwell versus Kelvin Chain Model
T7,.(I)
The above discussion reveals that either the Maxwell chain or the Kelvin chain can approximate the integral-type creep law of linear aging viscoelastic material. Thus, these models are mutually equivalent, but each has different analytical features. The primary characteristics ofthe two models can be pointed out as follows: 0 The dierential equation for Kelvin chain model (Eq. 6.6) is ofthe second order, while for a non-aging material it is ofthe rst order. The dierence in the order of the goveming differential equation basically results because the stress for the aging spring must be written as 0" = EH (t),, , not as 0" = EH (t)a for the non-aging material, to satisfy thermodynamic restrictions on the solidifying process (agi.ng) (Bazant, 1988). In contrast to the aging Kelvin chain model, the dierential equation for the aging Maxwell chain model (Eq. 6.5) is ofthe rst order. This is one advantageous property of Maxwell chains over the Kelvin chains as it simplies the computational aspects of the creep law. Q The Kelvin model formulation is based on the creep compliance mction whereas, the Maxwell model formulation is based on the relaxation function. Identication of material parameters by optimizing the dierence between the model and the test data requires creep data for Kelvin model and relaxation data for Maxwell model. Kelvin model in this regard is more convenient since the creep test is much easier to perform than the relaxation test and is more common in literature. The simplicity and straightforwardness ofthe material identication in Kelvin chain model is a great advantageous property over the Maxwell model.
Apparently, it is possible to approximate creep law by either Maxwell or Kelvin model. However, these models are not completely equivalent for aging material such as concrete. 116
The main diculty in these models arises 'om aging. In this study, the problem of aging was dealt with separately as will be discussed in the next section. Nevertheless, the Kelvin chain model motivated by simplicity of material identi.cation was adopted in the analysis ofbasic creep in this study.
6.2.3 Aging Creep Based on Solidication Theory

The aging aspect of basic creep of concrete can be mathematically handled by two dierent approaches. First, the classical, direct approach that treats the material parameters involved in the creep model as empirical fimctions of age as explained in the previous section. Second, the approach based on solidication theory (Bazant and Prasannan, 1989 a, l989b), in which the creep function ofthe viscoelastic material is considered ageindependent but the volume action ofthis material is increased with time. This approach has a solid foimdation om the viewpoint ofchemical thermodynamics. It also has an important practical advantage, namely, the characterization of creep by a non-ag'ng model which is much simpler. The aging in the solidication theory is introduced separately by means of a variation ofthe volume fraction ofthe solidifying viscoelastic material constituent as will be discussed in the next section.
7
6.2.3.1 Qualitative Description of Aging

The main idea in this formulation is that the aging aspect of concrete is considered to be due to growth ofthe volume fraction v(t) ofthe load bearing portion of the solidied matter, the properties ofwhich are age-independent as required by equilibrium thermodynamics. The model portrays aging as a consequence ofthe growth ofthe volume actions v and h associated with viscoelastic and viscous suains, respectively as shown in Figure 6-2. Generally, thermodynamic analysis can be perfoirned only for systems of substances that have time-invariant properties. As known from chemical thermodynamics,
a time-dependent chemical system is obtained as a consequence of a time-varying

composition ofthe substances in the system. The hydration of cement is a chemical
reaction, and so it must be treated similarly as proposed by Bazant (1977, 1979). The
volume v(t) represents the increase ofboth the volume action ofthe hydrated cement and 117
the load-bearing solid action, which is growing due to formation of irther bonds or polymerization ofthe calcium silicates hydrates. The principal advantage ofthis theory is that the load-bearing matters are age-independent. This makes possible, the application of the conventional theory of non-aging viscoelasticity.
6.2.3.2 Micro-Mechanics of the Creep Model

The micromechanics ofthe model described in this section was formulated by Bazant and Prasannan (1989a). The creep strain is assumed to be composed oftwo components as shown in Figure 6-2: viscoelastic strains" and viscous strains . At high stresses, 2" and sf represent the viscoelastic-plastic strain and the viscoplastic strain. Micromechanical analysis ofthe solidifying process has been used by Bazant (1977) to model the aging as a growth of the volume fraction of load-bearing solidied matter. The basic hypothesis illustrated by this model is that the volume elements dv(t) solidied at various times are all subjected to the same strain, which is equal to the overall macroscopic creep strain s"(t) . This hypothesis implies the coupling of all these volume elements to be in parallel (Figure 6-2). More complicated combinations of parallel and series coupling should be more realistic. However, the parallel coupling generally gives upper bounds on the stifiess of composites, and for concrete it gives good estimates. So it should be also acceptable for creep as a simple approximation. The model introduces a microstress 0'8 (v,z) in the solidied matter at time r, which is dened as the stress at the location where the solidication occurs when the volume of all the solidied matter is v (Figure 6-2). A layer of thickness, dv(r) , is assumed to solidify and bind with the previously solidied matter at time 2' , at which the volume of all the solidied matter is */(2') . Now an essential point is that, at the moment it solidies, the layer dv must be in a stress- 'ee state, i.e. o'g[v(r), z']= 0. This assumption is applicable only to solidication at a solid-solution interface, as shown in Figure 6-2. Conceivably, the solidication process could also occur at a solid-solid interface, in which case a pressure across the interface could happen (crystal growth pressure). However, consideration ofthis phenomenon has no signicant inuence
118
on the age-dependence of creep and would require a model that is more complex than the parallel coupling of elements dv(t). Equilibrium condition of the macroscopic applied stress O with the intemal microscopic stress leads to the following equation:
I
Io: [v(z'),t]dv(r) = o'(t)

r=O
6.7
The solidifying material on the microscale is considered to be non-aging and linearly viscoelastic. So the stress-strain relation for the layer solidied at time r is given as:
I
@"()-5(1) = I(tt')o'g[v(z'), 41']
6.2
in which it is assumed that cg [v(r),dt'] = 0 for r -< r; s"(t) - e"(r)= viscoelastic strain actually suered by the element that solidied at time r , and (t - t) = microscopic creep compliance function of the solidied matter, representing the creep strain at time r, caused by a unit microstress (08 = 1 ) applied at time r . Note that the compliance mction is
written in terms of only one variable: - t , the load duration, rather than two independent
variables t and r as required for the compliance function on the macroscale. This is a great simplication that eliminates the eect of age at the rnicroscale.
6.2.3.3 Constitutive Relations

Equations (6.7) and (6.8) represent a system of two coupled- integral equations relating the variables o'(t) , e"(r) and o'g(v,t) . The assumption of layer deposition (solidication) at a stress-free state eliminates the microstress 0': from the system as shown by Bazant, (1977). The result is a macroscopic stress-strain relation of the following fonn:
a" (r) = L !I5(r - r')do-(:3 v(r) ,

where, 4z5(t - t) = 6(t - t)/ 6t . A generalization for nonlinear behavior is introduced by
multiplying the strain rate by a non-dimensional factor F(o'(t)) . By introducing a
6.9
viscoelastic microstrain y(t) which represents the strain of the binder whose volume grows
119
with time, the creep strain rate ofthe solid " (t) can be expressed as the product ofthe ageindependent strain rate of solid 7(t), and the increase ofthe volume fraction v(t) ofthe solid
as follows:
5(1) = 1-(L))y'(r)
v(r)
;> = ]'(z -t)do-(r')

O
6.10
For the viscous strain sf (t), the eect ofvolume growth ftmction h(t) ofthe solidied matter is mathematically analogous. So the results must be as:
sf (I) = %.z% ].,;( - z)do-(2')
6.11
Where, 1;/(r -t) is the corresponding microscopic compliance function of the solidied matter that is non-aging. Since the strains-(t) is viscous, the strain rate at time t caused by microstress 0'], acting at time t is f (r) = 0' / 17, where 27, = constant =eective viscosity of the solidied matter. So z(r r) =1/no , be integrated to yield 1;/(t r) = (r -1)/170 . Then Eq. (6.11) can
5(1) = 6(t)
6.12
Where r7(t) = r7,,h(t) is the apparent (effective) macroscopic viscosity, which is not constant but increase with time. Equation (6.12) can be written analogously to Equation (6.10) by introducing a constant in the equation as follows:
sf (1) = q,f%)@6-(1) v t
Where q, is empirical constant depends on the composition of concrete.
6.13
6.2.3.4 Rate - Type Approximation

The main practical advantage of the above formulation is that it can be reduced to a rate-type creep law based on rheological models with non-aging properties. In this formulation, the viscoelastic microstrain 7(t) is represented by a Kelvin chain with ageindependent elastic moduli Eg and viscosities r1 . This leads to the relation:
120
r];j+Euy=o'
7=Z},,
u=l
6.14
The solution ofthe above equation for a constant stress tr applied at age t yields
ya) =
_e*(r-1)/av)
T = 2
il"1'< l*1/L>-l\)
Where, ru are constants called the retardation times and must be chosen upront as mentioned in section I\ I\) Constantsl/' Eu may, in general, be found by the method of
least squares. The response of the Kelvin chain is approximately equivalent for variable stress, because 7(1) due to variable stress is obtained from (t t) by principle of superposition. Having identied }'(t) , the macroscopic viscoelastic strain and viscous strain can be determined by numerical integration. Identication of the four major parameters v(r), F (o'(t)) ,1/ Ep and qs is required to calibrate the model as will be discussed in Chapter 7.
6.3 Drying Creep Modeling and Mechanisms 6.3.1 General

At simultaneous drying, the deformation of a concrete specimen under sustained load is larger than the sum of the drying shrinkage ofthe specimen at no load and ofthe deformation ofthe specimen that does not dry. The excess deformation is called Pickett e'ect (Pickett, 1942) after the man who rst clearly documented it. The interpretation of the excess deformation and its mechanisms is still a matter of major controversy as detailed in Chapter 2.
As explained in Chapter 2, two major views exist in the literature regarding the
Pickett effect. One relates the excess deformation to apparent mechanisms related to microcracking associated with drying, and the other relates the excess deformation to real mechanisms related to stress-induced shrinkage. It is generally stated that, neither ofthe views can alone explain the excess deformation, and a combination ofthem is more acceptable (Bazant 1988). However, there are no experimental data currently in the literature that distinguish clearly among the two proposed mechanisms at early age,
121
particularly for tension. In this research, it is assumed that the excess deformation was caused by two mechanisms: microcracking and stress-induced shrinkage. The following sections describe these mechanisms and their mathematical formulation.
6.3.2 Micro-cracking
It is well known that drying of concrete causes cracking because ofthe nonunifonnity of moisture distribution in a drying concrete specimen. The surface layer ofthe specimen dries and shrinks rst, while the inner layer remains wet and does not shrink. As a result, the surface layer undergoes tension that causes local microcracking or tensile strain softening. Due to the nonlinear inelastic behavior and unrecoverable creep of concrete caused by the tensile stress, the micro-cracks cannot close fully when the moisture approaches a uniform state. As a result, the measured shrinkage ofthe concrete specimen is always less than the true shrinkage. When the loaded specimen is under compression, the surface cracking is eliminated. As a result, the surface cracking does not reduce the shrinkage. This conn-ibutes in part to the excess deformation of the drying specimen tmder a compressive load. In connast to the compressive case, when the specimen is tmder tension, the tensile load promotes the surface cracking and reduces the shrinkage below that of the load-ee specimen (Bazant and Wittrnann, 1982). However, since tensile creep and shrinkage are opposite to each other in direction, a further reduction in the shrinkage of the drying tension specimen reects as an additional tensile drying creep. The fact that tensile load promotes microcracking led Kovler (1995) to question the eect of microcracking as a mechanism for drying creep under tension. Nevertheless, it seems that whether tensile or compressive loads are applied the effect ofmicrocracking on drying creep remains explainable.
6.3.3 Stress-induced shrinkage

The stress-induced shrinkage has been concluded in the literature as a result of
detailed nite element analysis ofnumerous test data (Bazant and Chem 1985). In this mechanism, the shrinkage and thermal dilation coecients are dependent upon the stress. For example, shrinkage has been shown to increase under compressive load and to decrease
122
under tensile load (Wittmann and Roelfstra, 1980, and Wittmann, 1993). The physical mechanism that causes this stress dependency has been related to the existence of two diiusion processes in concrete: macrodiffusion and microdihsion. The macrodifision transports water in large pores (capillary pores), and affects the macroscopic water nansport, i.e. drying and wetting. The microdiffusion transports water locally between the capillary pores and the gel pores. Thermodynamic equilibrium between water in the macropores and the micropores must be maintained, and the thermodynamic imbalance is the driving force of the microdiusion. The movement of water molecules through the gel pores promotes the debonding and rebonding process that is the source of creep.
6.3.4 Fonnulation for Stress-Induced Shrinkage

Two hypotheses have been considered in the literature to formulate a mathematical model for stress-induced shrinkage. First, creep rate or creep viscosity depends on the magnitude of the microdiffusion ux of water j which is driven by the dierence in the chemical potential between capillary water and gel water; i.e. r; = r;(j) . This hypothesis seems physically justied as movement of water through the micropores enhances the process of bond ruptures and reformation (creep source). Second, the microdiiusion is innitely fast. Based on the second hypothesis, Bazant and Chem (1985) have shown the dependence of r7 on microdiusion ux as equivalent to its dependency on eective pore htunidity I? = a,H + a2T . From hypothesis I and the fact that only the absolute value of flux is what really matter, the creep viscosity can be written as a function of eective pore humidity; as a rst order approximation it takes the following form:
:1-_=_.1.-=-1-+/<'l1=7l
11(1) '7 (H. T) '7
6.16
Where, r; is the viscosity without microdiiision, H is the pore humidity rate, T is the pore temperature rate and k is a constant. For a single Maxwell unit, the following equation can be written:
-+:..=_:h$T
E n(H.T)
123
Where (H,T') is the creep viscosity imder drying; 6",, and , is the shrinkage strain rate
and thermal strain rate; 6, = a,.T , wherea, is the coecient ofthermal expansion; and
6,, = k,,,H , where /c,,, is the shrinkage coefcient. Equation 6.16 represents the drying-induced creep since the viscosity is modied by the variation ofhumidity. However ifEquation 6.16 is substituted in Equation 6.17 and rearranged gives:
%+3 = .6 - (16,, +a,k'o'signFI_)H - (a, +a,k'<m'gnH)T
11
6.18
Where signH is the sigi ofH , Rearranging terms in Eq. 6.18 lead to the following %.+=k,,,(l+ro'signF)H-aT(l +po'sign)T 6.19
'1
It can be seen om Equation 6.19 that the shrinkage coefcient km is modied by a stress coefcient. That is why the associated deformation is called the stress-induced shrinkage. Furthermore, the themial coecient 0:, is also modied by the applied stress. The corresponding increase of thermal deformation is called sness-induced thermal. This conclusion is a consequence ofthe fact that the chemical potential of water is not only a function of humidity but also of temperature. It is interesting to note that Equations 6.17 and 6.19 are mathematically equivalent. However, the e"ect of humidity variation in Equation 6.17 reects on creep viscosity causing the drying-induced creep, whereas the drying eect in Equation 6.19 reects on shrinkage and thermal coefcients which represent the stress-induced shrinkage and the stress-induced thermal. Therefore, the concepts of drying-induced creep and the stress-induced shrinkage are mathematically equivalent. Equation 6.19 can be rearranged such that the shrinkage and thermal strain rates are directly appeared rather than the rate ofhumidity and temperature as follows:
= a - (1 + r,6szgnH).e,, - (1 + p,6.<ignH)e,
shrinkage in the form ofEquation 6.20 was used in the analysis and modeling of test
6.20
Either ofEquations 6.19 and 6.20 can be used in this study. However, The stress-induced
results. The strain rate was preferred to appear in the equation because the experiment
124
measured shrinkage strain more accurately than pore humidity. Furthermore, the pore humidity was sensitive to the method of measurement and to temperature variations. The error in the humidity measurement was t 3 % (controlled by the accuracy ofthe humidity meter). This error was substantial for the purpose ofthe analysis because the humidity change was in the range of 10 % to 15 % during the rst week of drying.
6.3.5 Stress-Strain Relation for Microcracking

It is generally known that, microcracking causes tensile strain soening. It has been described in the literature as a stress-strain relation in continuum manner. Bazant and Chem (l985b) have developed a constitutive relation that describes the tensile strain softening. A basic hypothesis to establish the relation is that microcracking is permitted to take place only within orthogonal planes. This simplies the mathematics because orthogonal cracks do not interact and cracks in one direction contribute only to the overall deformation in that direction. This allows the description of strain soening by independent algebraic relations for each of the orthogonal directions. The same approach was adopted in this research. The stress-strain relation goveming the strain softening part of response is additive to the strain due to creep, shrinkage and elastic defomration as follows:
e=s,+e,+a,,,+
6.21
in which e, 6', , at , 6,, ,g' = column matrices of the Cartesian components of the tensors of total strain, of strain due to elastic deformation, of strain due to creep, of strain due to shrinkage, and of strain associated with microcracking. The relation between 0' and g" must be algebraic (for monotonic loading) as mentioned earlier, and so
0' = C(5)5
6.22
in which C represents Cartesian components ofthe secant modulus tensor; C is a function of 5 . Strain softening curve shown in Figure 6-3 was typically considered for the analysis. This curve is characterized by innite initial tangent, which means no elastic response was included in this curve. The chosen curve characterized only the strain softening part of response, which was reasonable since the elastic response was evaluated separately.
125
The above formulation is for monotonic loading and the experiment in this study dealt with time-dependent loading. Hence, to capture the time dependency of microcracking and effect of aging on strength, the strain-soening curve was normalized to the tensile strength of concrete. The above stress-strain relation associated with drying microcracking was a crude approximation to the behavior because the mean stress was only considered in the analysis. Since a uniaxial experiment was conducted in this research, only cracking normal to x-direction were assumed to contribute to the overall deformation (hypothesis of crack orthogonality). The uniaxial strain-soening diagram (Figure 6-3) can be described as 0' = A5 exp(-bi) For this expression, the secant modulus is 6.23
C({;') = /15"" exp(b)
(0 < q <1)
6.24
Where, A,q,b,s are empirical constants, and will be determined by tting the microcracking data resolved in the analysis.
6.4 Components and Sequence of the Analysis

The analysis performed in this research consisted of four major parts: Basic creep analysis, stress-induced shrinkage, microcracking analysis, and damage analysis. These components are briey summarized as follows. Detailed analysis and discussion of results will be presented in Chapters 7 and 8.
Part I: Basic Creep: Basic creep data extracted from tests of concrete under wet conditions were used to identify the model parameters described in section 6.2, Equations 6.12-6.15. The calibrated model was used to characterize the basic creep behavior of concrete at early age, and to predict the basic creep of concrete tested under sealed and drying cming conditions. Part II: Stress-Induced shrinkage: Creep data generated under sealed conditions were used to quantify the stress-induced shrinkage strain and to calibrate the model formulated in section 6.3.4. Equation 6.20 was used to model the stress-induced shrinkage.
126
Part HI: Microcracking: After determining the basic creep and stress-induced shrinkage for drying concrete using their predictive models, the strain associated with drying microcracking was estimated. Equation 6.23 was used to model the microcracking in the drying test. The inuence of microcracldng on failure was determined based on a damage model, the basic concepts of which are discussed in the following section.
6.5 Damage and Failure of Concrete

Failure in quasi-brittle materials like concrete occurs rst progressively and then suddenly when micro cracks localize into a macro crack. The time-dependent microcracking arises from drying is therefore connibuting to the fracture process of restrained concrete. In this section, the eect of drying microcracking on failure is quantitatively examined by using basic principles of damage mechanics. From the continuum point of view, Damage models are well suited to capture the essential features of the failure of concrete.
6.5.1 Basic Concepts

In phenomenological damage models, the damage is very often understood as a degradation of the elastic stiress of the material (Lemaitre 1992). Pijaudier-Cabot (1995) demonstrated that, the pertinent variable that characterizes damage for quasi-brittle material is the variation of secant stifress modulus. This concept was used in this study to predict failure of restrained concrete. Therefore, the state coupling between strain and damage must be established. The inuence of damage on elasticity can be described through a state coupling between the strain and the damage (Lemaitre 1992) and hence, a uniaxial law of elasticity of damaged material can be written as follows:
8, = -L E(l - D)
approximated from the stress-strain diagram obtained in a uniaxial tensile strength test, using the concept of secant stiffness degradation as a measure of damage. A schematic
6.25
where D is a damage state variable. In this study the damage state variable was indirectly
127
diagram showing this process is presented in Figure 6-4. The damage variable D is dened as follows:
E 0 =1-
E0
6.26
where E is the eective secant modulus ofthe damaged material and E, is the initial modulus of the virgin material. The most accurate measurement ofE is during imloading, however, the secant modulus obtained 'om a loading suess-strain diagram tinned out to be a good approximation to the stiress
6.5.1.1 Damage Threshold

Before the microcracks are initiated, creating the damage modeled by D, they must nucleate by the accumulation of microstresses accompanying incompatibilities of microstrains. This corresponds in pure tension case to a certain value of strain spa (threshold) below which no damage by microcracking occurs:
s < spa > D = 0

The damage tlueshold for concrete corresponds approximately to the end of linear portion ofthe stress-strain diagram. When concrete strained to the nonlinear range, damage of some sort to the material is expected. The damage threshold suain can be roughly taken as the elastic suain corresponds to a tensile sn-ess of around 0.48-0.5 ofthe tensile strength as shown in Figure 6-4.
6.5.1.2 Failure Criterion

Failure in concrete occurs rst progressively and then suddenly when micro cracks localize into a macro crack. It corresponds to a critical value of damage D, , which depends upon the material and the conditions of loading. The nal decohesion of atoms however, is characterized by a critical value ofthe effective stress acting on the resisting area. This critical eective stress can be practically approximated by ultimate stress that is a material characteristic. Then;
128
.0, =1-1
all
6.27
gives the critical value of the damage at a macro crack initiation occmring for the imidimentional stress 0'. The ultimate stress 0', being identied as a material characteristic, D, may vary between D, == 0 for pure brittle acture to DC = l for pure ductile acture but usually remains of the order of 0.2 to 0.5.
6.5.1.3 Evolution of Damage

Kinetic law of damage evolution which describes the kinetic coupling between the plastic strain and the damage have been applied for several classical cases of loading giving rise to di'erent kinds of damage such as brittle, quasi-brittle, ductile, and low cycle fatigue or high cycle fatigue (Lemaitre 1992). The common main feature is the proportionality of the damage rate to the strain energy density release rate and to the accumulated plastic strain rate beyond a plastic strain threshold and up to a critical value of the damage
variable. The general form of the law is as follows:

D=%p if pzpo 6.28
where Y is the strain energy density release rate, S is the damage strength material parameter, pD is the damage threshold, D is the damage rate and p is the accumulated plastic strain rate. The accumulated plastic strain that govems the damage is dened on the mesoscale for materials such as metals and at the microscale when the damage is very localized such as for concrete. For quasi-brittle material, the kinetic damage evolution can be approximated as follows: . of _ D=52_-Re,q D=0 U"
I
_ if
a,q2p,_,ando',,,2o'f
6.29
o',q<o'f
where 0;, is the von Mises equivalent stress, 0', is the fatigue limit of the material, 6,, is the rate oftotal equivalent strain, E is the elastic modulus, S is the material damage strength parameter and R is the traixiality ratio dened as follows:
129
R = 3(1+ v) + 3(1- 2v)(" )=

3 0',
6.30
Where, v is the Poissons ratio and 0'H is the hydrostatic stress. The above law for damage evolution was used to predict the damage caused by microcracldng that led to failure of drying concrete.
0'
T 0'
WW hm
11.
K<"=1Y"1 _
_ cham tmrts
E1.
Maxwell
chain units
'71
WW
16' it
Figure 6-1: Kelvin and Maxwell chain units
130
0'
0'
WW F1
1.) 1
7: y __\'_L.
___i__,__ Z Elasti E
0-,(v.r>
014
J -:V
E5277: .
l>(r -1)
'7.v
::=?@gii " F __' PA * -.< ' - '-
;:____
e"
Vicscoelastic
1 A
vvw 3.
- .\ "\r\r'rj aw); 1;AVA ~ "414 $3.3.

4
at
Creep
<1
.1IQ ~ 1 _ > "91' v at$V* 6'){I/2?-#6!YV \'~ > r,~'40.; I 9~". . > 6' ~ IVI
51 {.-$
ii.
_rhrn_ 8 47_ __ _
A
1
_Y_ 8
Viscous
Shrinkage
(r r)
11/(I r)
1 '76
['
Figure 6-2: Solidication theory for basic creep
0'/0',
0 = C()~
0.8
0' = A? XP(-bi)
5
Figure 6-3: Strain Softening Curve
131
GA
Gt ...-_. .
E3 D3
E2, D2
5,1:
E0 (Sf
\ E..D.
Di=l-E1/E9
~ 0']: (0.48 0.5)o',
Di = Damage factor at point i D= Critical damage factor
and
e,
> 8
a) Tensile stress-strain diagram and damage calculation from secant stifress
Dc ........s..._......2....................................................._.........................._......................._._...z.._................_....._..._........_._...
Damage Threshold
dD
sad
di
b) Damage accumulation cm've
2,,
>
Figure 6-4 Damage evaluation om a tmiaxial stress-strain diagram
132
CHAPTER 7 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF BASIC CREEP TEST RESULTS

7.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the analysis of basic creep test results generated in this research. Basic creep is a material property dened as the creep when no exchange of moisture between the test sample and the surrounding environment occurs. Mechanisms of basic creep and its modeling have been a matter of research since the beginning ofthis century, and a great deal of understanding ofthe phenomena has been achieved. However, the behavior oftensile creep at early age is not well understood, particularly for ber reinforced concrete. The basic creep was determined om the creep measurement under wet curing conditions. A model based on solidication theory, as presented in Chapter 6, was used to analyze the basic creep test results, and various behavioral aspects are discussed in this chapter.
7.2 Basic Creep Analysis

This section presents the analysis of basic creep data and discusses the test results. Numerical analysis was performed to characterize the basic creep behavior of plain and ber concrete at early age. Two approaches were used in the ntunerical analysis: step-bystep method (incremental approach) and superposition method. The step-bystep method divides the time domain into time increments. At each time increment, the analysis considers the current value ofthe creep and updates the model parameters accordingly. Thus, the time history is eliminated in the analysis. The outcome :om this analysis is a predictive model, calibrated for the concrete tested in this study, to predict the creep of restrained concrete at early age.
The superposition method adopts the principle of superposition in the analysis. It

considers the response to varying stress as the sum of the responses to each stress taken
133
separately. In contrast to the step-by-step method, the time history in the superposition analysis of basic creep is required. However, the outcome provides more behavioral information such as the effect of age at loading and ber reinforcement on basic creep behavior of concrete at early age.
7.2.1 Review of Basic Creep Model

The analytical model for basic creep was described in the previous chapter. It views the basic creep as composed of two components: viscoelastic component 6:" (t) and viscous (ow) component sf (t) . Mathematical equations for these components were formulated in the previous chapter and summarized herein. The creep strain rate of the solid ."(r) is expressed as the product of the age-independent strain rate of solid ?(r) , and the increase of the volume 'action, v(r) , of the solid as follows:
"(r) = %7(1)
Where function F(o'(t)) is introduced to reect nonlinear behavior at high stress. The
7.1
viscoelastic microstrain y(t) is represented by a Kelvin chain model with N Kelvin units. Each unit consists of a spring with age-independent elastic modulus Eu and a dashpot with age-independent viscosity r) . The solution for this spring-dashpot system is of the following fonn: ;/(t) = Q
[i D1/LII "1 '<
e""")"')
2',L = '74
.31
7.2
Where ry is a constant, called the retardation time, and must be chosen upfront. The viscous strain term is given by the following equation:
e(r1=q.lit()'l<r(r>
V
7-3
Where q, is an empirical constant and depends on the composition of concrete. It is

apparent from Equations 7.1-7.3 that four main parameters are required to describe the
134
model: v(t), F(o'(t)) ,1/ E,1 and q, . For a constant stress, the basic creep strain according to the model can be given as follows
8.. = a[A, (1 - e*'"'~>~ ) + A, (1 - e*"~> ) + ...A_ (1 - e'<"'~>~ ) + q, (r - 1, )] 7.4

Where t is the age of concrete, I, is the age at loading, A,~=I/E, and ti are constants for the 1"" Kelvin chain unit. Equation 7.4 was used as the primary analytical mction for basic creep, and the model parameters were identied from the experimental data. Identication of these parameters is discussed in section 7.2.2.
7.2.1.1 Important comment on Flow Tenn

The ow term q, (1 - to) in Equation 7.4 has been introduced into the solidicationbased compressive creep model because it was found that tting a large number of creep data required this term (Bazant 1988). However, in the case oftensile creep this requirement has not yet been conrmed since data on tensile creep is scarce in the literature. Conrmation ofthis aspect requires tensile creep data tmder constant load and at various ages, which is not available in this research. However, some of the available data on basic tensile creep in the literature indicated a stability ofthe creep function after a certain time under load (Kovler 1999, Benoit and Michel 1995). It is also indicated in the literature that the tensile creep function stabilizes earlier than the compressive creep does as discussed in Chapter 2. These observations question the necessity ofthe ow term in modeling the basic tensile creep. In fact, Bazant, who is one of the prominent developers of the theory, has neglected this term in one ofhis recent papers (Bazant and Xi, 1994).
7.2.2 Identication of Model Parameters

The model parameters were identied by optimization. In view ofthe aging law known om the double power law (Bazant and Osman, 1976), the volume action growth
can be introduced as follows:

II!
L=
v(t)
-1- a
7.5
135
Where m anda are empirical constants. The nonlinear dependence is introduced as follows: (Bazant and Prasannan, 1989a)
F(o-(1)) =
S=
7.6
Where Q represents damage at high stress and is taken as Q = s' , and _/I is the direct tensile strength of concrete. Numerical analysis in time domain was performed to identify the model parameters. g
Linear and nonlinear optimization requires a response ftmction io evaluate the predicted model values. Based on the basic creep model, Equation 7.4 forms the response mction for a constant stress applied at time to. In such a form, the optimization problem is nonlinear. Nonlinear models are difcult to r, and require iterative methods that start with an initial guess ofthe tmknown parameters. Each iteraon step alters the current guess until the algorithm converges. Statistics Toolbox built in computational MATLAB soware was used for the optimization. It basically nds the parameters that minimize the sum of the squared dierences between the observed responses and their tted values. It uses the
Gauss-Newton algorithm with Levenberg-Marquardt modications for global convergence

(MathWorks, 1997). The optimization problem requires the following input parameters: 1 0 Response function in the form of equation 7.4; Experimental data including, stress, time, age at loading, and the corresponding basic
creep;
0 0 0 Direct tensile strength data in time; Initial guess ofthe model parameters; Retardation times which must be chosen upfront as mentioned in Chapter 6.
A computer program was written in MATLAB to take the above input parameters and to perform the nonlinear optimization accordingly. The outcome is the model parameters that best t the experimental data. _
n O6.
7.3 Incremental Approach
--
Analysis based on a step-by-step method was used to optimize the parameters of the basic creep model (Equation 7.4). The analysis divides the time domain into time
136
increments. This approach considers the current time step only and updates the parameters accordingly. Thus, it simplies the computations, particularly when the stress changes frequently as in the case of restrained shrinkage.
In the initial stage of analysis, all parameters in Equations 7.4 and 7.5 were
included, and the following retardation times (in hours) were considered. r=(0.01 However, the 0.1 1.0 10 100) 7.7
results revealed that the parameter /lo in Equation 7.5 could be xed m
24 hours once and for all. This value was also xed as 1 day by Bazant and Prasannan (1989b) in their tting ofa large number of creep data.
7.3.1 Inuence of the Flow Term on the Analysis

Analysis with and without the ow term was performed in this research. The analysis with the ow term included, revealed that two exponential series with retardation times of 0.1 and 1.0 hour provide a reasonable t of the data. Therefore, Equation 7.4 and 7.5 are reduced to the following: 5:, = o'[A, (l e""")) + A, (1 e""'" ) + qs (r to )I
V
7.8
and
L=
v(r)
1 ,
+a
7.9
Where r is the age of concrete in hours, and to is the age of concrete at load application. The parameters; Al, A, ,q,, m,a are identied by tting the above nonlinear mctions to basic creep data. Combinations of retardation times of (1.0 hr, l0hrs) and (0.1hr, 1.0hr, l0hrs), (l.Ohr. 10hrs, 100hrs) and (10hrs, 100hrs) were tried using the incremental approach with the ow term excluded. All these combinations could t the data reasonably well. However, the best combination of retardation times tumed out to be (l.0hr, l0hrs). This combination seems reasonable as it covers the time domain between load increments, and ts all the tests obtained in this research. Figures 7-1 and 7-2 present typical ts of basic creep data with and without consideration ofthe ow term. Apparently, both models tted
137
the data reasonably well and were able to capture the disconti.nuities in the applied stress and consequent changes ofthe tensile creep. Since either ofthe analysis methods, with-ow and without-ow, can predict the basic creep using this approach, only material parameters identied based on with-ow method were considered for further analysis.
7.3.2 Nonlinear Stress Factor

The effect ofhigh stress on tensile creep was included by the factor F(cr(t)) as dened in Equation 7.6. To calculate the stress factor, tensile strength of concrete is required. The direct tensile strength of concrete was determined from a split tensile test based on relations established for the tested concrete as discussed in Chapter 4. Those relations were used to calculate the direct tensile strength of concrete om the dry split test as follows: a) For sealed samples .
-O-1'85-1le(1l = 1.565 - 0.00718t
6,. (dry)
r 5 80hrs
7.10
- = 0.99 (Sealed) 6.. (do)

b) For drying samples
1 2 so/11$
5:_(51ll =-1.377 - 0.00571

6 (do)
SI
1 51007111 1210071 n
3-'5--{Tl = 0.8
6,. (dry)
The above relations were established for the concrete mix with w/c-ratio of 0.5. Due to the lack of direct tensile strength tests on the NC-0.4 mix, similar relations were assumed for the concrete mix with w/c-ratio of 0.4. The split tensile strength (in MPa) is given by the following relations
W/C = 0.5
W/C = 0.4
0",, = 2.l75llogr2.027
0' = 2.1443 logt l.3208
7.12
7.13
138
7.3.3 Model Coefcients

The model coecients obtained from the analysis for plain and ber concrete are
summarized in Table 7.1. Appendix C presents the outcome of the model versus
experimental data for basic creep for the various mixes. Table 7.1 includes parameters obtained 'om two dierent analyses: linear and nonlinear. The linear analysis did not consider the effect of high stress (i.e. F(a'(r))=l), whereas the nonlinear analysis considered this factor. Results om the two methods are presented because the stress/strength ratio for the basic creep test was less than 0.6.
Table 7.1: Coeicients for linear and nonlinear models of basic creep
NC-0.5
Linear Nonlinear
A,
3.3215 3 .6551 6.2640 6.3228 0.8658 1.0159 1.4817 1.8236
11
0.0460 0.0405
l
i I
NC-0.5-SF l
Linear
I
0.9517
2.3686
0.0677
2.8961 2.8498
0.7909 0.4084
I 1
11611116661 i
NC-0.4 Linear
1.2967
17.7616
3.4575
47.2365
I
I
0.1072
1.6868
7.1837
Nonlinear
18.2495
10.3687
47.7311
7.5460
I
l I
1.2671 .
2.6800
7.0374
5.0059
0.0496 0.0400
3 2n :5 "11
Linear
I
I
0.0948
1 | I
Nonlinear
10.4414
9.3661
2.5244
4.9269
0.0732
The results revealed that including the high stress factor in the analysis did not affect the t of the data. Figure 7-3 shows the model results with high stress factor (nonlinear) and without stress factor (linear) of the NC-0.4 mix. It is clear that both models
tted the data satisfactorily, in fact, no discemible difference between the two models could
be seen. Though, the model parameters were altered. When the stress factor was considered, v(t) was shifted up to substitute for the eect of the stress factor i.e. the stress factor scaled up the parameter v(t). The non-aging creep ftmction, which was totally
139
characterized by the two exponential terms in Equation 7.8 and the two coeicients, A1, and A2 was also shifted accordingly. Figures 7-4 and 7-5 present typical non-aging creep functions and v(t) for linear and nonlinear basic creep analysis for the NC-0.4 mix. The linear and nonlinear models could be equivalently used to predict the basic creep of concrete. The linear model required no tensile strength data, and hence it was convenient for the analysis of the NC-04 mix because accurate direct tensile strength data were not available. The relation between split tensile and direct tensile strengths was not established for this mix and the assumption of a similar relation as of that for the NC-0.5 mix may be a crude estimation. For this reason the linear model could serve to predict the basic creep of sealed and drying concrete for the NC-0.4 mix. The dierence between the linear and nonlinear model would be noticeable when used to predict the basic creep for the restrained drying concrete test since the stress/strength ratio reached 0.8. However, the analysis revealed a difference of less than 10%, which could be acceptable in the absence of accurate stress/strength data. The coecients in Table 7.1 were based on incremental analysis. Therefore, they can be used only to predict basic creep of similar materials and load conditions. For example, the basic tensile creep of sealed and drying concrete can be predicted using the above parameters since the same load prole was applied. It can be also used to predict basic creep for coupled creep-shrinkage analyses of restrained concrete using the step-bystep approach. Ifthe loading condition is drastically dierent from that ofthe restrained shrinkage test, the above model coefcients cannot be used to predict creep. Moreover, the early age basic creep behavior cannot be easily characterized om this model because the effect of age at loading on creep is not directly clear.
7.3.4 Effective Volume Growth v(t)

Aging properties as reected from the model parameterv(t) depend on the w/c of the mix as the coeicients in Table 7.1 indicated. Figures 7-6 and 7-7 present aging as the growth ofv(t) at different ages for the mixes NC-0.4-SF and NC-0.5-SF, respectively. The absolute value of v(r) is immaterial, what really matters is the order of magnitudes and the relative values between different ages. A strong age dependency ofthe volume growth is
140
seen in the concrete with low w/c-ratio. The volume fraction for the NC-0.4~SF mix at the age of 72 hours is ten times greater than that at the age of 24 hours, while it is only two times greater for the mix NC-0.5-SF. In other words, the e'ect of age on creep at early age is more pronounced for a low w/c-ratio mix. The curves of v(t) at dierent ages indicated a substantial aging of creep when concrete is loaded at the age of one day. It becomes less signicant as the age at loading increases. The effect of aging on creep in the rst two days of loading is quite obvious as the v(t) increases at a high rate. Then it tends to level off and approaches almost a constant value afterward. The fact that v(t) stabilizes after a certain age means that tensile creep becomes age-independent aer that age. The parameter v(r) is not a direct material property in a quantitative sense. However, it is physically related to the hydration of cement and solidication of the C-S-H. It may have potential as an index to hydration. The high rate of aging expressed in Figures 7-6 and 7-7 in the rst two days is related to the high rate of hydration of cement. The hydration process slows down aerward and the aging becomes less signicant. Relating the volume growth to the hydration of concrete is beyond the scope of this work. Though, it does seem to be an interesting area for further research.
7.4 Analysis Based on Principle of Superposition

As mentioned in section 7.3.3, the incremental-based model can be used only if loading conditions are similar to those adopted in this research. Furthermore, the behavioral information provided by that model on the effect of aging and the inuence of bers on creep are limited. To better understand the creep behavior at early age and to provide information on creep mctions at dierent ages, analysis based on the principle of superposition was performed. The principle of superposition at early age may not be as accurate for matured concrete because ofthe possible nonlinear stress-strain relations for yotmg concrete. However, since the stress/strength ratio is less than 0.6 for the basic creep tests conducted in this research, the superposition analysis can approximate the creep
behavior.
141
The approach requires a creep function to be established rst, and the problem of age dependency for that creep mction must be addressed. The principle of solidication theory was used to introduce the effect of aging. The best choice ofthe creep function can be determined from tests of creep tmder a constant load and at different ages at loading, and such data are not available in this research. However, the creep mction can be analytically extracted. Creep functions at different ages were analytically extracted from the basic creep data. This was achieved by nding the best t of the creep data based on permissible creep ftmctions. A permissible creep ftmction must reect the general behavior of tensile creep of concrete, and the behavioral observations at early age such as the issues discussed in section 7.2.1.1 regarding the ow term and stability of tensile creep. The creep function adopted in the analysis did not include the ow term in Equation. 7.4 as the tensile basic creep at early age stabilized after a certain time. This observation would be violated if the ow term was included. The creep function used in this analysis has the following form for
a constant stress:
8,, = 3-[a, (1 - e""")" )+ a, (1 - e'"~= ) + ....a (1- e'*'-'~>- )]

v(t)
7.14
Several choices for retardation times were tried in the analysis. The results indicated that reasonable ts of the creep data could be achieved by considering two terms in the exponential series with retardation times of l0 hrs and l00hrs. The function that needs to be optimized was therefore reduced to the following:
0' 0.0l(!! ) " ) + a_( 1- e -O.l'(r-r" , )1 , st, =-- [a,( 1- e V0) /.1:
Where v(t) is given by the same form as Equation 7.5. Adding more terms to the exponential series did not enhance the data t. Therefore, only two exponential terms corresponding to the above retardation times were used. This choice of retardation times covers most of the time domain in the experiment. Figures 7-8 and 7-9 present typical ts of the creep data using the principle of superposition and different retardation times for the mixes NC-0.4-SF, and NC-0.5-PC. Reasonable ts of the creep data were achieved with the above creep function and the retardation times. Fits ofthe various concrete mixes, and information on model coefcients are presented in Appendix C.
142
7.4.1 Creep Functions for Plain Concrete

The model coecients established in the previous section were used to generate data on specic basic creep fimctions at different ages. The data were generated using Equations 7.5 for aging and 7.15 for the creep mction under a constant stress of 1 imit. A spreadsheet was used to generate these data by inputting the model coefcients and age at loading. The resulting mction is the specic creep at the corresponding age at loading. Figures 7-10 and 7-11 present the age-dependent, specic basic creep mction for plain concrete mixes NC-0.5 and NC-0.4, respectively. The resulting tensile creep mction is characterized by a high rate of creep during the rst 10-20 hours of loading. This shows that a major portion of the tensile creep of plain concrete occurs during the rst 20 hours after loading while the rate decreases substantially afterward and asymptotically approaches a stable value. The initial rate of creep for plain concrete is not only high, but also is sensitive to the age at loading, particularly in the very early ages. The initial rate of creep is signicantly changed when the age of loading is increased as shown in Figures 7-10 and 711; the earlier the age at loading the higher the initial rate of creep. This suggests that stress relaxation be faster at early age than at later ages. For example, the creep during the rst 20 hours forms 85 % of the creep value aer 150 hours when the age of loading is 24 hours and forms 60 % when the age of loading is 72 hours for the mix with w/c of 0.5. The eect of aging on tensile creep at early age seems to cease after a few days. The NC-0.5 mix exhibited similar specic creep functions when the age at loading exceeded 96 hours as shown in Figure 7-10. This means that the basic tensile creep becomes age-independent aer four to ve days. Likewise, the NC-0.4 mix exhibited similar creep behavior when the age at loading exceeded 72 hours. This means that the tensile creep of NC-0.4 mix becomes age-independent after three days. It seems that the eect of aging on basic tensile creep is only substantial in the rst few days, and more pronounced in concrete with low w/c-ratio. In fact, the creep mction of the mix NC-0.4
exhibited a decrease in the creep at the ages of loading of 24 hours and 27 hours. This
decrease in creep of yoimg concrete was due to the strong eect of aging. A decrease in
143
creep has also been reported in a paper published by Bournazel and Martineau (1993) in which they referred to the decrease in creep as a maturation creep induced by aging. The aging behavior is also reected on the eective load-bearing volume fraction v(t) . Figures 7-12 and 7-14 present results ofthe growth ofthe eective loadbearing volume action extracted from the analysis for the mixes NC-0.4 and NC-0.5. The results indicate almost constant v(t) aer the ages of 72 hours and 120 hours for the mixes NC-0.4 and NC-0.5, respectively. This supports the age-independence of basic tensile creep aer the rst few days. Experimental results reported by Westman (1995) and Morimoto and Koyangagi (1995) support this nding. For example, Westrnan observed an unchanged response of compressive creep after the age of 48 hours, and Horimoto and Koyangagi observed that tensile relaxation of young concrete terminates in a shorter period than compressive relaxation and the half-relaxation time was not inuenced by age at loading aer 3 days. However, such observations are not directly documented in the literature. Unlike compressive creep, the aging effect on basic tensile creep seems to become less signicant after a certain time that is arotmd 5 days as revealed by the analysis. However, the cut o age for early age concrete does need more and separate tests to characterize it. These observations are useful for designing tensile creep experiments and modeling of general behavior.
7.4.2 Creep Functions for Fiber Reinforced Concrete

As for plain concrete. creep functions at dierent ages for ber reinforced concrete were generated using the model coeicients established in section 7.4. The resulting specic creep functions are presented in Figures 7-l4 and 7-15 for the ber reinforced concrete mixes NC-0.4-SF and NC-0.5-SF, respectively. As for plain concrete, the ber reinforced concrete exhibited a high initial rate of creep in the rst 20 hours of loading, and this rate was sensitive to age at loading. The sensitivity to age at loading was more pronounced at a very early age as seen in Figures 7-14 and 7-15. For example, the initial rate of creep for the age at loading of 24 hours was much higher than that for the age at loading of 30 hours. This age-sensitivity ceased with time and became age-independent
144
aer a few days. Therefore, stresses developed at a very early age relax faster than the stresses developed at later ages. Similar to plain concrete, the tensile creep of ber concrete became ageindependent after the rst few days. This age-independence was also illustrated by the eective load-bearing volume growth, which exhibited approximately no change after 6 days as shown in Figures 7-16 and 7-17. It seems that the basic tensile creep becomes ageindependent at the age ofnearly 5 to 6 days. The ber reinforcement altered the creep behavior as shown in Figure 7-18. The initial rate oftensile creep of ber reinforced concrete was much lower than the corresponding rate of plain concrete. The plain concrete was characterized by a rapid increase of creep in the rst 24 hours after loading and then died out to approach a constant value. On the contrary, the ber reinforced concrete exhibited a lower rate of creep in the rst 24 hours after loading, but the dying rate was lower. Consequently, the tensile creep of plain concrete was surpassed by ber reinforced concrete. This -is illustrated by comparing the creep after 24 hours to the creep after 150 hours of loading for the results presented in
Figure 7-18. The ratio reaches 81 % and 71% for plain concrete mixes with w/c-ratio of 0.4
and 0.5, respectively, whereas it reaches 36 % and 37 % for ber reinforced concrete. Therefore, relaxation by creep mechanism in ber concrete continues for a longer time than plain concrete. This behavior was exhibited by both concrete mixes, and was more pronounced in the mix with low w/c- ratio. This explains the signicant delay in acture exhibited by ber reinforced concrete with a low w/c- ratio as reported in Chapter 4. The above discussion supports the hypothesis stated in Chapter 5 that related the tensile creep of ber concrete to a critical microcracking density. Upon loading, the rate of creep of ber concrete is smaller than that for plain concrete because microcracking dominates the creep ofplain concrete while it is still controlled in FRC. With time the ability of ber to control microcracking ceases when it reaches a critical density. Aer this the creep of ber concrete surpasses the plain concrete.
7.4.3 Effect of Water-Cement Ratio

The eect of w/c-ratio of concrete on tensile creep is seen in Figure 7-18. The results revealed higher basic tensile creep in concrete with lower w/c-ratio. This
145
observation contradicts the general behavior reported in the literature about the inuence of w/c-ratio on creep of matured concrete. The creep behavior at early age seems therefore to be different 'om that of matured concrete and in particular for tensile creep. Similar inuence of w/c-ratio on tensile creep was exhibited in plain and ber concrete mixes. However, the ber reinforced concrete seems to be more sensive to the water-cement ratio than plain concrete. For example, the results presented in Figure 7-18 indicate that the tensile creep after 150 hours of loading is increased by 57 % when the w/cratio decreased from 0.5 to 0.4 for FRC mix, whereas it increases by 10% for plain concrete. This suggests a dierent sensitivity of ber reinforced concrete to w/c-ratio. It is important to understand this sensitivity for optimal design of ber concrete to control shrinkage cracking.

I The basic creep model based on solidication theory satisfactorily describes the tensile creep behavior at early age. The model can be used to capture the various characteristics of basic creep and provides valuable information on aging behavior. Q The analysis of basic creep test results reveals that the tensile basic creep becomes ageindependent after a few days (typically 5 days for the concrete tested in this research). This nding is useful for the characterization of tensile basic creep behavior and for the design of experiments. However, generalization of this nding for early age concrete requires more comprehensive investigations. Q The basic creep mction of yoimg concrete is characterized by a high initial rate in the rst 10-20 hours. This rate dies out over time and the creep mction tends to approach a stable value. This behavior was observed for both plain and ber reinforced concrete. The dying rate is faster in plain concrete, and hence, the creep of plain concrete stabilizes earlier than that of FRC. 0 The initial rate of creep is very sensitive to age at loading in the rst two days, and becomes less sensitive after that. The initial rate of creep of plain concrete is higher than that of ber reinforced concrete. This suggests that microcracking initially
146
dominates the creep of plain concrete while it is more controlled in ber reinforced
concrete.
147
'
'
'
'
KW/C =
80 _....................... ..I........................................................... .._
,0 1.................................... ..............................................;40
I.
Basic creep
1
t
(Creep Stram) pn m/
- Model with ow
20
......................................" Model without ow

l 100 ' 120 140 7 160
O-""" 20 40 60
80
Age (hrs)
Figure 7-1 Optimum ts and the ow term for plain concrete (w/c = 0.4)
70
60
W/C = 0.5
50
40 3Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..f.a..=.il'.i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
an i
......................... ..
(Creep Stram) pn m/
20
10
= Basic creep _ ----------------------------------- ~- - Model with ow ------" Model without ow

............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
50
i
100
.
150 200
Age (hrs)
Figure 7-2 Optimum ts and the ow term for plain concrete (w/c =0.5)
148
100.
80 as . as .
,
W/C = 0.14
ea ' q B _ .
. . . . . .._.
_. . . . . . . . - - - . - - - . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ - - - - - - . - - _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - _ - .
3 'n(um/m)
"
:_.
_l
-Ii O
=
f
Basic creep
St Creep "a
- Model-linear
20 _..........................................."Model-nonlinear ...... .._'

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Age (hrs)
Figure 7-3 Data t of basic creep with and without stress nonlinearity
350
. . . . . . _ . . . . . . . _ . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . .
(i m/m)
250 _ .
-0
W/C = 0.4
. . . . .. . ..... . .... .. . ... .... .. _.. .... .. ............ ...... _..... ._.,_ _ . ._
.... ..
. . . .. . . . . . . . . .....
. .... . ... . . . . . . .. . .
.. .. ... . .... ...... .. . . . . . .
. ....
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
- Functep Cron agng e

Non-
50 ....... ... .. .._.. _.... . . . . . . . _.

0
-I- Linear .... .. - Nonlinear

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Time (t-to) (hrs)

Figure 7-4 Non-aging creep mction obtained by tting data for the NC-0.4 mix
149
25.
[III
20
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . ..8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....
._
n(t) v
15
. . . . . . .
1 . . . . . - . . . . _. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
@ Linear
10
--' Nonlinear
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
fract V0 0 ume
Age=24 hoursi
0 . . . l . .
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Time (t-to) (hrs)

Figure 7-5 Shift in eective volume 'action due to stress nonlinearity
12
10
- - - -
_.,
/.
. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
8
,
6 '
_ .............................................................. .
" W/C = 0.4
e age=24 hrs ------------------------------------------ -~
Vo ume e v(t)
4 '
Efvct fe I.
,;"
' - Age=27 hrs _ ___________________________________________ __ ~Age=30 hrs
* Age=35 hrs '- Age=40 hrs

.
2 - I - ~ _ . . - - - . . - - - . . - - - - ~ . - - - . - - - - - - - - - - - - _ ~ - - - - - . -- -E-Age=48 hrs
I -7
= Age=72 hrs
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0 0
Time (t-to) (hrs)

Figure 7-6 Eect of age on load-bearing volume action growth of FRC, w/c =0 .4
150
1.4--1-~;---|
-Voct Efume ve v(t) fe
9.> O7W *
O4 '
0.2 O O
'Age=3O ___________________________________________________ __ -*-Age=35 "Age=40 <@'--Age=48

1 40 ' ' 120
\ .\2 51 22 \\ \
W/(3 = Q5 ="Age=24 hrs .... ................... .. 'Age=27 hrs
------------------------------------------------- '" _=,_Age=72 hrs 140 ' 160
hrs hrs hrs hrs
20
60
80
100
Time (t-to) (hrs)

Figure 7-7 Effect of age on load-bearing volume fraction growth of FRC, w/c =0.5
100
3 5
I
80 _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
W/C = 0.4
. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
,.. '
_. o ~~"
I 1
4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._
I
-
Steel Fiber
-
---------------
(pm/m)
60
.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..__.
Stra n
Creep
,0 ;.................................................................................. .. " creep -
20 --------------------------- -- -Retardation times (10,100) ' ------- " Retardation times (1.10) j
0 .
50
100
150
200
Age (hrs)
Figure 7-8 Effect of retardation times on the superposition-based analysis, w/c=0.4
15 l
70 60
2 w/c =o.s ;
............................................................ .. __ ,
so
40
30
Plain Concrete
----"
_-*
'
................... .4 ............... .._..,.-:l.;"...if'. ............................... ..

y Q
. . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
20
. . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
(Creep Stram) un m/
10
O
= creep - Retardation times (10,100) """""""""""""""" Retardation times (1 ,10)

_
. . . . . . . ..
50
100
150
200
Age (hrs)
Figure 7-9 Effect of retardation times on the superposition-based analysis, w/c=0.5
40 35 30 25 20
.
'
'
-' C
-=i?,?/. . . . . . .. I..........
~Age=24 hrs
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. ,
r /H 1rll'[_,/
E
,;'//
~Age=3o hrs
Creep(pm/m) f'c
Spec
15
./
---Age=35 hrs ' Age=40 hrs
T
"
" - ' ' ' ' ' " " * ' ' ' " " ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " ' ' ' ' ' ' " eiAge=48 hrs
t | rr
10
-In-up-I
.'.
O 20 40
W/C 0-5
60
-=- Age=72 hrs '1 """""""" " --*Age=96 hrs
<>Age=120 hrs
100 120 140
"
80
160
Time (t-to) (hours)

Figure 7-10 Extracted creep functions at dierent ages at loading for NC-0.5 mix
152
70 60
w/c i= 0.4
50
AO
--..4 . - . ~ - . - - - - - - - - . . - - - -,1--1} '.. - . . . . . ..T - - - - - . . . . .,......
O0O
(Crc'efepc) pm/m' Spe
20 10
\.j?"'
-7
I
I
2 \.
s;'=
.
I"
1'
-Age=24 hrs ' Age=27 hrs -*- Age=30 hrs - Age=35 hrs ' Age=40 hrs -6- Age=48 hrs =~ Age=72 hrs
100 120 140 160
0 0 20 40 60 80
Time (t-to) (hours)

Figure 7-11 Extracted creep functions at different ages at loading for NC-0 4 mix
1.8 1.6
/ \-/
1.4
1
\ \\\\, \\5\
ll\\\\ *-IX Age=24 hrs 1,. -@ :

,..-/_. _,.r'_;:
Voumevt
1.2 1
Efvect fe
0.8 0.6
W/C = Q_5
., - A 1, " 1 I. -I. .1.
-1* Age=27 hrs -~- Age=30 hrs =- Age=35 hrs ' Age=40 hrs -~- Age=48 hrs * Age=72 hrs -~ Age=96 hrs '-- Age=120 hrs
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Time, t-to (hours)

Figure 7-12 Age dependency of the creep mction for NC-0.5 mix
I53
12
.
.
ff-;_j_?' ' ' ' ' ' - ' ' ' '" ' ~ ' ' ' ' ' ' ' - - ' - - ~ /'
@ Age=24 hrs
Vo ume v(t
Z In-r
. IA
.- . . . . . . . w/c =o.4
1 1 r
E Age=27 hrs 'Age=30 hrs g ~=Age=35 hrs

'Age=40 hrs _
'1 '- . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Efvect fe
-n
It tn
2 ,_ ,, ............................. ..
'1 I" '1 1. 0 . r r
'Age=72 hrs _
_A9e=48 his
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Time, t-to (hours)

Figure 7-13 Age dependency of the creep function for NC-0.4 mix
60
._
50
40
W/C = 0.4, Steel Fiber

/
_ /A
/
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . ..
30
\ \\\\\\\\\
. . ... .. .
Creep(um/m) c'f'c Spe
20
. ',7/
/.
- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
ii
10
/
,/,
-- Age=24 - Age=27 Age=30 - Age=35 -'Age=40
hrs hrs hrs hrs hrs
i .
A
+AgeM8 hrs
'''''''' ''"
ll! |,,'
-1
C
'//'
=Age=72 hrs ~*Age=96 hrs 1 -Age=120 hrs A

100
120 140 160
r
0 20
40 60 80
Time, t-to (hours)

Figure 7-14 Creep mctions at dierent ages at loading for FRC (w/c = 0.4)
154
40 35 30 25 20 15
.1-ll--|~.=|r
tr
........ -i-W/C--0.5,-St;eelF-iher%---~
. . . - . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . ..:...........~._.._
. ....... .. .........
. 1
'
/'
2\
--Age=24 hrs ' Age=27 hrs *Age=30 hrs
Creep(c'f pm/m) Spec'
._s Q
... v ..t . . .._ ,.
U1
---qr.
3. ~.
-\
=~4\l.q_.~L_\, :0'3 -- ~q _ -
- Age=35 hrs Age-40 hrs --=*-Age=48 hrs -1-Age=72 hrs --Age=96 hrs Age=12O hrs
1
0.
.l-
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Time, t-to (h ours)

Figure 7-15 Creep fimctions at dierent ages at loading for FRC (w/c = 0.5)
25
20
,,,---' ** ,
. /
. .
'1
;-=;.- l -* Age=24 hrs

=Age=27 hrs
15
1
/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
~I
10
V0ct Efume ve v(t) fe
___,,.
O
. f I ' --Age=35 hrs , i 'Age=40 hrs _ ------------- ---------- ------- -- ~Age=48 hrs I- Age=72 hrs -' Age=96 hrs 'Age=120 hrs W/C =0 4 Steel Fiber
40 60 80 100
120 140 160
20
Time, t-to (hours)

Figure 7-16 Age dependency ofthe creep function for FRC (w/c = 0.4)
155
12"l"l"'l"l"li"'i'
;____~ -" -;_7;---i"" mi
10 $""'-F t
:\\\\\\l t_\'.
/'
/-
-\\l -6- e=24 hrs il -Age=27 hrs

- Age=30 hrs
6
4
.1
- ' -.Age=40 hrs - _________ .;i ............................ .. ~Age=48 hrs " hrs r. _-_.Age=72
; ,
............................. .. -=-Age=35 hrs
Voct Efume ve v(t) fe
2
O
--Age=96 hrs I 1 -'Age=120 hrs "" ' "" ' WIC '*0'.'5' '.'St'e'el' F-'ih'r' i
. . . l . 1 1 . . . I 1 . . ! . . . r
~ 5
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Time, t-to (hours)

Figure 7-17 Age dependency of the creep mction for FRC (w/c = 0.5)
60
so . .. . . . . . . .. .... .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . .
v
. . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . ... .
.
.... . .... . . .
. ..
40
- - - - - I - . . - I _ _ - I D _ . D D . - - _ . . - _ D I - "nu 4-"
2., 12. . . . . -.--c l
.............
. . . . . . _ _,*--.---
__._-_..-Q
..
30
..
L
.A.. . ....._.._.,.-.r.. ..
..
_,"
..--A-""" ___,. .-"-
__.-' O
......... ".
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . ..
. A
f'cCreep(pml20 m) Spec
1Q
O
9"
. _;_- _ _ _ _ _ _ . . . . . -.;;;,,.:'..........
_SF_o.4_48
.. ..
it
1'
,..~-"' --PC-0.4-48 . to ....................................... ..:f SF-0.5-48

PC-0.5-48
120
. .
20
40
60
80
1 00
140
160
Time, t-to (hours)

Figure 7-18 Effect of ber reinforcement and w/c-ratio on creep functions
156
CHAPTER 8 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF DRYING CREEP MECHANISMS

8.1 Introduction
Drying creep, also called the Pickett eect aer the man who was rst to clearly document this effect and to analyze it (Pickett 1942), is the increase in creep observed in specimens undergoing drying. Over the last 50 years, several hypotheses have been presented to explain the mechanisms ofthis effect. Unlike basic creep, its physico-chemical origins are still not fully understood and there are uncertainties conceming the contribution of a real mechanism by which creep and drying interact, and an apparent mechanism related to shrinkage induced stresses and associated cracking. Meanwhile, it is now generally believed that drying creep is the sum of at least two components; an intrinsic drying creep with its own mechanisms and a structural drying creep resulting from a microcracking effect due to the non-uniformity of the free drying shrinkage in the concrete specimen. These mechanisms were discussed in Chapter 6. However, the contribution of the two components is still a matter of research and currently no experimental data in the literature distinguishes clearly between the two proposed mechanisms. in this chapter. a technique that separates and highlights the signicance of each part of drying creep is presented. Furthermore, the results are analyzed to provide behavioral information on early age creep and the interaction with shrinkage. The inuence of drying creep on mechanical behavior, particularly the fracture of concrete, is discussed and a model that relates surface microcracking to failure of concrete is demonstrated.
8.2 A Technique to Separate the Pickett Effect Mechanisms

In this study, a technique that separates and quanties mechanisms of the Pickett effect at early age was developed. It requires experimental data and analytical analysis. This section presents the basic assumptions ofthe technique and describes the basic experimental and analytical concepts ofthe approach.
157
8.2.1 Principal Assumptions

Two basic assumptions were made; one is related to the experimental technique and the other is related to the analytical approach, and summarized as follows: a) Experimental Technique: It is assumed that creep is additive to shrinkage. This is a general assumption that enables measurement of creep from a loaded sample and a companion free-of-load sample. This assumption is not entirely correct, but it is essential for the measurement of creep at simultaneous drying. This assumption has been widely accepted among experimentalists and researchers. It was incorporated in the basic equation that govems the test as presented in Chapter 3. b) Analytical assumptions: Two major assumptions were made: l) The Pickett eect was assumed to be primarily composed oftwo components: stress-induced shrinkage and microcracking as detailed in section 6.3. This assumption considers the major mechanisms ofthe Pickett e'ect, however there are other but less signicant mechanisms such as the effect of irreversibility of unloading after tensile cracking and the increase of material S1if1CSS with age (Bazant, 1988). The two mechanisms are generally accepted to explain the e'ect of drying on creep as mentioned in section 6.3. 2) Deformations om each mechanism of creep were assumed to be additive. This entailed that the total creep can be considered as the algebraic summation ofbasic creep and drying creep components. The drying component was obtained by adding the deformation from each ofthe two mechanisms mentioned above.
8.2.2 Basic Concept of the Experiment

The basic idea consists ofmeasuring tensile creep and shrinkage of concrete specimens subjected to similar loading but dierent curing conditions. Creep and shrinkage tests imder drying, sealed and wet curing conditions are required. The test under drying condition is a restrained shrinkage test that produces data on shrinkage stress, free shrinkage and total tensile creep. The loads obtained om the restrained drying shrinkage 158
tests are to be applied on similar concrete samples subjected to sealed and wet curing conditions. The results of creep and shrinkage imder these conditions were previously reported and discussed in Chapters 4 and 5. Comparison ofthe test results oftensile creep and shrinkage under these curing conditions provides indamental data required to separate the Pickett eect mechanisms. The test under wet conditions provided basic tensile creep as no shrinkage was experienced. The purpose ofthis test was to characterize the basic tensile creep of concrete at early age. Therefore, the results were used to calibrate parameters for a predictive basic creep model as discussed in Chapter 7. Another important aspect of this test was the elimination ofthe Pickett effect because shrinkage was substantially suppressed as reported in Chapter 5. On the other hand, the Pickett e'ect was observed rmder both sealed and drying curing conditions as discussed in Chapters 4 and 5. However, the particulars of drying are dierent in sealed and drying tests. For example, intemal drying occurred in sealed samples, whereas intemal and extemal drying was exhibited by drying concrete samples. The dierent causes of drying inuence the induced mechanisms of Pickett effect. These features were exploited to separate the Pickett eect mechanisms as discussed below.
8.2.3 Key Features of the Method and Analytical Procedures

As mentioned in Chapter 5, sealing the concrete at early age did not eliminate the shrinkage due to intemal drying, even for normal concrete with w/c of 0.5. Consequently, measurement of tensile creep of sealed concrete at early age included in addition to basic creep, a component related to the Pickett effect caused by intemal drying. The intemal drying was accompanied by reduction in relative humidity ofthe sealed concrete. However, the distribution of humidity across the sealed sample was uniform, as measurement of relative humidity at clierent depths across the sample thickness has shown. Results of shrinkage and intemal humidity distribution were presented in Chapter 5. The uniform distribution ofhumidity impedes the surface cracking caused by drying gradient; a phenomenon that is induced by extemal drying of concrete.
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Early age shrinkage and the elimination of surface microcracldng of sealed concrete were the key features that enabled separation of Pickett effect mechanisms. They provided information on interaction of creep with shrinkage when no surface microcracking occurred. Having assumed only two mechanisms ofthe Pickett e'ect, microcracking and stress-induced shrinkage, an argument supported by experimental observations can be established. The argument states that the excess deformation over the basic creep of sealed concrete at early age is primarily related to stress-induced shrinkage. Knowing basic tensile creep from the predictive model formulated in Chapter 7, experimental data on stress-induced shrinkage could be generated by subtracting the basic creep from the total tensile creep measured on sealed samples. The data was used to calibrate parameters ofthe stress-induced shrinkage model presented in section 6.3.4. However, since the tensile load reduces shrinkage, the term stress-induced shrinkage is replaced by stress-reduced shrinkage. Unlike the sealed curing condition, the drying condition promotes stuface microcracking due to the drying gradient (discussed in Chapter 4). Consequently, tensile creep tmder drying condition includes all components: basic creep, stress-reduced shrinkage and microcracking. Having identied basic creep and stress-reduced shrinkage, microcracking can be quantied. This requires predictive models for basic creep and stressreduced shrinkage. The sequence of analysis to quantify the Pickett effect mechanisms is summarized as follows: 0 The basic creep model that was identied in Chapter 7 is used to predict basic creep of sealed and drying concrete; v Stress-reduced shrinkage data is then generated from the sealed concrete test by subtracting the predicted basic creep om the total creep; 0 The data generated in the previous step is used to calibrate a model for stress-reduced shrinkage. The model was described in section 6.3.4 in Chapter 6; 0 The calibrated models for basic creep and stress-reduced shrinkage are used to predict the basic creep and stress-reduced shrinkage of drying concrete; 0 Microcracking of drying concrete is then quantied by subtracting the basic creep and st.ress-reduced shrinkage components 'om the total creep of drying concrete;
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This process requires data on temperature, free shrinkage, and stress evolution with time.
8.3 Stress-Reduced Shrinkage

Data on stress-reduced shrinkage were generated for the mixes NC-0 .4 and NC-0.5 from the results of creep imder sealed and wet curing conditions as explained in the previous section. Typical data are presented in Figures 8-1 and 8-2. The data reect the reduction in the free shrinkage by the tensile load with time, and were used to calibrate a model for stress-reduced shrinkage. The model adopted for stress-reduced shrinkage was presented in section 6.3 .4. The basic mathematical equation ofthis model is as follows: 0' 0' . . - . . E+-5-5- (l+r,o' szgnH)e,,, (1 +p,o'szgnH), 8.1
where $3,, and 8, are the ee shrinkage strain rate and free thermal strain rate; 6', = a,T , where ar is the coecient of thermal expansion; and a,, = /c,,,H , where km is shrinkage coecient, signl? is the sig ofif , and r_, , pr are empirical constants. However, since data were resolved in the form of reduction in shrinkage rather than the total shrinkage under load, Equation 8.1 needs to be rewritten accordingly. Fitting the data indicated that the stress-induced thermal term must include signT that is equal to 1 for temperature increases (expansion), and -1 for temperature decreases (contraction). The value ofthe term sign}? is equal to -l for drying conditions. Thus, the reduction in shrinkage by tensile load becomes: As, = o'(r,.a'",,, + p,signT,) 8.2
The model parameters ofEquation 8.2 were calibrated by tting the data generated for stress-reduced shrinkage. The results for the concrete mixes NC-0.4 and NC-0.5 are presented in Table 8.1. Figures 8-1 and 8-2 show the stress-reduced shrinkage data and the model t for the concrete mixes NC-0.5 and NC-0.5-SF, respectively. The results show reasonable ts ofthe data by the analytical model.
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The temperature seems to affect the stress-reduced shrinkage in the rst two days and becomes less signicant aerward. This was reected in the high initial rate of reduction in shrinkage until the age of 50 hours due to synergistic effect ofthermal and shrinkage in that period. The change in temperature in that period however was not signicant (in the order of 1 degree C), but the initial rate of stress-reduced shrinkage was captured more accurately when temperature e'ect was included. However, a constancy in temperature was the prevailing condition for the NC-0.4 mix.
Table 8.1 Model parameters for stress-reduced shrinkage
Mix Identication NC-0.5 NC-0.5-SF

NC-0.4
J."
p,1.93 4.79
-
-O biso
I
9 4 )-4 .45
I@
NC-0.4-SF
-0.30
The above results of the model coecients indicate signicant reduction in the
shrinkage (40-60 %) imder tensile stress. This suggests a signicant contribution of the stress-reduced shrinkage mechanism to the observed Pickett eect. Therefore, the tensile load inuences the shrinkage as will be discussed in the following section.
8.3.1 Inuence of Stress on Restrained Shrinkage

Shrinkage under tensile load of the restrained drying concrete was predicted using the model parameters identied in Table 8.1. Typical results for the concrete mix with w/c of 0.5 are shown in Figure 8-3. The results indicate that the tensile stress substantially reduces the shrinkage of concrete, and assuming equivalent shrinkage for restrained and tmrestrained concrete is responsible at least in part, for the observed extra creep deformation (Pickett effect). Wittrnann (1993) has stated that the inuence of stress on shrinkage of concrete is most likely sufcient to explain quantitatively the di'erence between shrinkage and creep when taking place separately, and shrinkage and creep when
162
taking place simultaneously. In fact, he among others has concluded that shrinkage is not a material property but it depends strongly on the state of stress tmder which it takes place. The analytical results ofthis research indicated that the e'ect of stress on shrinkage explains a major part ofthe Pickett e'ect, but not all deformation. This negates the notion of considering the inuence of stress on shrinkage as the only mechanism to explain the Pickett effect. Therefore, stress-reduced shrinkage is a mechanism, but not the only mechanism that explains the excess creep deformation imder drying conditions.
8.3.2 Inuence of Fiber Reinforcement on Shrinkage Behavior under Load

The results shown in Figure 8-3 reveal a dierence in behavior between plain and ber reinforced concrete. The shrinkage under stress of both ber and plain concrete is clearly different, although their ee shrinkage is quite similar. The ber reinforced concrete exhibited more shrinkage under tensile load than that ofthe plain concrete. The intuitive explanation to this behavior is related to the ability of bers to conu-ol microcracking/softening. Steel bers seem to improve stress transfer in micro-cracked concrete, which in tum reects in greater macroscopic shrinkage under stress. Another clear point in Figure 8-3 is the atness of the shrinkage curve tmder tensile load for plain concrete while it continues to increase for ber concrete. This behavior suggests the ability of ber to control the soening of concrete, which inuences the resulting shrinkage. Therefore, shrinkage does not depend only on the moisture diiision and state of stress, but also on the strain softening. Several researchers, among them Bazant and Raftshol (1982) and Alvaredo and Wittmann (1993), have pointed out the inuence of strain soening phenomenon and fracture energy on shrinkage deformation. The softening due to drying microcracking inuences the fracture time of restrained concrete as will be discussed later in this chapter.
8.4 Quantication of MicrocrackingISoftening

The microcracking that occurs in the outer layer of drying concrete is normally ne and densely distributed. It causes material strain softening and inuences its response to stress. It is possible to descbe it by a stress-strain relation in a continuum manner (see
163
Bazant and Chem, 1985b). It is assumed that the strain associated with microcracking be additive to creep, shrinkage and elastic strains. Thus, it becomes possible to quantify the strain associated with smface microcracldng. We must keep in mind, that the evaluated strain softening in this case is an overall property (smeared value) ofa nite representative volume ofheterogeneous material, not a point property ofhomogenized continuum. The strain associated with surface microcracking of drying concrete was quantied as follows. First. basic creep and stress-reduced shrinkage ofthe drying concrete were predicted using their respective calibrated models. Second, microcracldng strain was calculated such that the stress-reduced shrinkage and microcracking added up to the measured drying creep in the experiment. A sign convention adopted in the analysis expressed creep as a positive strain in tension, and shrinkage as a negative strain. The drying creep and microcracking strain in the tension case are of the same sign (positive) since they occurred in the same direction, whereas the sign ofthe stress-reduced shrinkage is negative because it occurred in the opposite direction to creep. For a restrained test, it can be written as follows:
Drying Creep + Stress-reduced shrinkage + Strain soening = 0
8.3
Typical analytical results ofthe drying creep (Pickett e'ect) components are presented in Figures 8-4 and 8-5 for concrete mixes with w/c-ratio of 0.5 and 0.4, respectively. The results indicate that the stress-reduced shrinkage is a major contribution to the Pickett e'ect at early age for plain and ber reinforced concrete. However, microcracking component is quite obvious in plain concrete, but less signicant in ber reinforced concrete as shown in Figures 8-4 and 8-5. Therefore, the stress-reduced shrinkage in ber reinforced concrete explains a major part ofthe drying creep. This indicates that, the tensile creep ofFRC is dominated by real mechanisms related to material, whereas for plain concrete a substantial amount of cracking creep (apparent mechanism) is involved. Moreover, considering only real mechanisms (i.e. excluding microcracking) indicates that tensile creep ofber concrete is greater than that for plain concrete. However, when all mechanisms of creep are considered, only a slight increase in tensile creep of ber concrete is observed. This explains the results ofcreep of drying
164
concrete discussed in Chapter 4, which revealed insignicant increases in the creep of ber concrete. Clearly, ber reinforcement inuences the apparent creep mechanism substantially (the mechanism of microcracking). The above discussion suggests dierent stress relaxation mechanisms in plain and ber reinforced concrete. Real creep mechanisms are benecial because they provide tensile stress relaxation. But apparent creep mechanisms (microcracking), cannot be viewed as benecial because there is microstructural damage associated with the deformation. Therefore, ber reinforcement enhances stress relaxation because tensile creep of FRC is mainly dominated by real mechanisms. On the other hand, the microcracking forms a substantial part ofthe tensile creep ofplain concrete. Therefore, only part of tensile creep ofthe plain concrete contributes to benecial stress relaxation while the other part dominated by microcracking is detrimental as will be discussed later in this chapter. The advantageous role of ber in modifying the creep behavior of concrete and enhancing stress relaxation becomes more obvious when the dierent mechanisms of creep are separated.
8.4.1 Qualitative Analysis for Microcracking and Failure

As shown in Figure 8-4, the strain associated with microcracking for ber concrete is substantially less than that for plain concrete. Consequently, the steel ber reinforcement controls the strain softening ofthe material. The less microcracking for ber concrete agrees with the general behavior ofFRC. Moreover, it explains the observed delay in fracture ofdrying FRC samples under restrained conditions as mentioned in Chapter 4. The impact ofmicrocracking on failure will be analytically demonstrated in section 8.8.4. However, experimental observations supporting the link between the drying microcracking and failure of restrained concrete are required. For this purpose, replicate samples ofplain and ber reinforced concrete were
tested imder restrained conditions. It was noticed that, similar restrained concrete samples exhibited failure at dierent ages. For example, two samples ofber reinforced concrete
with a w/c-ratio of 0.5 failed at dierent ages: 145 hours and 181 hours. The ee shrinkage ofboth samples was quite similar but they failed at dierent ages. The analysis revealed
165
dierent levels of drying microcracking in these samples as shown in Figure 8-6. The rst concrete sample exhibited more microcraclcing than the second one. This dierence is possible because microcracking is localized in natlne and may occur faster at regions where the ber distribution density is low. Since bers are randomly distributed, local regions with low ber density are fairly expected. Therefore, evolution of microcracking in the rst sample was faster than the second sample as revealed by the analysis, and hence, the rst concrete sample failed earlier. Furthermore, when the resolved microcracking strain is added to the measured elastic strain in the restrained test, the resulting strain at failure is equivalent for both samples. Moreover, this strain was equal to the failure strain for that concrete mix when monotonically loaded to failure. This experimental observation validates the relation between the analytically resolved microcracking and fracture of restrained concrete.
8.4.2 Stress-Strain Relation for Distributed Microcracking

As mentioned in section 8.4, the suain associated with microcracking can be described in a stress-strain relation. Based on the strain softening model described in Chapter 6, the softening part of response was assumed to be algebraic and additive to the strain due to creep, shrinkage and elastic deformation as follows: s=e,+ec+e,,,+. 8.4
Where a, 2, , er, 2,, ,5 = column matrices of the Cartesian components ofthe tensors of total strain, of strain due to elastic deformation, of strain due to creep, of strain due to shrinkage, and of strain associated with strain softening. The relation of 0' -af diagram can be described as follows:
0' = (?()
3-5
Where C represents Cartesian components ofthe secant modulus tensor; C is a mction in . The particulars ofthe model and its relevancy to the current analysis were discussed in
Chapter 6. The uniaxial strain-softening diagram is given by:

0' = A5 exp(b) For this expression, the secant modulus is 8.6
166
C() = 4-5" XP(-bi)
(0 < q <1)
3-7
In which A, q,b,s are empirical constants. These parameters were determined by tting the data resolved for microcracking. Typical values ofthese parameters for ber and plain concrete are presented in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2 Parameters for strain softening of restrained drying concrete Mix NC-0.5-PC NP .5-SF > NC-0.4-PC I .4 103.17 77 10 52.5 : q 0.4230 0.3531 0.4045 I B 78.48 63.78 21.11 I I s 0.4747 0.408 0.4629
Figure 8-7 shows typical analytical results of strain soening associated with microcracking of plain and ber reinforced concrete with a w/c-ratio of 0.5. A signicant strain softening of plain concrete is evident and started at a lowo-/ cr, , but FRC exhibited less softening. However, 0 / 0', at failure is similar for plain and ber reinforced concrete, which was approximately 0.8. This is an important result indicating that concrete under restrained condition failed at a stress level lower than its nominal value obtained by conventional tensile strength test. The reduction in strength is primarily related to static fatigue and accumulation of damage in the material under sustained load. Therefore, a reduction strength factor must be considered for accurate prediction of shrinkage cracking when strength is considered the criteria for failure. A factor of 0.8 was typically obtained in this research. The fact that ber and plain concrete failed at the same o'/ 0', questions the accuracy of strength-based failure analysis of ber concrete. For example, the tensile strength of concrete was not improved by the ber reinforcement while the age at failure was delayed signicantly as shown in Chapter 4. Thus, strength-based analytical models would not capture the observed delay in acture. Therefore, fracture mechanics-based analysis is probably more appropriate for the shrinkage craclcing of ber concrete, because
167
it considers 'acture toughness of concrete and mechanisms of crack propagation on which bers have a great inuence.
8.4.3 Evolution of Microcracking

The previous analysis demonstrated the microcracldng as a contributor to tensile creep of drying concrete. However, for the analysis of shrinkage cracking in restrained concrete, it is required to lmow the evolution of drying microcracking. This can be achieved ifthe real stress distribution across the drying concrete is measured or calculated by nite element analysis. Non ofthese were considered, and the mean stress was the only form of stress obtained in the experiment. Having this restriction, empirical approach was used to establish the evolution of smeared microcracking ofthe drying concrete. Microcracking depends on the real stress and strength evolution (o'/ 0', ). A phenomenological approach was used to establish the evolution of microcracking. The approach considers the evolution mction as the product oftwo functions; one is a function of 0' / 0', at the time of load application, and the other is a function ofthe time of exposure to drying under load. The rst mction determines the location on the stress-strain softening diagram established in the previous section, and the second describes the progression of microcracking in time due to continued drying. The choice ofthese functions was based on experimental observations. The rst mction is of exponential type because microcracking progress more rapidly as the o'/ 0', increases and the second is a negative exponential mction as drying generates stresses that follow a similar pattem. The predictive mction used in this study for the strain associated with microcracking (g' in microstrain) has the following form:
:0) =A.e><p<a<%l)>>*<B. e><p<-be-r.>>>

Where r is the age of concrete, and to is the age at load application in hours;
8.8
A, , a, s, B, , b are empirical constants and determined by data t; o'(t,, ), 0', (to ) are the mean
tensile stress and the tensile strength of concrete at time to . The suggested formula tted the
168
resolved microcracking strains reasonably well, and the tting coefcients for drying plain and ber concrete are presented in Table 8.3
Table 8.3 Parameters for microcracking evolution of restrained drying concrete
Mix I NC-0.5-PCI
NC-0.5-SF '
NC-0.4-PC I
,4, 0.044
5.006
0.164 I
a 6.075
l 1.970
5.410 I
s 0.8805
1.500
0.2841
I I
B, 2.611
0.001
1.093
6.037
8.187
0.037
8.5 Limitations of the Approach

The technique implemented in this research separates and quanties the components of Pickett e'ect. However, the implementation of the approach can not be widely generalized at this point since it has been validated for certain concrete mixes under specic conditions. As discussed in section 8.2.3, the key feature of the approach is the condition of uniform drying of sealed samples. It provides infonnation on interaction of creep with shrinkage at no surface microcracking. This condition was achieved under sealed ctuing condition and validated only at early age for normal concrete with w/c-ratio of 0.4 and 0.5. lt may not be guaranteed, however, to achieve this condition in old concrete or in high performance concrete with a lower w/c-ratio. Validation of the approach for old concrete is beyond the scope of this research. For these reasons, the approach described and implemented in this research is applicable only to early age normal concrete, but may also be applicable for old concrete. However, further research is clearly needed for validation.
8.6 Signicance of the Approach

The approach developed in this research for separating the Pickett effect mechanisms is very advantageous as it provides an avenue to tmderstand and explore the tensile creepshrinkage interaction particularly at early age. [ts signicance can be seen as follows:
169
It provides a test technique to generate experimental data on the mechanisms ofthe Pickett e'ect on concrete in tension. Such data is not available in the literature, yet required for better tmderstanding and modeling ofthe behavior of concrete.
Data on mechanisms ofthe Pickett effect allows modeling ofthe various mechanisms and characterizing the contribution of each one to the overall deformation of concrete.
To study details and particulars ofthe interaction such as the identication of real versus apparent creep mechanisms and their inuence on the overall behavior. Micromechanics based models can be developed accordingly.
It provides behavioral information and the effect ofvarious material parameters on the creep of concrete and the overall mechanical behavior. For example, the explanation of the delay in fracture of restrained drying FRC was only possible through the quantication of microcracking and its relation to material softening
8.7 Validation of the Approach

The experimental results indicate that the deformations from each mechanism of tensile creep are additive. So the model for each mechanism can also be superposed to describe total tensile creep. Based upon such considerations, a series-coupling model (Figure 8-8) can be used to predict the total creep of restrained concrete. The basic creep is represented by Kelvin chain model with aging modeled according to solidication theory (Chapter 7, Equations 7.8-7.9). The stress- reduced shrinkage and stress -induced thermal is from Equations 8.1-8.2. The microcracking is form Equation 8.8. To validate the model oftotal creep, plain and ber concrete samples with w/c-ratio of 0.5 were subjected to two dierent regimes of ctning during the restrained test: sealing and drying curing conditions. The samples were initially sealed while restrained for 72 hours, and exposed to dying afterward. Therefore, dierent mechanisms of creep were involved in each stage. In the sealed stage, only basic creep and stress-reduced shrinkage were assumed to exist, whereas the microcracking mechanism was additionally induced upon drying. The coefficients identied for basic creep, stress-reduced shrinkage, and microcracking ofthe concrete with w/c-ratio of0.5 were used in the validation. Experimental and analytical
170
results for plain and ber reinforced concrete are shown in Figures 8-9 and 8-10, respectively. The results show a good agreement between the model and the experimental data. Clearly, the model captures the discontinuity and the rapid change in the total creep upon drying. This strong correlaon supports and strengthens the analytical approach and the modeling of the various creep mechanisms at early age.
8.8 Damage-based Analysis of Microcracking

It is known that failure in quasi-brittle materials like concrete occurs rst progressively and then suddenly when micro cracks localize into a macro crack. The timedependent microcracking arises from drying is therefore contributing to the fracture process of resnained concrete. In this section, the e'ect of drying microcracking on failure is quantitatively examined by using the basic principles of damage mechanics. From the continuum point of view, damage models are well suited to capture the essential features of the failure of concrete. The basic damage concepts relevant to the current analysis were described in Chapter 6, and a method to estimate damage in concrete was formulated.
However, a brief review ofthe method and its basic parameters is presented in the
following sections.
8.8.1 Basic Damage Concepts

Three basic parameters required for the analysis are briey presented in this section: damage factor, damage threshold, and damage evolution. Damage Factor: The damage factor D was approximated from the tmiaxial tensile stresssnain diagram using the concept of secant stiffness degradation as a measure of damage. A skematic diagram showing this process was presented in Figure 6-4. The damage variable D is dened as follows:
E n=1-E.
Where E is the eective secant modulus ofthe damaged material and E0 is the initial modulus of the virgin material. The failure is dened when the damage ofthe material
89
171
reaches a critical value Dc . The Dc may vary between DC =1 0 for pure brittle 'acture
to DC = l for pure ductile acture but usually remains ofthe order of 02 to 0.5.
Damage Threshold: The damage threshold PD is dened as the strain level below which no damage by microcracking occurs. The damage threshold for concrete corresponds approximately to the end of linear portion of the stress-strain diagram. It was approxiamted on the stress-strain diagram as the elastic strain corresponding to a tensile stress of around 0.48-0.5 ofthe tensile strength (see Figure 6-4). However, for more accurate prediction of the damage threshold, a series of load-unload stress-strain cmves are required, which were not performed in this research. Damage Evolution: Kinetic law of damage evolution was used to determine the evolution of damage in restrained drying concrete. For quasi-brittle material, the kinetic damage evolution can be approximated as follows (see Lemaitre, 1992):
. _ 0"f 2 D - ;Re,q
__E$
zf
an 2 PD andoyq 2 o'_,
8.10
D=0
if
o',q<crf
Where 0",, is the von Mises equivalent stress, 0' , is the fatigue limit of the material, an is the rate oftotal equivalent strain, E is the elastic modulus, S is the material damage strength factor, and R is the traixiality ratio dened as follows:
R=3(1+v)+3(1-2v)(" )1
3 o'_, Where, v is the poissons ratio and 0",, is the hydrostatic stress.
8.11
8.8.2 Identication of Damage Variables

The basic damage parameters described above were identied in the analysis from the stress-strain diagrams obtained om uniaxial tensile strength tests for a concrete mix
with w/c-ratio of 0.5 as described in the following sections.
172
8.8.2.1 Critical Damage Factor

The pure monotonic tension test was considered a reference to characterize the critical damage as a material property, and was dened as the damage factor at the imminent of failure. Several tensile strength tests were conducted at dierent ages for plain and ber concrete with a w/c-ratio of 0.5. The obtained stress-strain diagrams were used to calculate the crical damage factor. The results for ber and plain concrete are shown in Figure 8-1 1. Clearly, the critical damage factor for plain and ber concrete is increasing with age, but it is reduced by ber reinforcement, which suggests less damage at failure when bers are added to concrete. The critical damage factor at the age of 180 hours is nearly 0.23 and 0.37 for ber and plain concrete, respectively. The evolution of critical damage factor with age is probably related to the aging of concrete, and the subsequent changes in its acture characteristics. The exact form of evolution requires large number oftests to characterize. However, with the limited number of tests conducted in this research, a linear approximation is assumed as shown in Figure 812 and is given by the following equations: Dc = 0.243 + 0.00064 * t (Plain concrete) 8.12
Dc = 0.175 + 0.000278 *1
(Fiber Concrete)
8.13
Where t is the age of concrete in hours. So, at any point in time, ifthe damage caused to the material exceeds the critical value, unstable crack propagation that leads to failure of concrete is expected. The approach used to predict failure of restrained concrete is empirical and approximate yet is simple and serves its purpose for this analysis. For more sophisticated analysis of failure, acture-based nite element analysis is most likely required.
8.8.2.2 Damage Threshold

Damage threshold strain was estimated as the strain corresponds to the end of linear
portion ofthe stress-strain diagram. The evolution ofthe threshold strain for plain and ber
concrete was approximated by a power function as shown in Figure 8-12 and is given by the following empirical equations:
173
8,, = 3.4127 * r-"
(for plain concrete)
8.14
and
5,, = 3.7309 *:-B
(for ber concrete)
8.15
8.8.2.3 Damage Strength Material Parameter, S

To identify the coefcient S, it is required to obtain data on damage accumulation. Damages versus strain curves were constructed from the stress-strain diagrams using the principle of secant stiress degradation described in section 6.5.1. To construct such curves, damage factors at different accumulated strain levels were calculated for each test using Equation 8.9. The coecient S was then determined om the slope of the curve: damage D versus the accumulated equivalent strain, as shown in Figure 6-4b and is given as follows (Based on damage evolution law, Equation 8.10):
2
S =idDR 2E
if
an 2 pp andoyq 20';
8.16
dc,
At each point ofthe curve, D is known (Equation 8.9), of is known from the tensile stressstrain curve and is approximately equal to (0.48 0.5) * 0', for the tested concrete, :2 is
8,,
estimated, E is the initial modulus, and R is the traixiality ratio which is known at each point. Several points were considered in order to obtain S as the best average which when used ir1 the kinetic damage evolution law (Equation 8.10) could reasonably predict the critical damage factor for the material at that age. The same stress-strain diagrams used for critical damage evaluation were used to identify the parameter S at different ages. Linear approximation ofthe evolution is given by the following empirical equation for the concrete mix with a w/c-ratio of 0.5:
s = 2.0188X10 + 4.338X10' *r
Where t is the age of concrete in hours. So, at any point in time, the damage strength
6.58
parameter can be estimated to evaluate the damage by the kinetic law of damage evolution.
174
8.8.3 Quantitative Analysis for Microcracking and Failure

As discussed in Chapters 4 and 5, the restrained drying concrete samples were all failed during the test. However, when the same loads were applied on concrete tmder wet and sealed conditions, the concrete samples did not fail. The explanation to this observation was primarily related to drying microcracking as demonstrated in section 8.4. To demonstrate this relation quantitatively, the damage-based model described above was used. In a restrained shrinkage test, the accumulated elastic strain and the strain associated with microcracking are primarily the damaging strains that lead to failure. Therefore, these two components must be added for failure analysis of drying concrete. The elastic component of strain (in time) was determined form the tests under wet curing condition, and the strain associated with drying microcracking was calculated according to the approach suggested in this study (see section 8.4). Thus, the two components were added to construct a combined stress-strain diagram for damage analysis. The kinetic law of damage evolution and the identied damage parameters for the concrete under consideration were used to evaluate the evolution of damage factor and to predict failure of plain and ber reinforced concrete. Figures 8-l3 and 8-14 presents accumulation of the calculated damage and the critical damage in restrained plain and ber reinforced concrete, respectively. The accumulated damage only exceeds the critical damage factor at a time that corresponds to the measured failure time for the tested concrete i.e. the damage approach predicts the failure of the restrained concrete. Figure 814 also presents the damage evolution for the replicate ber concrete samples that failed at dilferent ages due to the induced drying microcracking as discussed in section 8.4.1. The CllSCL1:SlOIl initiated in section 8.4.1 qualitatively linked the microcracking strain to the failure time. However, the damage analysis quantitatively demonstrates the contribution of microcracking to the induced failure. Figure 8-14 shows the damage in the rst sample reaching a critical value (failure) earlier than in the second sample. The damage-based analysis captures the features of failure for drying concrete, particularly the inuence of ber reinforcement. The suggested approach that characterizes the damage of concrete using secant stiffness degradation is simple and suiciently
175
accurate. Moreover, it identies all basic damage parameters from a tmiaxial stress-strain diagram. Therefore, it can be used to predict shrinkage cracking of drying concrete with sucient accuracy. Furthermore, the reasonable agreement between the failure time of concrete in the experiment and the predicted failure time demonstrates the contribution of microcracking to failure, and supports the suggested technique that resolves them.

0 The implemented experimental technique and the analytical approach satisfactorily separate the early age drying tensile creep mechanisms into stress-reduced shrinkage and microcracking. The combined experimental and analytical analysis provides valuable behavioral information on the mechanisms of creep for ber and plain concrete. The experimental technique requires creep measurement under wet, sealed, and drying curing conditions. 0 Stress-reduced shrinkage is a major mechanism of drying creep in plain and ber reinforced concrete, but not the only mechanism as demonstrated by the analysis. The results reveal reduction of shrinkage under tensile load by 40 to 60 %. 0 Microcracking forms a signicant portion of drying tensile creep in plain concrete, but it is less signicant in ber concrete. Thus, ber reinforcement controls the softening of drying concrete, which in tum inuences the shrinkage and stress-strain behavior. v Real mechanisms of creep (basic and stress-reduced shrinkage) dominate the creep behavior of ber reinforced concrete, whereas apparent creep mechanism induced by microcracking forms a signicant part ofthe tensile creep ofplain concrete. Real mechanisms are only benecial for stress relaxation while apparent mechanisms are detrimental. Therefore, ber reinforcement inuences the creep mechanisms and enhances stress relaxation. v The implemented analytical models for basic creep, stress-reduced shrinkage and microcracking analysis are reliable and satisfactorily predict the behavior. 0 The microcracldng clearly inuences the failure time ofrestained drying concrete. The qualitative and quantitative analysis demonstrates the relation between drying
176
microcracking and failure. Drying microcracking profotmdly aects the mechanical behavior and failure of drying concrete. The method of secant stiress degradation is appropriate to characterize damage parameters. It requires only a imiaxial stress-strain diagram to identify various damage parameters such as the damage factor, the damage threshold, the critical damage, and the material damage strength factor. The damage-based approach satisfactorily captures the features of failure of drying concrete. It predicts the failure time, and demonstrates quantitatively the contribution of microcracking to failure. Thus, a damage-based model is more appropriate for ber reinforced concrete than strength -based model because it predicts the time of failure more accurately. For example, ber reinforced and plain concrete failed at the same
stress/strength ratio (0.8) while the time to failure substantially increased by ber
reinforcement.
l77
50----1---1
.
._.r-
50
Model Parameters
, , ._
, _,,---* *
kage(pm/m)
4
30
20
10
rs= - 0.5910 pT= 1.9340

7L "
6
I. 7
Data
- Model .
0 50
Shrue-eStrncdR ed s
,
100
.
150 200
Age (hrs)
Figure 8-1 Stress-reduced shrinkage for plain concrete (w/c = 0.5)
50
-9
Model Parameters
40
(rm/rn) e
nkag
30
rS= - 0.4119 pT= 4.7895
d Q
= Data i Model
20
10
ShrdRstSre - e uced
O
0 50
.
100 150 200
Age (hrs)
Figure 8-2 Stress-reduced shrinkage for ber reinforced concrete (w/c = 0.5)
178
'
-so
(pm/m)
~~
.
__ Shrinkage under load

. v
-100
................................. ._ '..fitlffffifffiffffiff.Eq.-..
SF
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' * ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' "
-0 ..... _-__._
Free Shrinkage
Stra hrn 'nkage
S
.
'
__
>1... .
...................
q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . =1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . ._ ~
'
'_"l
a
250 0 50 100 150
SF
200
Age (hrs)
Figure 8-3 Eect of tensile stress on shrinkage (w/c = 0.5)
100
A Microcracking
PC
SF,
..
..frrr.-:9.-.--,.__,___.._,_.___-___--.,.....-.-.-.-9. . . . . . . . . . . . , ..
I ~ ' .
_50
. _ . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . .
. . .\._... . . . . .
-___._
~,_ .,._ Q,
(pm/r Stnam)
""'""""'""""""""""""""'"""
""""'""
"-'-'_'_'_'_.
Stress-induced shrinkage
150 0
I r
PC
150 200
50
100
Age (hrs)
Figure 8-4 Components ofthe Pickett eect (w/c = 0.5)
179
100 so
Microcracking
'
PC
A
,....@.---.
4.99.... ...... .. ..-......'::.-.-.->.-.-::f ................................. .. ""

Q..
at
-
.1 .
s1=___;-------'
0". ' u .
,-O
. . ... ...I.. _ ,_ . -_ ._ ._ ._ ,_ >

I
'0. _
.. . . . 9.. . .,; . - - . . . . . - - - - - - - .
- - --
(um/ Stnam) r
-100
_ .
-.
_l
2. .___ SF
"0-._
'.~. ~-__.
' <:___ _
..... '..............................Z:Q . . . . . . ..
Stress-induced shrinkage
-150 0
PC 150 200
50
100 Age (hrs)
Figure 8-5 Components of the Pickett e'ect ' (w/c = 0.4)
100
so
Q
Microcracking
1 i Failure
, _ . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . , . . . . . _ . ..
A '
.....'fo'-.':.'.'.'.";"
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Samrgli?-__1...------,
_..!. 1j1_n1QI.2-Y
(pm/m) -199
Stress-induced shrinkage ..' ................... ................................... ..-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ ..
Stra n
-150
Shrinkage
----- __ .1". shrinkage Free _ ........................................................ ............ ..
.299
-250 0
50
100
150
2O0
Age (hrs)
Figure 8-6 Effect of microcracking on age at failure of FRC samples (w/c = 0 5)
180
0.8
0.6
E................................................................................1
4% . .. ... . ,_. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
J .
. . . . . . . . , . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
Q"
0_4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
* Plain concrete
. . . . . . ..
Q3
0_2
...................................... .. -' Steel-ber
...... ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
0 O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Microcracking Strain (mulm)

Figure 8-7 Typical stress-strain curves associated with microcracking (w/c = 0.5)
181
1
WW P1
7:
ii
Microcracking
strain
___.
WW
F"
ya
L. %__.
7 (Kelvin chain model)
Basic creep
M?ha
WW _l'1
al.
7.v
< X Y
Viscous ow
Y
Stress-reduced shrinkage
r
V
Figure 8-8: Model for total creep
l 82
'
ao_
-
Model I Experiment Sealed

4
' I 1
I
T -
eo-
40Creep) (pm/ Totam
1 8 -
20-
I
.
I
.
A
;
1
Z->
.
Drying
T
120
20
40
60
80
100
140
Age(hrs)
Figure 8-9 Validation of the creep model for plain concrete (w/c = 0.5)
100 so -so 40 _-
Experiment
Model
Sealed
qi-i .
TotaCreep(pm/m)
20 -
O . 1 . _
4
. r
Drying
. "
_
140 160
20
40
60
80
100
120
Age(hrs)
Figure 8-10 Validation of the creep model for FRC (w/c = 0.5)
183
0-4
O
-'1"1""|"'1
r""i"*|
Plain Concrete
0.35 ----- ~ I Fiber Cgncrete
i
--------------------------
' '
0.3
Factor,D0.25 amage D t'ca Cr
02
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~- . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~. .
. . . _ . . . ..
---------------------------------------------------------------------------%"
................... .............................................. ..
0.15 40
'
' 60
' 80
100
1 ' 120
' ' I 140
' 160 18
Age (hours)
Figure 8-ll Critical damage factors for plain and ber reinforced concrete (w/c = 0 5)
50
40
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
(|.lapn |Tl/ITI)
30
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . ..
20
10
_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
ThDamaged resho
- Plain Concrete l Fiber Concrete

,
100 150 200
1
0
.
50
Age (hrs)
Figure 8-12 Damage threshold strain for plain and ber reinforced concrete (w/c = 0 5)
184
0.4.
0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2
F3
.4.U1
I 1 --
,
I
' 1| 11I1
7
,....,.
Z Failure ,>
,
t I W - I8 |1 v ..., Iv ~
~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - ~ - - ~ - ' -7--~--~------------>--~.~-------------~~
4?
| 1 ~1vv
.
f
, , - , , _ , , , , , , _ - _ , _ _ _ _
.__i
E................... ............ ..
Calculated Damage
Factor Damage
0-1
Q95
""" """""" """""" " 'critica| damage

............... . ............................................................... ..
50
100
150
ZQQ
Age (hrs)
Figure 8-13 Damage evolution and failure of plain concrete (w/c = 0.5)
0.25
.i> ' Failure

4% $*
0.2
..............
-4*
0.15
Failure
0.1
Factor Damage
0.05
-' damage-sample # 1 I damage-sample # 2 r critiml-damage

O 50 100 150
0 200
Age (hrs)
Figure 8-14 Damage evolution and failure of FRC (w/c = 0.5)

185
CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

9.1 Introduction
This chapter presents a summary ofthe ndings and conclusions based on the experimental and analytical results obtained in this research. The chapter summarizes the ndings of the dierent phases of this research, including experimental technique, restrained behavior of drying concrete, sealed and wet curing at early age, basic creep behavior, drying creep mechanisms, and the general behavior of plain concrete and ber reinforced concrete (FRC).
9.2 Experimental Technique

The uniaxial, restrained shrinkage test developed in the experimental phase reveals how shrinkage stresses develop and how creep mechanisms reduce shrinkage strain in the restrained specimen. The following remarks can be made regarding the experimental technique and procedures 0 The experimental setup developed in this study is reliable and can be used to characterize tensile creep and restrained shrinkage of concrete in the early age. The reproducibility of shrinkage stress, shrinkage strain and creep strain is acceptable and falls within the inherent scatter of material properties. The test sufciently detects the
sensitivity of creep and shrinkage to various material parameters.

0 The experiment requires LVDTs with high resolution to capture the small deformations. The LVDTs must be attached directly to the concrete sample to exclude the effect oftest machine and end grips on the measurements. The test also requires a closed-loop control system with a high resolution to avoid a rough application of the load that may cause premature failure of concrete, particularly at early age. I The end grips must be designed to avoid premature failure ofthe sample. Therefore, the cross-section ofthe grips must be gradually increasing to minimize stress concentration at the contact surfaces. Rigid attachment of the grips to the actuator and the end
186
reaction block is inappropriate and causes erroneous measurement due to possible misalignment; instead, swivel joints must be installed at both ends to eccentric loads.
9 3 Restrained Drying Concrete

Shrinkage Stress and Failure of Drying Concrete Tensile stresses generated by restraining shrinkage of concrete are signicant in the rst days after casting, and lead to fracture ofthe material. The role of tensile creep in relaxing shrinkage stress is substantial and reduces the stresses by 50 %. The rate and history of shrinkage stress evolution at early age are two important factors that inuence the time of cracking and stress at failure. These parameters must be considered in the analysis for accurate prediction of shrinkage cracking because under sustained loads, static fatigue and damage accumulation promote failure at a stress less than the tensile strength. The static fatigue represents a slow crack growth under
sustained load that eventually leads to failure. A typical value of 0.8 for stress/strength
ratio at failure is obtained for restrained concrete. Therefore, a reduction strength factor of 0.8 can be applied in a strength-based analysis for shrinkage cracking.
b) Free Shrinkage and Tensile Creep
The very early days of concrete life are characterized by a complex interaction of intemal drying, extemal drying and thermal effects. A major portion ofthe shrinkage of normal and HPC occurs in the rst two days aer casting, and is driven by a complex combination of intemal and extemal drying. Extemal drying alone cannot explain the ee shrinkage in the rst two days, and other mechanisms, such as autogenous and chemical shrinkage must be considered. Total tensile creep at early age forms a substantial part of the time dependent deformation. The ratio between tensile creep and ee shrinkage can be used to express their interaction. This ratio is important and can be roughly considered in the vicinity of
187
failure as 0.5 for concrete irrespective of w/c-ratio. This indicates that the creep relaxes the shrinkage stress by 50 %.
Inuence of Fiber Reinforcement
The addition of bers (0.5 % by volume) does not affect ee shrinkage at early age. However, it slightly increases the total tensile creep. Steel ber reinforcement substantially delays the time of shrinkage cracking, particularly in concrete mixes with low w/c-ratios. The delay in fracture seems unexplainable solely by the slight improvement of total tensile creep. However, the apparent creep associated with microcracking is substantially reduced by ber reinforcement. This part of the creep promotes failure in tension case, and hence, it is detrimental. The reduction of microcracking creep in FRC explains the delay ir1 acture.
9 4 Sealed and Wet Curing Conditions

The sealing of concrete against drying does not eliminate the early age shrinkage because of the intemal drying, even for normal concrete. Therefore, tensile creep of sealed concrete at early age includes the interaction with the autogenous shrinkage and cannot be considered as a basic creep. Autogenous shrinkage of concrete is a signicant component of total shrinkage of concrete measured in the early age, particularly for the concrete with low w/c- ratio. The autogenous shrinkage forms a major part ofthe total shrinkage in the very early days. The sealed and wet-curing conditions used in this study provide imiform distribution of intemal humidity in concrete. The uniform drying of concrete eliminates the potential for surface microcracking.
188
The age at which sealing is applied inuences the shrinkage and creep behavior. Thus, the experimental procedures must specify the time at which sealing is applied to avoid misinterpretation ofthe collected data. Moist curing can be successfully used to suppress early age shrinkage ofnormal concrete. Its inuence on mechanical properties as compared to sealed curing is negligible. Therefore, the creep measured under wet curing condition can be taken as a basic creep of the material because shrinkage is eliminated from the measurement.
9 5 Basic Creep Behavior

The basic creep model based on solidication theory satisfactorily describes the tensile creep behavior at early age. The model captures the various characteristics ofbasic creep and provides valuable information on the aging behavior of concrete. The analysis of basic creep test results reveal that the tensile basic creep becomes ageindependent after a few days, typically after ve days for the concrete tested in this research. This nding is useful for the characterization of tensile basic creep behavior and for the design of its experiment. However, generalization of this nding for early age concrete requires more comprehensive investigations. The basic creep mction of young concrete is characterized by a high rate of creep in the ir1itial 10-20 hours after loading, after which the rate decreases and the creep function tends to approach a stable value. This behavior was observed ir1 the plain and ber reinforced concrete. However, the basic creep ofthe plain concrete stabilizes earlier than that ofthe ber concrete. The initial rate of basic creep is very sensitive to age at loading in the rst two days, and becomes less sensitive aer that. The initial rate of creep of plain concrete is higher than that of ber concrete. This suggests that microcracking initially dominates the creep of plain concrete while it is more controlled in ber reinforced concrete.
9 6 Drying Creep Mechanisms

0 The experimental approach oftesting concrete under drying, sealed and wet curing
conditions enables the separation ofthe two mechanisms of drying creep at early age
189
stress-reduced shrinkage and microcracking. The separation of drying creep mechanisms explains the dierence in behavior between plain and ber reinforced concrete. The implemented analytical models for basic creep, stress-reduced shrinkage and microcracking analysis are reliable and satisfactorily predict the behavior of concrete. Stress-reduced shrinkage is a major mechanism of drying creep of plain and ber reinforced concrete, but not the only mechanism as demonstrated by the analysis. The results reveal reduction of shrinkage under tensile load by 40 to 60 %. Microcracking forms a signicant portion of drying tensile creep of plain concrete, but it is less signicant in ber concrete. Fiber reinforcement controls the soening of drying concrete, which in tum inuences the shrinkage and stress-strain behavior.
9 7 General Behavior at Early Age

Real mechanisms of creep (basic and stress-reduced shrinkage) dominate the tensile creep behavior of ber reinforced concrete, whereas apparent creep mechanism induced by microcracking forms a signicant part of the tensile creep of plain concrete. The real mechanisms are benecial for stress relaxation, but apparent mechanisms involve microcracking and are detrimental. Therefore, ber reinforcement inuences the creep mechanisms and enhances stress relaxation. Soening due to microcracking inuences shrinkage behavior under tensile load. Therefore, ber reinforced concrete exhibited greater shrinkage under tensile load than the plain concrete, because of the less softening associated with drying microcracking. The drying microcracking profotmdly inuences the failure time and mechanical behavior of restrained concrete. The qualitative and quantitative analysis demonstrates the relation between drying microcracking and failure of restrained concrete. The basic creep mction ofplain concrete is characterized by a high initial rate of creep that does not last long before the creep function stabilizes. On the contrary, the initial rate of creep of FRC is not as high as of plain concrete, but it lasts longer before the creep mction stabilizes. This implies that stress relaxation capacity of FRC is more than that ofplain concrete because it continues for a longer duration.
190
The early age creep is inversely proportional to the w/c-ratio ofthe concrete mix.
9.8 Failure Analysis

0 The damage-based approach satisfactorily captures the features of failure of drying concrete. It predicts the failure time satisfactorily, and demonstrates quantitatively the contribution of microcracldng to failure. Damage-based models capture the failure characteristics of ber reinforced concrete in a more appropriate way than strengthbased models. For example, ber reinforced and plain concrete failed at the same stress/strength ratio (0.8) while the time to failure substantially increased by ber reinforcement. 0 The method of secant stifiess degradation is appropriate to characterize damage parameters. It requires only a uniaxial stress-strain diagram to identify various damage parameters: damage factor, damage threshold, critical damage, and material damage strength factor.
l9l
APPENDIX A
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR RESTRAINED SHRINKAGE TESTS
Notes:
A) Creep, shrinkage, and elastic strains are reported in microstrain B) Reported humidity values represent average humidity over the cross-section
192
Table A-1: Restrained shrinkage results for plain concrete, w/c = 0.5, sample # 1
age at drying =14 hours, RH = 50 %

Age(hrs) Stress,MPa Elastics
32.00 34.17
Shrinkage
-8.20 -15.35 -26.07
Creep
-0.21 -1.81 -0.36 4.67 12.51 27.74 46.72 67.06 81.70 98.38 113.87 125.36 133.54 146.65
Creep coef. Humidity creeplshnnk

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.28 0.52 0.75 0.96 1.04 1.14 1.20 1.22 1.20 1.23 97.98 97.74 97.47 97.16 96.88 96.48 95.86 94.94 93.75 92.05 90.27 89.02 87.93 86.74 0.03 0.12 0.01 0.11 0.22 0.34
, 36.87
39.50 42.17 46.00 52.00 61.33 74.00 93.67 116.83 135.67 154.33 179.00
0.05 0.21 0.36 0.52
0.68
0.85 1.00 1.13 1.25 1.38 1.49 1.55 1.67 1.75
8.24 17.16 26.59 36.19 45.03 53.78 62.19 69.75 78.16 86.75 95.07 102.80 111.30 119.12
' -40.87
-57.54 -81.36 -108.92 -136.64 -160.12 -184.96 -208.69 -228.17 -244.84 -265.60
0.43
0.49 0.51 0.53 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55
Table A-2: Restrained shrinkage results for plain concrete, w/c = 0.5, sample # 2 age at drying =14 hours, RH = 50 % Age (hrs) Stress,MPa, Elastic:
14.00 26.00 28.67 30.83 33.00 36.33 40.67 46.17 54.33 66.17 84.67 105.83 131.83 159.50 0.00 0.22 0.33 0.45 0.57 0.67 0.76 0.87 0.98 1.10 1 .21 1.41 1.57 1.78 0.00 8.08 16.25 24.50 32.58 40.92 48.96 57.38 65.42 73.58 81.58 89.87 97.95 106.12
Shrinkage
0.00 -8.09 -19.01 -29.75 -42.37 -59.60 -76.48 -91.49 -109.57 -127.98 -149.82 -169.26 -215.65
Creep
0.00 0.01 2.59 5.25 10.13 18.85 27.18 34.45 44.15 54.74 68.24 79.39 94.50 1 09.53

0.00 0.00 0.16 0.21 0.31 0.46 0.55 0.60 0.67 0.75 0.84 0.88 0.96 1.03 99.50 99.50 99.40 99.30 99.20 99.10 98.90 98.60 98.20 97.70 96.80 95.80 94.60 93.30 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.18 0.24 0.32 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.43 0.46 0.47 0.49 0.51
I -192.45
Table A-3: Restrained shrinkage results for steel ber concrete, w/c = 0.5, sample # 1, age at drying =14 hours, RH = 50 % Age (hrs) Stress,MPa Elastica
14.00 27.50 29.83 0.00 0.13 0.27 0.44 0.60 0.76 0.92 0.00 8.16 16.65 25.75 34.58 43.25 51 .66
Shrinkage
0.00 -8.66 -17.50 -30.60 -47.44 -65.99 -85.04 -105.46 -125.87 -146.29 -163.38 -183.89 -203.06
Creep
0.00 0.50 1.02 4.86 12.69 23.08 33.72

0.00 0.06 0.06 0.19 0.37 0.54 0.66 99.50 99.10 98.90 98.70 98.40 98.00 97.50 96.80 95.90 94.70 93.50 92.20 91.10 0.00 0.06 0.06 0.16 0.27 0.35 0.40 0.44 0.45 0.47 0.47 0.49 0.50
I 32.83
36.17 40.50 46.67 55.50 67.50 84.17 101.33 123.67 145.17
l 1
1.06
1.21 1.31 1.45 1.53 1.67
59.82
68.91
45.89
56.96 68.63 77.40 89.65 100.68
0.77
0.83
77.66
86.07 94.23 102.39
0.88
0.90 0.95 0.98
Table A-4: Restrained shrinkage results for steel ber concrete, w/c = 0.5 sample # 2, age at drying =14hours, RH = 50 % Age (hrs) Stress.MPa Elastica
14.00 27.50 31.17 33.50 36.83 40.50 48.67 56.67 75.00 90.34 1 19.68 141.34 155.84 181.01 0.00 0.20 0.30 0.46 0.57 0.76 0.87 1.05 1.15 1 .20 1.35 1 .40 1.62 1.77
Shrinkage
0.00 -8.08 -24.41 -36.49 -53.50 -69.15 -93.99 -111.69 -140.95 -158.64 -1 87.90
Creep
0.00
0.00 4.95 6.92 15.78 22.42 39.53 49.06 70.93 83.14 1 02.89 1 16.25 1 19.49 133.96

0.00 -0.35
0.25 0.23 0.42 99.50 98.80 98.60 98.50 98.30 98.10 97.70 97.30 96.40 95.70 94.50 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.19 0.29 0.32 0.42 0.44 0.50 0.52 0.55
0.00
12.40 19.63 29.57 37.72 46.73 54.46 62.62 70.01
0.48
0.73 0.78 1.01 1.10 1.21 1 .26 1.18 1 .24
76.60
85.01 92.07 101.58 108.38
-208.32
-221.16 -242.34
93.80
93.30 92.50
0.56
0.54 0.55
Table A-5: Restrained shrinkage results for polypropylene ber concrete w/c = 0.5 sample # 2, age at drying =14hours, RH = 50 % Age (hrs) Stress,MPa Elastic:
13.00 25.83 1 1 .. .._ 30.01 33.67 37.67 43.00 50.17 60.00 74.83 90.83 1 14.67 134.50 0.00 0.14 0.26 0.41 0.55 0.72 0.88 1.04 1.21 1.38 1.56 1.72 1.89
Shrinkage
0.00 -8.20 -18.43 -30.03 -45.38 -62.77
Creep
0.00 0.03 1.42 4.68 11.86 20.75

0.00
0.00
8.17 17.18 25.35 33.52 42.02
0.00
0.08 0.18 0.35 0.49
28.17
99.50 99.24 99.11 98.97 98.80 98.57
I I
50.53 58.53
66.69
-83.24
-104.73 -127.92 -154.19 -177.38 -202.62 -226.33
33.05
46.20 61.40 79.33 94.01 111.43 125.78
0.66
0.79 0.92 1.06 1.13 1.22 1 .25
98.27
97.85
74.86
83.37 91.53 100.38
97.27 96.38
95.38 93.85 92.51
0.00 0.00 0.08 0.16 0.26 0.33 0.40 0.44 0.48 0.51 0.53 0.55 0.56
Table A-6: Restrained shrinkage results for plain concrete w/c = 0.4, age at drying = 15 hours, RH = 50 % Age (hrs) Stress.MPa Elastic:
15.00 22.67 27.17 30.50 33.50 36.50 39.83 43.83 50.33 0.00 0.18 0.35 0.53 0.71 0.89 0.00 8.10 16.62 25.23 33.84 42.20 50.64
Shrinkage
0.00 -8.17 -17.88 -29.46 -43.42 -58.75 -77.83 -100.99
Creep
0.00 0.24 1 .26

0.00 0.03 95.77 95.47 95.25 95.05 94.85 94.64 94.38 0.00 0.03 0.07 0.14 0.22 0.28 0.35 0.42 0.48 0.52 0.55 0.57 0.60
0.08
0.17 0.28 0.39 0.54 0.71 0.92 1.10 1.23
4.23
9.41 16.55 27.19 41 .91 61.83
1.05
1.23 1 .43 1.59 1.73
62.33 81 .83
108.17 144.67
1.93
2.13
59.08 67.26 75.36 83.97 92.32 100.56
-128.92
-158.21 -187.50 -21 5.43
82.85 103.53
123.11
1.33
1.50
93.96 93.20 92.00 90.43

88.37
-250.68
1 50.29
Table A-7: Restrained shrinkage results for steel ber concrete w/c = 0.4, age at drying = 14 hours, RH = 50 % Age (hrs) Stress,MP aw Elastica
14.00 26.33
Shrinkage
I I 0.00 -8.37 -21.57 -36.72 -53.84
Creep
0.00 0.01 4.94 11.75 20.51

0.00
} 30.83
34.50
38.00
41.17 44.83 51.67 62.00 79.17 105.67 139.83 174.83
0.00 0.21 0.41 0.62 0.81 0.94 1.12 1.29 1.48 1.66 1.85 2.03 2.22
0.00
8.35
i i
0.00
0.30 0.47 0.62 0.69 0.78 0.97 1.11 1 .24 1.38 1.54 1.67
16.71 25.06 33.41
I
1
I
|
41.85 50.55
58.81
-70.78 -89.77
-116.00 -141.89 -169.05 -199.11 -233.17 -265.52
29.02 39.31
57.18 74.55
67.34
75.52 83.70 91.80 99.89
93.61
1 15.40 141.37 165.98
0.00 0.00 0.23 0.32 0.38 0.41 0.44 0.49 0.53 0.55 0.58 0.61 0.63
Table A-8: Restrained shrinkage results for plain concrete w/c = 0.32, age at drying = 14 hours, RH = 50 % Age (hrs) Stress.MPa] Elastics
14.00 14.67 15.67 17.50 20.33 23.67 28.00
Shrinkage
0.00 -1 1.43 -24. 1 3 -38.29 -53.21
Creep
0.00
1.39 5.59 11.41 17.74 23.81 32.96 41.85 51.08 59.63 67.90

0.00
0.14 0.30 0.42 0.50 0.54 0.62 0.00 0.12 0.23 0.30 0.33 0.35 0.38 0.41 0.42 0.44 0.44 0.45 0.46 0.47
0.00
0.25 0.41 0.58 0.75
0.00
10.04 18.55 26.88 35.47 44.32
32.50
37.50 42.50 47.83 54.00 60.67 69.50
0.93 1.09 1.20

1.30
-68.13
-85.87
52.91
61.08 69.41 77.41 85.57 93.74 101.90 109.98
-102.92
-120.49 -137.04 -153.47 -171 .27 -188.73 -209.30
0.69
0.74
1.39
1 .49 1.59 1.68 1.76
0.77
0.79 0.83 0.85 0.90
77.53
86.83 99.32
Table A-9: Restrained shrinkage results for steel ber concrete w/c = 0.32, age at drying = 14 hours, RH = 50 % Age (hrs) Stress.MPa Elastice
14.00 14.92 16.50 0.00 0.07 0.17 0.30 0.46 0.63 0.80 0.90 1.05 1.17 1 .23 1 .40 1.53 1.66 1.79 1.90 0.00 8.59 1 6.59 24.84 32.83 40.83 48.83 57.08 65.16 73.15 81 .07
Shrinkage
Creep
0.00

0.00 0.00 0.01 0.21 0.35 0.47 0.00 0.17 0.01 0.17 0.26 0.32 0.37 0.38 0.39 0.42 0.42 0.43
-1.33
-16.80 -30.02 -44.17 -60.20 -77.09 -92.27 -106.76 -125.86 -140.87 -156.39 -178.73 -201.59 -226.32 -252.75
0.00
0.00
0.21 5.18 11.34 19.37
i 122.61
21.17 24.50 28.75 33.00 37.33 43.50
28.26
35.19 41 .60 52.71 59.81 67.16
0.58
0.62 0.64 0.72 0.74 0.75 0.84 0.91
48.58 54.17
63.00 73.08 85.58 100.58
89.23 97.40
105.65 1 13.82 122.07
81.34
95.94 1 12.50 130.68
0.46
0.48
0.99
1.07
0.50
0.52
Table A-10: Restrained shrinkage results for plain concrete w/c = 0.32, age at drying = 14 hours, RH = 80 %
j
Age (hrs) Stress,MPa Elastice

14.50 15.33 16.00
Shrinkage
0.00
-10.32 -16.80
Creep
0.00 3.56 1 .49

0.00 0.53 0.00 0.34 0.09 0.29 0.34 0.33 0.38 0.39 0.42 0.44 0.44 0.46
0.00
0.05 0.16
0.00
6.76 15.31
17.67
19.50
21.00
23.83 27.17 32.00 36.67 41.50 47.33 51.83
0.25 0.38 0.56

0.73 0.92 1.07 1.18 1.36 1.45 1.60 1.73 1.82 2.01
23.09 31.60
40.45 49.34
-32.40
-48.09
9.31 16.49
19.76 29.97 37.84 49.50 59.41 67.45 78.64
-60.20
-79.30 -96.87 -117.51 -135.92 -153.24 -172.08
0.10 0.40 0.52 0.49

0.61 0.64 0.73 0.78
59.03
68.01 76.51 85.78 93.44 101 .95 1 10.67 118.15 127.34
0.79
0.84
-185.73
-201.50 -219.15
83.78
90.84 101.00 1 05.46
57.50
64.17
0.82 0.82 0.85

0.83
0.45 0.45
0.46
69.67
-232.80
0.45
Table A-11: Restrained shrinkage results for plain concrete w/c = 0.5, age at drying = 12 hours, RH = 70 % Age (hrs) Stress,MPa] Elastice
12.00
. 22.67 26.00 32.00 36.17 41.33 0.00 0.18 0.34 0.50 0.69 0.88 1 .07 1.26 1 .40 1.58 1.79 1.97 0.00 9.74 18.16 26.28 34.88 43.08 51.21 59.25
Shrinkage
0.00
-8.93 -19.17 -29.48 -41.93 -57.62 -75.70
Creep
0.00

0.00
0.00 99.50 99.30 99.20 99.00 98.90 0.00 0.08 0.06 0.11 0.17 0.26 0.32 0.38 0.45
0.00
1.09 3.20 7.06 14.88 24.50 36.41
0.06
0.12 0.20 0.35
i 2s.aa
0.48
0.61
49.33 64.50 87.67

121.67 158.33
-95.66
-122.77
98.70 98.30
97.70 96.90
67.92 75.96 83.96

92.00
-148.06
-175.35 -202.55
54.93 72.10
91.43 110.47
0.81 0.95 1 .09

1 .20
95.90
95.00
0.49 0.52
0.55
Table A-12: Restrained shrinkage results for plain concrete w/c = 0.5, age at drying = 12 hours, RH = 80 % Age (hrs) Stress,MPa] Elastic:
14.00 27.50
Shrinkage
0.00 -8.81 -19.72 -32.43 -45.61 -60.36 -77. 1 6 -95.24 -113.14 -132.76 -158.85
Creep
0.00
0.30 2.71 7.30 12.43 18.81

0.00 0.04 0.16 0.29 0.37 0.45 0.54 0.63 0.68 100.00 99.90 0.00 0.03 0.14
0.00
0.07 0.18 0.30 0.45 0.61 0.79 0.97 1.13 1.32 1.53 1.72 1.92 2.00
30.00 33.67
37.33 42.00 48.17 55.83 65.00 78.17 102.67 138.00 169.33 183.00
0.00 8.85 17.01 25.18 33.35 41.60 50.10
99.90
99.80 99.80 99.70
0.22
0.27 0.31 0.35 0.39 0.41 0.43 0.47 0.51 0.52 0.53
27.06
36.71 45.86 57.39 75.06
58.52
67.28
99.50
99.40
75.45 83.79 92.04

100.71
0.76 0.90
1.03
99.20 98.70
97.90 97.10 96.80
-186.82
-210.61 -220.42
1 04.63
94.87 109.90 1 15.79
1 .09
1.11
Table A-13: Restrained shrinkage results of plain concrete w/c = 0.5, age at sealing = 15 hours, sealed for 72 hours prior to drying at RH = 50 % Age (hrs) Stress.MPa] Elastice
15.00 27.67 0.00 0.22 0.42 0.00 8.18 16.36 24.38
Shrinkage
0.00 -8.25 -27.75 -41.80 -61.81 -78.42 -98.00 -117.08 -134.79 -154.54
Creep
0.00

0.00
0.01 0.70 0.71
I 1
0.06
11.38 17.42 27.97
48.50
71.83 85.67 89.50 96.17 105.00 115.83 130.83
0.66
0.89 1.11 1.39 1.56 1.70 1.87
33.24
41.60 50.12 58.65 66.83 75.01
0.83
0.89
36.82
47.88 58.43 67.96 79.53
0.96
1.00 1.02 1.06
0.00 0.01 0.41 0.42 0.45 0.47 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.51
Table A-14: Restrained shrinkage results for steel ber concrete w/c = 0.5, age at sealing = 15 hours, sealed for 72 hours prior to drying at RH = 50 % Age (hrs) Stress,MPa Elastica
15.00
Shrinkage
0.00 -8.15 -21.09 -34.71 -44.59 -58.43 -78.01
Creep
0.00

0.00 0.00
0.28 0.41 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.29 0.38
36.33
51.67 72.17 86.00
0.00 0.19 0.38
0.58
0.69 0.92 1.13 1.35 1 .49 1.69 1.88
88.51 93.68 100.34

111.68 126.52 146.18
0.00 8.18 16.37 24.55 27.79 36.31
-0.04
4.55 10.17 16.81 22.12
0.60
0.61 0.75
0.38
0.43
44.58 52.85
59.38
-97.60
-121.61 -147.84 -175.09
67.91 76.09
33.43 44.92 63.76 79.85

99.00
0.85
1.10 1.17 1.30
0.46
0.52
0.54
0.57
Table A-15: Restrained shrinkage results for steel ber concrete subjected to drymg / wetting cycle: w/c = 0.5, age at drying = 15 hours, RH = 50 %, wetting applied at age of 67 hours for 24 hours and then exposed to drying Age (hrs) Stress,MPa Elastice
13.50
Shrinkage
0.00 -8.17 -18.40 -30.00 -43.98 -60.35
Creep
0.00 0.34 1.81 4.65 10.55 19.10 30.81 43.10 57.45 70.42 75.00 72.69 71.48
Creep coef.creep/shnnk
0.00
} 25.83
28.50 31.00 33.50 36.50 41.00 47.17 56.67 67.50 68.01 68.51 69.17 70.01 70.84 72.34 73.84 76.17 84.18 91.18 115.68 125.02 1.34.52 143.35 152.52 162.52
0.00 0.11 0.24 0.40
0.56
0.73 0.91 1.12 1.32 1.44 1.13 1.01
0.00 8.17 16.59 25.35 33.43 41.43 49.85 58.01 66.18 71.79
0.04
0.11 0.18 0.32 0.46
-80.48
-101.03 -123.63 -142.22 -136.08 -128.57 -121.07 -113.23 -106.66 -97.88 -91.40 -84.57 -73.49 -69.48 -68.71
0.62
0.74 0.87 0.98 1.23 1.30 1.44
60.90
55.80 49.51 43.72
0.86
0.72
69.50
68.46 64.87 63.66 62.28 56.64 54.33 45.49 46.19 48.77 52.20 56.82 62.90
1.59
1.79 1.97 2.30 2.79 3.36 3.59 1.96 1 .48 1.24 1.10 1.02 0.99
0.59
0.46 0.35 0.23 0.13 0.09 0.28
38.28
32.84 27.73 22.29 16.85 15.15
23.31
31.31 39.47 47.64 55.63 63.63
0.48
0.70 0.91 1.15 1.39
-77.50 -88.24
-99.84 -112.46 -126.61
0.00 0.04 0.10 0.15 0.24 0.32 0.38 0.43 0.46 0.50 0.55 0.57 0.59 0.61 0.64 0.66 0.70 0.74 0.77 0.78 0.66 0.60 0.55 0.52 0.51
0.50
200
APPENDIX B
RESULTS FOR CONCRETE HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT
201
90
k _ - - . - - - - - - - - - - - --Q
,P 4
,r
---"
- . - ' - -
.--"
_.-
.0
_--
_. . . . . . . - . .- . . ~ . . --Q 0 .......................... --4
I ' ' _ -
85 a 1 O _ .' ."' v
. . . ' , O " '4 p v ,
",-- -----Q-Q--------------.,
% d'ty Hum e atv Re 80
_,.-"M .~"' A __ A Age at Exposure = 14 hrs
-'1 day --~--2 days * ' '3 days -~--'----4 days "-1-" 5 days
RH = 50 %
-=-6 days
1 1.25 1.5
15-
0.25
0.5
0.75
Depth (inch)
Figure B-1 Humidity prole of HPC-0.32, RH = 50 /0
Q6
-I
92
0 _ , - - . - -_,-" - "'
---_,_---------------------------
%d ty Hum' e
_ 3 /'___ |-1 day
88
Retv
" _-' /'
- 2 days *- 3 days

T: = O/0
""""" days 5 da s
"" " Y
iI-6 days
84 0.25
0.5
0.75
1.25
1 .5
Depth (inch)
Figure B-2 Humidity prole for HPC-0.32, RH = 80 %
202
100
:3
1'1
E
-:7
\ J_
~:\
V, - -- ~- '~
0-'
. 5'
A = _
_~ J"-\._ v. > _ 7 _'_

.
"-2 4
95l-
0.. _p
an
. _~_.
'
_.
__% : =
E
_= _.
-.. 9 Q. p ._______~ _"__'-*8 __ _~-
'9:-..,;.*~
_ . A A
L
...
% d'ty um ve-I Re at
90,L
0.25 0.50 0.75 851.00 ------"Depth = 1.50
-=-"Depth -Depth ----Depth --*--Depth
= = = =
" " " " "

100 150 200
80 0 50
Drying Time (hrs)
Figure B-3 Humidity functions of NC-0.5, RH = 50 %

100
I
98
_ _ _ _ _ _ . ..._: _
4 4 p p
-a- - - _ . _ _ . . . _ __
--_-_
' . _ _-o- . _ . _ . _ . _ _ _ __
O
---..
/0 ty
0
I
1
____,.o"'
--" <
a."
Q
> __---Qt; - _ _ _ _ __
96
ff
94
t /
/ .
0 _-
Q?
__,--
---"""-
0"
_. O.
Hum'd Re ve at
92
RH = O/0
-'-2 --' "3 -- - 4 ' 5 ----" 6
days days days days days

1.5
I7 days
90 0.25
0.5
0.75
1.25
Depth (inch)
Figure B-4 Humidity prole ofNC-0.5 , RH = 70 %
203
100
_-
If
4. --'-.'-'-
-; _ _ _ - - - _ - - - - - - --l
____, . . - _@'
99 0/0 ty 98
_
,
.4 _@
.. ',.
__,.- _.,o"' .
______ ..-0
__
_,-
. _,_ . _ . _ . _ . _ . _ . _ . _ . ...-0 ..
, ................................. --
__.-"
._--'
O ...... -" __' o n4 a 0 ' __- Q" -'-
-" _ _Q Q -____. . ,-
___------------------H .. " .
Hum'd tve Rea
97
4 oa
o4
I1day --P-2days --'- 3days
Age = 14 hrs
96
""""4 days
-"-r" 5 days
RH - 80 /0
95 E 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
--E-6 days
__;__7 days
1.25 1.5
Depth (inch)
Figure B-5 Humidity prole of NC-0.5, RH = 80 %
96 n
-.
-nil
_..._. I 4-P
--_-
__-_
_-is
-11-
--i
-i-Q
..-
_,. . - . . . . . . . . . . . . .... - - - . . . - . . . - . . . . - . - . . - . - - . - . . . . . . . .-Q
Q2
-'
.'
_. -
.. - - - ' ' ' ' ' . '

._-- -"
_,.- 0. Q -- - -- -----.._-. - -"
, .-0 -------------- -- --------------------------------- --4

----__-_
as
%ve d tat Hum y
Re
i
31
/
Age = 14 hrs
4?-
+1....
1 1.25
84)
-~ 2 days ._ -----"3 days ----*----4 days ---- -- 5 d __;__6 dz:
RH = so %
80' 0.25 0.5 0.75
-'1-7 days
1.5
Depth (inch)
Figure B-6 Humidity prole ofNC- 0.4, RH = 50 %
204
APPENDIX C
ANALYTICAL RESULTS FOR BASIC CREEP
205
70
6 .......- ..... .--.--
,
- - - - - - - - - . - - . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
1W/C = 0.5
50
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . - - . - - . - - -.I . - - - - - - . - ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(pm/m) n
40
30
........................................
F 66
... .. .. . . . .. .. ...... ..... ..
........
...__.........
=
2Q ..................-... .. .. -.... .....
Basic creep
..........._..
Straep Cre
10 ..............
- Model-linear
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. I
50
100
150
200
Age (hrs)
Figure C-1 Incremental-based model for basic creep of plain concrete (w/c =0.5)
70
60
Model coefcients
'~ 50
40
._-
A1= 43.757 A = 32.193 2 m= 1.8888

q= Q5573
.
, ""
G3,;
r *"a
"
Experiment
-- Model
(pm/aep Stre m Cr n
20
10
Q 1
Plain Concrete W/C = 0.5
50
100
Age (hrs)
150
200
Figure C-2 Superpositi0n- based model for basic creep of plain concrete (w/c = 0.5)
206
60 50 40
l
'
I
0
""""""""""""
. . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . .,.a>.....
.....
(pm/m)
-
so
20
..................... ....._....
e
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. _
81
Basic Creep
Stra Creep n
10 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
50
100
150
200
Age (hrs)
Figure C-3 Incremental-based model for basic creep of FRC (w/c =0.5)
60
Model coefcients
50
_ ="'
8
5
A1= 511.561
40
(um/m) 30
A2= - 5.005 m= 3.0702 ot= 0.0883
2o
Stra Creep n
10
O
"
Model
Steel Fiber
| . . .
Experiment
W/C = 0-5
150 200
50
100
Age (hrs)
Figure C-4 Superposition- based model for basic creep ofFRC (w/c = 0.5)
207
'
'
an ----------------------- --;-------- --
'
i/v/c = 0;4
QQ
(um/m) 8
Stra n p Cree
-h O
Basic creep
E
20
_ -i Model-linear ____________ ,__

. 1l 1 . . . r.
0 20 40 60 80
100
120
140
160
Age (hrs)
Figure C-5 Incremental-based model for basic creep of plain concrete (w/c =0.4)
80 70 60
Experiment Model coefcients
- Model
A1= 103.451 A2= 357.069
(pm/m) "'
50
40
30
Stra Creep n
20 10 0 20 40 60 80 100
m= 5.5276 ot= 0.0952
Plain Concrete
120
W/C = 0.4
140 160
Age (hrs)
Figure C-6 Superposition- based model for basic creep of plain concrete (w/c = 0 4)
08
100.
_ _
..
6 8 _
I
80
VVK:==(l4 I
a, '
_. . . . . . . . - - - - - . . - - - - - -Q - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ..e
_ . - - - . . . . . - . . - . . . . . .._
(Pm/ml
60
_ . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . J . - - . . . . . . . . . - - . . . . . . . . I>a. .
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
_. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . .
F 0
. . . . . . _ . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._
Basic creep
"I
Stnaep Crre 20 T""""""""""""""""""""""""""" M -i'Model-linear 1'.

0 0
50 100 150 200
Age (hrs)
Figure C-7 lncremental- based model for basic creep of FRC (w/c = 0.4)
100
Model Coefcients
80;
A1= 1618.67 A2= - 80.04 m= 3.4074 ot= 0.04579
'
..
(pm/m)
60i-
Straep Cre n
= Experiment -Model
20?
_ 200
Steel Fiber
0
W/C=O.4
150
50
100
Age (hrs)
Figure C-8 Superposition- based model for basic creep of I-RC (w/c = 0.4)
209
LIST OF REFERENCES
AC1 Committee 209, Prediction of creep, shrinkage, and temperature eects in concrete structures, ACI Std. No. 209R-92. ACI, 1992. ACI Committee 207, Eect ofRestraint, volume changes and reinforcement on cracking of massive concrete, AC1 Std. No. 207.2R-90, reported by AC1 Committee 207, AC1, 1990. AC1 Committee 224, Control of cracking in concrete structures AC1 Std. No. 224. Reported by AC1 Committee 224, ACI, Detroit, 1990. ACI Committee No. 318, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, AC1, Detroit, 1989. AC1 Committee 517: Accelerated curing of concrete at atmospheric pressure-state of the art, ACI Journal, No. 77, 1980, pp. 429-4-48. Al-Kubaisy, M. A., and Young, A. G. (1975), Failure of concrete imder sustained tension, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 27, No. 92, pp. 171-178. Alvaredo, A., and Wittmann, F. H. (1993), Shrinkage as inuenced by strain softening and crack formation, Creep and Shrinkage of Concrete, Proc. of the Fifth International RILEM Symposium, Z. P. Bazant and 1., Carol, ed., B & FN SPON, New York, 1993, pp. 103-113. Ardoullie B., and I-Ienrix E. (1997), Chemical shrinkage of cementitious pastes and mortars, Diploma work, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven and NTNUTrondheim, (Referred by Bjqmtegaard 1999). Balaguru, P. N. and Shah, S. P. (1992), Fiber - reinforced cement composites,
McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York.

l0. Banthia, N., Yan, C., and Mindess, S. (1996), Restrained shrinkage cracking in ber reinforced concrete: a novel test technique, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 26, N0. 1, pp. 9-14. Banthia, N., Anabi, M., and Pigeon, M. (1993), Restrained shrinkage cracking in ber reinforced cementitious composites, Materials and Structures, RILEM (Paris), Vol. 26, pp. 405-413. Bazant, Z. P. (Editor), (1988), Mathematical modeling of creep and shrinkage of concrete, John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
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220
VITA
Salah Ahmed Altoubat was bom in Dier-Essieneh, Irbid, Jordan in April 1, 1964. He graduated 'om Al-Taibah High School in June 1982 and pursued his undergraduate study at Yarmouk University where he received his Bachelor of Science degree in Civil Engineering (major in structures) in May 1987. After he received his B.S degree, he joined the graduate program at Jordan University of Science and Technology in Irbid-Jordan where he received his Master of Science degree in Civil Engineering (major in materials and structures) in May 1990. During his study, he worked as a teaching assistant in the Department of Civil Engineering in which he taught courses in analysis of structures, behavior of concrete structures and design of metal and concrete structures. The master thesis was to study accelerated curing methods of concrete in Jordan. From July 1990 to July 1994, Salah Altoubat worked as materials and structural engineer in the Arab Center for Engineering Studies, a regional consulting rm in the Middle East. head quarter in Amman. Jordan. I-Iis work in the Arab Center provided him
with a valuable insight and experience on materials and evaluation/rehabilitation of existing

structures and pavements. He worked on a variety of projects including joint projects with intemational contacts such as ERES Intemational, Inc., United Nations Development Program, and some other regional rms. In 1994, Salah Altoubat was admitted to the Department of Civil Engineering at the University of Illinois for his Ph.D. He worked as a research assistant and participated in developing a research program for early age behavior of concrete. He researched in early age creep and shrinkage ofnormal and high performance concrete and their implications on early age cracking of concrete structures. His research interest is in the areas of early age deterioration of concrete and its impact on long-term performance and durability, material modeling of creep, shrinkage, and stress relaxation in high performance concrete and ber composites, and in evaluation and repair of damaged structures.
221

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Early age stresses and creep-shrinkage interaction of restrained concrete

EARLY AGE STRESSES AND CREEP-SHRINKAGE INTERACTION OF RESTRAINED CONCRETE

BY SALAH AHMED ALTOUBAT

UMI Number". 9989929

Copyright 2000 by Altoubat, Salah Ahmed All rights resen/ed.

Copyright by Salah Ahmed Altoubat, 2000

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 2 THE GRADUATE COLLEGE

MARCH ZQO0 j (date)

\VE HEREBY RECOMMEND TH.-\T THE THESIS BY

EARLY AGE STRESSES AND CREEPS,HRINKAGE

INTERACTION OF RESTRAINED CONCRETE

BE .~\L'CEP'[ED I.\' PARTI.-\L FL'LFILL.\IE.\'T OF Tl-IE REQL'IREME.\'TS FOR

i Required for doetors degree but not for master's.

EARLY AGE STRESSES AND CREEP-SHRINKAGE INTERACTION OF RESTRAINED CONCRETE

1.3 Scope of Work .......................................................................................................... 4 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................. oooooooooooooooooooooo007

3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... .................... -- 37 3.2 Experimental Technique ...................................................................... -------------------- -- 37

32.1 Design Considerations and Requirements ....................................................... 37

3.2.2 Uniaxial Creep-Shrinkage Test ........................................................................ 38

3.3.1 Materials ........................................................................................................... 43

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS OF DRYING CREEP-SHRTNKAGE TESTS .............................................. 60

4.5 Shrinkage Stress-Strain Diagram ............................................................................. 68

4.10 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................... 75

5.2 Sealed Condition ........................................................................................................ 90

CHAPTER 6 ANALYTICAL MODELS: BACKGROUND AND FORMULATION..................... 113

6.3 Drying Creep Modeling and Mechanisms .............................................................. 121

6.3.1 General ............................................................................................................ 121

6.3.3 Stress-induced Shrinkage ............................................................................... 122

CHAPTER 8 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF DRYING CREEP MECHANISMS ................ 157

8.4.1 Qualitative Analysis for Microcracking and Failure ..................................... 165

CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................... 186

Test matrix for Phases H and HI ................................................................... 52

drying =14 hours, RH = 50% ...................................................................... 193

drying =14 hours, R1-I = 50% ...................................................................... 193

hours, RH = 50% ......................................................................................... 195

hours, RH = 50% ......................................................................................... 196

hours, sealed for 72 hours prior to drying at RH = 50% ............................ 199

Figure 2-2 Figure 2-3 Figure 2-4

Figure 4-4 Figure 4-5 Figure 4-6 Figure 4-7

Figure 4-22 Figure 4-23 Figure 4-24 Figure 5-1

Eect of age at sealing on ee shrinkage and tensile creep ...................... 107

Eect ofmoist curing on early age shrinkage (w/c=0.5) ........................... 108

1.2 Research Objectives

1.3 Scope of Work

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2 Driving Mechanisms for Cracking

2.2.1 Autogenous Deformation (AD)

2.2.2 Thermal Dilation (TD)

(Wittrnann and Lukas, 1974).

2.2.3 Drying Shrinkage (DS)

Gibbs-Bangham is the major component ofrst drying shrinkage. Gibbs-Bangham is

2.2.3.1 Inuence of Shrinkage on Pavement

2.2.3.2 influence of Shrinkage on Material Performance

ne, densely distributed, discontinuous and can be appropriately modeled as tensile

2.3 Restrained Test Methods and Stress Measurement

2.4 Mechanical Properties

expression, E, = 4730,/I which has also shown by Oluoktm et al. (1991) to be

2.5 Creep of Concrete at Early Age 2.5.1 General Denitions

2.5.2 Availability of Experimental Data

2.5.3 Creep Mechanisms

Neville et al. (1983). It is important however, to

between real and apparent

2.5.4 Review of Analytical Models

\\\ _ /<"- \ ~-\ \ \ \ >"2