IRAQ-KUWAIT 2.1 History Both Iraq and Kuwait were former British colonies.

. They were under Ottoman Empire in the past. Kuwait granted independence in 1961. Iraq refused to recognize Kuwaits independence as it claimed Kuwait to be historically a part of Iraq. Iraq had tried to claim sovereignty over Kuwait and sent troops to claim Kuwait in 1961. Iraqis turned back only when British and other Arab nations sent troops to defend Kuwait. There were several instances where Iraq used military power to threaten Kuwait over border disputes. Iraq and Kuwait had worked together such as Kuwait providing loan of US$40 billion. Loan was motivated by Kuwaits own self-interest as it was worried about threat posed by Iran. 2.2 Economic Problems in Iraq Before start of Iran-Iraq war, Iraq was relatively prosperous country. Iraq loss much lives during the war with Iran and its economy was in ruins. Iraq owed about US$80 billion in debts to neighbours and US and France. Reconstruction of the war-torn country required US$230 billion. Iraq had to find ways to pay off massive debt and rebuild the countries. Done so through increasing oil production and indefinitely, attempt invasion of Kuwait. 2.3 Oil production Iraq hoped to pay off its debt by earning more revenue from sale of oil. However, oil prices falling due to over-production by some other countries. OPEC had put quotas on amount of oil member could product to prevent further decline in oil prices. Kuwait and United Arab Emirates (UAE), ignored the quota set and produced oil well above assigned limits. Iraq lost a lot of revenue due to fall in oil prices. Lost US$1billion each time prices of oil fell by one US dollar. Ira felt Kuwait and UAE was equivalent to waging an economic war as 90% income came from sale of oil. 2.4 Dispute over territory They had inherited borders from British but the borders were not well-defined and posed problems for both sides. Rumaila oilfield

Iraq and Kuwait shared the profitable oilfield, due to unclearly-defined borders. In 1990, Iraq accused Kuwait of stealing oil by using slant-drilling technology that Kuwait purchase earlier. Kuwait insisted it had taken oil only from their side of oil field. Iraq demanded Kuwait to stop drilling and pay US$2.4billion in compensation. Kuwait refused as it claimed to drill only from their side of oilfield.

Bubiyan and Warbah Island Iraq is land-locked. Only port it has is Umm Qasr, however it is shallow and big ships cannot dock at the port. Port facilities at Umm Qasr were almost completely destroyed during Iraqs war with Iran. Kuwait had inherited Bubiyan and Warbah from the British. Iraq was unhappy with Kuwaits ownership as they were strategically located off Umm Qasr. With these islands, Kuwait had the potential to block off Iraqs access to the Gulf, which would affect Iraqs oil transportation. Iraq did not accept Kuwaits ownership and attempted to claim ownership of the islands through force in 1960s and 1970s. Attempts failed. Iraq wanted to lease the islands from Kuwait. Failed to reach agreement. Kuwait refused to lease as they fear it would open the door for further territorial demands from Iraq.

5. Attempts to resolve problems Mediation by the Arab League Arab League is organisation of Arab states. Coordinates economic and social affairs of members. Iraq made complaints to Arab League, such as theft of oil from Rumaila oilfield. Iraq used Arab League as platform to reiterate that Kuwait and rest of Arab countries should write off their war-time loans. Arab League attempted to solve problems such as Kuwait and UAR giving in to the combined Saudi, Iranian and Iraqi pressure and agreed to produce oil according to OPEC Quota. Iraq claimed it had information that Kuwait did not intend to adhere to the quotas for long. Arab League organised a dialogue between Iraq and Kuwait to discuss territorial issues. Iraq assured the Arab League mediator that they will to continue negotiations on issue and denied they were building up forces at border. Negotiations seem to be going well.

Iraq gained some concessions from Kuwait. OPEC agreed to raise oil prices to US$21 from US$18 per barrel to ensure Iraq earn more money for reconstruction efforts. 1 August 1990, Kuwait agreed to write off Iraqs wartime debt and provide US$500 million loan. Iraq walked out of the talks when Kuwait refused to give in to any territorial demands. Kuwait would hold another talk on 4 Aug. But in 2 Aug, Iraq invaded Kuwait.

Events leading to Invasion of Kuwait 28 May 1990 At a meeting of Arab League, Iraq reprimanded Kuwait for driving down oil prices and stealing oil from Rumaila oilfield. 16 July Saddam published open letter to Arab League, charging Kuwait for stealing oil field. 18 July Iraq reprimanded Kuwait for looking to foreigners like US to settle issue. It wanted to seek an Arab diplomatic solution. 27 July OPEC met and agreed to raise price of oil by 38.8%. Agreed to strictly enforce OPEC oil quotas. 29 July Iraq continued amassing troops at Kuwaiti border and postponed talks till 1 August. 1 Aug Kuwait agreed to discuss Iraqs war time debt. However, Kuwait refused to concede any territory or pay for the oil. 2 Aug Iraq invaded Kuwait. 6. Reasons for Iraqs invasion to Kuwait Invasion was seen as a ploy to force Kuwait into making concessions to Iraq. 6.1 Iraqs official reason Iraqi government claimed it had gone into Kuwait at request of revolutionaries (people who attempt to change political situation in a country) to free Kuwait from the ruling government. Iraq warned other countries not to intervene, threatening to kill Kuwaitis if outside powers intervened. 6.2 Saddam Husseins leadership Saddam Hussein sees himself as a great leader of the Arab world. Kuwaits repeated refusals to give in to Iraqi demands were seen as defiance and personal attack. He is also worried there will be uprising in Iraq against him. Iran-Iraq war had left Iraqi economy and country devastated. The war did not seem as a success to the Iraqis. Prices were extremely high and people were unhappy with him. Saddam Hussein feared Iraq army would turn against him if situation did not improve.

Thus he ordered invasion of Kuwait to distract the Iraqis and improve the economic situation in Iraq.

6.3 Misreading position of the US Saddam met with American ambassador to discuss problems Iraq had with Kuwait. From the meeting, Saddam believed the Americans were sympathetic to Iraqs situation and were not likely to go to Kuwaits aid. He thought he would not face severe consequences if he invaded Kuwait. 7. Reactions to the invasion 7.1 Fear of Iraqi dominance Immediate response was worry and fear. By invading Kuwait, Iraq controlled 20% worlds oil population. Ease of Iraqs invasion have encouraged Iraq to be even bolder. Iraqi army camped near Kuwait-Saudi Arabia border. Fears were Iraq would set its sight on the riches of Saudi kingdom. Access to vast amounts of oil would enable Iraq to set high price for oil and solve Iraqs economic problem. This would create problems for world economy. Saudi Arabia knew the armed forces were no match for Iraqs larger and more experienced army. 7.2 The Arab Solution Arab countries were not keen on having western response as they did not want a return of western imperialism (extending dominance over a country). Kuwaitis appealed to Arab League to organise joint force to counter Iraqi invasion and to condemn its action. Arab Leagues voting to condemn and for withdrawal of Iraq from Kuwait had passed by a slim margin. Clear that League would not be able to deal effectively with crisis as members were divided on their response. 7.3 American Response Saudis officially invited US to defend kingdom against any potential Iraqi threat. US responded by deploying soldiers, navy ships and planes to defend Saudi. Named Operation Desert Shield. Britain, France and members of Arab League decided to send troops to help US. More than 30 countries took part in the coalition by providing troops, military equipment and money for defending Saudi Arabia and getting Iraq out of Kuwait. 7.4 International Response US took lead in condemning Iraqi actions and forming coalition of counties.

UN Security Council passed a resolution unanimously, demanding immediate Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait. Called for the two countries to begin immediate and intensive negotiations for resolution of their differences. Kuwait and Iraqi assets worldwide were frozen to prevent Iraq from making use of the funds. Economic and Military sanctions were used to force Iraq out of Kuwait. Economic sanctions meant to inflict heavy toll on Iraq as it would not be able to earn money from sale of oil. No country was allowed to sell goods to Iraq. Significant as Iraq imported more than 90% of goods from overseas.

8. Was use of force the only way? 8.1 Iraqs response to diplomatic attempts Iraq responded favorably to attempts by Arab leaders to resolve the conflict. Iraq agreed to withdraw from Kuwait but refused to allow the ruling government back into power. However, Arab league condemned his actions so Saddam was upset and more defiant. Saddam was unhappy about US troop build-up in Saudi. Iraq declared its annexation of Kuwait. Iraq declared it would not withdraw as Kuwait was now officially part of Iraq. More countries joined the coalition forces. Iraq responded by taking Westerners in Iraq and Kuwait hostage. Used as human shields to deter any coalition attacks or bombings. It insisted it would only release the hostages if coalition withdrew from Middle East. Due to international criticism, Iraq released all women and children hostages. Diplomatic efforts secured the release of rest of hostages few months later. More coalition troops, Iraq indicated it was willing to discuss Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait. Conditions: End to sanction against Iraq, full Iraqi control of Rumaila oilfied, guaranteed access to Gulf. Americans refused to accept any pre-conditions. UN gave Iraq deadline to withdraw troops. US arranged for meeting between Iraqi and US Secretary, however with no resolution. Another diplomatic attempt to resolve conflict, but UN Secretary General and France failed.

8.2 Impact of economic sanctions

Unsure if use of force was necessary or economic sanctions would resolve conflict. However, full impact of sanctions would only be after a year. It was too long a wait to get Iraq out. Sanctions would only work if all UN members strictly adhere to them. Possible for countries to ignore sanctions for economic gains. Eventually, security council voted to use force to remove Iraq from Kuwait.

[Outbreak of War] Iraq did not withdraw on deadline. Military operations, Operation Desert Storm began. Aim was to force Iraq out of Kuwait. Coalition forces were able to destroy most of Iraqs command control capability through air. Communication centres were destroyed and Iraqi air force crippled during bombing campaign. Upon regaining Kuwait, ceasefire called. War officially ended. *9. Impact of conflict 9.1 Impact on Kuwait More than 1000 Kuwaiti civilians killed and thousands tortured. Kuwaiti treated harshly to force them to flee their own country. Iraqi came to live in houses abandoned by fleeing Kuwaitis. Places were looted by Iraqi soldiers. While Iraqi army retreating, set fir to 600 out of 950 oil wells. Damages in Kuwait amounted to US$25billion. 9.2 Impact on Iraq 9.2.1 Destruction of Iraqi military capability Prior to the invasion, Iraq was one of the undisputed military powers in Middle East. It has 1 million soldiers who were feared by many countries in the region. By end of war, coalition forces destroyed almost one-third of the army. Coalition forces utilized state-of-the-art weapons. Tomahawk cruise missiles, F-14s and F-117 Stealth warplanes were used to destroy Iraqi air defence capability. Unable to provide cover for ground troops. Coalition able to carry out sustained bombing campaign against Iraqi ground troops. Heavy losses suffered by Iraqis during bombing resulted in loss of morale among remaining troops. Thousands of Iraq soldiers surrendered. Iraqi tanks, vehicles, trucks and troops fleeing the allied attack formed long queues on the main road (from Kuwait, towards Iraq).

Fleeing soldiers were bombed by coalition warplanes. Thousands of troops killed in vehicles during bombings, where road later known as Highway of Death.

9.2.2 Political instability in Iraq Coalition leaders encouraged dissatisfied groups of Iraq to rise up against leader. One group was Kurds. Kurds had at times been brutally put down by Iraqi military. During Gulf War, Kurds rose up against Saddam Hussein, thinking his power was on decline. Kurds believed coalition forces would help them to overthrow Iraqi leader. However, uprisings were not met with military support from coalition forces. Saddam Hussein dealt harshly with uprisings against him. Thousands of Kurds massacred and a million fled Iraq. Due to increased criticism against coalition forces, peacekeepers were sent to Iraq to provide safe areas for Kurds. 9.2.3 Suffering of Iraqis Coalition warplanes conducted air raids on Iraq. Some bombings resulted in destruction of large part of Iraqi infrastructure. Iraqi people suffered as they could not carry out daily activities. Bombing disrupted supply of electricity. Led to spread of diseases as water supply was contaminated. Due to water purification and sewage treatment facilities could not operate without electricity. 9.3 Regional and international impact 9.3.1 Environmental catastrophe Iraqi forces set fire to Kuwaiti oil wells and dumped 11 million barrels of oil into the Persian Gulf. Led to environmental catastrophe as marine life was greatly threatened. Cost millions of dollars to put out fires and clear oil slick from Persian Gulf 9.3.2 Displacement of foreign workers During invasion of Kuwait, nearly 2 million foreign workers were employed in Kuwait. The workers fled the country when war broke out. Many supporting large families back home had sudden loss of income which meant great suffering for their families. 10. Success of UN in maintaining peace One of the main aims of the UN is to maintain world peace and security. Gulf war serves as good example of capabilities of UN to gather resources to deter aggression. UN less successful in other troubled areas of world.

Key difference is involvement and support of 5 permanent members of Security Council. US rapidly assumed lead role in providing forces and aid to counter Iraqi aggression. UN does not have army of its own and would not be able to field large, trained, equipped force to act on Iraq. Thus US played crucial role. Countries willingly joined coalition as conflict affected their national interests, such as oil prices rising which in turn affect their economy.

11. Transnational terrorism Terrorism is used by IRA and LTTE to strike fear and weaken government. Their aims are nationalistic, and attacks are localized (carried outside their own country) Transnational terrorism involves unlawful use of force or indiscriminate violence by internationally-linked groups. Transnational terrorist groups usually have international membership and conduct activities in many countries. Target international community and aim to bring about regional or global political and social change. 11. Is terrorism new? Terrorism in past are generally small-scale operations that did not cause massive casualties. However, on 11 September 2001, attack on World Trade Centre and Pentagon resulted in 3000 deaths. 12. Significance of Sept 11 attacks Attacks showed terrorists were well-trained and could coordinate simultaneous mass attacks. Terrorists were willing to target civilians indiscriminately (done without careful judgment and control) and die for their cause. 12.1 Al-Qaeda Created in 1989 by Osama bin Laden, born in Saudi Arabia but based in Afghanistan. Osama was unhappy with Saudi Arabia and carried out anti-state activities. Osama expelled out of Saudi Arabia. He carried out campaign against Saudi government, US and its allies. Al-Qaeda seeks to rid Muslim countries of what it views as influence of West specifically the US. Want to establish global Islamic caliphate (Islamic government) based on extremist misinterpretations of Islamic concepts. Through use of terrorism against US and allies.

12.2 Significance of Al-Qaeda Al-Qaeda has multi-national membership scattered all over world. Makes use of globalisation, such as Internet and International Banking, to plan and carry out attacks across continents. Attacks by Al-Qaeda were meant to inflict maximum casualties. US thereby declared global war against terrorism. US sent coalition force to Afghanistan. They attacked terrorist training camps and Al-Qaeda terrorists. Al-Qaeda able to carry out attacks because of many groups associating with it. Al-Qaeda share its expertise, transfer resources, discuss strategy and conduct joint operations with these groups. Groups include Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), one out of 8 listed groups. Al-Qaeda continued resilience lie in deliberate and effective spread of ideology. They spread these ideas in order to gain legitimacy for cause and make violent actions seem acceptable. Based on misuse and misinterpretation of religious concepts. Al-Qaedas ideology is rejected by Muslims and Islams. Attacks could happen even with increased security and vigilance or soft targets (areas relatively unprotected such as shopping centres). 13. Impact of terrorism Primary goal of terrorism is to disrupt society by causing widespread psychological damage and social disruption. Usually engage in sensational attacks to gain wide media coverage. Impacts are mainly loss of lives and damage to property. 13.1 Economic Impact Sept 11 attacks had tremendous impact on US and the world. Lost of life and property cost insurance companies US$40 billion. Airline industry lost a lot business as people were afraid of flying. The US government steps in to provide economic help to prevent airline companies from closing down. For 2002 Bali attack, tourist arrivals in Bali fell by more than 50% immediately after bomb blasts. Main source of income for them is tourism. Indonesian government faces pressure to relive economic hardships. Government spending increased since Sept 11, to cater for increased security. Government deployed many more police and troops to guard airport, embassies and sensitive installations. Many governments spend much money and resources holding exercises to ensure emergency services and citizens are prepared and know what to do in terrorist attack.

13.2 Social impact Extremist rhetoric and sensitive political developments can have bearing on Singaporeans. Acts of terrorism may create suspension and tension among various ethnic and religious groups. Terrorism should not hurt harmony among different races and religions. Community Engagement Programmed (CEP) is a long-term effort and ensures Singaporeans are better equipped to maintain social cohesion and harmony, should crisis occur. Aim to bring Singaporean from different communities. Also strengthen inter-communal bonds and put in place response plans to help deal with potential communal tensions after incident. 13.3 Political Impact Government has responsibility to keep citizens safe from terrorists. Government had to tighten various controls such as steeping up border security. Ensure terrorists do not slip into country. However, border security includes greater checks on travelers identities and belongings, slowing down immigration clearance. Intrusive legislation introduced too. Critics argue measures and laws infringe on individual freedom and personal privacy. 14. Management of Transnational Terrorism 14.1 ASEANs efforts to manage terrorism ASEAN leaders view terrorism as a major threat to international peace and security. Direct challenge to achieve peace, progress and prosperity in ASEAN. ASEAN government pledged their determination to cooperate against transnational terrorism through joint police and intelligence measures. ASEAN pledged to enhance info and intelligence exchange on terrorist activities. Example is such of Philippine authorities arresting JI bomb-maker based on information provided by Singapore. Member countries used ASEAN Regional Forum as platform to discuss transnational terrorism issues. The Convention on Counter-terrorism signed in 2007 by ASEAN leaders, was an agreement to commit their national security and law enforcement agencies to work closely to fight threat together. 14.2 International efforts to combat terrorism UN passed series of resolutions to stop terrorism. Resolutions aimed at getting all member countries to freeze financial assets of terrorists and supporters, deny them safe travel, prevent terrorist recruitment and

weapons supply, and cooperate with other countries in info sharing and criminal prosecution. UN also set up Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC). After resolutions passed out, manage to freeze more than US$200 million in terrorist funding. 4000 terrorists suspects were also arrested. Despite efforts, international community not completely successful in getting rid of threat of transnational terrorism. Reasons include ability of terrorists to evade security restrictions imposed and terrorists ability to continually recruit new operatives.

14.3 Nurturing environment that censures terrorism Terrorist narratives are typically founded on ideas of hate and enmity. Many of the ideas glorify use of violence, and instigate and falsely sanction person to commit such acts. There must not be any ambiguity in societys stand against these ideas that fuel terrorism.