Titus Vav

engineering guidelines - terminal units
B
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Table of Contents
Engineering Guidelines - Terminals
overview
Engineering Guidelines Overview ..................................................................................................................................................B4
terminals, controls & accessories

Types of Terminals .........................................................................................................................................................................B5 Single Duct.............................................................................................................................................................................B5 Dual Duct, Non-Mixing ..........................................................................................................................................................B5 Dual Duct, Mixing ..................................................................................................................................................................B5 Single Duct, with Heating Coil ...............................................................................................................................................B5 Fan Powered, Parallel Type (Variable Volume) .......................................................................................................................B5 Fan Powered, Series Type (Constant Volume) ........................................................................................................................B6 Low Temperature Fan Terminals ............................................................................................................................................B6 Fan Powered, Low Profile ......................................................................................................................................................B6 Fan Powered, Access Floor Profile (Constant Volume) ..........................................................................................................B6 Types of Controls ...........................................................................................................................................................................B7 Reaction to Duct Pressure Controls .......................................................................................................................................B7
Control Operation in Terminals ......................................................................................................................................................B9 Damper Operation ..................................................................................................................................................................B9 Direct Acting/Reverse Acting Pneumatic Thermostat Action ...............................................................................................B9 Direct Reset/Reverse Reset Pneumatic Velocity Controller Action ........................................................................................B9 Pneumatic Thermostat-Controller Combinations .................................................................................................................B10 Actuator Terminology ..........................................................................................................................................................B10 Pneumatic Control/Actuator Combinations .........................................................................................................................B10 Velocity Controller Operation .......................................................................................................................................................B11 Definitions of Terms .............................................................................................................................................................B11 Thermostat Sensitivity ........................................................................................................................................................B11 Hysteresis.............................................................................................................................................................................B11 Pneumatic Feedback ...........................................................................................................................................................B12 Fan Terminal Flow Control ...........................................................................................................................................................B12 Series Fan Shift ....................................................................................................................................................................B12 Mechanical Trimming ..........................................................................................................................................................B12 Voltage Adjustment..............................................................................................................................................................B13 Fan Speed Control........................................................................................................................................................................B13 Catalog Fan Curves ..............................................................................................................................................................B14 ECM Motors - Fan Powered Terminals ........................................................................................................................................B15 Pressure Independent - Energy Efficient Analog Speed Settings ........................................................................................B15 Direct Digital Control ..................................................................................................................................................................B16 Applying Computers to Control ............................................................................................................................................B16 Direct Digital Control ...........................................................................................................................................................B16 Advantages of DDC ..............................................................................................................................................................B16 DDC Distributed Processing.................................................................................................................................................B18 Sizing Basic Terminals from Capacity Tables ...............................................................................................................................B18 Certified Air Terminals .........................................................................................................................................................B18 Sizing Single Duct Terminals ...............................................................................................................................................B18 Sizing Parallel Fan Powered Terminals ................................................................................................................................B19
ENGINEERING GUIDELINES
B2
Table of Contents (continued)

Sizing Series Fan Powered Terminals...................................................................................................................................B20 Typical Problems ..........................................................................................................................................................................B21 Oversizing Terminal ..............................................................................................................................................................B21 Capacity Concentrated in Too Few Terminals ......................................................................................................................B21 Insufficient Space ................................................................................................................................................................B21 Improper Discharge Conditions ...........................................................................................................................................B21 Improper Inlet Conditions ....................................................................................................................................................B21 Incompatibility with Power Source ......................................................................................................................................B22 Excessive Air Temperature Rise and Air Change Effectiveness ...........................................................................................B22 Excessive Air Leakage ..........................................................................................................................................................B22 Improper Support Of Terminal..............................................................................................................................................B22 Wrong Type of Insulation .....................................................................................................................................................B22 Non-Compliance with Local Codes ......................................................................................................................................B23 Installation Techniques-Duct Connections ..........................................................................................................................B23 Some Basic Concepts-Pressure Measurement ............................................................................................................................B25 The Fan Laws ...............................................................................................................................................................................B26 Equations and Definitions............................................................................................................................................................B27
acoustical applications & factors

Acoustical Applications & Factors ...............................................................................................................................................B28 Noise Criteria (NC) ...............................................................................................................................................................B28 Room Criteria (RC) ...............................................................................................................................................................B30 Air Terminal Sound Issues ...................................................................................................................................................B32 AHRI Standard 885 ..............................................................................................................................................................B33 Environmental Adjustment Factor .......................................................................................................................................B33 Discharge Sound Power Levels ............................................................................................................................................B34 Acceptable Total Sound in a Space ......................................................................................................................................B35 Maximum Sound Power Levels for Manufacturers Data ....................................................................................................B37 Desired Room Sound Pressure Levels ..................................................................................................................................B37 Radiated Sound Power Level Specifications ........................................................................................................................B38 Discharge Sound Power Level Specifications ......................................................................................................................B38 Diffuser Specifications .........................................................................................................................................................B39 Determining Compliance to a Specification.........................................................................................................................B40 Standard Attenuations .........................................................................................................................................................B41
references
References ...................................................................................................................................................................................B43
glossary
Glossary .......................................................................................................................................................................................B44
B3
Overview

Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard 70, Standard 113, Standard 130 and AHRI 880. Although Titus has no control over the system, design and application of these products, a function which rightfully belongs to the designer, this data accurately represents the product performance based on the results of laboratory tests. Furthermore, the recommended methods of applying this information have been shown by field experience to result in optimum space air distribution.
The selection and performance data contained in this catalog are the result of extensive studies conducted in the Titus engineering laboratories under professional engineering guidance, with adherence to sound engineering applications. They are intended to be aids to heating and air conditioning engineers and designers with skill and knowledge in the art of air distribution. The data have been obtained in accordance with the principles outlined within the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
B4
Terminals, Controls and Accessories

TYPES OF TERMINALS
SINGLE DUCT
This basic terminal consists of casing, a damper, a damper actuator and associated controls. In response to control signals from a thermostat or other source, the terminal varies the airflow through a single duct handling hot or cold air. In some applications the same terminal is used for both heating and cooling; a dual

function thermostat, together with the necessary change-over circuitry, makes this possible. Controls can be pneumatic, electric, analog electronic or direct digital electronic. Accessories such as round outlets, multiple outlets and sound attenuators may be added. The single duct terminal is most often used in an interior zone of the building, for cooling only. which would result in stratification in the discharge duct. (When stratification occurs, the several outlets served by the terminal may deliver air at noticeably different temperatures.) The non-mixing, dual duct terminal is best used in an exterior zone, in which zeroto-low airflow can be tolerated as the temperature requirement shifts from cooling to heating. hot airflow changes first, and a change in cold airflow follows to maintain a constant total (mixed) volume. When equipped with DDC controls by Titus, both hot and cold inlets have velocity sensors, with the summation of flows computed by the microprocessor. No discharge velocity sensor is used. This dual duct terminal is often used in an exterior zone of a building or to ensure ventilation rates. is most often used in an exterior zone with moderate heating requirements. Since the terminal normally handles its minimum cfm in the heating mode, a dual minimum cfm or flip-flop control can be added for increased heating airflow. Separate minimum cfm setpoints are standard with most DDC controls (available optionally on most other control types) and should be considered in design. A higher minimum cfm in heating mode will improve overhead air distribution performance. terminal. Because the fan handles only the heating airflow, which is usually less than that for cooling, the fan can be sized smaller than in the series flow type terminal (see below). During the cooling cycle, the fan is off and cool primary air is supplied from the central system. A backdraft damper prevents reverse flow through the fan. The flow of the primary air is regulated by variable air volume controls. Used in exterior zones.
Supply
To Outlets
Figure 47. Elevation - Single Duct
DUAL DUCT, NON-MIXING

Essentially the same as two single duct terminals side-by-side, this terminal modulates the flow of hot and cold air in two separate streams supplied by a dual duct central air handling unit. Because there is no provision for mixing the two airstreams, this terminal should not be used for simultaneous heating and cooling,
Hot To Outlets Cold
Figure 48. Plan View - Dual Duct, NonMixing
DUAL DUCT, MIXING

Here the terminal is designed specifically for mixing hot (or tempered ventilation) and cold air in any proportion. When equipped with pneumatic controls, there is a velocity sensor in the hot air inlet, but none in the cold air inlet. A velocity sensor at the discharge measures the total flow of air and sends the signal to the cold air controller. In the mixing cycle, the
B
TERMINAL CONTROLS AND ACCESSORIES
Hot Cold To Outlets
Figure 49. Plan View - Duct Duct, Mixing
SINGLE DUCT, WITH HEATING COIL

This is the single duct terminal described above, with a heating coil added. The coil may be of either the hot water or the electric type. The hot water coil is usually modulated by a proportioning valve controlled by the same thermostat that controls the terminal. Control for the electric coil is either 100% on-off or in steps of capacity, energized by contactors in response to the room thermostat. The single duct terminal with heating coil
To Outlets Supply Hot Water or Electric Coil
Figure 50. Elevation - Single Duct, with Heating Coil
FAN POWERED, PARALLEL TYPE (VARIABLE VOLUME)

In this terminal a fan is added to recirculate plenum air, for heating only. The heating cycle occurs generally when the primary air is off or at minimum flow. Heat is picked up as the recirculated air is drawn from the ceiling space and the fan motor. Additional heat can be provided by a hot water or electric coil on the
Primary
Backdraft Damper Fan To Outlets
Recirc.
Figure 51. Plan View - Fan Powered, Parallel Type (Variable Volume)
B5
Types of Terminals (continued)


as the fan, the inlet static pressure can be lower than in the parallel flow terminal (above). The fan, however, is sized to handle the total airflow. These are often used in applications where constant background sound and continuous airflow are desired.
Primary Fan To Outlets
FAN POWERED, SERIES TYPE (CONSTANT VOLUME)

The fan runs continuously, fed by a mixture of primary and plenum air. The more primary air is forced in, the less plenum air is drawn in. The result is variable volume from the central system, constant volume (and sound) to the room. Because the central system need only deliver air as far
Recirc.
Figure 52. Plan View - Fan Powered, Series Type (Constant Volume) a conventional supply temperature before it enters the room. A commonly utilized solution is to mix it with recirculated air with a fan powered terminal. The most common application uses a Series Flow unit, but many applications have been utilized with Parallel units with a constant running fan.
LOW TEMPERATURE FAN TERMINALS

The fan terminal, with its inherent mixing, is well suited to handle the very cold air delivered by systems designed for air much colder than with conventional 55F supply systems. In order to use standard diffusers, the primary air must be raised to
B
FAN POWERED, LOW PROFILE

This series or parallel type terminal has a vertical dimension of only 10.5 for all sizes, to minimize the depth of ceiling space required. Notice in the diagram at the right that the recirculating fan is laid flat on its side, shaft vertical. In localities where building heights are limited, the low profile terminal saves enough space to allow extra floors to be included
in a high-rise structure. Ceiling space can be as little as 12 to 14 deep. The low profile terminal is also useful in buildings constructed with precast concrete channel floors. The terminal can fit into the channel space with no extra depth required (Series type shown).
Recirculated Air Primary Fan To Outlets Recirculated Air
Figure 53. Plan View - Fan Powered, Low Profile The terminal can fit into the floor plenum without any modifications to the pedestal system.
FAN POWERED, ACCESS FLOOR PROFILE (CONSTANT VOLUME)

This series type terminal is designed to fit around the pedestal support grid of access, or raised, floor systems. In a typical access floor the grid is 24 x 24.
Fan Primary To Outlets
Recirc.
Figure 54. Plan View - Fan Powered, Access Floor Profile (Constant Volume)
B6
TYPES OF CONTROLS
PRESSURE INDEPENDENT

REACTION TO DUCT PRESSURE CONTROLS

With this type of control the terminal maintains the flow rate required to handle the heating or cooling load, regardless of system pressure fluctuations. It is the best choice where the system pressure will vary extensively and where precise control is essential. Key components in pressure independent control are the velocity sensor, which furnishes a continuous reading of the air velocity through the terminal, and the velocity controller, which processes this information along with signals from the thermostat. In the chart (Figure 55), vertical lines AB and EF represent minimum and maximum cfm settings which are adjustable at the controller. Line CD represents any cfm setting maintained by the controller in response to the thermostat. The damper will open and close as needed to hold the cfm constant up and down this vertical line for the full range of pressure drops shown. Notice that the vertical cfm lines are cut off by the diagonal line AE, which represents the pressure drop from inlet to outlet with the damper wide open. This is the minimum DP shown in our data.
Note: Excessive airflow may lead to excessive noise. Pressure independent control has less opportunity for Maximu (and Minimum m Variable variable cfm cfm unwanted) sounds in the occupied spaces. cfm
6.00 4.00 2.00
6.00 4.00
Setting
Setting
Setting
Minimum B cfm Setting

B
Variable D cfm Setting

D
Maximum F cfm Setting

F
Pressure Drop in w.g.
1.00 2.00 0.80 0.60
0.40 0.80
1.00
0.20
0.60 0.40
0.10 0.20 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.06
0.10 0.08
0.04 0.02 0.02 0.01 100
A 200
200 A
Mi
u um
SP
C ,W
ide
ide
Op
p am E nD
am
er
r
pe
Op
D en
0.01 100
300 inu
M
mu
,W SP
400
400
500 600700 800 1000

500 600700 800 1000
Air Flow, cfm

300
PRESSURE DEPENDENT
A terminal with this type of control is designed for those applications where neither pressure independence nor cfm limit regulation is required. An example is a variable volume makeup air supply in which the downstream duct pressure is held constant by other controls. The terminal consists essentially of a casing, a damper and a damper actuator. There is no controller and no velocity sensor; the damper moves in direct response to the thermostat or other signal input. The line AB (Figure 56) shows the typical performance characteristic. It represents a given damper setting, with the flow rate varying as the square root of the static pressure drop through the terminal. This, of course, is typical of any damper or fixed orifice. Lines CD and EF represent random additional settings as the damper opens to the full open position line GH. Line GH is the minimum pressure loss of the assembly. Most of the control types shown here have certain principle elements in common:
Air Flow, cfm
Figure 55. Pneumatic Pressure Independent

6.00
6.00 4.00 4.00
B
B
B
2.00
2.00 1.00
1.00
0.60 0.60 0.40
Damper Damper Setting Setting #1

#1
0.40
0.20 0.20
Damper Damper Setting Setting #2

#2
0.10 0.10 A A 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.04 C C 0.02 0.02

0.01 0.01 100 100
Damper Damper Setting Setting #3 #3 Damper Damper Setting Setting Open Open E E GG
200 200 300 300
H H
400 500 600 700 800 1000 400 500 600700 800 1000
ROOM THERMOSTAT OR SENSOR

The thermostat contains not only a temperature sensing element, but also a means of changing the setpoint. The room sensor used with the direct digital control system is simply an electronic temperature sensor; setpoint changes are handled along with other signal processing in the digital controller.
Air Flow, cfm Air Flow, cfm
Figure 56. Pneumatic Pressure Dependent
CONTROLLER
Commands from the thermostat or room sensor, together with feedback from the velocity sensor, are processed in the controller to regulate the damper actuator. Operation is pressure independent.
VELOCITY SENSOR
Mounted in the inlet of the terminal, this device senses air velocity, which can easily be converted to airflow rate. The sensors signal provides feedback to monitor and directs the operation of the controller and damper actuator.
DAMPER ACTUATOR
The damper actuator opens and closes the damper to change the airflow, or to hold it constant, as dictated by the controller.
B7
Types of Terminals (continued)


Pneumatic
Pneum. Velocity Sensor TStat Pneum. Damper Actuator Pneumatic Controller Main Air Damper
PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
In a pneumatic control system, the various components are powered by compressed air, usually at 15-25 psi, from a central system. The thermostat receives air at full pressure directly from the main air supply. In response to room temperature, the air pressure is modulated to the controller, which regulates the damper actuator. The sensor and controller compensate for changes in duct pressure so that operation is pressure independent.
ELECTRIC SYSTEMS - FIGURE 58A

Electric controls operate at low voltage, usually 24 VAC, supplied by a transformer which is often built into the control box of the terminal. The room thermostat has single-pole-double-throw contacts so that (in the cooling mode) a rise in temperature drives the damper actuator in the opening direction; a fall in temperature reverses the actuator. Since the electric system has no velocity sensor and no controller, there is no compensation for duct pressure fluctuations. Operation of the terminal is pressure dependent, the thermostat and room response time are typically much less than the actuator response time, and excessive room temperature variations are a likely result.
Figure 57. Pneumatic System

Electric
Damper
TStat Electric Damper Actuator
B
ANALOG ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS - FIGURE 58B

Like the electric controls, analog electronic controls operate at low voltage, usually 24 VAC, supplied by a transformer which is often built into the control box of the terminal. These controls, however, also include a velocity sensor of either the thermistor type, or pneumatic velocity sensor with electronic transducer, together with an electronic velocity controller that is pressure independent. The electronic thermostat can control both cooling and heating operations. Because of the pressure independent operation and integrated thermostat, excellent room temperature control can be achieved.
Line Transformer
Figure 58A. Electric Pressure Dependent System

Analog Electronic
Velocity Sensor
Damper
TStat
DIRECT DIGITAL ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS - FIGURE 58C

Here again the power source is a low voltage supply. Signals from a pneumatic or electronic velocity sensor, together with signals from the room temperature sensor, are converted to digital impulses in the controller, which is a specialized microcomputer. The controller not only performs the reset and pressure independent volume control functions, but it also can be adjusted and programmed either locally or remotely for multiple control strategies, including scheduling. In addition, it can link to other controllers and interface with security, lighting, and other equipment. Control can be centralized in one computer.
Line
Electric Damper Actuator Analog VAV Controller with Velocity Transducer Transformer-Usually 24 VAC Secondary
Figure 58B. Electric Pressure Independent System
Direct Digital Electronic
Velocity Sensor Room Sensor Electric Damper Actuator Digital VAV Line Controller with Velocity Transducer Transformer-Usually 24 VAC Damper
B8
Secondary
Figure 58C. Electric Pressure Independent System
Control Operation in Terminals

100 Oversized Damper
CONTROL OPERATION IN TERMINALS

DAMPER OPERATION
Linearity (Figure 61) is the ideal characteristic for most damper applications. How nearly linear the operation is depends upon the percentage of the overall system pressure drop contributed by the wide open damper. Pressure independent control operations eliminate the effect of nonlinear dampers, but simulate the effect of a true linear damper to the system. For a linear damper characteristic, the damper is sized to contribute about 10% of the overall system resistance. Also (Figure 62), actuator torque must be sufficient to close the damper under all design conditions. In Titus terminals, the torque is always more than adequate.
100
% cfm
Damper Sized for Linear Characteristic
% cfm
Maximum Torque Required
Torque Open Closed
Damper Opening, %
Face Area x Total Pressure
Figure 61. Linear Damper Operation
Figure 62. Damper Torque Requirement
100
DIRECT ACTING/REVERSE ACTING PNEUMATIC THERMOSTAT ACTION

In the direct acting pneumatic thermostat (Figure 63), a room temperature increase causes a corresponding increase in thermostat output. In the reverse acting thermostat (Figure 64), the sequence is the opposite. Because of these characteristics, direct acting thermostats are often used for cooling, reverse acting for heating. (With electronic systems, this term has no application.)
% cfm (Cooling)
Direct Acting Thermostat
100
% cfm (Cooling)
Reverse Acting Thermostat
B
Room Temperature Increase
Figure 63. Direct Acting Thermostat Action
Figure 64. Reverse Acting Thermostat Action
100
DIRECT RESET/REVERSE RESET PNEUMATIC VELOCITY CONTROLLER ACTION

In the direct reset pneumatic velocity controller (Figure 65), an increase in thermostat output pressure causes a corresponding increase in controller cfm setting. The damper will open and close to maintain this cfm when duct pressures change. In the reverse reset controller (Figure 66) the same action results from a decrease in controller cfm setting.
% cfm (Cooling)
Direct Reset Thermostat
Max
100
Max
Direct Reset Thermostat
Min
% cfm (Cooling)
Min
Figure 65. Direct Reset Pneumatic Velocity Controller
Figure 66. Reverse Reset Controller
B9
Control Operation in Terminals (continued)


G 100 Max
PNEUMATIC THERMOSTATCONTROLLER COMBINATIONS

For systems supplying cold air when a direct acting pneumatic thermostat signals a direct acting controller (Figure 67), an increase in room temperature produces an increase in cfm setting. A reverse acting thermostat with a reverse reset controller produces the same result. A direct acting thermostat with a reverse reset controller or a reverse acting thermostat with a direct reset controller (Figure 68) will produce a decrease in cfm as the room temperature increases. With warm supply air, the logic is reversed.
100 Max
% cfm Min
DA Thermostat DA Controller or (COLD AIR) RA Thermostat DA Controller (HOT AIR)
% cfm
DA Thermostat RA Controller or (HOT AIR) RA Thermostat RA Controller (COLD AIR) Min
Figure 67. DA Pneumatic Thermostat Signaling DA Controller Combination
Figure 68. RA Thermostat with Reverse Reset Controller or RA Thermostat with Direct Reset Controller Combination
NORMALLY OPEN
ACTUATOR TERMINOLOGY
B
Pneumatic actuators have an internal spring which is overcome by control air pressure. When air pressure is less than the spring tension, the actuator will retract. Depending on how it is connected to a damper, the damper may open or close on increase in control signal. Electronic actuators, however, are typically fail stopped unless they have a return spring which is activated by a loss of control signal. These are several times the cost of fail stopped actuators. When normally open or normally closed actuators are specified in an electronic control project, the requirement is most often in error.
This describes a pneumatic operator which is configured so that on loss of air pressure the damper in the unit will open fully. These applications are typically ones where all like units are desired to be open for control purposes such as smoke removal or to prevent excessive pressure on system start-up.
PNEUMATIC CONTROL/ ACTUATOR COMBINATIONS

Controllers and actuators work in concert to control space temperatures. With pneumatic controls the most common combinations are Direct Acting Normally Open (DANO) and Reverse Acting Normally Closed (RANC). With most pneumatic controls special controllers are used for direct and reverse acting and any combinations other than DANO or RANC require extra components and increase air consumption. (With the Titus II controller, no extra components are required as the unit is switchable.)
NORMALLY CLOSED
When air pressure is removed, the actuator will cause the damper in the unit to go fully closed. This is typically specified when an area is to be isolated.
B10 B10
Velocity Controller Operation

VELOCITY CONTROLLER OPERATION

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
The controller setpoint is the cfm setting that the control system is calling for at any given moment. At that setpoint the damper opening may vary widely to compensate for any duct pressure changes reported by the inlet sensor, and thus hold the cfm constant. With pneumatic systems, the setpoint, 11 psi in the example (Figure 69), can be reset by the action of the thermostat anywhere between the maximum and minimum cfm settings of the controller. The corresponding thermostat output pressures are called the start and stop points. The range of possible setpoints between the start and stop points is called the reset span, 8 to 13 psi in the example shown here. The thermostat may also control an auxiliary piece of equipment, such as a proportioning valve on a hot water coil, shown here modulating over a range of 3 to 8 psi, in sequence with the reset span of the controller. The overall range over which the thermostat controls these devices is its proportional band or total throttling range, 3 to 13 psi in this example.
100
Total Throttling Range of Thermostat Reset Span of Controller (DDES) % Max. Flow Start Point (Cooling) Stop Point
Max. cfm
Max. gpm Hot Water Valve Modulation
Min. cfm
Set Point (Cooling)
11
13
Thermostat Output, psi
Figure 69. Set Point Example
B
Max
13
B
8 Set Point 73 75 77 Room Temperature
cfm A
THERMOSTAT SENSITIVITY
This is the change in output signal caused by a change in room temperature. This rating (Figure 70) is usually 1F = 2.5 psi for pneumatic systems. Electronic systems have a wide variance in output responses.
Min
Set Point 8 13
Thermostat Output, psi
HYSTERESIS
This is the failure of an object to return to its original position after a force has moved or deflected it. For example, in some velocity controllers (Figure 71) the cfm setting increases along the lower curved line and decreases along the upper curved line. At the setpoint, the cfm may be either A or B.
Figure 70. Thermostat Sensitivity Example
Figure 71. Hysteresis Example
B11
Velocity Controller Operation (continued)


Multi-Point Center Averaging Velocity Sensor Transmitter T Thermostat Positive Positioning Reset Damper Actuator Controller Duct Velocity Completes Feedback Loop
PNEUMATIC FEEDBACK
Signals from the thermostat determine the cfm setpoint of the controller. The duct velocity acting on the velocity sensor forms a feedback (closed) loop (Figure 72) that allows the controller to monitor the airflow resulting from its settings and make corrections continuously. This is a form of closed loop control and is used on both pneumatic and electronic pressure independent systems. In the Titus ll pneumatic controller there is also an internal feedback loop that works in conjunction with a positive positioning reset mechanism to eliminate hysteresis (Figure 71, page B11).
Figure 72. Pneumatics Feedback

100% System Static Pressure 100%
B
FAN TERMINAL FLOW CONTROL

Engineers designing air systems try to match the airflow capacity of fan powered terminals to the needs of the space. Exact matches are rare, however. The design may not allow an exact match, a product other than the one which is the subject of the design might be selected, or system balancing might require a different airflow to meet field conditions. The two commonly used methods of trimming fan airflow are: Mechanical Trimming Voltage Adjustment
SP
Brake Horsepower
Operating Point Static Efficiency
BHP SE
cfm
100%
Figure 73. Forward Curved Fan Performance Curve
SERIES FAN SHIFT

With Series fan terminals, the fan output is intended to remain constant over a range of primary inlet damper flow rates. With proper design, this is normally so. With improper design, or with additional inlet attenuators added to a terminal, the fan may see a different external pressure when in full induction mode than when in full cooling. This results in a variation in the quantity of air delivered to the space, or Fan Shift. The consequences of fan shift depend on individual zone characteristics and building design. If diffusers are selected such that they may add background masking sound at design flow, variations in flow may be an annoyance to the occupants. If a designed ventilation rate is assumed, this may vary if fan shift happens. (Titus terminals are designed to minimize fan shift.)
MECHANICAL TRIMMING
Mechanical trimming involves the use of a mechanical device, such as a damper, to adjust the fan airflow to meet the design requirements. Typically, these are used in conjunction with a multi-tap motor to provide a greater operating range and keep the energy consumption and sound levels as low as possible. Mechanical trimming offers a lower first cost versus a voltage adjustment, but at increased operating costs and increased sound. Multi-tap motors are not always effective in changing flow. In operation, the mechanical device will raise the static pressure the fan operates against by either restricting the free area downstream of the fan or restricting the free flow of air drawn into the fan. A forward curved fan riding the fan curve will reduce airflow accordingly (Figure 73). Although the rpm of the fan will increase, less work will be performed. This will result in a reduction of the amp draw of the fan motor. Since voltage remains constant, the overall power consumption of the fan is reduced. The power reduction from mechanical trimming is less, however, than the power reduction from voltage adjustment. When mechanical trimming is used, the sound levels of the fan terminal will increase. When the dampering occurs downstream of the fan, the velocity of the discharge air must rise, thereby increasing the discharge sound power levels. Additional sound contributions are made by the fan. The increased rpm of the fan results in greater tip speed. This occurs with either dampering method, raising the level of both the radiated and discharge sound.
B12 B12
Fan Terminal Flow Control (continued)

VOLTAGE ADJUSTMENT
Voltage adjustment of fan powered terminals typically involves the use of a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). An SCR uses a triac to phase proportion (chop) the electrical sine wave. In effect, the SCR switches power off 120 times a second on a 60 Hertz cycle. This reduces the voltage to the motor, slowing its speed. In operation, the SCR responds to the current but controls voltage. Thus, while an SCRs triac may be energized at zero current, the current sine wave generally lags the voltage sine wave with an induction motor. This results in the idealized voltage sine wave (Figure 74). As the SCR is used to further reduce fan speed, the true RMS value of the voltage is reduced. As voltage to the motor is reduced, the motor tries to compensate and the motors amp draw rises slightly. The amperes will continue to increase until 50% of the current sine wave is phase proportioned. After this point, the amp draw will decrease. The increased amp draw is small relative to the reduction in voltage. As a result, comparing power consumption of the mechanical trimming method with the voltage adjustment method is analogous to comparing the power consumption of inlet guide vanes on central air handlers with speed inverters (Figures 75 and 76).
0 Voltage Across Motor

Figure 74. Idealized Voltage Sine Wave Resulting from an SCR
100%
B
50% Air Flow, cfm 100%
Watts 0
Figure 75. Watt Reduction Versus cfm
FAN SPEED CONTROL

The rpm of the motor is reduced by the SCR, lowering the tip speed of the fan. Since the free area downstream of the fan is not reduced, the velocity either meets design conditions or is lowered if the airflow is reduced below design for balancing purposes. There is no increase in sound from air disturbances.
A Note on Nameplate Ratings The amp draw can increase above the nameplate rating of the motor! The motors nameplate specifies the amp draw for one set of design conditions. Since the voltage to the motor is reduced, the nameplate rating is no longer applicable. If proper care is taken in the design, specification and selection of the motor by the terminal manufacturer, the increased amp draw will pose absolutely no problem in operation or longevity. Thousands of fan powered terminals shipped with SCRs over the years serve as confirmation. Titus accounts for the increased amp draw in the specification and selection of motors used for fan powered terminals. As a result, Titus specifies unit fusing adequate to handle the maximum amp draw possible under all operating conditions. This differs from the motor nameplate; it is essential that electric circuit fuses/overcurrent protection are sized according to the nameplate of the terminal, not the motor nameplate.
B13
Fan Speed Control (continued)


RMS VOLTS TO MOTOR VS MOTOR WATTS & RPM 90 80 70 60 700 WATTS RPM 50 40 30 20 10 0 60 600 500 Volts --- 115 Amps --- .77 FLA Rise --- 40 C Type --- Permanent Split Capacitor BLOWER --- Squirrel Cage --- (2) 6" dia. x 6.5" wide
CATALOG FAN CURVES

The fan curves in a catalog represent the operating range of the fan powered terminal. Fan operation is dependent on the static pressure on the fan, so fan curves show airflow vs. static pressure. As the static pressure increases, airflow decreases. A typical fan curve will show maximum and minimum airflow for a fan powered terminal. In (Figure 77), the top curve represents the maximum airflow that the fan and motor can provide. This corresponds to the recommended maximum operating rpm of the motor. The bottom curve shows the minimum airflow that the fan and motor can provide. This corresponds to either the minimum operating rpm of the motor or the minimum voltage of the SCR fan speed controller. The SCR minimum is designed to protect the motor from operating below its recommended rpm. Most standard fan powered terminal motors must operate above a manufacturers specified rpm to effectively selflubricate. However, the relationship between rpm and SCR voltage is dependent of static pressure. At minimum voltage on the SCR, the motor rpm will be different at different static pressures. Because of this, there is a possibility that at minimum SCR voltage, the rpm will be below the motor minimum recommended operating rpm. When this happens, the cataloged fan curve will use minimum rpm to set the minimum fan curve, not minimum SCR voltage. To ensure proper motor operation, always operate a fan powered terminal with the cataloged fan curve. A Note on Meter Usage Many Digital Multi-Meters (DMMs) will provide erroneous readings when attempting to measure current or voltage near an SCR. These meters are designed for normal, smooth sine waves. The SCR, by changing the shape of the sine wave, throws off the readings from these meters. To measure the current voltage, a true RMS DMM designed for these conditions must be used.
1050 1000 900 800
B
400 350 320
70
80
90
100
110
120
RMS VOLT TO MOTOR

Figure 76. Watt, Volt and rpm Relationships
1600
1400 1200 1000 cfm 800 600 400 200
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Static Pressure - Inches of Water
B14 B14
Figure 77. Typical Fan Curve
ECM MOTORS
PRESSURE INDEPENDENT - ENERGY EFFICIENT ANALOG SPEED SETTINGS
ECM MOTOR TECHNOLOGY

ENERGY SAVINGS POTENTIAL

The ECM motor, as applied to the Titus TQS fan powered terminal, offers significant energy savings over time to the owner when compared to conventional induction motors. Titus has evaluated an actual field trial and confirmed through bench testing an example of the potential energy savings when using the ECM motor. The following charts show the watt reduction associated with the hp and 1 hp ECM motor when compared to standard TQS units of equivalent application range.
TQS Size 6 - 1hp ECM Motor
1200 1000 Watts 800 600 400 200 0 1263 1350 1601 1786 1849 2081 2162 2200 cfm ECM SCR
The ECM motor is an ultra-high efficiency, brushless DC motor with a unique microprocessor based motor controller. Motor efficiencies of 70% or better across the entire operating range of the motor saves considerable electrical energy when compared to conventional induction motors. The motor controller, when tuned to the fan powered terminal, provides a large turn down ratio and constant volume airflow regardless of changes in downstream static pressure operating against the fan. With the introduction of the ECM motor, factory setting of the fan cfm is now possible. Separate controls are required to enable field adjustment of fan speed. The fan speed control allows adjustments to be made three ways. Manually with a screwdriver, similar to the SCR control. Remotely (as an option) through the DDC controls using a laptop at the unit. Remotely through the Building Management System.
Figure 78. Watt Reduction with 1/2 hp ECM Motor
B
ECM SCR
HARMONICS
Power for a given motor is drawn through the line in the form of a pure sine wave. This sine wave contains a fundamental frequency, in the US typically 60 Hz. When there exists other pure sine waves, each with individual frequencies, other than the fundamental frequency, they are called harmonics.These waves cause distortion or noise in the power line. Therefore, harmonic distortion is a collection of pure sine waves, including the 60 Hz fundamental frequency, which when summed together point by point in time creates distortion in the incoming line. Due to the way a standard split capacitor motor draws power, they have slightly fewer harmonic frequencies as compared to the ECM motor. The ECM motor, unlike the standard split capacitor motor, draws peak power only when needed, resulting in less electrical noise generation. As of 2011, the most stringent of limitations for harmonics is published in the CAN/CSA - CEI/IEC 61000-4-3-07 (R2011). These values set the ceiling for allowable harmonic levels. The critical maximum or peak amp values for a given harmonic level occur in the third harmonic closely followed by that of the fifth harmonic. Published data for a 1hp ECM without filtering capability violates these CEI limits. Titus has developed technology to decrease the harmonic frequencies while continuing to deliver peak power as it is requested. The Titus ECM motor meets the criteria, as well as specified national and international harmonic limitations.
Note: TQS Size 6 with 1 hp ECM motor watt comparison to standard permanent split capacitor motor. The average watt reduction over the above range is 335 watts.
TQS Size 4 - hp ECM Motor
600 500 400 Watts 300 200 100 0 509 752 cfm 1000 1415
Figure 79. Watt Reduction with 1 hp ECM Motor Note: TQS Size 4 with 1/2 hp ECM motor kW comparison to standard permanent split capacitor motor. The average watt reduction over the above range is 178 watts.
B15
ECM Motors - Fan Powered Terminals (continued)


DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
Microprocessor-based controllers inherently perform direct digital control (DDC) and typically replace the conventional pneumatic or analog electronic controls. Digital controllers measure signals from sensors (input), process these signals in software (through the microprocessor), and initiate a corrective action to a controlled device (outputs) (Figure 80). A more technical definition is provided in the ASHRAE Applications Handbook.
When evaluating this reduction in watts for energy usage the following table shows, at various usage rates, the annual savings per motor. Annual savings assume a run time of 3000 hours per year (250 days at 12 hours/day). Table 9. Annual Savings per Motor Usage Rate $0.05 $0.06 $0.07 $0.08 $0.10 $0.12 $0.14 KW/hr reductions 0.28 0.35 0.40 $43.08 $52.50 $60.75 $51.70 $63.00 $72.90 $60.31 $73.50 $85.05 $68.93 $84.00 $97.20 $86.16 $105.00 $121.50 $103.39 $126.00 $145.80 $120.62 $147.00 $170.10
ADVANTAGES OF DDC
DDC systems offer several potential advantages over conventional counterparts. DDC systems provide improved comfort and greater energy efficiency through precise and accurate control. Pneumatic and Analog systems utilizing proportional (P) control have the inherent characteristic of offset (Figure 81). Microprocessor based controls can eliminate offset by adding the integral (I) or reset action. Furthermore, addition of the derivative (D) action can result in a faster response and greater stability (Figure 82), but requires significant tuning. DDC systems require less maintenance than conventional systems. Since there are no moving A direct digital controller receives electronic signals from the sensors, converts the electronic signals to numbers and performs mathematical operations on these numbers inside the computer. The output from the computer takes the form of a number, and can be converted to a voltage or pneumatic signal to operate the actuator.
B
Also, reduction in demand charges must also be considered. Typically, demand charges are calculated during a 15-minute peak window. Some utilities will qualify the peak demand to only the summer months and use this peak as the monthly charge throughout the remainder of the year while other utilities will calculate demand charges using that months peak kW requirement. The savings associated with reduced demand charges are substantial, as demand charges are usually several dollars per kW. As an example, a typical multi-story office application may require 200 fan terminals. Each fan terminal equipped with an ECM motor may have approximately 0.4 kW reduction in power. This translates to an 80 kW reduction in demand and with a demand rate of $10.00 per kW equates to a potential $800 per month reduction in the demand charges. While this model is simplistic, it is indicative of the payback potential of the motor. Utilities will vary not only in price but also in calculation methods with contract kWs versus actual kW usage so actual savings must be calculated according to local market conditions. Coupling the usage and demand savings associated with the ECM motors can provide a substantial savings throughout the life of the building.
DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

APPLYING COMPUTERS TO CONTROL
With many years of experience, design engineers have established the basic principles of temperature control for heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. These control strategies have been applied utilizing conventional pneumatic, electric or analog electronic devices. Recent advances in micro-technology have made it possible to apply the power and precision of computers to HVAC control. Microprocessors, which cost less than ever before and offer superior computing power, are now suitable for application to individual air handlers, packaged heating/ cooling units, VAV terminals or the entire HVAC system.
parts, periodic preventive maintenance (PM) tasks such as calibration, lubrication, cleaning and adjustments are seldom required. Control strategies can be modified quickly and easily without the need to rewire, repipe or install additional components.
B16 B16
Direct Digital Control (continued)

Inherent Offset Controlled Variable
Controlled Devices
Sensors Temperature Humidity Air Flow Inputs Microprocessor Outputs
Valve Actuator Damper Actuators
Setpoint
Time
Figure 80. Direct Digital Controller Since microprocessor controllers are software based, multiple control sequences can be preprogrammed in memory thus allowing a single controller to be fully interchangeable between different equipment. For example, an application specific VAV controller may be used to control single duct, dual duct or fan powered terminals by simply choosing the appropriate operating sequence from a software library maintained on board every controller (Figure 83). While functioning completely independent, digital controllers perform all essential functions necessary to control different pieces of HVAC equipment without interconnecting to other computers. In this way each piece of HVAC equipment has its own digital controller in the same way conventional systems would provide individual control panels.
Figure 81. Inherent Offset - Lost Energy Dollars and Sacrificed Comfort
Controlled Variable
Setpoint
Time
Figure 82. Offset Completely Eliminated - Improved Comfort and Less Energy Usage
B
Cooling Only
Cooling Max. Slope Depends on rate and magnitude of space temperature change.
Fan Powered Variable Volume (Parallel Type)
Air Flow, cfm
Morning Warmup Cooling Min. Heating Min. Heatin g Cooling Deadband Cooling Setpoint
Recirculated Air Primary Air
Heating Setpoint Room Temperature
Dual Duct With or Without Hot / Cold Blending Heating / Cooling Changeover 1F 1F
Fan Powered Constant Volume (Series Type) Total Air Flow
Recirculated Air
Primary Air
Figure 83. Frequently Used Control Sequences
B17
Direct Digital Control (continued)


Local Bus Network
VAV VAV VAV VAV
DDC DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING

Using a concept commonly referred to as distributed processing, DDC controllers can function as standalone devices. In this way if one controller fails, others throughout the system can continue to function unaffected. The controllers are connected over a system communication bus or local area network (LAN) for system wide sharing of information. This information is used to perform sophisticated building control strategies not possible with conventional noncommunicating systems. The network also allows system access locally through a personal computer or remotely via modem over telephone lines (Figure 84).
Controlling HVAC Equipment
Local Bus Network

VAV VAV VAV VAV
Local Bus Network

VAV VAV VAV VAV
SIZING BASIC TERMINALS FROM CAPACITY TABLES

CERTIFIED AIR TERMINALS
To provide engineers with sound power data which can be compared on an even basis, leading air terminal manufacturers joined together under the Air-Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration Institute (AHRI) to develop an industry standard for rating air terminals and certifying performance data. The result was AHRI Standard 880, Air Terminals, and the 880 Certification Program. Standard 880 specifies the procedure, using a reverberant chamber, for developing sound power data. The certification program ensures manufacturers equipment performance meets their claims. Compliance with 880 is assured through third party testing. If a manufacturer fails to match claimed performance, the manufacturer must immediately rerate the terminal or lose the ability to use the AHRI Standard 880 seal. Another standard, AHRI Standard 885, was developed at the same time to assist the engineer in using certified product data. Terminal selection involves a series of trade-offs. The designer needs to try to balance all of the constraining factors and select the terminal which meets overall needs best. Engineers who specify AHRI Certified air terminals are assured that the manufacturers performance meets the manufacturers claims. This is protection for the engineer, the building owner and the building occupant.
Modem System Interface
B
Figure 84. System Access via Network Once the type of control is identified, the minimum and maximum primary airflows should be considered against the published cfm range. The trade-offs start here. Some engineers will select terminals near the bottom of the cfm range to reduce sound levels since large inlets reduce face velocity. Others select terminals near the top of the cfm range to hold down equipment costs. Still other engineers believe that one should remain comfortably in the middle to avoid potential control problems resulting from low velocities and sound problems occurring at high velocities. All Titus products operate extremely well within the published cfm ranges. Therefore, low velocity control concerns can be eliminated. This leaves sound and first cost as the key issues. If the terminal is relatively small to begin with and will be located over a kitchen or hallway, sound will probably not be of concern and the designer may choose to slightly undersize the terminal. If, on the other hand, the terminal is located over office space, the designer may slightly oversize the terminal. The selection of an appropriate water coil should also be considered at this time. In some cases, a terminal may need to be increased in size in order to obtain the desired heat output from the coil. With single duct units, the water coil air pressure drop should be subtracted from the duct pressure when determining sound generation. The sound produced by the damper is proportional to the pressure drop across the damper and discharge water coils may reduce that pressure drop. Other significant downstream pressure drops should be considered, and their pressure drop subtracted as well.
SIZING SINGLE DUCT TERMINALS

The starting point for sizing single duct terminals is to identify the type and model of controller. This is necessary because some controllers are more accurate at lower velocities than others.
B18 B18
Sizing Terminals from Capacity Tables (continued)

The overall primary air static pressure drop is 0.23+ 0.44= 0.67 sp Since a 1.0 static pressure is available at the inlet, the
SIZING PARALLEL FAN POWERED TERMINALS

Parallel flow (variable volume) fan powered terminals are selected based on their capacity to handle the primary airflow. The same rules which apply to the selection of single duct terminals can be used, except that water coils are not in the primary airstream path, and will not affect sound levels. The pressure drop of the water coils, however, which are on the fan inlet in Titus parallel fan units, must be added to the expected discharge pressure at the fan flow rate when entering the fan curve tables. The fan is selected based on the minimum airflow requirements for the space or the heating load required. In most cases the fan can be downsized from the cooling flow requirement considerably, reducing both first cost and operating cost. The fan is selected from the fan curves. The downstream static pressure of the secondary air may not be the same as the primary air, however. If the secondary airflow requirements are less than the primary air requirements, the static pressure will be reduced. The following equation can be used to determine the static pressure at reduced airflows. (Do not forget to add water coil pressure drops to the fan requirement). Ps2 Where: Ps1 Ps2 V1 V2 = = = = = Ps1 (V1 / V2)2 Primary Air Static Pressure Secondary (Fan) Air Static Pressure Primary Air Velocity Secondary (Fan) Air Velocity
Recirculated Air
Fan Downstream Duct and Diffuser
Either / Or Primary Air Primary Air Section
Figure 85. Schematic Diagram of Airflow in Parallel Flow (Variable Volume) Models
B
Primary Backdraft Damper To Outlets Secondary
To select a Titus parallel fan powered terminal, refer to the published fan curves and primary air pressure drop curves, together with the application and sound power data. In the parallel flow type of unit, when the primary air is ON, the fan is typically OFF, and vice versa. As shown in the Figure 86, the primary air and the fan discharge air follow parallel paths into a common plenum. Therefore both airflows will encounter the same downstream resistance at a given flow rate. Since the primary and secondary airflows come from two different sources-and often at two different specified flow rates-the volume vs. pressure relationship in each of these airflows must be checked to ensure adequate flow rates under actual job conditions.
Figure 86. Actual Arrangement of Components Shown in the Previous Schematic Diagram selection will work. The damper in the primary air section will do some throttling to hold the maximum air flow to 1400 cfm. Secondary Air (Fan): From the fan curves, a size 4, without coils, terminal will handle 1150 cfm at 0.30 static pressure, with the proper setting of the standard SCR speed control.
Example: Select a Model DTQP for a maximum of 1400 cfm
of primary air with 1.00 wg inlet static pressure. The fan airflow required is 1150 cfm. The downstream resistance offered by the duct and diffusers has been determined to be 0.30 static pressure at 1150 cfm. Primary Air: From the chart on page R46, a size 4 with a 12 inlet will handle 1400 cfm of primary air with a minimum static pressure drop of 0.23 through the primary air section. But since the downstream resistance is 0.30 at 1150 cfm,
o
1400 1150
x 0.30 = 0.44 sp
B19
Sizing Terminals from Capacity Tables (continued)


Example: Select a Model DTQS for a maximum of 1200 cfm
of primary air at 0.50 wg inlet static pressure. The fan airflow is 1200 cfm. The downstream resistance offered by the duct and diffusers is 0.30 at 1200 cfm.
SIZING SERIES FAN POWERED TERMINALS

Compared to single duct terminals, series flow (constant volume) fan powered terminals add the additional factor of fan cfm requirements. The designer must consider both the primary airflow and the fan. Series terminals are selected based on the capacity of their fans. The secondary (or fan) cfm should be equal to or slightly more than the primary air to ensure primary air does not short circuit through the induced air port into the plenum, thereby wasting energy. Before selecting the fan, the static pressure downstream of the terminal must be determined. This is the resistance of the ducts and diffuser(s) at design airflow rates. Once the downstream static pressure is known, the designer can select the fan based on the fan curves (these are shown throughout the catalog with the performance data for each fan powered terminal). The designer should find the intersection of the static pressure line on the horizontal axis and the fan cfm on the vertical axis. Selecting toward the upper end of the range will ensure that first costs are kept low and the fan motor efficiency is high. Selecting below the indicated minimum flow will result in shortened motor life as the bearings in the motor are centrifugally lubricated. If a water coil is needed, the designer must use the curves provided for a one or two row coil. These curves account for the additional static pressure generated by the coil. The static pressure added for an electric coil is negligible and may be disregarded. Neither has an appreciable effect on sound levels. Inlet size must also be selected. Fan powered terminals come with varying inlet sizes. In general, inlets should be selected toward the bottom of the range. This reduces the face velocity of the inlet and minimizes the sound generated by the primary air valve.
Primary Air: From the table on page R11, a size 4 will handle 1200 cfm of primary air with a minimum static pressure drop of .18 through the primary air section. Since 0.50 static pressure is available at the inlet, the selection will work. Secondary Air (Fan): From the published fan curves, a size 4 terminal will handle 1200 cfm at 0.30 static pressure, with the proper setting of the standard SCR speed control.
Recirculated Air Fan Primary Air

Primary Air Section Downstream Duct and Diffuser
B
Downstream Ps (Fan) Internal Ps
Figure 87. Schematic Diagram of Airflow in Constant Volume (Series Flow) Models
To select a Titus series fan powered terminal unit, refer to the published fan curves and primary air pressure drop curves together with the application and sound power data. An abbreviated table is shown at the right for use with the example discussed here. In the series flow type of unit, the fan runs continuously in the standard version. With the optional night shutdown and night setback controls, the fan can be cycled ON and OFF when the primary air is OFF. As shown in the diagrams below, the primary air is drawn into the fan inlet along with secondary (recirculated) air from the room. The maximum primary airflow must always be equal to, or less than, the total airflow through the fan. When the primary air section reduces its airflow in response to a reduced demand for cooling, the fan makes up the difference by drawing more recirculated air from the room. As a result, the flow rate to the room is constant. The primary air section discharges into the unit casing near the fan inlet, where the static pressure is slightly below atmospheric. For this reason, the available inlet pressure need only be enough to overcome the internal pressure drop through the primary air damper itself.
Primary
Secondary
To Outlets
Figure 88. Actual Arrangement of Components Shown in the Previous Schematic Diagram
B20
TYPICAL PROBLEMS
OVERSIZING TERMINAL

Total damper travel Velocity too low for sensor
The direct result of oversizing is low air velocity. With the velocity too low, the damper must operate in a pincheddown condition most of the time, making control difficult. The inlet velocity can also be too low for effective operation of the sensor and controller. Too low a velocity through an electric heater will cause the safety airflow switch to shut down the heater. Oversizing fan terminals results in low fan motor rpm and the potential for under-lubrication of the motor bearings, resulting in shortened motor life and additional sound from larger motors (Figure 89).
Velocity too low for accurate dampering
Velocity too low for accurate dampering
Velocity too low for electric heater
Figure 89. Low Velocity Effects
CAPACITY CONCENTRATED IN TOO FEW TERMINALS

When one large terminal serves a space that should be served by two or more smaller ones, comfort problems can result. There may be noticeable temperature differences between rooms, since the thermostat is located in just one room as at the right. Also, for a given air velocity, the larger the terminal the more sound power it generates (Figure 90).
Terminal
Room 101 Too Hot
Room 103 T
Large terminal serves more than one zone.
INSUFFICIENT SPACE
Carefully planning the locations of the terminals avoids problems with installation, performance, and maintenance. In the example shown at the right, the control side of the terminal is against the wall, making connections difficult and service almost impossible. The cramped location also creates the need for close-coupled duct elbows, which reduce performance (Figure 91).
Figure 90. Too Few Terminals Effect
B
Pipe Chase
Controls
Coil Connections
Terminal
IMPROPER DISCHARGE CONDITIONS

The duct connections at the discharge end of the terminal have a major effect on pressure drop. A tee close to the discharge is especially to be avoided, along with transition pieces and elbows. Another common error is running too much flex duct, as at the right. It would have been better to continue the rectangular duct to the last diffuser, then install short flex branches (Figure 92).
Figure 91. Installation Affecting Performance
Tee at Discharge
IMPROPER INLET CONDITIONS

The arrangement of duct at the terminal inlet affects both pressure drop and control accuracy. The conditions shown at the right will create turbulence at the inlet. This makes it difficult for the sensor to measure airflow accurately. Although Titus velocity sensors correct for a considerable amount of turbulence, the best practice is to use straight duct at the inlet the same size or larger than the inlet (Figure 93).
Terminal Terminal
Too much flex duct
Figure 92. Improper Discharge Conditions
Inlet tapped into side of duct
Tight elbow at inlet
Supply duct smaller than inlet
Figure 93. Improper Inlet Conditions
B21
Typical Problems (continued)


INCOMPATIBILITY WITH POWER SOURCE
L1 L2 Neutral
L1 L2 L3 3 Phase 3 Wire 3 Phase 4 Wire Wye
L3
In fan powered terminals, electrically or electronically controlled terminals, and all terminals with electric heating coils, the order to the factory should be carefully checked against the electrical characteristics of the power source at the point of connection. Not only must the voltage, phase, and frequency match, but the distinction between 3 phase-3 wire and 4 wire wye must be observed (Figure 94).
Figure 94. Power Source Compatibility
EXCESSIVE AIR TEMPERATURE RISE AND AIR CHANGE EFFECTIVENESS

50
150
100
X 150 fpm
4.5 ft.
B
Figure 95. Overhead Heated Air
The discharge temperature for terminal units should be selected so the maximum temperature difference between the room and the diffuser discharge is no greater than 15BF. This can be found in the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. According to ASHRAE 62.1, ceiling diffusers which have ceiling returns and are used for heating, should be mounted as shown to allow the supply air jet of 150 fpm to come down the exposed wall to within 4.5 ft. of the floor level. This reduces the short circuiting of warm air at the ceiling level and can be used to achieve an Ez air change effectiveness value of 1.0 as determined in ASHRAE Standard 129 for all air distribution configurations except unidirectional flow (Figure 95).
Terminal Coil
Branch Take-off
Joint
EXCESSIVE AIR LEAKAGE

Leakage from the branch duct upstream and downstream from the terminal, as well as from the terminal itself, can be serious. In some installations it is found to be as much as 10% or more of the total airflow. Most of this leakage can be avoided by careful fabrication and installation and the use of top quality terminals (Figure 96).
Diffuser Neck
Figure 96. Possible Air Leakage
IMPROPER SUPPORT OF TERMINAL

Many terminals are light enough to need no support other than the duct work itself. However, the larger sizes, units with electric coils and fan powered models, are heavy enough to require additional support. A practical method is to use hanger straps screwed to the sides of the terminal. The bottom should be left clear where there are access panels (Figure 97).
Large, Heavy Terminal Supported by Duct Work
Hanger Straps Screwed to Terminal
Figure 97. Terminal Support

Insulation Lacks Anti-Erosion Skin
WRONG TYPE OF INSULATION

Installations in hospitals, clean rooms, and laboratories often require a special insulation liner to prevent air erosion or microbial growth. In the past, Mylar and Tedlar were often specified in these installations. Neither, however, meet current safety codes in many cities. Foil faced insulations, such as foil-faced Eco-Shield and Steri-Loc, provide the required covering, meet all safety codes and actually provide some sound attenuation. Titus Fibre-Free insulation provides both sound attenuation and resistance to erosion and mold growth (Figure 98).
Skin Added to Insulation
B22 B22
Figure 98. Anti-Erosion Skin Effects

277 VAC 24 VAC
NON-COMPLIANCE WITH LOCAL CODES

Some localities have stringent codes of their own, with requirements beyond those of NEC, UL, and CSA. An example is the primary fusing in the control transformer at the right (Figure 99).
Fuse
Transformer 24 VAC
INSTALLATION TECHNIQUESDUCT CONNECTIONS

The inlet duct slips over the inlet collar of the terminal. It should be fastened and sealed according to the job specifications. The diameter of the inlet duct must be equal to the listed size of the terminal. For example, a duct that measures 8 in diameter must be fitted to a size 8 terminal. The inlet collar of the terminal is made smaller than nominal size in order to fit inside the duct (Figure 100). Note: A duct should never be inserted inside the inlet collar of the terminal. For optimum control accuracy, a straight section of unrestricted duct at least 1 diameters long should be installed at the inlet (Figure 101). Where this condition does not exist, field adjustment of the airflow setting on the velocity controller may be required. If space does not permit using the 1 diameter length of straight duct, a hard duct elbow up to 90 can be installed at the inlet of the Titus terminal without altering the factory maximum or minimum airflow setting by more than 10% (Figure 102). The outlet end of the Titus terminal is designed for a slip and drive connection. Unless a round duct adapter is furnished, a rectangular outlet duct should be fitted to match the size of the terminal casing. It should be fastened and sealed according to the job specifications. If a round outlet adapter is furnished, it should be fastened and sealed by the same method used for the inlet. Close coupling the terminal inlet to the side of the main supply duct is not recommended. Where this condition is unavoidable, a flow straightening device (Figure 103) should be installed between the main supply duct and the inlet to the terminal. Even with the flow straightening device, the terminal may still require some field adjustment of the factory airflow settings at the velocity controller. Air leakage adds significantly to the operating cost of an HVAC system. Important savings are realized by carefully fitting and sealing all duct joints and specifying tightly constructed Titus terminals. The Titus box has very low damper and casing loss leakage. These values can be found on page Q26.
277 VAC
Figure 99. Primary Fusing in the Control Transformer
Inlet Terminal Straight Duct
Figure 100. Terminal Inlet Collar Fitting Properly
Inlet Terminal
B
1.5 Diameter Minimum Flexible Duct
Figure 101. Unrestricted Duct Properly Install at the Inlet
Inlet Terminal
Hard Duct Elbow
Figure 102. 90 Degree Hard Elbow Duct Installed to Inlet
Inlet Main Supply Duct Terminal
Air Straightener
Figure 103. Flow Straightening Device Placement
B23


Branch Take-off Joint
Terminal Coil
The example in (Figure 104) shows how many dollars can be lost in the leakage from just one terminal together with its connected duct work. Multiply that amount by the hundreds or thousands of terminals that may be in one building, and the seriousness of the loss is apparent. This is a conservative example, in that the leakage is only 5%; a much higher percentage is found in many installations. Also, the compressor, pumps, and fans may not run as efficiently as indicated here, and the cost of electric power in many parts of the country is greater than $0.06 per kilowatt hour.
Diffuser Neck
Figure 104. Possible Air Leakage
Example of Leakage Costs A 10 terminal handles 1150 cfm. The central system cools air from 80F dry bulb / 67F wet bulb to 53F dry bulb / 51.5F wet bulb before sending it to the terminal. itself, and the duct downstream from the terminal is 5% of the 1150 cfm being handled, or about 58 cfm.
B
Cost of Refrigeration The total heat removed from the system is: 31.65 Btu/# at 80/67 minus 21.10 Btu/# at 53/51. = 10.45 Btu/# of dry air. The amount of leakage given in this example is 58 cfm. The loss of refrigeration energy through leakage is: 58 cfm x 10.45 Btu/# x 4.5 = 2727 Btu/hr. Assuming a cooling system EER of 7.5 overall (reference ASHRAE Standard 90), in a space where the system operates 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, (worst case) At a power cost of $0.06 per kwh, 0.3636 x $0.06 x 24 x 365 = $191.11
Cost of Fan Operation If the static pressure across the fan is 5 wg and the fan static efficiency averages 75%, the leakage converts to: 58 cfm x 5 6356 x 0.75
= .0.061 bhp
Assuming that the motor efficiency multiplied by the power factor averages 0.80,
0.061 x 746 0.080 x 1000
= .0.0569 kw
0.0569 x $0.06 x 24 x 365 x 0.40 = $11.96, the cost of wasted fan power. 2727 7.5 x 1000 = .0.3636 kWh input Combined cost equals: $76.44 If the system operates at 40% capacity, averaged over:one year, $191.11 x 0.40 = $76.44, the cost of wasted refrigeration power alone, again worst case, assuming continuous operation. The amount of leakage in the branch duct serving the terminal, the connections to the terminal, the terminal $11.96 $88.40 per year for one terminal.
B24
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Three categories of pressure are connected with air handling: 1. Static pressure may be thought of as the pressure in a tire or storage tank. It is exerted in all directions equally. 2. Velocity pressure, as its name implies, is entirely a function of air velocity and its direction. It is the pressure you feel against your hand if you hold it outside the window of a moving car. 3. Total pressure is the sum of static pressure and velocity pressure. It and static pressure are the pressures actually sampled by velocity sensors in terminals and by commonly used measuring devices, as described next. The interaction of static, velocity, and total pressures is illustrated by (Figure 105). The Pitot tube, which is used to measure velocities and pressures, is really a tube within a tube. The inner, or impact, tube senses both the velocity pressure and static pressure combined (total pressure). The outer tube, which communicates with the airstream through small holes in its wall, avoids the impact of the air movement and senses only static pressure. The U-tube manometer, connected to both parts of the Pitot tube, has the effect of subtracting static pressure from total pressure to give a reading of velocity pressure. Once the velocity pressure is known, the velocity can be calculated easily:
o

PS
PT Pitot Tube
Connecting Tubing
B
PS
PV Difference in Liquid Level
PT PT minus PS = PV
Pv =
where
V 4005
or V = 4005Pv
V = Air Velocity and Pv = Velocity Pressure
Knowing both the velocity and the cross-sectional area of the duct, the flow rate is then: cfm = Area x Velocity
Glass Manometer Tube
Figure 105. Static, Velocity and Total Pressures Interaction
B25
THE FAN LAWS


Fan Law 1
1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000
The Fan Laws are basic tools in air handling. Three of the most common relationships are illustrated as follows.
Example:
A fan handles 40,000 cfm at 2 static pressure. It runs at 760 rpm and draws 18 brake horsepower. The fan is increased to 800 rpm. What are the new cfm, sp, and bhp? 1. Airflow rate varies directly with shaft speed. cfm1 2. cfm2 rpm2 cfm2 = (cfm1 x rpm2) / rpm1 = (40,000 x 800) / 760 = 42,105 = rpm1
rpm
cfm
Figure 106. Fan Law - Airflow
Fan Law 3
1000 900 800 700
3. Pressure varies as the square of shaft speed. = P2 rpm22 P2 = P1 x rpm22 / rpm12 = 2 x (800)2 / (760)2 = 2.22 4. Horsepower varies as the cube of shaft speed. bhp1 = rpm13 bhp2 = ((bhp1) x (rpm2)3 / (rpm1)3 = ((18) x (800)3) / (760)3 = 21.0 The relationships stated here apply when the air density remains constant and when there is no change in the fan or the system. They are based on Fan Laws 1, 2 and 3. For a complete presentation of the Fan Laws, see the ASHRAE Handbook, Systems and Equipment. Each fan design has its characteristic set of performance curves. Those shown in (Figure 109) are typical of a centrifugal fan with forward curved blades in the wheel, as commonly used in fan powered terminals. For a full discussion of the characteristics of the various types of fans, see the ASHRAE Handbook, Systems and Equipment. The solid curve represents a fan running at constant speed, as it is throttled from free delivery to close-off. The broken line square curve represents the pressure drop through the complete air handling system in which the fan operates. Intersection (A) is the operating point of the fan. The dashed line represents another system pressure curve which intersects at point B. This point is a poor operation point as instability will likely reset. P1 rpm12
rpm
600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
B
bhp
Figure 107. Fan Law - Pressure
Fan Law 3
1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
rpm
bhp
Figure 108. Fan Law - Brake Horsepower

3.5 3 Total Pressure 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1000
System Curve
3000
5000
7000
9000
11000
13000
Volume Flow Rate
B26 B26
Figure 109. Centrifuge Fan Performance Curves
EQUATIONS AND DEFINITIONS

Formulas and Definitions
VP (Q) cfm TP SP VP (V) fpm DP DPs DPT (A) Area Factor VP TP SP cfm DPT DPs DP fpm K = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =

Table 10. Units of Measurements Power

(fpm / 4,005)2 Cubic Feet per Minute Total Pressure Static Pressure Velocity Pressure Feet per Minute Differential Pressure Static Differential Pressure Total Differential Pressure Dimension in Square Feet TP - SP SP + VP TP - VP fpm x Area Factor TP1 - TP2 SP1 - SP2 (cfm / K)2 cfm / Area Factor cfm/ (DP) 1,000s of Btus per Hour British Thermal Unit Gallons per Minute Temperature Differential 927 x MBH / cfm 2.04 x MBH / gpm W A hp V E1 PF = = = = = = Watts Amps Horsepower Volts Efficiency Power Factor
Power DC Circuits W = VxA A = W/V hp = V x A x E / 746 E = 746 x HP / W Power AC Circuits (Single Phase) PF = W / (V x A) A = 746 x HP / (V x E x PF) E = 746 x HP / (V x A x PF) kW = V x A x PF / 1,000 hp = V x A x E x PF / 746 Power AC Circuits (3 Phase) PF = W / (V x A x 1.732) A = 746 x HP / (1.732 x V x E x PF) E = 746 x HP / (V x A x PF x 1.732) kW = V x A x PF x 1.732 / 1,000 hp = V x A x 1.732 x E x PF / 746
Water Coils
MBH Btu gpm DT Air DT H20T
B
Electric Coils
kW = Kilowatts Air DT = Temperature Differential, Leaving Air - (minus) Entering Air Temperature kW = cfm x DT / 3,160 DT = kW x 3160 / cfm
REHEAT COILS:
Several types of terminal devices are available with reheat coils, both hot water and electric. When determining the heat requirement for a terminal, the engineer will often start with the known zone heating demand, typically expressed in BTUH, or more conveniently, MBH (thousands of Btus). The room load requirements for heating are then used to determine the Room Entering Air temperature (EATr) by the equation: Btuh (room) = 1.085 * (EATr - Tr) * Q Where; EATr = Temperature (F) entering the room Tr = Room setpoint temperature or average temperature Q = Flowrate ( cfm) (typically 30 - 50% of the cooling cfm) By solving for the EATr, the coil Btuh requirements can then be determined. The room entering air temperature (EATr) now becomes the required LAT of the VAV box (ignoring any duct heat losses). The coil can now be sized according to: Btuh (coil) = 1.085 * (LAT - EATc) * Q Where; LAT = Coil leaving air temperature EATc = Coil entering air temperature (primary or mixed air) Q = Flowrate (cfm) Now that the coil requirements are known, published catalog data may be used to select the proper hot water or electric coil.
B27
Acoustical Applications and Factors


for Air Terminal devices are usually reported as the sound power level in each of several octave bands with center frequencies as shown in Table 11. Sound Power Levels are given in decibels (dB) referenced to a base power in watts, typically 10-12 watts. Sound power levels can also be reported for full or 1/3 octave bands, but usually as full octave bands, unless pure tones (narrow bands significantly louder than adjacent adjacent bands) are present.
Air terminals are the most noise sensitive of all HVAC products since they are almost always mounted in or directly over occupied spaces. They usually determine the residual background noise level from 125 Hz to 2,000 Hz. The term Air Terminals has historically been used to describe a number of devices which control airflows into occupied spaces at the zone (or individual temperature control area) level. There are two types: those that control the amount of airflow to a temperature zone (Air Control Units, ACUs, or more commonly Boxes), and those that distribute or collect the flow of air (Grilles & Diffusers, GRDs). On some occasions, the two functions are combined. As these two elements are the final components in many built-up air delivery systems and those closest to the building occupants, both are critical components in the acoustical design of a space. There is also a critical interplay between acoustics and the primary function of these devices; providing a proper quantity of well mixed air to the building occupants. Before discussing types of devices, we must have an understanding of some issues regarding sound levels in occupied spaces. The sound level in an occupied space can be measured directly with a sound level meter, or estimated from published sound power after accounting for room volume and other acoustical factors. Sound level meters measure the sound pressure level at the microphone location. Estimation techniques calculate sound pressure level at a specified point in an occupied space. Measured sound pressure levels in frequency bands can then be plotted and analyzed, and compared with established criteria for room sound levels. Sound power cannot be measured directly, (except using special Acoustic Intensity techniques), and is a measure of the acoustical energy created by a source. It is normally determined in special facilities and reported for devices under stated conditions. Sound Power Level (Lw) values
NOISE CRITERIA (NC)

Sound Pressure Levels (Lp) are measured directly by sound level meters at one or more points in a room. They reference a pressure rather than a power. A products estimated Sound Pressure Level (Lp) performance curve is obtained by subtracting space (or other appropriate) sound attenuation effects from the unit sound power (Lw). Currently, most Air Outlet and Inlets (GRDs) sound performance is reported by subtracting a 10 dB attenuation from all octave band sound power levels, and determining the NC rating. This room effect approximates a 3,000 cu. ft. room, 10 ft. from the source for VAV boxes, which peak in lower frequencies, and a 2,500 cu. ft. room 7 ft. from a diffuser, which typically peaks @ 1000 Hz. (This is defined in the AHRI Standard 885 space effect calculation described later in this section). NC curves were developed to represent lines of equal hearing perception in all bands and at varying sound levels. Most air terminal products are currently specified and reported as single number NC ratings.
B
ACOUSTICAL APPLICATIONS AND FACTORS
Table 11. Octave Band Designations Center Frequency Band Designation 63 1 125 2 250 3 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 4 5 6 7 8
B28 B28
NC - Noise Criteria (continued)

NC rating given is NC-30 since this is the highest point tangent to an NC curve
80
70
NC-70 Sound Power
60
NC-60
50
dB
40
NC-50 Sound Power less 10 dB in each band NC-40
30
NC-30
In this example, the outlet Lp spectrum does not exceed the NC curve of 30 in any of the eight octave bands and is thus referred to as meeting an NC30 criteria and specification. It should be noted that while this spectra meets NC-30, if the critical band resulted in an NC-33, most building occupants would not be able to discern the difference.
20
Approximate Threshold of human hearing
NC-20
10
63
125
250
500
1K
2K
4K
8K
Mid - Frequency, Hz
B
Figure 127. Typical NC Graph for a Diffuser The use of a 10 dB room effect as used in this example, while in common practice and accepted for Table 12. Space Effect (AHRI 885 and ASHRAE) many years, is not as accurate a prediction as is possible using newer techniques. The Room Band 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 ASHRAE Handbook and AHRI Standard 885 Volume Hz 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 present an equation for determining the space effect based on both room volume @ 5ft -4 -5 -6 -7 -7 -8 -9 -10 and the distance from the observer to a 2000 CuFt @ 10ft -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -11 -12 -13 point sound source. @ 15ft -9 -10 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 Space Effect = (25) - 10 Log (ft.) @ 5ft -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 - 5 Log (cu. ft.) - 3 Log (Hz) 2500 CuFt @ 10ft -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 Where: ft. = Distance from observer to source cu. ft. = Room volume Hz = Octave band center frequency This yields a range of deductions which differ in each octave band, as shown in Table 12. @ 15ft @ 5ft 3000 CuFt @ 10ft @ 15ft @ 5ft 5000 CuFt @ 10ft @ 15ft -9 -5 -8 -10 -6 -9 -11 -10 -6 -9 -10 -7 -10 -12 -11 -7 -10 -11 -8 -11 -12 -12 -7 -10 -12 -9 -12 -13 -13 -8 -11 -13 -9 -12 -14 -14 -9 -12 -14 -10 -13 -15 -15 -10 -13 -15 -11 -14 -16 -15 -11 -14 -16 -12 -15 -17
The 10 dB room effect which has been traditionally used for diffuser sound ratings, which typically peak in the 5th band, can be considered to be equivalent to a room about 2,500 cu. ft. in size, with the observer located about 7 ft. from the source. With VAV terminals, which peak in lower bands, the 10 dB room size is larger, or the distance is greater.
NC ratings have been common in specifications for a number of years, with an NC-35 being the most common requirement. While NC is a great improvement over previous single number ratings, including Sones, Bels, and dBA requirements, it gives little indication of the quality of the sound. A more comprehensive method, RC, has been proposed; while a good analysis tool, RC is a very poor design tool.
B29
ROOM CRITERIA (RC)


Table 13. ASHRAE Defined Acoustic Quality Not too quiet Not too loud Dont destroy acoustic privacy Avoid hearing damage Dont interfere with speech No rumble, No hiss No identifiable machinery sounds, No time modulation No feeble wall vibration
Room Criteria (RC) is based on ASHRAE sponsored studies of preference and requirements for speech privacy, along with ratings for Acoustical Quality. RC ratings contain both a numerical value and a letter Quality rating. The RC numerical rating is simply the arithmetic average of the sound pressure level in the 500, 1,000 and 2,000 Hz octave bands, which is the speech interference level (SIL). These are the frequencies that affect speech communication privacy and impairment. Studies show that an RC between 35 and 45 will usually provide speech privacy in open-plan offices, while a value below 35 does not. Above RC-45, the sound is likely to interfere with speech communication. In addition to the numerical SIL portion of the RC method, there is a Quality portion of the RC rating which involves an analysis of potential low and high frequency annoyance. The goals of acoustical quality are described in Table 13. Recommended NC and RC goals for various space applications, given in the current ASHRAE Handbook, are shown in the table to the right.
Not to annoying
Not to be felt
Table 14. NC/RC Guidelines
Occupancy
RC
RC 25-30(N) RC 30-35(N) RC 30-35(N) RC 30-35(N) RC 35-40(N) RC 40-45(N) RC 25-30(N) RC 25-30(N) RC 30-35(N) RC 35-40(N) RC 40-45(N) RC 40-45(N) RC 25-30(N) RC 30-35(N) RC 25-30(N) RC 35-40(N) RC 30-35(N) RC 35-40(N) RC 30-35(N) RC 25-30(N) RC 35-40(N)
NC
NC 25-30 NC 30-35 NC 30-35 NC 30-35 NC 35-40 NC 40-45 NC 25-30 NC 25-30 NC 30-35 NC 35-40 NC 40-45 NC 40-45 NC 25-30 NC 30-35 NC 25-30 NC 35-40 NC 30-35 NC 35-40 NC 30-35 NC 25-30 NC 35-40
B
Private residence Apartments Hotels/motels Individual rooms or suites Meeting/banquet rooms Halls, corridors, lobbies Service/support areas Offices Executive Conference rooms Private Open-plan areas Business mach Computers Public circulation Hospitals and clinics Private rooms Wards Operating rooms Laboratories Corridors Public areas Churches Schools Lecture and classrooms Open-plan classrooms
B30
Room Criteria (continued) The Four Quality letter designations currently in use are: R H V N Rumble Hiss Vibration (acoustically induced) Neutral

90 80
70
Octave Band Sound Pressure Level, dB re 20
A B
Region A: High probability that noise induced vibration levels in light wall and ceiling structures will be noticeable. Rattling of lightweight light fixtures, doors, and windows should be anticipated. Region B: moderate probability that noise induced vibration will be noticeable in lightweight fixtures, doors, and windows.
These letters are determined by analyzing the low and high frequency spectra compared to a line drawn with a -5 dB slope per band through the numerical RC point @ 1,000 Hz. This establishes the SIL (Speech Interference Level) line. Lines of -5 dB slope create the RC chart, shown in (Figure 128). Also shown in (Figure 128) are areas of rumble (B) and vibration (A), as well as a threshold of audibility. Note that the RC chart goes well below the 63 Hz lower cutoff of the NC chart, as these low frequency sound levels have been discovered to be a major source of discomfort to occupants. If the sound spectrum being analyzed exceeds a line drawn parallel to the SIL line plus 3 dB in the higher frequencies (> 2,000 Hz), the hiss roof, then it is declared to be Hissy and gets an H designation.
Micropascals
60 50 40
RC
C
30
50 45 40 35 30 25
250 1K 4K
20 10
Threshold of Audibility
16
63
Octave Band Center Frequency, Hz

Adapted from 1989 ASHRAE Fundementals Handbook - Atlanta, GA
B
Figure 128. Room Criteria (RC) Curves
90 80 70 60 50 40
C
Measured data is outside the reference region by >3 dB, above the 1000 Hz octave band, therefore the noise is likely to be interpreted as "hissy."
Octave Band Sound Pressure Level
30
20
10 16
PSIL = (35+36+34) / 3 = 35
RC-35(H)
63
250
1K
4K

Adapted from 1989 ASHRAE Fundementals Handbook - Atlanta, GA
Figure 129. Hissy Spectrum
B31
Room Criteria (continued)


If the plotted spectra exceed a +5 dB Rumble roof in the lower frequencies, it gets an R (Rumble) Rating. Finally, if the sound spectrum enters the A or B zones in the very low frequencies shown on the RC graphs, it warrants a V for possible wall or furniture vibration induced by acoustical energy in low frequencies. The B region may be characterized as Be Careful where one may have complaints, but the A region is Awful, and complaints should be expected. This is an example of an RV spectrum. When room sound levels are analyzed using RC curves, air diffusers tend to give the same ratings as they do in an NC analysis. Boxes, on the other hand, which are typically predominant in lower frequency sound and often characterized as Roar (250-500 Hz), often yield RC values lower than NC, but with an R classification.
80 90 80 70 60 50 40
A B
Even though the PSIL is only 33 dB, the noise spectrum falls within regions A & B indicating a high probability of moise-induced
Octave Band Sound Pressure Level
C
30 20
vibration in lights, ceilings, air diffusers, and return air grilles.
B
PSIL= (38+32+29) / 3 = 33
10 16 63 250 1K 4K
RC-33(RV)
AIR TERMINAL SOUND ISSUES

Sound is an important design criterion in the application of air terminals. In the context of the total building environment, comfort cannot be achieved with excessive sound or noise levels. By definition, sound is a change in pressure for a medium, such as air. This change in pressure involves a radiation of energy. Energy is used in the generation of sound and this energy is radiated from a source. All sound has a source and travels down a path to a receiver. Air terminals are one source of sound in a mechanical system. The path for sound emanating from the air terminal is through the plenum or down the duct into the conditioned space where it reaches the occupant or receiver. Mechanical system designers should not be concerned so much with sound, but rather with noise. Noise can be thought of as unwanted or excessive sound. Good design practice dictates that a designer establish the acceptable noise for the occupied space and then determine the selection criteria for the mechanical system components. In any application, both radiated and discharge sound should be considered. Radiated sound breaks out from the terminal casing or induction port and travels through the plenum and ceiling to enter the occupied space. Discharge sound travels out the discharge of the terminal through the duct work and outlet to enter the occupied space.
Figure 130. Rumble and Induced Vibration (RV) Spectrum
D C
Sound Power L w
C = Casing Radiated and Induction Inlet D = Discharge Sound O = Outlet Generated Sound
Figure 131. Typical Sound Sources for Fan Terminal System
B32 B32
AHRI STANDARD 885

AHRI Standard 885, Procedure for Estimating Occupied Space Sound Levels in the Application of Air Terminal and Air Outlets, provides the most current application factors for converting rated sound power to a predicted room sound pressure level. This standard is the basis by which most air terminal manufacturers convert sound power, as measured in reverberant rooms per ASHRAE Standard 130 and rated in accordance with AHRI Standard 880, to a predicted room sound pressure level. The standard provides a number of equations and tables available elsewhere, but puts them all in one document, and includes some unique tables as well. It also includes examples and diagrams to make the process easier to use. The most important of those are included here.
RADIATED SOUND POWER LEVELS

To determine the maximum allowable radiated sound power levels for a project, the attenuation from the ceiling/space effect must be added to the desired room sound pressure for each octave band.
CEILING/SPACE EFFECT
AHRI Standard 885 combines the effect of the absorption of the ceiling tile, plenum absorption and room absorption into the Ceiling/Space Effect. Experience has shown that the Sound Transmission Class (STC) rating for ceiling tiles, which is based on a two room pair test, is not well correlated with observed data for a noise source located above a ceiling. The AHRI Standard 885 Ceiling/Space Effect table D14 Table 16 is derived from a number of manufacturers observations and is only found in the AHRI Standard. This table assumes that the plenum space is at least 3 ft. deep, is over 30 ft. wide or lined with insulation and that there are no penetrations directly under the unit. From the AHRI Standard, the following attenuation values, or transfer functions, should be used for the Ceiling/Space Effect: Once the Ceiling/Space Effect has been determined, they are added to the sound pressure level to determine the maximum acceptable sound power levels. This must be done for each octave band. LW RAD = where: LW RAD LP S P/C Env = = = = = LP + S + P/C + Env Radiated Sound Power Level Sound Pressure Level Space Effect Plenum/Ceiling Effect Environmental Effect
ENVIRONMENTAL ADJUSTMENT FACTOR

In order to use the AHRI 885 Standard, sound power must be corrected for differences between reverberant room and free field calibrations when AHRI Standard 880 sound power is the base. This Environmental Adjustment Factor is listed in AHRI Standard 885. According to AHRI Standard 885, an Environmental Adjustment Factor must be applied to manufacturers data if the sound power data has been taken under a free field RSS (reference sound source). According to AHRI, this is necessary because at low frequencies, all real occupied spaces behave acoustically more like reverberant rooms than open spaces (free field). In other words, manufacturers sound power data which is based on ILG/ RSS with a free field calibration must be adjusted to match actual operating conditions found in the field. This applies to Titus and other participants in the AHRI Standard 880 Certification program. For data rated per AHRI Standard 880, the environmental adjustment factor must be subtracted from the manufacturers sound power level data in order to use the adjustments provided in AHRI Standard 885. Table 15. Environmental Adjustment Factor Octave Band Env Factor 2 2 3 1 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0
B
Table 16. Ceiling/Space Effect (Table D14, AHRI Standard 885) Frequency Octave Band Mineral Fiber Tile Ceiling Glass Fiber Tile Ceiling Solid Gypsum Board 125 2 16 16 23 250 3 18 15 27 500 4 20 17 27 1K 5 26 17 29 2K 6 31 18 29 4K 7 36 19 30
B33
DISCHARGE SOUND POWER LEVELS


Table 18. Round 1-inch Lined Spiral Duct, dB / ft. (Table D7, AHRI Standard 885) Duct Diameter 6 12 24 48 2 0.59 0.46 0.25 0 3 0.93 0.81 0.57 0.18 Octave Band 4 5 1.53 1.45 1.28 0.63 2.17 2.18 1.71 0.26 6 2.31 1.91 1.24 0.34 7 2.04 1.48 0.85 0.45
Discharge sound (sometimes called airborne sound) is the sound that travels down the duct and discharges into the room along with the conditioned air. The procedure for determining the maximum acceptable discharge sound power levels requires the addition of the space effect, end reflection, duct insertion, flow division (or branch power division) and elbow and tees to the maximum acceptable room sound pressure levels. If more than one outlet supplies air to a room, separate evaluations should occur for each discharge path. This is done for each octave band. Space Effect. The discharge sound space effect is determined in the same manner as the radiated sound space effect. The sound source in this case might be the outlet (i.e., grille or diffuser) supplying air to the space, or may be sound from an upstream noise source (damper or fan) which passes through the outlets, or a sum of both Table 12. End Reflection. When the area across the airstream expands suddenly as the duct work terminates or ends at the outlet to the occupied space, a significant amount of low frequency sound is reflected back into the duct work. This is called end reflection. The amount of end reflection varies based on the inlet size and type of duct. Table 17. End Reflection dB(Table D13, AHRI Standard 885) Eq. Dia. or Duct Width 6 8 10 12 16 24 Octave Band 1 18 16 14 12 10 7 2 12 10 8 7 5 3 3 7 5 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 1 1 0 5 1 1 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table 19. Rectangular, 1-inch Lined Duct, dB / ft. (Table D8, AHRI Standard 885) Duct Dimension 6 x 6 12 x 12 24 x 24 48 x 48 2 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.1 3 1.5 0.8 0.5 0.3 Octave Band 4 5 2.7 1.9 1.4 1 5.8 4 2.8 2 6 7.4 4.1 2.2 1.2 7 4.3 2.8 1.8 1.2
B
Table 20. Flexible Duct Insertion Loss, dB (Table D9, AHRI Standard 885) Duct Diameter Inches 4 Duct Length Feet 10 5 3 10 5 5 3 10 6 5 3 10 8 5 3 10 10 5 3 10 12 5 3 10 14 5 3 10 16 5 3 Insertion Loss, dB Octave Bands 2 9 6 4 9 5 4 9 5 4 9 5 3 8 4 3 7 3 2 5 2 1 3 1 0 3 9 5 4 12 7 5 15 9 6 18 10 7 19 11 7 17 9 6 13 7 4 7 2 0 4 27 16 12 28 17 13 28 18 13 29 18 14 28 18 14 26 16 12 23 14 10 19 11 8 5 32 23 19 32 22 18 32 21 16 31 19 14 30 17 11 28 15 9 25 13 8 23 11 7 6 38 27 23 37 25 21 35 24 19 32 21 16 29 18 13 26 15 11 23 13 9 20 11 8 7 24 18 15 23 16 13 22 15 11 20 12 8 18 9 6 15 7 4 12 6 4 8 5 4
Duct Insertion Loss. The addition of lined duct work results in significant attenuation of higher frequency sound. The amount of attenuation varies with duct size and lining thickness. AHRI Standard 885 contains several tables helpful in determining the appropriate attenuation values. Each section of duct work inserted downstream of the terminal must be evaluated. For example, one might have separate duct insertion attenuation values for straight lined discharge duct, branch duct (if lined) and flex duct from the branch to the outlet. The AHRI Standard, as well as the ASHRAE Handbook, provide tables of insertion loss per foot of duct based on inside duct dimensions. While lined duct factors are available in both ASHRAE and AHRI documents, flexible duct insertion loss data is available only from manufacturers or as found in the AHRI Standard 885. Table 20 is the flexible duct insertion loss data from AHRI Standard 885. Two tables are provided here for rectangular and round lined duct from the AHRI Standard.
B34
Discharge Sound Power Levels (continued)

Once all of the attenuation factors have been determined, they are added to the sound pressure level to determine the maximum acceptable sound power levels. This must be done for each octave band, and again the Environmental Adjustment factor must be added. LW DIS = LP + S + ER + I + D + T/E + Env 30 5 40 4 50 3 60 1 where: LW DIS LP S ER I D T/E Env = = = = = = = = Discharge Sound Power Level Sound Pressure Level Space Effect End Reflection Duct Insertion Flow Division Tee/Elbow Environmental Factor
Flow Division. When the airstream is divided, the sound carried in each downstream branch is less than the sound upstream of the branch take-off. This shows the percent of total airflow carried by the branch. The appropriate level of attenuation can then be determined from Table 21. Table 21. Duct Splits, dB % of Total Air Flow Attenuation 5 31 10 10 15 8 20 7
Elbows and Tees. A certain amount of attenuation of higher frequency sound is gained when an airstream enters an elbow or tee duct connection. If the elbow is round and unlined, the attenuation is considered by AHRI Standard 885 to be negligible. Attenuation of rectangular tees is determined by treating the tee as two elbows placed side by side.
Approximate Attenuation of 90 Elbows without Turning Vanes Table 22. Lined Rectangular, dB (Table D12, AHRI Standard 885) Duct Width 5-10 11-20 21-40 41-80 Octave Band 2 0 1 6 6 3 0 6 6 11 4 1 6 11 10 5 6 11 10 10 6 11 10 10 10 7 10 10 10 10 Table 23. Circular with Lining Ahead or Behind Elbow, dB (Table D10, AHRI Standard 885) Duct Width 5-10 11-20 21-40 41-80 Octave Band 2 0 1 2 2 3 0 2 2 3 4 1 2 3 3 5 2 3 3 3 6 3 3 3 3 7 3 3 3 3
B
ACCEPTABLE TOTAL SOUND IN A SPACE

Once the Radiated and Discharge sound pressure paths and effects are known, the resulting room sound level can be evaluated. Other factors may play a part in determining the final room sound levels. All these factors must be included to achieve an accurate prediction or analysis. The results may be very complex. In the example here, many paths are shown. In practice, only a couple are significant, but changes in designs may make a one time insignificant path become predominant. For example, should duct lining be eliminated and no flex duct employed, discharge sound may be much more important than radiated, the usual acoustical problem. Poor duct design may cause duct breakout to be the highest sound heard in the space.
Sound Pressure L p
1 2 3 = Casing Radiated & Inlet = Duct Breakout = Distribution Duct Breakout = Flex Duct Breakout = Discharge = Outlet Generated Sound
2 1
4 5 6
4 5 6
Figure 132. Fan Powered Terminal or Induction Terminal - Summary Calculation, The AHRI Standard 885 Standard provides Sound Sources and Paths guidance on all the possible paths. Not shown here is background sound, which is often at an NC-30 or greater in occupied spaces.
B35
Acceptable Total Sound in a Space (continued)


Correction To Be Added To Higher Value (dB)
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 Difference In Decibels Between Two Values Being Added (dB)
All the sound paths must be combined to predict the room sound level. When combining path elements, the math is done using log addition, not algebraically. Logarithmic (log) addition requires taking the antilog of the dB in each band, adding them together, then taking the log of the answer. While this sounds complicated, (Figure 133) here shows an easier way of estimating the result. More importantly, most people cannot differentiate between two sources which differ by less than 3 dB. If the background sound is an NC-35, and the device in question is predicted at an NC-35, it is likely that the space will be at an NC-38 (although this is dependent on which octave bands are critical), but most people cannot hear the difference. In a similar manner, sound from VAV boxes and diffusers combine to create the room sound pressure level. Since they peak in different bands, however, they often complement each other. In many cases, a Series Fan Terminal will be predicted to have an NC-30 in a space, but when combined with an NC-40 diffuser, will result in a room sound pressure level of NC40, which is optimum for providing speech privacy in open plan spaces.
To Add Two Decibel Values:
80 dB + 74 dB
154 dB (Incorrect)
Difference in Values: 6 dB From Chart: Add 1.0 dB to higher Value
80 dB + 1 dB
B
81 dB
(Correct)
Figure 133. Decibel Addition Example (Incoherent Sound)
>3D
Lined Sheet Metal Plenum (Max velocity 1,000 fpm)
VAV Unit
4' Min.
Maximize Height Above Ceiling
Flexible Connectors For Fan Powered Units Ceiling
Flexible Ducts To Diffusers
Figure 134. Quiet VAV and Fan Terminal Recommended Installation
B36 B36
Maximum Sound Power Levels

MAXIMUM SOUND POWER LEVELS FOR MANUFACTURERS DATA

A proper specification for acoustical performance in a space will limit the maximum sound generation for a product. This should be based on the desired resultant sound in the space and accepted and clearly stated sound path attenuations/ reductions. AHRI Standard 885 provides a consistent method for accomplishing this task. Engineers can minimize the sound contribution of air terminals to an occupied space through good design practice. Whenever possible, terminals should be located over areas less sensitive to noise. This includes corridors, copy rooms, storage rooms, etc. Quiet air terminals facilitate the location of terminals over unoccupied space as with these units larger zones are possible resulting in fewer terminals. This also reduces first cost and improves energy efficiency. The use of lined duct work or manufacturers attenuators downstream of air terminals can help attenuate higher frequency discharge sound. Flexible duct (used with moderation) is also an excellent attenuation element. Sound will be reduced when appropriate fan speed controllers are used to reduce fan rpm rather than using mechanical devices to restrict airflow. This form of motor control is often more energy efficient. The air terminal and the return air grille location should be separated as far as possible. Radiated sound can travel directly from the terminal through the return air grille without the benefit of ceiling attenuation. Designing systems to operate at low supply air static pressure will reduce the generated sound level. This will also provide more energy efficient operation and allow the central fan to be downsized. Sharp edges and transitions in the duct design should be minimized to reduce turbulent airflow and its resulting sound contribution.
Example:
A designer wants to achieve RC 40N for an open office to achieve an acceptable level of speech privacy. The office has a 9 ft. ceiling and a volume of 3,000 ft.3. The terminal will be located over the occupied space with 5 ft. of lined duct on the discharge.The lined discharge duct is 14 x 14 outside with one inch of insulation (12 x 12 internal cross section). This duct branches into an unlined trunk duct with two runs of lined flex duct taking off to the outlet. The flex duct is 6 ft. long and 8 in diameter. The terminal will supply 600 cfm with each diffuser taking 300 cfm. The ceiling is made of inch mineral fiber tile with a 35 lb. ft.3 density. The diffuser is selected to provide an NC 40(N) at design flow.
DESIRED ROOM SOUND PRESSURE LEVELS

From AHRI Standard 885 the appropriate sound pressure levels for an RC 40 can be determined. Since a Neutral Spectrum is desired, the Rumble Roof and Hiss Roof can be added to the spectra and still result in a neutral designation. The resultant maximum room sound pressure spectra are: Table 24. Maximum LP for (RC 40N), dB Octave Band LP (RC 40N) Rumble Roof Hiss Roof Max Room Sound Pressure 2 55 5 0 60 3 50 5 0 55 4 45 0 0 45 5 40 0 0 40 6 35 0 0 35 7 30 0 3 33
B
Figure 135. Sound Design Guidelines
B37
Radiated Sound Power Levels


Octave Band End Reflection 2 10 3 5 4 2 5 1 6 0 7 0 Duct insertion for 5 ft. of 8-inch lined flex duct can be taken from Table 20, page B34. Octave Band Flex Insertion Loss 2 5 3 10 4 18 5 19 6 21 7 12
RADIATED SOUND POWER LEVEL SPECIFICATIONS

The ceiling/space effect may be determined from Table 16, page B33. Octave Band Mineral Fiber Tile 35#/Ft3 2 16 3 18 4 20 5 26 6 31 7 36
The maximum acceptable radiated sound power levels are determined by adding all the factors, including the environmental factor. For example, in the 2nd band: LW RAD 2 = 55 (LP) + 16 (C/S) + 2 (Env) = 73 (Octave band 2. LW in bands 3-7 is calculated in a similar manner.) For all bands, the following table results in a maximum allowed sound power, per AHRI Standard 880, to achieve an RC 40N:
No insertion value will be gained from the unlined trunk duct. Flow division based on a 50 percent split (300 cfm / 600 cfm) can be taken from Table 21, page B35. Octave Band Flow Division 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3
B
The rectangular tee attenuation can be taken from Table 25. Allowed Sound Power Maximums (AHRI Standard 880) Table 23, page B35. Octave Band Lp (RC 40N) C/S (Table 16) Env Effect (Table 15) Lw 2 60 16 2 78 3 55 18 1 74 4 45 20 0 65 5 40 26 0 66 6 35 31 0 66 7 33 36 0 69 Octave Band Tee Attenuation 2 0 3 0 4 1 5 2 6 3 7 3
Duct insertion for the 5 ft. of rectangular discharge duct can be taken from the AHRI Standard 885, or from Table 19, page B34 in this case. Octave Band Duct Ins. Loss Octave Band LP (RC 40N) Env Effect (Table 15) Space (Table 12) End Ref (Table 17) FLEX (Table 20) Flow Div (Table 21) Elbow & Tee (Table 23) Rect Duct (Table 19) Lw 2 2 2 60 2 9 10 5 3 0 2 91 3 4 4 10 3 55 1 10 5 10 3 0 4 88 4 45 0 10 2 18 3 1 10 89 5 20 5 40 0 11 1 19 3 2 20 96 6 21 6 35 0 12 0 21 3 3 21 95 7 14 7 33 0 13 0 12 3 3 14 78
For this specification to be compared evenly against all manufacturers, the environmental adjustment factor for manufacturers using a free field calibration Reference Sound Source (RSS), as required in AHRI Standard 880, has been subtracted from the appropriate manufacturers data or added to the maximum acceptable sound power levels. If data is tested in another method, the appropriateness of the environmental factor must be understood and properly applied.
DISCHARGE SOUND POWER LEVEL SPECIFICATIONS

The room absorption is determined by the space effect table. With a 10 ft. ceiling and the terminal located a few feet away from the receiver and a room volume of 3,000 ft.3. The effect varies with the octave band. The space effect will be obtained from Table 12, page B29. Octave Band Space Effect 2 9 3 10 4 10 5 11 6 12 7 13
End reflection is based on Table 17, page B34, and an 8-inch duct connection.
As with radiated sound, the environmental adjustment factor for manufacturers using a free field calibration RSS, as required in AHRI Standard 880, has been subtracted from the appropriate manufacturers data or added to the maximum acceptable sound power levels. If data is tested in another method, the appropriateness of the environmental factor must be understood and properly applied.
B38 B38
Discharge Sound Power Level (continued)

Discharge Attenuation Elements

RC 40 Lp (RC40N) Rumble Roof Hiss Roof Env Effect Space End Ref Flex Flow Div Elbow & Tee Rect Duct
dB
125
250
500
1K
2K
4K

Figure 136. Fan Powered Terminal or Induction Terminal - Summary Calculation, Sound Sources and Paths It can be seen that discharge sound is not likely to be a problem, especially in the mid-frequencies. If duct lining is eliminated, however, the maximum allowable power is reduced by the duct insertion loss data on the previous page. If flex duct is disallowed, the maximum sound power allowed is further decreased by flex insertion loss. This can result in the following requirement for the unit: Octave Band No Lining/Flex 2 83 3 74 4 61 5 56 6 53 7 52 The room sound pressure level requirements should be based on the resultant desired acoustical environment. As the only attenuation element for diffusers is the room effect, this should be the primary attenuation path. Diffusers, moreover, have typically been tested in the same facilities as VAV terminals, with the same reference sound source, and therefore the AHRI Standard 885 Environmental Effect must be included as well. The following is a proposed procedure for determining the Diffuser NC requirement based on an RC analysis: Steps: 1. Determine the desired RC level for the space. This is the sound pressure level requirement in the 5th band. 2. Determine the room effect in the 5th (1,000 Hz) band, based on room volume and distance to the diffuser from the observer. Add this to the RC number. 3. Subtract 10 dB from the result in Step 2. This is the required diffuser NC.
B
In many cases, this is a borderline acceptable case for many unit sizes and flow rates, especially in smaller rooms with RC 35N requirements. Flexible duct can be included as a solution to discharge noise in these cases.
DIFFUSER SPECIFICATIONS
Diffusers are commonly specified and reported in NC, rather than RC. In most cases, there is no difference between NC and RC for diffusers as they usually peak in the 500-2,000 Hz region, and the resultant numerical specification is the same for both NC and RC. Diffuser NC ratings commonly subtract 10 dB from measured sound power levels in all bands to account for room attenuation. As described earlier, this will be a valid assumption for a number of combinations of room volume and distance to the source. While an ideal specification will be based on octave band sound levels, these are seldom available for diffusers, and so the NC rating must be used. For a close approximation of diffuser sound power when only NC is known, one can assume that the sound power for the diffuser in the 5th octave band (1,000 Hz) is equal to the reported NC plus 10 dB, the 4th band (500 Hz) is 3 greater than this, and the 6th band (2000 Hz) is 5 less. This will be suitable for most applications.
B39
Diffuser Specifications (continued)


As the estimated room sound pressure level exceeds the rumble roof in the 2nd band, this unit must be classified RC 29 (R). If an RC 35 (N) diffuser is also supplied, however, the sound from it must be added to the terminals to get the room total sound level. Using the procedure described under Diffuser Specification, we can estimate the sound power level of an NC-35 diffuser: Octave Band Diffuser Pwl Space Effect (Table 12) Env Effect (Table 15) Estimated Diffuser Spl 9 2 10 1 2 3 4 48 10 0 38 5 45 11 0 34 6 40 12 0 28 13 0 7
Example: The open office from the previous example is
used here. The room is large and speech privacy is desired, requiring an RC 40N specification. Steps: 1. From AHRI Standard 885 (or ASHRAE) the appropriate sound pressure levels for an RC 40 can be determined. In the 5th band the RC is = to the sound pressure level requirement, 40 dB. 2. The room absorption is determined from the space effect equation. With a 10 ft. ceiling and the terminal located a few feet away from the receiver, the distance variable will equal 10 ft. The volume of the room is 3,000 ft.3. The frequency varies with the octave band. The space effect in the 5th band will be obtained from Table 12, page B29, and is = 11 dB. 40 + 11 = 51 dB. 3. Subtract 10dB = the diffusers NC requirement, or NC 41.
When these are added, the resulting spectra is: Octave Band Diffuser Pwl Terminal Spl Log Sum 53 53 45 45 2 3 4 38 39 41 5 34 31 36 6 28 19 29 9 9 7
B
DETERMINING COMPLIANCE TO A SPECIFICATION

When determining if a unit will meet a specification, it may be necessary to conduct a total room sound evaluation with multiple sound sources and multiple paths. These are added using logarithmic addition to determine total sound level. Once all path elements are identified, the noncritical paths can be determined using (Figure 133), page B36. Paths which are 10 dB or more below the loudest, in any given band, can usually be ignored. VAV terminals, if evaluated by themselves, often result in an R classification because of the high mid-frequency absorption provided by lined and flexible duct. The diffuser, however, can overcome this apparent Rumble spectra by filling in the resultant sound with its high frequency sound generation. This results in an N rating, as required. Using the estimated sound power procedure from the Diffuser Specification section above, the diffusers contribution can be added (using log addition) to the VAV boxes sound pressure level, and a resultant sound pressure level classification developed.
The RC = (41 + 36 + 29)/3 = 35. The rumble roof for this spectra is therefore: Octave Band Rumble Roof 2 55 3 50 4 40
Therefore the sound pressure level in the space is an RC 35 (N). This works because diffusers and VAV terminals seldom peak in the same frequencies, with diffusers being critical in the speech bands (500-2,000 Hz) and boxes producing the most sound in the 125-250 Hz region. When these two sounds combine in the space, they often complement each other, producing a full spectrum of sound and resulting in an N rating.
Example: A project engineer desires a space sound pressure
level of RC 35(N) for a private office. He has selected a Titus TQS Fan Terminal, size 5-12, at 1500 cfm, with a design inlet pressure of 1 in. static pressure. From the sound tables for the product, the sound power levels for this unit and the reduction factors as in the previous example are shown above: Octave Band Unit Pwl C/S (Table 16) Env Effect (Table 15) Estimated Room Spl 2 71 16 2 53 3 64 18 1 45 4 59 20 0 39 5 57 26 0 31 6 50 31 0 19 7 45 36 0 9
B40
Standard Attenuations

STANDARD ATTENUATIONS FOR TERMINAL UNIT APPLICATION DATA

All NC levels are estimated in accordance with AHRI Standard 885-2008 Appendix E. This standard recommends that all manufacturers use the same default attenuation factors when publishing application data. RADIATED SOUND ATTENUATION Octave Bands 125 Hz
Environmental Effect Ceiling/Space Effect Total Attenuation, dB
250 Hz 1 18 19
500 Hz 0 20 20
1000 Hz 2000 Hz 4000 Hz 0 26 26 0 31 31 0 36 36
2 16 18
Environmental Adjustment Factor per AHRI 885-2008, Table C1. Ceiling/Space Effect for Ceiling Type 1 (5/8 in, 20 lb/ft3 mineral fiber tile) per AHRI 885-2008, Table D14. Assumes 3 ft deep ceiling plenum with non-bounded sides, per AHRI 885-2008, Table E1.
DISCHARGE SOUND ATTENUATION (< 300 CFM) Octave Bands 125 Hz

Environmental Effect Duct Lining End Reflection Flex Duct Space Effect Sound Power Division Total Attenuation, dB
250 Hz 1 6 5 10 6 0 28
500 Hz 0 12 2 18 7 0 39
1000 Hz 2000 Hz 4000 Hz 0 25 1 19 8 0 53 0 29 0 21 9 0 59 0 18 0 12 10 0 40
2 2 10 5 5 0 24
Environmental Adjustment Factor per AHRI 885-2008, Table C1. Duct Lining for 5 ft of 8 x 8 in lined duct per AHRI 885-2008, Table D8. End Reflection for 8 in termination per AHRI 885-2008, Table D13. Flex Duct for 5 ft of 8 in vinyl core flex duct per AHRI 885-2008, Table D9. Space Effect for a 2500 ft3 room, 5 ft from source per AHRI 885-2008, Table D16. Sound Power Division based on 10*log of the number of rooms served (1).
DISCHARGE SOUND ATTENUATION (300-700 CFM) Octave Bands 125 Hz

STANDARD ATTENTUATIONS
250 Hz 1 4 5 10 6 3 29
500 Hz 0 10 2 18 7 3 40
1000 Hz 2000 Hz 4000 Hz 0 20 1 19 8 3 51 0 20 0 21 9 3 53 0 14 0 12 10 3 39
2 2 10 5 5 3 27
Environmental Adjustment Factor per AHRI 885-2008, Table C1. Duct Lining for 5 ft of 12 x 12 in lined duct per AHRI 885-2008, Table D8. End Reflection for 8 in termination per AHRI 885-2008, Table D13.
B41
Standard Attenuations (continued)

Flex Duct for 5 ft of 8 in vinyl core flex duct per AHRI 885-2008, Table D9. Space Effect for a 2500 ft3 room, 5 ft from source per AHRI 885-2008, Table D16. Sound Power Division based on 10*log of the number of rooms served (2).
DISCHARGE SOUND ATTENUATION (>700 CFM) Octave Bands 125 Hz

250 Hz 1 3 5 10 6 5 30
500 Hz 0 9 2 18 7 5 41
1000 Hz 2000 Hz 4000 Hz 0 18 1 19 8 5 51 0 17 0 21 9 5 52 0 12 0 12 10 5 39
2 2 10 5 5 5 29
Environmental Adjustment Factor per AHRI 885-2008, Table C1. Duct Lining for 5 ft of 15 x 15 in lined duct per AHRI 885-2008, Table D8. End Reflection for 8 in termination per AHRI 885-2008, Table D13. Flex Duct for 5 ft of 8 in vinyl core flex duct per AHRI 885-2008, Table D9. Space Effect for a 2500 ft3 room, 5 ft from source per AHRI 885-2008, Table D16. Sound Power Division based on 10*log of the number of rooms served (3).
B42
STANDARD ATTENUATIONS
References
TERMINAL UNITS

AHRI 220-2007 Reverberation Room Qualification and Testing Procedures for Determining Sound Power of HVAC Equipment
This standard provides the methodology for the determination of sound power levels of noise sources that emit broadband sound and/or discrete frequency sounds/Tones in reverberation rooms.
AHRI 880-2011 Performance Rating of Air Terminals

The purpose of this standard is to establish for air terminals: definitions; classifications; test requirements; rating requirements; minimum data requirements for published ratings; marking and nameplate data and conformance conditions. This standard applies to air control devices used in air distribution systems.
AHRI 885-2008 Procedure for Estimating Occupied Space Sound Levels in the Application of Air Terminals and Air Outlets
This standard provides a consistent industry-accepted method for estimating sound pressure levels in a conditioned space for the application of air terminals and air outlets. Air terminals, air outlets, and the low pressure ductwork which connects them are considered sound sources and are the subjects of this standard. The method described in this standard can be used to identify acoustically critical paths in the system design. The design effects of inserting alternative components and changes in the system can be evaluated.
ANSI/AHRI 250-2008 Performance and Calibration of Reference Sound Sources

This standard applies to all reference sound sources (RSSs) used in conjunction with AHRI sound rating standards and covers the one-third octave band frequency range from 50 to 10,000 Hz.
ANSI/AHRI 280-2008 Requirements for the Qualification of Reverberation Rooms in the 63Hz Octave Band
This standard applies to products rated in the 63 Hz octave band (50, 63 and 80 Hz one-third octave bands) where the sound power is determined from measurements made in a reverberation room by using the comparison method as specified per ANSI Standard S12.51/ISO: 3741. ASHRAE Standard 130-2008 Methods of Testing Air Terminal Units First published in 1996 and reaffirmed in 2006, Standard 130 specifies instrumentation and facilities, test installation methods, and procedures for determining the capacity and related performance of constant-volume and variable-volume air terminal units. The standard is classified as an ASHRAE standard method of measurement. This revision of the standard includes updates and revisions to all parts of the standard, including its title, purpose, and scope. It updates definitions, adds modulating diffusers, redefines airflow sensor performance testing, and adds a method to determine the power factor. New appendices contain some material that was formerly in the body of the standard and some new reference material. This standard is required for compliance with AHRI Standard 880.
B43
REFERENCES
Glossary

in each frequency band, and is a function of room volume and distance from the source.
Breakout - Sound which passes through the walls of a duct or device

and is passed directly to an observer.
Casing Radiated Sound - A type of Breakout Sound which passes
Terminals (Boxes) - Devices which vary the flow through a duct with
a moveable damper. They typically have a control device to vary the flow in response to a control signal. In some cases, the term terminals can also mean boxes and GRDs. In those cases, Boxes are referred to as Air Control Devices (ACDs). The terminology is inconsistent throughout the industry.
through the walls of a device. In some cases, it includes induction port radiated sound as well.
dBA - A single number rating of a broadband spectrum. Typically used
to rate outdoor noise levels. Not practical for use in rating indoor sound levels as it bears little relevance to occupants needs.
Discharge Sound - Airborne sound which is transmitted through

ductwork from a noise source to an observer.
End Reflection - The reduction in sound, typically in low frequencies

only, resulting from a rapid change in the shape or size of a duct or a duct termination.
Environmental Adjustment Factor (Environmental Effect) - A
correction required to accurately use data obtained in accordance with AHRI Standard 880, it corrects for a calibration difference between the Free Field calibration of the Reference Sound Source and the reverberant field in which it is used.
Incoherent Sound - Sound which is broadband and contains no

repeating fluctuations.
Induction Port Radiated Sound - That sound which passes out
from the induction port of a VAV device. In practice it is impossible to differentiate from Casing Radiated sound, and is reported as a combined value under Casing Radiated sound levels.
Insertion Loss - The reduction in sound resulting from inserting an

attenuation device, such as a section of lined duct. The difference before and after the insertion of such a device is the insertion loss.
Multiple Outlet Effect - When an airstream is split, the sound
traveling in the duct is also reduced, typically in proportion to the percent of airflow in each duct. The amount of reduction must be calculated logarithmically, not arithmetically, however.
Pure Tone - A sound spectrum which is very concentrated in a narrow

band.
Radiated Sound - Sound which travels from the source to the

observer in a direct path, outside ductwork.
Room Effect - Typically a 10 dB reduction in all bands, this is the
assumed value for attenuation of a room. In practice, it is reasonable for diffusers which peak in the mid-frequencies, but not necessarily for VAV terminals, which peak in lower frequencies.
Sound Power - The energy released as acoustic energy by a device.
GLOSSARY
B44
It is measured indirectly by one of several methods. It is reported as dB (the log base 10 of the value) referenced to a base power level, typically 10-12 watts. It is reported by frequency, typically in octave bands, although sometimes in 1/3 octave bands.
heard as sound. The sound pressure is reported in dB (the log base 10 of the value), referenced to a pressure 0.0001 microbars. It is reported by frequency, typically in octave bands, although sometimes in 1/3 octave bands. Space Effect - The calculated attenuation of a space which is different
Sound Pressure - The directly measurable fluctuation in pressure,
Engineering Guidelines Index

A Air Leakage - Terminal Units ............................................. B24 Air Velocity ........................................................................ B25 ANSI Standards ................................................................. B41 AHRI Standards ................................................................. B41 ASHARE 70-2006 ........................................................ B4, B41 ASHRAE Standards............................................................ B41 B Basic Terminal Sizing (by capacity tables) ........................ B18 C Controls Classified by Power Source ................................... B7 Controls Reaction to Duct Pressure .................................... B7 Control Operation ................................................................ B9 D Direct Digital Control ......................................................... B16 E ECM Motors - Fan Powered Terminals .............................. B15 Equations and Definitions - Terminal Units ....................... B27 Errors in Terminal Application ........................................... B21 F Fan Laws, Fan Performance - Terminal Units .................... B26 Fan Speed Control ..................................................... B13, B26 I ISO ..................................................................................... B42 M Multiple Outlets and NC.................................................... B32 O Outlet NC Level and Space NC ........................................... B28 S Sizing Fan Terminals .................................................. B18B20 T Terminals, Controls, and Accessories .................................. B6 Terminal Installation Techniques ....................................... B23
B45
INDEX
Notes

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engineering guidelines - terminal units

Engineering Guidelines - Terminals

terminals, controls & accessories

Table of Contents (continued)

Engineering Guidelines - Terminals

acoustical applications & factors

Engineering Guidelines - Terminals

Terminals, Controls and Accessories

Engineering Guidelines - Terminals

Figure 47. Elevation - Single Duct

DUAL DUCT, NON-MIXING

Hot To Outlets Cold

Figure 48. Plan View - Dual Duct, NonMixing

DUAL DUCT, MIXING

Hot Cold To Outlets

Figure 49. Plan View - Duct Duct, Mixing

SINGLE DUCT, WITH HEATING COIL

To Outlets Supply Hot Water or Electric Coil

Figure 50. Elevation - Single Duct, with Heating Coil

FAN POWERED, PARALLEL TYPE (VARIABLE VOLUME)

Backdraft Damper Fan To Outlets

Types of Terminals (continued)

Engineering Guidelines - Terminals

FAN POWERED, SERIES TYPE (CONSTANT VOLUME)

LOW TEMPERATURE FAN TERMINALS

FAN POWERED, LOW PROFILE

Recirculated Air Primary Fan To Outlets Recirculated Air

FAN POWERED, ACCESS FLOOR PROFILE (CONSTANT VOLUME)

Fan Primary To Outlets

Engineering Guidelines - Terminals

REACTION TO DUCT PRESSURE CONTROLS

Minimum B cfm Setting

Variable D cfm Setting

Maximum F cfm Setting

Pressure Drop in w.g.

1.00 2.00 0.80 0.60

Pressure Drop in w.g.

0.10 0.20 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.06

0.04 0.02 0.02 0.01 100

500 600700 800 1000

Air Flow, cfm

Air Flow, cfm

Figure 55. Pneumatic Pressure Independent

Pressure Drop in w.g.

Pressure Drop in w.g.

0.60 0.60 0.40

Damper Damper Setting Setting #1

Damper Damper Setting Setting #2

0.10 0.10 A A 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.04 C C 0.02 0.02

ROOM THERMOSTAT OR SENSOR

Air Flow, cfm Air Flow, cfm

Figure 56. Pneumatic Pressure Dependent

Types of Terminals (continued)

Engineering Guidelines - Terminals

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS - FIGURE 58A

Figure 57. Pneumatic System

TStat Electric Damper Actuator

ANALOG ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS - FIGURE 58B

Figure 58A. Electric Pressure Dependent System

DIRECT DIGITAL ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS - FIGURE 58C

Figure 58B. Electric Pressure Independent System

Direct Digital Electronic