Calculus and Analytical Geometry in 2D and 3D Preview

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Table Of Contents In The Whole Book

Part I : The Sword And The Shield
Section 1: Identity, Division, Symmetry, Set Theory, Logic,
Numbers and Functions
Chapter 1 : Identity, Division & Symmetry Pages 1 to 19
Topics : Identity, Division, Symmetry, Difficulty identification 1, Example in
Solving Quadratic Equations 3, Cubic Equation 5, Summation Of Series 6,
Constants, Principle of equivalence 11, Conservation Laws, Invariants
11, Fixed Points, Breaking Symmetry to get the roots etc. 18
Chapter 2 : Set Theory, Relations, Functions etc. Pages 1 to 27
Topics : Set Theory 1,
1
Russels Paradox 1, Examples of sets, null set,
indexed set, complement, Universal set etc. ,Infinite sets 3, Set Operations 4,
Venn Diagrams 7, De Morgans Theorems 8, Power set 12, Relations 12,
Mappings 13, Binary relations 13, Binary Operations 14, Operation tables 14,
Commutative, associative, distributive properties, Identity and inverse
elements, Reflexive, symmetric , transitive Relations, Equivalence Relations
15, Partitions 15, Equivalence Classes 15,21, Countability 18, Eulers Circle
20, Algebraic structures on sets, such as groups, vector spaces, topological
spaces, metric spaces25.
Chapter 3 : Symbolic Logic, Mathematical Logic, and Logical gates
Pages 1 to 52
Topics : Boolean Algebra for making algebra for set theory and logic 1,
Symbolic Logic, Statements, Conjunction, Disjunction, negation,
contradiction, tautology etc compared to null set, complement, Universal set
etc.2, , Duality in Boolean Algebra and symbolic logic 7, Contradiction
statements 6, Compound statements 4, Truth value of logical statements and
Truth tables 13, Premises, conclusion, Arguments, validity of argument 22,
De Morgans laws in symbolic logic 17, Bi-conditional statements 20, Boolean
expressions and functions 26, Arrow Diagram 28, Input- output tables 29,
Signals and logical gates 31, AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate, NAND gate,
NOR gate, XOR gate, XNOR gate, Equivalent circuits 37, Combinatorial

1
The less prominent and unusual topics are marked in bold.
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circuits 41, Rules for making them 42, Use of Boolean algebra in logical gates
44.
Chapter 4 : The Story Of Numbers Pages 1 to 63
Topics : Variable, Constant, Interval 1,Peanos theory of natural numbers 1,
Principle Of Mathematical Induction ( in two forms) 3, Recapitulation of
permutation, combination and binomial theorem 6, Infinitesimals 9, Natural
numbers, integers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, surds,
transcendental numbers, Real numbers, Complex numbers 11, Hilberts
number 32, Scales of Notation, Decimal, binary etc. 13, Why they call a
song or dance as numbers, 17 Division by 0 18, Countability of rational
numbers 19, un-countability of real numbers 27, The Napierian number e
22, 23, examples of transcendental numbers 28, a set of measure 0 29,
Gelfonds theorem 31, Cardinal numbers, transfinite sets 32, equivalent of
sets 33, Complex numbers 34, Partial order relation, Total order, chains and
lattices 35, Fundamental Theorem Of Algebra 36, Upper bound, lower bound
36, Zorns lemma or the axiom of choice 37, Ordered pair representation of
numbers, vectors, quaternions 37, Absolute value of a number and triangle
inequality 40, Continued fractions representing surds and irrational
numbers 43, Conversion into decimal fractions and vice versa, Successive
convergents, Conversion of series into continued fractions, better
approximation of irrational numbers than decimal representation, Fibonacci
numbers and Golden Ratio 59, their natural occurrence and various simple
theorems.
Chapter 5 : Functions and Graphs Part I Pages 1 to 64
Topics : Functions 1, Images and inverse images 2, Single valued Mappings
3, Cartesian products 5, sequences as functions of integers 6, Functions as
index or labels 6, functions of many variables, independent and dependent
variables , Function of continuous variable 7, domain, range Function as
single valued correspondence 9 , Onto, Into, one-to-one and one-to-one onto
functions, bijective, injective, surjective, inverse function 11, Greatest integer
function or step function, or integer function 13, Characteristic function 15,
Norm, modulus or distance function 15, fractional part 18, Least integer
function or Ceiling function 18, , Linear Function 23, Algebra of functions 18,
Composite function, composite operators 20, inverse of composite function
22, monotonically increasing ( or monotonically decreasing)functions 23, 26,
permutation group as a function 24, Periodic function and period 48,
maximum and minimum 27, exponential and logarithmic functions 27, Implicit
functions 28, Functions as Expressions 29, Rational algebraic functions,
Polynomials 30, transcendental functions 36, Zeroes or roots of a function 30,
partial fractions, Rules of decomposition 32 , Function vs operator 39,
Linear Operator 37, homomorphism, Graphs of functions 40, algebraic,
trigonometric , hyperbolic functions, Inverse trigonometric and inverse
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hyperbolic functions, Simple harmonic function 49, wave function 52 ,
Some special curves 56 , Even and odd functions 57, Symmetric and
alternating functions 59 , parametric equations of curves 60.
Chapter 6 : Functions and Graphs Part II Pages 1 to 23
Topics : Examples, Problems, and techniques of functions and their graphs
1, Simple transformations of graphs 10, Addition, Multiplication etc of
functions in graphs of functions 18, points of intersection 22.
Chapter 7 : Functions and Graphs Part III Pages 1 to 32
Topics : Exercises on domain and range 1 , Identical and equal functions,
odd and even functions 17, Odd and even functions 20, Periodic functions
and their composites (LCM and GCD) 22, other composite functions 25,
Inverse functions and fixed points 28,
Section 2: Limit, Continuity, Differentiation and utilities, Theory of Equations
Chapter 8 : The Concept of Limit of a Function Part I Pages 1 to 40
Topics : Concept of Limit in and definition 1, Left handed and right
handed limits 1, concept of limit as division by infinitesimal 2, limit by
substitution 3, limit by rationalization 4, limit when x 6, Algebra of Limits
7, Squeezing Theorem or Sandwich Theorem10, , Limits of Algebraic
functions 11, Limits of Trigonometric Functions 12, exponential series 14,
Logarithmic series 17, log table 18, many facets of limits 24, control variables
and pre assigned error 24, a limit existing nowhere 25, Sequences and limits
26, convergence of sequences along many paths 26, different limits on
different paths guarantee non existence of limit26, asymptotes as curves
approximating st lines at infinity 30, functions of many variables 32, order of
smallness, largeness 33, comparison of infinitesimals and calculation of
limits 35, Cauchys necessary and sufficient condition for existence of a limit
37.
Chapter 9 : The Concept of Limit of a Function Part II Pages 1 to 22
Topics : Miscellaneous exercises on calculation of limits, by substitution, by
rationalization, by comparison of infinitesimals, by use of exponential forms
and many other techniques, triangle of largest area inscribed in any circle
is equilateral 21,
Chapter 10 : Continuity and Theory Of Equations Pages 1 to 38
Topics : The Concept of Continuity in and definition 1, Equivalent
definition of continuity in limit being equal to functional value 1, continuity of
composite functions 5, Dirichlet function 7, Removable and non-removable
discontinuity 9; discontinuity of 2nd kind , piecewise continuous functions,
bounded sequences, limit point, neighborhood, Bolzano-Weisstras theorem
14, supremum, infimum 15, order completeness property 15, Properties of
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continuous functions 15, Continuous functions must be bounded 17,
Continuous function preserves sign in small intervals 18, attains maximum
and minimum 17, continuous function takes every value between the end
points 21, Theory of Equations and The fundamental theorem of Algebra,
Intermediate value theorem and application to theory of equations 19, odd
continuous function has a real root, when 0 is a root 21, continuous function
taking rational values must be a constant function 22, fixed point mapping
22, arithmetic and geometric means of continuous functions, Wavy curve
method to analyse an algebraic function (piecewise continuous) 23,
Monotonic functions and continuity of inverse functions, Inverse function of
polynomials, Monotonic functions 25, Continuous linear operators, Kepplers
function 31,
Chapter 11 : Furhther theory of Equations and Polynomials Pages 1 to46
Topics : Theory of equations and polynomials 4,The division algorithm,
remainder theorem and synthetic division 5, Evaluation of a polynomial
and other functions 10,synthetic division 11, every polynomial equation of
degree n has n roots 12, a polynomial of degree n cannot have more than n
roots else it must be identity 13, a polynomial of odd degree with real
coefficients has at least one real root and other results 14, Descartes Rule
Of Signs and results therefrom16, rational root theorem 19, integer root
theorem 20, location theorem 22, evaluation of a polynomial 24, Horners
method 25, Relations between roots and coefficients 26, Finding roots when
one of them is known 28, upper bound and lower bound theorem 31,
transformations of equations 34, reciprocal equation 39, cubic equation 42,
symmetric functions of roots 43
Chapter 12 : More about theory of equations, roots by numerical methods,
Pages 1 to25
Topics : Extended synthetic division 1, symmetric functions of roots 3,
Multiple roots 5, roots of transcendental functions ( cos sin
ix
e x i x )7, de
Moivres theorem 8, Hilberts number
i
i 10, equations whose roots are
multiples of roots of given equation 11, comparison with number system 11,
area of a circle 14, Approximate roots, fixed points, Piccards method
14,Newtons method , Newton Raphsons method, bisection method
21,secant method 24,
Chapter 13 : Differentiation and applications Pages 1 to43
Topics : Differentiation 1, results from algebra of limits 4, a differentiable
function must be continuous 7, rates of change compared to unity 12,
differential coefficient of inverse function 13, differentiation of implicit
functions 14, Special result from algebra 14 , differentiation of series 16,
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differentiation of trigonometric functions, hyperbolic functions 18, inverse
circular functions 19, logarithmic differentiation 23, inverse hyperbolic
functions 25, differentiation of determinants and matrices 26, introduction to
LHospitals rule, approximation by linearization 32, successive differentiation
33, differential coefficient as an operator 34, introduction to tangents and
normals 35, introduction to maxima and minima 36, The differential concept,
linearization, approximation and sensitivity to change 39, Approximation,
error, accuracy, precision and significant figures40, Role of differentials in
estimate of absolute and relative error 41, Algebra of errors 42, Minimum
error in measuring physical quantities: sum of least squares 43,
Chapter 14 : Mean value theorems and Taylors series Pages 1 to43
Topics : Turning points and Rolls theorem1, Lagranges mean value
theorem 5,A derived function cannot have discontinuity of the first kind 7,
Cauchys mean value theorem 7, Darbauxs theorem 8, Taylors theorem or
generalized mean value theorem 14, Taylors theorem in Remainder Form
15, The philosophy behind Taylors theorem 16, Lagranges form of Taylors
theorem in Remainder theorem 16, Youngs form of Taylors theorem 18,
Maxima and minima of a function using Taylors theorem 18, Convexity,
concavity and point of inflection 19, Taylors theorem from Remainder
theorem in Algebra 22, LHospitals Rule and indeterminate forms 23, its
generalization 25, Indeterminate form
26, Indeterminate form- 27,

Indeterminate form 00, 0, 1 etc. 28, The indeterminate form - 29,
Indeterminate form using Taylors theorem 30, Method of undetermined
coefficients 35, McLaurins series 36,
Chapter 15 : Miscellaneous problems on differentiation and limits
Pages 1 to25
Chapter 16 : Partial differentiation and curvilinear co-ordinates Pages 1 to 25
Topics : Partial Differentials, linearization and approximation 1, Laplaces
equation 5, Poissons equation 7, Equality of
xy yx
f and f
7, Wave
equation 7, Eulers theorem on homogeneous functions 11, Converse of
Eulers theorem 17, The scope of partial differentiation 18, Choice of
independent variables and change of coordinates 19, Orthogonal Curvilinear
Coordinate Systems 20, Cylindrical polar coordinates 21, Spherical polar
coordinates 23, Orthogonal curvilinear coordinate systems in general 24,
Angle element compared to distance element 25,
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, St lines and Planes, Determinants and
Matrices
Chapter 17 : Linear equations and determinants Pages 1 to 38
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Topics : Equations, their degree and order 1, Functions vs Equation 2, Linear
equations and their eliminants 2, Determinants 4, Cramers rule 8, Addition of
Determinants 16, Additive and multiplicative identities and inverses 18,
Cramers rule in Detail 27, Product of two determinants in another form 33,
Elimination 36.
Chapter 18 : Coordinates and Vectors Pages 1 to 97
Topics : Coordinates of a point 1, Coordinate Geometry in three dimensions
2, Distance between two points: In two dimensions2, Distance between two
points: In three dimensions 2, Polar Coordinates 3, Change of Coordinates
from Cartesian to polar or vice versa 4, Distance between two points in polar
coordinates 4, Vector Algebra 6, Addition , subtraction, and resolution of
vectors: polygon method 10, The Parallelogram law 11, Vector difference
12, Rectangular Components and Addition and subtraction of vectors 14,
Components In two dimensions 16, Explaining Position vectors, norm or
magnitude of a vector and coordinates of a point 17, Direction ratios of a line
segment or straight line in three dimensions 18, Projections of segments 20,
Comparison with imaginary numbers 22 , Product of imaginary numbers
24, Meaning of argument 27, Multiplication/ division of a vector by a scalar
28, Multiplication of a vector by a vector. Dot(.) product 29, Commutative,
associative and distributive properties 30, Some examples of scalar and
vector quantities , Mechanics32, Law of conservation of mass, momentum,
energy 36, Free vectors and Localised vectors 37, Angular speed and
angular velocity 38, Multiplication of a vector by a vector. Cross (X) product
39, Moment of any vector about a point Moment of any vector about a
line 40, Vector addition of rotations 42, Uniform circular motion versus
motion along a st line 43, Relation between L and , Moment Of Inertia 43,
Newtons laws for rotational motion 44, Conservation of angular
momentum 45, Equilibrium 45, Localised force 46, Stability of equilibrium
47, compound angle formulae in Trigonometry 50, Magnitudes of dot and
cross products, components along any two directions 51, Direction cosines
and dot and cross products, angle between two lines 53, Straight lines
perpendicular or parallel to each other 55, In two dimensions 56, Direction
cosines and projections 56, Shift of axes of coordinates or frame of reference
(linear shift) 58, Rotation of axes and invariants 59, Rotation of axes in 3-
dimensions 65, Section formula in vectors and in coordinate geometry of
two and three dimensions 72, Collinear points and collinear vectors 73,
Internal and external division of a line segment 75, Division formula or section
formula in 3 dimensions without vectors 77, Use of complex number 77,
The Section formula promises an equation for a st line 81, Parametric
equation of a plane 82, More about Linear combinations of vectors in 2-D
and 3-D, Components or resolute 83, When linear relations are independent
of origin 84, Linear dependence and base 86, Centroid, Moments of
mass, centre of mass 87, Centroid of some position vectors is independent
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of choice of origin 88, Centroid of two clusters of points is the centroid of all
points taken together 89, Center of mass 92, More explanation on Moments
of mass, Moment of Force 93, Vector triple product, scalar triple product 94,
Scalar triple product 95, Reciprocal vectors 96
Chapter 19 : Tips, Tricks and Problems on Coordinates and Vectors
Pages 1 to 51
Topics : Problems and problem solving techniques , concurrent st lines nd planes
Chapter 20 : Vectors and Physics Pages 1 to 22
Topics : Problems and problem solving techniques especially in Physics
Chapter 21 : Geometry of St lines in 2D and 3D Pages 1 to 52
Topics : Equation of a St line from a point in a given direction in vector form
1, Intersecting st lines 2, St line through a given point parallel to a given
direction in vector form 3, Length of perpendicular and foot of it on this
line from an outside point P 4, Parallel or perpendicular St lines; angle
between two lines 5, Vector Equation of straight line between two given
points in 2-D and 3-D 6, In complex numbers in 2D 7, Length of a
perpendicular from a point to a st line joining two points 8, In Cartesian form
9, The Straight Line in two Dimensions; Linear function in one independent
variable(Without vectors) 10, Equation of Straight line : y = mx + c form :
(slope and intercept form) 10, General equation of 1st degree in x and y is
a straight line 11, Results from parametric form of st line 12, Distance of a st
line from a fixed point in a given direction in 2D 12, sin and cos 12,Foot of
the perpendicular in two dimensions 13, Length of the perpendicular from
A(h, k) on
0 Ax By C
14, Angle between two straight lines 14, When the
st.lines Ax + By + C = 0 and Px + Qy + R = 0 coincide completely 15, When
Ax + By + C = 0 and Px + Qy + R = 0 are parallel or perpendicular 15,
Equation of a st line whose intercepts with axes are given :intercepts form 15,
Equation of a straight line if perpendicular on it from origin is given: Normal
Form 17, Length of the perpendicular from origin 19, Distance between two
parallel lines19, Length of perpendicular from a point to a line 19, Points for
working out exercises 20, Position of a point with respect to a line 22,
Point of intersection of two straight lines in 2D , examples of concurrence of
lines 25,26, Image of a point or a line about a st line in 2D 28, Line at
infinity 31, A straight line passing through intersection of two straight
lines 31, Condition that three st. lines meet at a point 32, Use of complex
number 36, Vector formulation of any st line passing through intersection of
two st lines 40, Equation of a st. line in polar coordinates 41, One
parameter family of st lines in two dimensions 42, Two parameter family of
st lines in two dimensions 43, Bisectors of angle between two intersecting
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st lines 43, Bisectors of angle between to st. lines in 2D (without vector
concept) 44, Alternative methods 45, 46, Equation of a straight line in three
dimensional Coordinate Geometry without vectors 49.
Chapter 22 : Tips, Tricks and problems on Geometry of St lines Pages 1 to 24
Topics : Problems and problem solving techniques on Geometry of St lines
Chapter 23 : Geometry of Planes and st lines Pages 1 to 70
Topics : A plane contains the whole st line passing through any two points on
it 1, Two sides of a plane 2, Vector equation to a plane through three non-
collinear points, A,B,C 3, Equation In Cartesian Coordiantes 5, Parametric
equation 5, Another form 6, Conversion to Cartesian form 7, More about
Triple product and volume 7, Volume of a tetrahedron 9, Volume of a
tetrahedron in Cartesian 10, Volume of a tetrahedron whose faces are given
planes 11, Volume of a tetrahedron in terms of three concurrent edges and
angles between pairs 12, Direct Cartesian derivation equation of a plane
through three given points 13, Coplanar points 14, Coplanar points in dot
product 15, Comparison of normal form of equation of plane with pedal form
17, Pedal form in Cartesian 17, Intercept form 19, Family of planes passing
through a given point 21, Plane perpendicular to a given vector and passing
through a point21, Equation of plane passing through a given st line 22,
Plane passing though the line
1 1 1
x x y y z z
l m n

and the point

2 2 2
, , x y z
23, Equation of plane passing through a point and parallel to two given st
lines 23, Plane containing a given st line and parallel another st line 23,
Angle between two planes 24, Equation to parallel and perpendicular planes
25, Angle between a st line and a plane 25, Distance from a point to a plane
26, foot of the perpendicular 27, Distance from a point to a plane in the
direction of a given vector 29, Family of planes passing through two
intersecting planes( i.e., through one st line) 31, Bisectors of angles between
two planes 34, Intersection of two st lines and joint equation of two st lines
34, Intersection of two planes is a st line 35, Converting equation of a st line
from Unsymmetrical to Symmetrical form 36, Angle Between the Planes 39,
Condition for a line to lie completely in a plane 39, The family of planes
passing though a given line 39, The plane though two given points and
parallel to a given st line 40, The plane containing a st line and passing
through a point 41, Coplanar lines 41, Condition for two st lines to intersect or
to be parallel 42, In unsymmetrical form 44, Perpendicular from origin onto a
st line 45, Shortest distance between two skew lines 47, A pitfall: Shortest
distance between two parallel lines 49, To find the equation of the common
perpendicular to two skew lines 50, The equation of the common
perpendicular in vector form 51, The equation of the common perpendicular
in a simplified form 51, Three non-parallel planes either meet at a point, or
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on a line or make a prism 54, Point at , line at and plane at 57, One
parameter family of planes 57, Point of intersection of a st line with a plane
58, Line and plane to be parallel, perpendicular or to coincide59, Remember
the results 62,
Chapter 24 : Tips,Tricks and problems on st lines and planes,Vector Equtions
Pages1 to 30
Topics : Problems and problem solving techniques in st lines and planes1,
When a 2nd degree homogeneous equation represents Two Planes 7,
Eqn. of a plane passing through two given points 8, Common perpendicular
to opposite edges of a tetrahedron and volume 9, Image of a point across a
plane10, Image of a point across a st line 12, Image of a line across a plane
20, Surfaces generated by st lines and locus of st line meeting three st lines,
intersections 22, Vector equations 26
Chapter 25 : Linear Equations and Matrices Pages 1 to 38
Topics : Introduction to Matrices as a tool for equation solving1, Different
types of matrices and operations on them , inverse matrix up to 9,
Crammer Rule 9, Gaussian elimination explained :Alternative treatment for
matrices 16, elementary row operations and column operations 17, Rank of a
matrix and solution and consistency of a system of equations 19, Normal
form, Diagonal form, Triangular forms 23, Of 0 Matrix, Singular and Identity
Matrices 26, as characteristic roots or latent roots or simply eigenvalues 27,
Matrix as a linear transformation 29, Linear transformations 33,
Eigenvectors 34, Reduction to Diagonal form 36, Complex numbers,
vectors and matrices compared 37.
Part II : Conic Sections And Differential Geometry
Section 4: Quadratic Functions, Sections Of Cone , Meanings Of
Eccentricity
Chapter 26 : Conic Sections, circle and sphere Pages 1 to 29
Topics : The circle and sections of a cone 1, equation of a circle 3,
parametric equations 4, circle on a given diameter 7, law of sines 10,
extended law of sines 10, law of cosines, extended Pythagoras theorem
11, general equation of circle in polar coordinates 12, parametric equations
14, vector equations 14, equation of a chord 14, chords cutting each other 19,
a formula for tangent 20, use of complex numbers 23, equation of circle
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through 3 non-collinear points 24, sphere 25, diametric form 26, a plane
touches a sphere 26, a plane cuts a sphere 27
Chapter 27 : Co-linearity, concurrence and properties of triangle Pages 1 to 66
Topics : Concurrence of three st lines 1, Co-linearity of three points 2,
Perpendicular Bisectors of Sides of a Triangle are Concurrent 2,
Perpendicular Bisectors of Sides of a Triangle are Concurrent (
Brahmaguptas formula or Herons formula)3, coordinates of circum
centre 4, Brahmagupta's Theorem 6, The ratios involving half angles 9,
Apollonius' theorem 15, centroid 15, Another section formula 16, Cevas
theorem 19, Cevas theorem in vector method 20, Menela Desargues
theorem us theorem 21, Menelaus theorem in vector method 22,
Desargues theorem in vector method 24, Pappus theorem 25, Pappus
theorem in vector method 26, Pascals theorem and Brianchons
theorem (without proof) 27, Proof of a variant of the Pascals Theorem 27,
In-centre 28, ex-center 28, Vector method shall explain the point vividly
and just separating the variables, proves the theorem in coordinate
geometry 34, a challenging problem 38, Orthocentre of a triangle 40, Orthic
triangle, pedal triangles 43, Distance of orthocentre from vertices and from
feet of perpendiculars 45, The feet of perpendiculars from a point on sides of
a triangle 46, equation of the median 47, equation of the angle bisector 47,
Use of complex quantities, some advantage over vectors 49, The three
centres are collinear 55, Distance among the three centres 55, Nine point
circle 64,
Chapter 28 : Concyclic points and quadrilaterals Pages 1 to 16
Topics : A circle passing through four corners of a quadrilateral 1,
Quadrulatral Inscribed in a Circle 3, A Criteria for four points to be Concyclic
3, Brahmaguptas formula or Herons formula is for area of a quadrilateral 4,
cyclic quadrilateral 7, Ptolemys theorem 10, Archimedes' Theorem 13,
Newtons problem13, Gauss line 14, Regular polygons 14, Use of
complex numbers 16.
Chapter 29 : Conic Sections Ellipse Pages 1 to 37
Topics : Equation of an ellipse from compression of coordinates1, Change of
form and Change of origin 2, Change of Axes 3, Auxiliary Circle 3, Outside
and inside of an ellipse 4, Parametric Equations 5, Vector Equations 5, Use
of complex numbers 6, A meaning of eccentricity 6, Visualisation of e 7,
Second focus and second directrix 9, Distance of focus from the center 9,
Sum of distances of any point from two foci 9, Sum of distances of any point
from two foci 9, Equation of ellipse from constancy of sum of distances from
two foci 10, Another method 12, Construction of ellipse 12, Equation of
ellipse from focal distance and directrix distance 12, Determination of focus,
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directrix etc 13, Reduction to standard form 13, Focus and directrix 15, Latus
rectum 15, Focal radii 15, Span of the ellipse and sum of the focal radii 16,
What does division of major axis by ordinate mean 17, Ellipse as shadow of
a circle 18, ellipse in a plane cutting a cylinder 20, ellipse is actually a
section of a cone 20, The value of e 24, Another Alternative derivation of
ellipse 24, Another alternative derivation of ellipse 25, Another derivation of
ellipse 27, Reflection property of ellipse 28, Another alternative 31,
Smashing kidney stones 31,
Chapter 30 : General Conic Sections and Parabola Pages 1 to 25
Topics : Conic sections characterized by their eccentricity, Conic section in
polar coordinates: (origin at focus) 1, Eqn to directrix 3, Conic section in
Rectangular Coordinates: (origin at directrix) 4, Derivation of Eqn of Ellipse in
Cartesian Coordinates 5, Equation of parabola 7, Convex and concave sides
, latus rectum or focal width 8, Parabola whose axis is y axis 8, relationship
between latus rectum and directrix of ellipses 11,

2
2 2 0 Ax By gx fy c
always represents a parabola 11most general
equation of a parabola 12, Any linear and / or angular transformation of axes
keeps a parabola a parabola 13, to find its focus, vertex, eccentricity, latus
rectum, and distance from focus to vertex 13,
1
x y
a b

represents a
parabola 15, Derivation in polar coordinates (vector form)15, Derivation
in Cartesian Coordinates 17, Another Derivation 17, Focal distance = x + a if
the origin is at the vertex 20, parabola is actually a section of a cone 21,
Reflection property of parabola 23, Construction of a parabola 24.
Chapter 31 : General Conic Sections and Hyperbola Pages 1 to 31
Topics : Equation of rectangular hyperbola 1, An analogy with the circle 1,
parametric equations 2, equation of hyperbola 5, Alternative :difference of
distances of a point from two fixed points 8, Alternative: center of a circle
squeezed through two fixed circles 8, Second focus and second directrix 9,
Alternative derivation of a hyperbola. Time difference used by sonar to locate
enemy ship 9, Parametric equations 10, Vector equation 11, Use of
complex numbers 11, Focal distance of points on hyperbola 11, latus
rectum of hyperbola 12, geometric mean of product of focal distances 12,
Analogy with ellipse 13, Alternative derivation of a hyperbola 14, Alternative
derivation of a Hyperbola 15, hyperbola is actually a section of a cone 15,
a meaning of e for the hyperbola 17, reflection property 17, Construction of
a hyperbola 18, Alternative construction 19, Alternative derivation of
hyperbola 20, another Alternative derivation 20, another derivation 21,
another derivation of rectangular hyperbola 21, another derivation of
rectangular hyperbola 22, Relation of hyperbola and rectangular hyperbola
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22, Conjugate of hyperbola 23, Asymptotes of a hyperbola 23, Equation of
Hyperbola when Asymptotes are Axes 26, Focus, Directrix and latus rectum
28, Conic Sections compared 29, Another comparison 30, Another
comparison 31.
Chapter 32 : The General Second Degree Equations and Conic Sections
Pages 1 to 35
Topics : 2ND DEGREE EQUATIONS IN TWO variables represent a conic
section 2, condition for circle 4, condition for two st lines 4, Discriminant 5,
condition for two parallel lines 7, two st lines through the origin 8, 9,
imaginary st lines meeting at a real point 10, homogeneous equation
always represents two st. lines passing through the origin 10, Angle between
the two st.lines through origin, of ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0 11, What is the
difference between
2
y ax bx c
and
2
0 ax bx c
14, The terms of
second degree in
2 2 2
2 2 2 0 a x haxy aby agx afy ac
15, required
condition to represent two st lines 15, area of the equilateral triangle 18,
rectangles, triangles enclosed, their orthocenter etc up to 23, Bisectors of
angle between the pairs of st lines
2 2
2 0 ax hxy by
23,in terms of
vectors 25, The general conic represents the following curves 27,
Compression of coordinates 29,
Section 5: Tangents and Normals, Curvature and Meaning Of Parametric
Equations
Chapter 33 : Secants and Tangents Pages 1 tor 59
Topics : what are secants and tangents, tangent to a circle 1, secants to a circle 3,
Tangent to a circle, center at origin 4, Tangent to a circle, center not at origin 5,
Tangent to a parabola, hyperbola 7, UA golden rule for writing tangents , design an
equation for a purpose 8, Important Results 9, Focal chords and harmonic
relations 12, The semi latus rectum is harmonic mean of any pair of focal radii 13,
U Locus of middle points of focal chords of any conic is a conic of th same type 13,
Secant and Tangent to an ellipse if it is in parametric form 14, equation of tangents
to conics at points represented by a parameter 15, Secant and Tangent to a
general conic in polar coordinates 16, Tangent to a conic section in general 18,
Tangent to a conic section at the origin (lowest degree terms 19, Another method to
find Tangent to a conic section in general 19, Tangent to a parabola in general,
another parametric equation 20, Another Parametric Equation 22, geometric mean
Page 13 / 681
2
. FP FQ FR 28, Tangent to a circle in general 29, Another parametric equation of a
circle 30, Tangent to a ellipse in general 30, Another parametric equation of an
ellipse 31, A segment of a tangent to an ellipse cut between the directrices 31,
Tangent to an ellipse in general in polar coordinates 32, many of the properties of
ellipse may be carried over to hyperbola just replacing
2
b
by -
2
b
32, Another
parametric equation of hyperbola 32, Tangent to a rectangular hyperbola 33,
Condition that a given st.line may be a tangent to a conic 33, Pair of tangents from
any point (x1, y1) to the general conic 34, Lengths of tangents to the circle from any
point 35, Remember the following results in the exercises 37, When two circles
touch each other and two alternative criteria 37, Common tangents to two circles
38, Common tangents to parabolas 40, tangents to other curves in exercises 41,
Common tangents to an Ellipse and a Circle, common tangents to ellipses 43,
Common Chords 45, Differentiation for getting slope of tangent 47, meaning of
derivative 49, Total differential and tangent 51, Tangent at the origin( lowest degree
terms equated to 0) 52, Tangents of curves cutting at right angles, director circle &
directrix , case of ellipse, case of hyperbola, case of parabola, 54, Angle between
two curves at intersection 55, Dip of the horizon 57, Vector equation of tangent,
velocity and acceleration58,
Chapter 34 : Normal and curvature Pages 1 tor 50
Topics : Normal to any curve 1, Normal to any curve 2, Intercepts of normals with
axes 2, Reflection property 4, Feet of perpendiculars 4, Auxiliary Circle 6, Feet of
perpendiculars joined to foci 6, Normal to a general conic at the point (r, ) in polar
coordinates 7, Working rule 8, To find locus of the foot of the perpendicular upon
tangent and normals from center of a hyperbola 8, Another form of a normal for
parabola; another parametric equation 9, : Theorem of three normals for parabola 9,
two of the normal are perpendiculars to each other 10, Feet of the perpendiculars
from foci on any tangent to an ellipse 14, Product of distances of any tangent from
foci 14, AOF = angle BOG and the angle AFO = angle BFO 14, Any normal to an
ellipse 15, Theorem of four normals 15, Geometrical meaning of parametric eqn of
parabola 18, Distance of a curve from a given point 19, Pedal equation of the conic
25, Subtangent and Subnormal and their lengths 27, focal distance, reflection
property, 28, The focus is at middle point of intercepts of tangent and normal with the
axis 28, Reflection property and comparison of conic sections 29, Subtangent and
subnormal of parabola from simple geometry 30, Angle between radius vector and
tangent 30, Angle between two curves at intersection 31, Direct derivation of pedal
equation 32, Radius of curvature and curvature 33, A small part of a curve is a small
part of a circle 33, Curvature at the origin if one of the axes is a tangent or normal
,Newtons formula 37, Tangents, Normals, Curvature and Torsion 38, binormal 39,
Evolutes 40, Evolutes 41, Evolutes may easily be known as its center and radius are
known 41, Conic sections as real plane sections of cone, Dandelin spheres 45,
Directrix and eccentricity, another meaning of eccentricity 47, Directional derivative
and gradient 47, level curves 49, Gradient in different system of coordinates 49,
Page 14 / 681
Section 6: Parametrization Of Conics and General Problems
Chapter 35 : Parametrization of conics and general problems on circle and parabola
Pages 1 tor 59
Topics : problems on circles 1, general problems on circles and parabolas 9,
Another vector equation of a parabola 50, Another meaning of parameter 51,
semicubical parabola 51,
Chapter 36 : Parametrization of conics , general problems on Ellipse and hyperbola
Pages 1 to 30
Topics : General problems on ellipses 1, . . ' PG PH FP F P . 14,
2
. OT OG OF
14,
General problems on hyperbola 17.
Section 7: Further Geometry On Conics
Chapter 37 : Parametrization Central Conics Pages 1 tor 8
Topics : Central conics 1, eqn to the general conic referred to the new axes through
the center 2, Center of a parabola and two st lines as conic sections3, There is only
one pair of conjugate diameters common to any two concentric central conics 4, eqn
of ellipse , with axes parallel to conjugate diameters 4, Central conics referred to
their axes and lengths of the semi-axes 5, Foci of central conics 7 .
Chapter 38 : Asymptotes and Envelopes Pages 1 tor 34
Topics : An asymptote to a curve is a st line which meets the curve at infinity, but it
is not a line at infinity 1, Conjugate hyperbola & Asymptotes 2, Conjugate hyperbola
& Asymptotes; eqn in general form of central conics 3, Another definition 4,
Asymptotes by expansion and its two generalisations 5, hyperbola for given
Asymptotes 7, Theorem of four normals for central conic 7, the feet of the four
perpendiculars from any point (h, k) on a central conic lie on a rectangular
hyperbola passing through the origin. 7, Asymptotes parallel to y-axis 8, A
controversial view of asymptotes 9, Asymptotes of general rational algebraic
equation( with exception) 10, two parallel asymptotes 12, Summary 13, Asymptotes
in polar coordinates 15, Polar subtangent and polar subnormal 17, An asymptote
and the curve at infinity are described by the same equation as it is a tangent at
infinity. If there are two asymptotes , the point at infinity is a double point 18,
Inverse or reciprocal curves 18, Reciprocal coordinates 18, Reciprocal curves in
polar coordinates 19, Pole and polar of circle is a duality relation 22, : Conic
sections may be viewed as reciprocals or inverses of a circle 23, Study of
curves from their asymptotes 24, Asymptotes as guidelines24, Envelopes 26, Some
facts about Envelops29, Pedal curves and pedal point construction,
representing conics in yet another way 32, Pedal curve and pedal point
construction 33.
Page 15 / 681
Chapter 39 : Chord Of Contact, Pole and Polar Pages 1 tor 45
Topics : Location Of Points Relative To a A Curve 1, Location Of A St Line Relative To Curve 1,
Chords Of Contact 2, Working rule and points to remember 4, Pole and Polar 7, Survey Of An
Entire Curve From A Point Outside, On, Or Inside It 8, Working rule and points to remember 10,
Reciprocity of pole and polar 12, Another relation between them 12, Relation between focus
and directrix 13, polar equation of polar of any point (r1, 1) wrt a conic
1 cos
l
e
r

14, pole of a
given line with respect to a given conic 15, Geometrical construction of polar of any given point 15,
Joachimshals notation 17, Diameters of conics 22, Locus of middle points of parallel chords is
called diameter 23, another parametric equation of the parabola 25, The tangents at end points
of any chord of a conic meet on a diameter which bisects the chord. But this never means that the
tangents are equal 26, Chords with given middle points 28, equation of a chord bisected at (h, k)
28, Conjugate diameters of ellipse 31, exception 32, Eccentric angles of the ends of a pair of
conjugate diameters differ by /2 34, The sum of squares of semi-conjugate diameters is constant
and equal to square of radius of the director circle 35, Perpendicular diameters 35, Product of the
focal radii 36, Length of a diameter of the ellipse 36, Equi-conjugate diameters 37, Middle point of
line joining ends of conjugate diameters 37, Intersection of tangents at the ends of conjugate
diameters 38, Locus of foot of perpendicular from focus onto the line joining end points of two
conjugate diameters 38, A parallelogram is formed by four tangents at the ends of a pair of
conjugate diameters 39, Supplemental chords are parallel to a pair of conjugate diameters 39,
Conjugate diameters of hyperbola and parabola 40, Equation of a parabola referred to a diameter
and the tangent at its end as axes 40, Equation of a parabola referred to its axes 42, Diameter of a
General Conic 43, Conjugate diameters of general conic 44, a pair of st lines through the origin 45,
Section 8: Intersection Of Conics
Chapter 40 : Superscribed and Inscribed conics, Confocals, orthogonal trajectorie
Pages 1 tor15
Topics : Confocal conics 1, Touching a given st line 2, Conics Through Intersection
Of ST Lines Or Inscribed within 3, Eqn of a conic passing through four given points
3, A unique conic can be made to pass through five given points 5, Eqn of a
conic inscribed inside four given st lines 5, Three tangents theorem 6, Pascals
theorem 6, Inscribed ellipses 7, Orthogonal Circles and Orthogonal Trajectories
7, Radical axes of three circles taken in pairs are concurrent 9, Eqn to family of
circles with common radical axis coaxial circles 9, Orthogonal circles to a coaxial
system 10, Orthogonal Trajectories 11, Matrix and determinant representation of
conics 14.
Chapter 41 : Intersection of Conics and Use of Partial Derivatives Pages 1 tor33
Topics : Condition that the second degree eqn in two variables represents two st
lines 1, Parallel lines meet on the line at infinity 2, Line at infinity 2, Partial
differentials met in conic sections 2, Tangent and normal , secant, chord of contact,
Polar, the curve itself etc.3, Equation of a chord bisected at any point (s, t) is parallel
Page 16 / 681
to the polar of the point 5, Centre of the curve 6, Conjugates and Asymptotes 7, Axes
of the central conic 7, Foci of the central conic 9, Tracing of parabola, (having no
centre, or centre at infinity) 9, Envelopes 11, four points of intersection 12, conic
passing through intersection of two conics 13, Only rectangular hyperbolas can pass
through intersection of two rectangular hyperbolas 14, : St lines passing through
intersection of two conics 14, : A pair of st lines passing through intersections of two
rectangular hyperbolas are perpendicular to each other 14, When two rectangular
hyperbolas intersect at four points, each point of intersection is ortho-centre of the
triangle formed by the other three points 15, Any conic passing through four points
15, A conic passing through intersection of a conic and a pair of st lines 16, Pair of
tangents on the general conic 18, Imaginary tangents from foci of the general conic
19, Foci of the general conic 19, Foci of the central conic 20, conic with a tangent
and a normal as axes 21, Chords And Harmonic Relations 23, Symmetric
relations like conjugate diameters, pair of tangents etc, 27, Foci of general conic 28,
Circle of Curvature 30,
Part III: Integral Calculus, Differential Equations and Central Forces
Section 9: Integration, Quadrature and Rectification.
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral Pages 1 to 49
Topics : Integration as reverse process of differentiation 1, Algebra of
integrals 2, Integration by substitution; or change of variable 5, Integration by
parts 8, Repeated integration by parts, Order of choice of 1st function 10,
Important Results 10, Functions from Algebra and Logarithm 10, Inverse
trigonometric functions 14, Functions from Trigonometry 15, Inverse Circular
Functions again, using integration by parts 16, Hyperbolic functions 18,
Integrals involving logarithms, ex cos x ,sin x etc 19, Hyperbolic functions
and inverse functions 26, Six important integrals using trigonometric
transformations 28, Combination of trigonometric and exponential functions
and some special types 37, Partial fractions in integration 43, Vector
integration 49.
Chapter 43 : Transformations of integrals for integration Pages 1 to 41
Topics : Integration of rational algebraic functions like

2
2
n
Ax Bx C

reduction formulae 1, INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 3,
Recursion formulae and some special types 3, Rational Integral functions
of sin x and cos x 15, Integration of hyperbolic functions 23, Integration of
some irrational functions 24, various transformations for integration25, Mean
value theorem for integral calculus 34, Integrals using differentiation 36,
Integrals that cannot be found without numerical integration 40.
Page 17 / 681
Chapter 44 : The Definite Integral Pages 1 to 52
Topics : The definite integral 1, Definite integral as the area bounded by
the curve 1, fundamental theorem of Integral Calculus 2, Results To
Remember 3, Change in variable 5, another form of fundamental theorem of
integral Calculus Definite Integral As The Limit Of A Sum 14, Meanings Of
Area , potential difference, work, volume, moment of inertia etc. 15,
Summation of series 19, Introduction to Improper integrals 26, Revision of
Recursion or Reduction Formula for Definite integrals 33, Transformations for

p
m n
x a bx dx
36, Simple Evaluation of

2 2
0 0 0
sin cos , sin cos sin cos
p q p q p q
x xdx x xdx and x xdx

47, Simple
Evaluation of
2 2
0 0 0
sin cos , sin cos sin cos
p q p q p q
x xdx x xdx and x xdx

48,
Chapter 45 : Limits Of Sums Of series By Integration Pages 1 to 9
Topics : Summation of Series 1, Summation of series using Newton Leibnitz
rule 5,
Chapter 46 : Quadrature and Rectification and Mechanics of Rotation
Pages 1 to 36
Topics : AREAS OF BOUNDED REGIONS 1, Area bound by a closed curve
described by one parameter 8, Area in Polar coordinates 11,Rectification:
length of plane curves 13, Simpsons Rule for finding definite integral 14,
Centre Of Mass, Centre Of Gravity 16, Algebraic sum of moments of
masses about the CM is 0 ;17, Moment Of Inertia And Angular Velocity 19,
Angular velocity vector 19, Relation between L and , Moment Of Inertia 20,
Newtons laws for rotational motion 20, Conservation of angular
momentum21, Calculations of moments of inertia 21, Relation between
moment of inertia and centre of mass 22, Theorems of perpendicular axes
and parallel axes 22, Misc. examples 24, Surfaces and Volumes of
Revolution 31, Calculation of Electric fields, Magnetic inductances etc.
32, Magnetic induction due to a straight current carrying conductor 34,
Chapter 47 : Improper Integrals, Beta and Gamma Functions, Differentiation
under integral sign Pages 1 to 38
Topics : Improper integrals in general 1, An Important result 2 , Comparison
Integrals 3, error function 4, The
Function( Also called Eulers 1st integral)

Page 18 / 681
5, important results 6, Wallis formula 7, ,
, m n
has many alternative
forms 8, The
(gamma) function, also called Eulers 2nd integral 12,

Graph of Gamma Function 13, Relation between Beta and Gamma Functions
14, Alternative definitions of gamma function 14, Weierstrass Formula for
Gamma function 15, Some special cases of gamma function 16, another
Relation between beta and gamma function 17, multiplication formula due
to Gauss, Euler, complement formula 19, Differentiation under integral
sign 20, Leibnitz formula 25, generalization of Fundamental Theorem of
Integral Calculus 27, Newton-Leibnitz Formula for evaluating limits 35.
Section 10: Differential Equations, Central Forces
Chapter 48 : Introduction to Differential Equations Pages 1 to 42
Topics :DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS: LAWS OF NATURE IN CODES 1,
Population growth 2, Radioactive Decay 3, Approximate age of solar system
4, Carbon Dating 5, Newtons empirical law of cooling 6, Discharging of a
capacitor 6, Formation Of Differential Equations 8, Wave equation 8, Families
of curves : Order and Degree Of Differential Equations 11, General solution
and particular integral , singular solution , envelope 11, Boundary values and
existence, uniqueness of solutions 13, equations of motion under uniform
acceleration 14, DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND
FIRST DEGREE 15, Variable separation method 15, Exact Differential
Equations 16, Integrating Factors 20, Equations of first order and higher
degree 22, Equations solvable for y 23, Equations solvable for x 24,
Equations solvable or p 25, Reduction of order 25, Independent variable
missing 26, dependent variable missing 26, Equations homogeneous in x and
y 27, Clairuts Equation, singular solutions and envelops 28, The Lagranges
equation 34, Orthogonal Trajectories 34, Linear Equations 38, Homogeneous
Equations 42
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Order Linear Differential Equations and Central forces
Pages 1 to 64
Topics : Linear differential equations with constant coefficients 1, Case of
Repeated Roots 3, Simple harmonic motion 4, Interpretation 4, phase
angle, circle of reference 5, a reverse view of the problem 6,
superimposition of two SHMs 7, phenomena of beats 9, Natural
frequency 12, Graphs of displacement, velocity and acceleration and energy
13, Damped SHM 13, Critically damped SHM 15, Forced SHM , coupling 15,
Particular integral and general solution of non-homogeneous linear
differential equations 15, Particular integral of

1
mt
e
F D
18, Particular
Page 19 / 681
Integral of
sin mt
or
cosmt
20, Particular integral of

1
m
t
F D
21, Forced
oscillations with damping 22 , Particular integral by method of undetermined
coefficients 23, travelling time of a tunnel train 25, Elements of electrical
circuit 26, self inductance, Lenzs law 27, Examples of Transient current
circuits 28, Example of Use of complex quantities in circuit equations,
Impedance 33, The power factor 35, Planetary motion: A grand example of
2nd order linear diff. eqn in vectors 36, Keplers second law 38, Projectile
motion and vector equation of a parabola 38, Keplers first and third
laws 39, Total energy a nd eccentricity: physical meaning of eccentricity
42, Areal velocity and angular momentum and moment of momentum 44, An
example Vector integration : Planetary motion (in vectors) 45, Interpretation,
finding the orbit and speed 47, expression for e for planetary motion given
above and criteria for open / closed orbits 48, hodograph 49, Central force as
any function of distance in general 51, Central force directly proportional to
distance 52, semi-conjugate diameter 53, Two simple harmonic motions at
right angles to each other superimposed on a particle result in an elliptical
orbit. 56, Newtons inverse square law from Keplers laws 57, Some more
particular integrals 58, Homogeneous linear equation 62, Bertrand s
theorem 63.
Page 20 / 681
FOREWORD
This is an humble endeavour to blend Calculus, Analytical Geometry of Straight Lines, and
Conic Sections, Vectors, Matrices and Determinants, Theory of Equations, and Elementary
Differential Equations through examples of Uniform Motion, Projectile Motion, Rotational
Motion, Central Forces like Uniform Circular Motion, Simple Harmonic Motion, Planetary
Motion, Coriolis Force into a single mammoth concept of Identity Division Symmetry, the
ultimate key to unravel the mystery of Nature. This is just like every number, say 5, and its
additive inverse 5 peacefully coexisting inside the identity of addition 0; or like 5 and its
multiplicative inverse 1/5 peacefully coexisting inside the multiplicative identity 1. Eulers
celebrated equation the five constants .Identities and constants are treated as same
thing in this book, same thing as invariants like the laws of conservation of mass, energy,
momentums, etc. and we break open these to get the differential equations of motion or the
equation of motion in simple cases.
Breaking 8 into 3 and 5 is a division and a series like is a division
. The vector is a division in the sense ordered pairs or triplets are. Differential
coefficients and integrals are also a remote similarity. Fixed points are some sort of
invariants;(Fixed points of x f x are roots of 0 F x f x x
)
. A locus of a moving point
is a static picture, an equation or a conditional identity. A determinant, matrix, inverse circular
function or logarithm contains all its properties just in its definition, which is just like a personal
identity, just like the name and personality of a real person. As Einstein said, the problem and
the answer lie just side by side; approach near and near the problem and the solution is there
itself, maybe, just give it a symbol ; as in word problems offered by the village school master or
like while taking the limit of

2
2
3 0
3 9 9
lim lim
3 3 3
x
x
x

.
A division , 3 and 5 of 8 though not
symmetric, a higher level symmetry
8 2 8 2
5 , 3
2 2

is there , well behind it. Every topic of
the book is an endeavour to link it to identity, division or symmetry, which would give the reader
a feeling of rediscovery and confidence of solid fundas which he or she may not forget after
the exams. The writer hopes this view would not put an end to whys and hows but definitely
help to peep into the world behind them, to enable the average student to see through the
concepts taught conventionally. An identity like 0 contains symmetrical pairs like +5 and 5
added together; an identity like 1 contains 5 and 1/5 multiplied together. An identity like

2
2 2
2 a b a b ab
still remains valid if a and b are changed just as someones personal
identity which does not change as some one grows up or goes to different places. (not even
when someone changes sex!)
Such condensation of topics, as mentioned earlier, i.e., integrating many concepts shall not
come in the way of rigor; rather it would be a relief in heavy course of curriculum today (some
topics of Physics like Mechanics, Circular motion, SHM, Planetary motions, varying currents and
2
1 0
i
e

2 3
1 ..................... x x x
1
1 x
Page 21 / 681
transient currents etc. are also covered) and sit would provide an edge for competitive entrance
examinations, both in concept building and problems.
Conic sections are shown to be really sections of cone just with the help of high school
geometry and various meanings of eccentricity are illustrated. They are also derived by
simple compression of coordinate axes, as inversion of circles and such alternative
treatments of topics abound in the book, which would delight students and teachers alike.
Last but not the least, the author would be very thankful to any one who offers some
suggestions for improvement of points out mistakes if any.
The Selection of topics includes courses of Calculus, Coordinate Geometry, Vectors, Analytical
geometry, Mechanics, determinants, matrices, differential equations of first order and first
degree in the +2 curriculums of CBSE, ICSE, and various regional boards, and council s
in India and fundamentals for preparation for IITJEE and other entrance exams. The
celebrated institutions preparing for these entrance examinations expect this knowledge
and they themselves seldom teach the fundamentals. The book is to fill up this gap.
Author.
Copy right - narayana dash 2011.
Page 22 / 681
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
Page 1
CHAPTER 1 : IDENTITY, DIVISION ,SYMMETRY
1:THE BEAUTY AND POWER OF, IDENTITY, DIVISION AND SYMMETRY
You have a nature and a name, you have your tastes, choices, likes and dislikes, love and hate,
relationships, characteristics and personality the sum totality of this is your identity. It does not
change, i.e., people still know and recognise you if you grow up in time, change houses or go
abroad. You are still the same person with the same identity. Similarly your family has an
identity, it does not change , for example, if represented by you or some other member of your
family. In the same way the groups or communities or country you belong to, have identities for
that matter. In mathematics you have come across the identity 0, celebrated as the identity of
addition. You know it contains every number and its negative in pairs, for example 5 and 5 .
The identity 0 does not change any number with which it is added or subtracted from . You
know 1 is an identity, the identity of multiplication, for example 5 and 1/5 both reside in 1
multiplied with each other. The 1 does not change any number it is multiplied with or divides.
Such is the nature of identities. Any number such as 7 is called a constant as it does not vary.
You will see this is also an identity in some sense. Note a class of integers which leave a
remainder 1 when divided by 7, such as 8, 15, 22 etc. We can denote this class with a symbol
[1]. Other such classes of integers are [3], [4] etc. leaving remainder 3 and 4 respectively . Take
any two members, one in each class, say 10 from [3] and 25 from [4] and adding them gives 35,
which belongs to the class [0] or [7]. This is no fallacy and we can call [7] or [0] each as an
identity of addition in these seven classes of integers called congruent modulo 7. An identity
does not change ; so also constants. You know (a + b)
2
= a
2
+2ab+ b
2
is an identity. The
formula holds no matter how a and b may change. An identity is an equation which holds ( =
holds true) for any admissible value of the variable(s). For example, the equation
xy
y x
y
1
x
1 +
= +
holds for any value of x and y except 0. Also
( )( )
2 2
y x y x y x = +
is another example. Thus
the identity stands on its own and does not depend upon the symbols though it is convenient to
express them with the help of these symbols. Instead of identities that are evident at sight, like
(a b ) + (b c ) +(c a ) , we can assume or construct identities .
If we assume (X x )
2
+ (Y y )
2
+(Z z)
2
= 0 for all values of the variables X, Y, Z, x, y, and z ;
or in other words if we assume it to be an identity,( call it a conditional identity) we
immediately have the three equations X= x ,Y= y , Z = z. We dwell on this point again and again
to prove beautiful results of use like equality of conjugate surds when given surds are equal;
equality of complex numbers when given complex numbers are equal; proving that conjugate of
a root of a polynomial is also another root of it; so on and so forth.
An identity operation does not change or modify the argument (on which it operates) or
the operand. For example, k = (\k)
2
; an operation like squaring the square root of any number
does not change that number. In other words it preserves the identity of the operand and it is
Page 23 / 681
Page 2
therefore only that the operator is called so. Please note that the compound operation of first
taking square root and then squaring is not same as first squaring and then taking the square
root; simply because, it does not result in identity. Taking square of a number and extracting the
square root again are thus seen to be not the exactly reverse operations so as to result in an
identity operation. We know reverse operation always takes us farther than we imagined. For
example adding two natural numbers results in a natural number ; there is no restriction in
adding and we cannot get out of the natural number system in the process of addition. The set
natural number is thus said to be closed under the process of addition . We would return to
this point a little later. You see the power of identities in the next two examples.
RESULT1; equating coefficients of similar powers in either side of an identity.
One interesting thing about identities is that , If, t rx qx px d cx bx ax
2 3 2 3
+ + + = + + + is
taken to be an identity, we must have, a = p, b = q, c = r , and d = t .(coefficients of
corresponding powers of a particular variable from both sides shall be equal) This can be
easily proved as under :
Since the equation is true for any value of x, putting x = 0, we get, d = t and they
obviously cancel out from both sides. Then we could assume values of x as 1, -1 and 2 say, and
get three equations involving a - p, b - q, and c - r ; and on solving them , we can get, each of
a p etc., each = 0. Alternatively, after canceling out d and t from both sides, we can get
another identity, or equation which holds for all values of x. Putting x = 0 again in this eqn., we
get c = r . Repeating the process, we get the desired result. The utility of this result is
indisputable as you are aware when apply this result to knotty problems.
RESULT2 ; equating coefficients of similar trigonometric ratios in either side of an
identity.
If p cos x + q sin x + r = ( a cos x + b sin x + c ) + (b cos x - a sin x) + is taken to
be an identity, (in other words, if a given expression in sin x and cos x is changed to
another expression in sin x and cos x , for some desired convenience) then we must
have the coefficients of sin x to be equal in both sides and so also the coefficients of
cos x.
We have, p cos x + q sin x + r = ( a cos x + b sin x + c ) + (b cos x - a sin x )+ v for all x
Or, p cos x + q sin x + r = (a + b) cos x + (b - a)sin x + (c + v) for all x, (a)
Putting cos x = 1 throughout, ( so that sin x = 0), we get,
p + r = (a + b) + (c + v).(b)
Putting cos x = - 1 throughout, ( so that sin x = 0), we get,
Page 24 / 681
Page 3
- p + r = - (a + b) + (c + v) ...(c)
Adding (b) and (c) and dividing throughout by 2 , we get,
p = (a + b) and r = (c + v) .....(d)
Putting these values in (a) we get, q = b - a .....(e)
So we get three independent equations in , , and v from (d) and (e) which may be
easily solved to find , , and v in terms of p, q and r. ( the result has many uses in integration
chapter)
It seems at first sight that identities are trivially true and are of little utility. No. Just
like 0 is a trivial nothing , but embodies a world of secrets like a black hole, identities contain a
world of secrets inside them. We give below an example how the concept of identity is used to
reveal the sum of an infinite series hidden in the symbols we define ,to get rid of a difficulty. The
great scientist Albert Einstein perhaps said, if only you could know where exactly the
problem lies, the solution lies there itself. In his times, half of the world believed there was
the all pervading invisible ether and the other half believed there was no ether. He put an end
to the controversy by telling everybody to raise only the questions which probably have
answers, and discard all others. Did he take the cue from a small child he taught, who told,
there can be another way besides the Earth going around the Sun and the Sun going around
the Earth ? If a point of difficulty is pinpointed, and is enclosed in a symbol, the solution lies
nearby, just you have to manipulate with the adopted symbol in set procedures and arrive at the
removal of difficulty. Do the duo of the difficulty and the solution constitute some sort of identity
or invariable ? Maybe. Follow the examples:
Example1 ; Quadratic Equations :an example in difficulty identification:
First , take the quadratic equation, ax
2
+ bx + c = 0 with rational coefficients.
How easy it would have been, only if the bx term had not been there! So the difficulty seems to
be the linear term and let us try to remove it. Now, put bx or x, inside a symbol t, such as t =
x - h or x = t + h, proceed mechanically working with the equation so as to get rid of the linear
term bx , and discard the t and h when x reveals its value and those extraneous symbols have
nothing to do any more.
Our equation becomes,
a(t +h)
2
+b(t +h) + c = 0 at
2
+ (2ah+b)t + ( ah
2
+bh +c)=0
If we choose, h = -b/2a, to make the second term 0, the equation reduces to ,
at
2
+ 0+(b
2
/4a-b
2
/2a+c)=0 ,(an eqn. in t having no first degree term in t)
Page 25 / 681
Page 4
or, at
2
= b
2
/4a c t =
a 2
ac 4 b
2
x =
a 2
b
a 2
ac 4 b
2
Now the poor things, h and t have been thrown out mercilessly once the difficulty is removed!
The roots of quadratic equation t = f(x) = ax
2
+ bx + c = 0,
are
a 2
ac 4 b b -
2
+
= o and
a 2
ac 4 b b -
2

= | .
The sum of the two roots is
b
a
o+| =

and the product of the roots
c
a
o| = as may be
verified direct. We know in high school that this solution has been got by completing square
method, either by dividing by a throughout or multiplying by 4a throughout. The difficulty
identified in this way is to make ax
2
+ bx , a part of a complete square (as this one is not a
complete square, ) The roots are real if discriminant of the equation , ac 4 b
2
is positive,
i.e., b
2
4ac > 0 and imaginary otherwise( by imaginary we mean, the roots of a negative
number, if at all we agree for its existence). They are rational if b
2
4ac is a perfect square
and irrational otherwise .Actually, the concepts of irrational numbers and imaginary numbers
are gifts of the quadratic equations. The roots are equal if the determinant is 0. The
expression under the square root is called discriminant because it determines the very nature of
roots of the quadratic. If the roots are irrational or imaginary, one is the conjugate of the
other, i.e, if one is p+ q or p + iq, the other is p - q or p iq; ( This is evident from the
structure of the roots , they are already in p+ q and p - q form. To prove it, assume m+ n is
another root, so their product (p+ q)(m+ n) = c/a, a rational number .This is possible only
when m+ n is a multiple of conjugate of p+ q, say k(p - q). Now, the sum of the roots is
p + q + k(p - q) = p(1 + k) + (1 - k )\q = - b/a. Solving this for \q we see that either 1 k = 0
or \q = {- b/a p(1 + k)}/(1 k), a rational number, which is a contradiction. So 1 k must be 0
or k = 1 or the other root must be p - q . ). In another way, we observe that the sum of the
roots is b/a and the product of the roots is c/a; both rational numbers by assumption. Then , if
the roots themselves do not occur in conjugate pairs, how can their sum and product be rational
? No matter if the reader does not understand imaginary numbers . We would return to the
subjects, quadratic equation and imaginary numbers in detail in later chapters at appropriate
places and this is merely one example how to apply the Difficulty Pin-pointing Method.
Actually this is a method how second term in a polynomial equation could be removed. (See
further the chapters on quadratic equations, theory of equations, Cardans solution of cubic
equation etc.)
Exercise1 : Remove the second term in the eqn. ax
3
+ bx
2
+ cx + d = 0
Page 26 / 681
Page 5
Hint : Put
3
b
x t
a
= in the equation and get the cubic equation reduced to
3
0 t pt q + + = ..(1)
where
2
2
3
3
ac b
p
a
= and
3 2
3
2 9 27
27
b abc a d
q
a
+
= ..(2)
Does this removal of square term help in solving the cubic equation ? It is not apparent on first
sight. Any playing with (1) sooner or later leads back to the original cubic equation, back to
square one. But Cardano decomposed the new variable t into t u v = + which changed equation
(2) into
( )( )
3 3
3 0 u v uv p u v q + + + + + = .(3)
Could we abruptly put
( )( ) 3uv p u v + + equal to 0. Why not ? Who deters us? ( If we are to put a
symbol at the point of difficulty, and there are three unknown roots to search, Cardano might
have been motivated to put two symbols instead of one!)
Since the number of choices of u and v are infinite as t u v = + and since we are not actually
bothered by the relation between u and v, if there be any; we incur no loss assuming a relation
between u and v which would make3 0
3
p
uv p uv + = = (4)
with a view just to simplify eqn (3) into
3 3
0 u v q + + = .(5).
And lo, we have got two equations(4) and (5) in u and v and we can immediately solve them.
Of course it is a quadratic equation
3
3 3 3 3
,
27
p
u v q and u v + = = in
3
u and
3
v ,i.e.,
3
u and
3
v
become the roots of the equation
3
2
0
27
p
z qz + = and we get
2 3
3
2 4 27
q q p
u = + + and
2 3
3
2 4 27
q q p
v = + (6)
And we have not touched the holy cow!
Now just retracing our contrivances u v t + = and
3
b
x t
a
= , we land ashore quickly,
Page 27 / 681
Page 6
2 3 2 3
3 3
2 3 2 3
3 3
2 4 27 2 4 27 3
3 2 4 27 2 4 27
q q p q q p b
u v t x
a
b q q p q q p
x
a
+ = + + + + = = +
= + + + + +
Only a small assumption
2 3
0
4 27
q p
+ > gives us a real number solution of the cubic equation. We
would know later on that any cubic equation has at least a real root. But dont be swayed away
with this tempting, small and alluring example which reveals mathematics being so easy. Of
course it is, the way you look at it is important.
Example2 ; Infinite Sequences and Series :
Another example in difficulty identification or use of equating of coefficients : to find out
the sum of a series like the following;
) A .( .......... .......... terms n ).... 1 n ( n .. upto .......... 4 x 3 3 x 2 2 x 1 t
n
+ + + =
Difficulty here is that we do not know the sum of the series. But we think that it must involve n
and its powers and some constant, of course, independent of n . So let us assume (like defining
symbols as we often do) ,
) B ....( .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... Dn Cn Bn A t
3 2
n
+ + + =
The t
r
, the r-th term, or the general term for that matter, may be written as r(r + 1).
(Had all of them been equal, we could have simply multiplied n with any term to get the sum.
That makes the sum one degree higher in n, than the degree of n in t
n
. So it is safe to
assume that, if n = 6, we dont require more than 7 terms in the series for Et
n
. So we have
taken terms up to n
3
in (B) when t
n
has no other power of n larger than 2. Similar must be the
things for n+1 terms too; then,
2 3
1
( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ...............................................( )
n
t A B n C n D n C
+
= + + + + + +
1
1 2 2 3 3 4.......... ..( 1)( 2).......................................( )
n
t x x x upto n n D
+
= + + + +
Subtracting(B) from (C), and (A) from (D) , we get,
) 1 n 3 n 3 ( D ) 1 n 2 ( C B ) 2 n )( 1 n ( t t t
2
1 n n 1 n
+ + + + + = + + = =
+ +
) E ( .......... .......... )......... D 3 ( n ) D 3 C 2 ( n ) D C B ( n n 3 2
2 2
+ + + + + = + +
Equating co-efficients of similar powers of n from both sides, we get,
Page 28 / 681
Page 7
3 2 B ... and ,... 1 C ,... 3 1 D
1 D 3 .. and ,... 3 D 3 C 2 , 2 D C B
= = =
= = + = + +
With these values and putting n = 1 (or any integer you like) in (B), which is also an identity, we
get,

= + + + = = = 0 A .. Or ,.. 3 1 1 3 2 A 2 x 1 t t
1 1
3
) 2 n )( 1 n ( n
3
n n 3 2
n t ..
3
n
n
3
n 2
t
2
n
3
2
n
+ +
=
|
|
.
|
\
| + +
= + + =

This is not certainly an universal technique for tackling any series whatsoever. But it gives a little
bit of that feeling.
Exercise 2:Try for expression for sum of these series:
1) Sum of 1
st
n natural numbers, Et
n,
t
n
=n, or in other words
( ) 1
2
n n
n
+
=
2) Sum of squares of 1
st
n,
t
n
=n
2
or in other words
( )( )
2
1 2 1
6
n n n
n
+ +
=
.
3) Sum of cubes of 1
st
n,
t
n
=n
3
or
( )
2
2
3
1
4
n n
n
+
=
.
Not only we use symbols to avoid difficulties, often we use them to take their
advantage. Take the example of Trigonometric ratios; these symbols have been aimed at
measurement of heights and distances, but have gone a long way in development of complex
numbers, theory of equations and so on. In a similar manner Calculus is developed to deal with
infinitesimal numbers (infinitely small numbers) by assigning symbols to them .
The process or method is, to identify the difficulty or pinpoint it, adopt some
symbol to enclose the difficulty, then proceed with known and standard methods until
the symbol reveals itself or until the difficulty vanishes otherwise and toss away the
symbol mercilessly. Wait. We can throw the symbol out in a particular problem, or well keep
the symbol for future use if it has general importance, like \( - 1) = i or like log
2
8 = 3 for 2
3
= 8
or sin
1
= 30
0
for sin 30
0
= ., or a symbol for eliminant of equations such as matrices and
determinants which find much use elsewhere. We shall return to the subject.
Throughout the book series, we have adopted this method to develop a topic, adopting a
symbol tacitly carrying its entire properties and characteristics; may it be Matrices and
Determinants, Trigonometric functions, Inverse Circular Functions, Logarithms, Limits, Conic
Page 29 / 681
Page 8
sections, Differential Coefficients, Integrals etc. etc. Due to this approach the topics appear in a
manner how they were discovered and developed rather than a formal presentation.
There are numerous examples throughout the book where we would be using this technique to
rediscover and redevelop many topics from identities. Before that the reader may try some
identities from high school some of which are given below. The reader can try as many of them
as possible and at ease. Use the fact that if a = b put throughout the expression makes it 0,
then a b is a factor; similarly if a = - b put throughout the expression makes it 0, then
a + b is a factor.
4) (a b) + (b c) + (c a) = 0;
5) c(a b) + a(b c) + b(c a) = 0
6) c(a b)
3
+ a(b c)
3
+ b(c a)
3
= (a + b + c)(a b)(b c)(c a)
7) c(a b)
2
+ a(b c)
2
+ b(c a)
2
+ 8abc = (a + b)(b + c)(c + a)
8) c
4
(a
2
b
2
) + a
4
(b
2
c
2
) + b
4
(c
2
a
2
) = - (a b)(b c)(c a)(a + b)(b + c)(c + a)
9) (b - c)
3
(b + c 2a) + (c - a)
3
(c + a 2b) + (c - a)
3
(c + a 2b) = 0
10) (b - c)(b + c 2a)
3
+ (c - a)(c + a 2b)
3
+ (c - a)(c + a 2b)
3
= 0
11) (ab c
2
)(ac b
2
) + (bc a
2
)(ba c
2
) +(bc a
2
)(ba c
2
)
= bc(bc a
2
) + ca(ca b
2
) + ca(ca b
2
)
12) bc(b c) + ca(c a) + ab(a b) = - (b c)(c a)(a b)
13) a
2
(b c) + b
2
(c a) + c
2
(a b) = - (b c)(c a)(a b)
14) a(b
2
c
2
) + b(c
2
a
2
) + c(a
2
b
2
) = - (b c)(c a)(a b)
15) a
3
(b c) + b
3
(c a) + c
3
(a b) = - (b c)(c a)(a b)(a + b + c)
16) a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
3abc = (a + b + c)(a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
bc ca ab)
17) a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
3abc = (a + b + c)(b
2
ca + c
2
ab + a
2
bc)
18) a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
3abc = (a + b + c)[(b c)
2
+ (c a)
2
+ (a b)
2
]
19) (b c)
3
+ (c a)
3
+ (a b)
3
3(b c)(c a)(a b) = 0
20) (a + b + c)
3
= Ea
3
+ 3Ea
2
b + 6abc
21) (a + b + c + d)
3
= Ea
3
+ 3Ea
2
b + 6Eabc
22) bc(b +c) + ca(c +a) + ab(a +b) + 2abc = (b + c)(c + a)(a + b)
23) a
2
(b +c) + b
2
(c +a) + c
2
(a +b) + 2abc = (b + c)(c + a)(a + b)
24) (b + c)(c + a)(a + b) + abc = (a + b + c)( bc + ca + ab)
25) (a + b + c) (-a + b + c) (a - b + c) (a + b - c) = 2b
2
c
2
+ 2c
2
a
2
+ 2a
2
b
2
a
4
b
4
c
4
26) c (a
4
b
4
) + a (b
4
c
4
) + b (c
4
a
4
) = (b c)(c a)(a b)(a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
bc ca ab)
27) (a + b)
5
= a
5
+ b
5
+ 5ab(a + b)( a
2
+ ab + b
2
)
28) (a + b + c)
5
= a
5
+ b
5
+ c
5
+ 5(a + b) (b + c)(c + a)( a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+ bc + ca + ab)
29) c
2
(a
3
b
3
) + a
2
(b
3
c
3
) + b
2
(c
3
a
3
) = (ab + bc + ca)(a b)(b c)(c a)
30) bc(c
2
b
2
) + ca(a
2
c
2
) + ab(b
2
a
2
) = (b c)(c a)(a b)(a + b + c)
31) (b +c){(r + p)(x + y) (p + q)(z + x)}+ (c +a){(p + q)(y + z) (q + r)(x + y)}
+ (c +a){(p + q)(y + z) (q + r)(x + y)} = 2[a(qz ry) + b(rx pz) + c(py qx)]
32) (a x)
2
{(b y)
2
(c z)
2
- (b z)
2
(c y)
2
}+(a x)
2
{(b y)
2
(c z)
2
- (b z)
2
(c y)
2
}
+(a x)
2
{(b y)
2
(c z)
2
- (b z)
2
(c y)
2
} = 2(b c) (c a) (a b) (y z) (z x) (x y)
and so on and so forth.
Page 30 / 681
Page 9
All Mathematical formulae read in high school are identities or conditional identities and we
know their utility. As examples of some conditional identities put a + b + c = 0 in expressions
above where a + b + c appears: the result may be taken as a conditional identity.
If a + b + c = 0, prove the following :
33) 2bc = a
2
b
2
c
2
34) 8a
2
b
2
c
2
= (a
2
b
2
c
2
)( b
2
c
2
a
2
)( c
2
a
2
b
2
)
35) a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
= 3abc
36) 2(a
4
+ b
4
+ c
4
) = (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
)
2
37) 3a
2
b
2
c
2
2(bc + ca + ab)
3
= a
6
+ b
6
+ c
6
38) a
5
+ b
5
+ c
5
+ 5abc(bc + ca + ab)
39)
7
c b a
5
c b a
2
c b a
7 7 7 5 5 5 2 2 2
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
40)
|
.
|
\
|
+
= |
.
|
\
|
+
c
b a
b
a c
a
c b
/ 3 3 /
b a
c
a c
b
c b
a
2:Symmetry , Anti-symmetry And Asymmetry Are some Aspects Of Beauty.
A look at the previous examples of identities makes us think about symmetry anti-symmetry and
cyclic symmetry of the expressions. Discoverer of electrical generator must have observed the
change in electric field due to motion of chares, i.e., electric current causes a magnetic field;
and it must have occurred to him that a change in magnetic field may generate electric current.
Take the previous example of equalizing coefficients of similar terms from both sides of an
identity equation. This reveals the beautiful feature of symmetry. Take the algebrical identities in
the previous exercises. The hint is to put a = b in the expression. If the expression reduces to 0,
then (a b) is a factor. This is cyclic symmetry. Analyse any identity and you find some
symmetry. Symmetry reveals the things that are not explicit. It also helps us to write
expressions in brief. For example, Ea stands for a + b if two elements are taken; it stands for a +
b + c or a + b + c + d if 3 or 4 elements are taken. Similarly Ea
2
stands for a
2
+ b
2
or a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
or a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+ d
2
if 2 or 3 or 4 elements are taken. The expression a
2
+ b
2
is symmetrical with
respect to a and b in a sense that a and b can be replaced with each other without affecting the
value of the expression. The feature may be termed bilateral symmetry. The expressions such
as a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
or bc + ca + ab are bilaterally symmetrical, as any two of them can be
interchanged without changing the value of the expression. In addition, the latter expressions
are of cyclic symmetry; i.e., if a is replaced by b, b is replaced by c and c is replaced by a
simultaneously, the expression is unchanged.
To illustrate the method of applying symmetry concept in working out problems, consider
factorizing the expression
(a + b + c)
5
- a
5
- b
5
- c
5
.
Page 31 / 681
Page 10
The value of the expression is unchanged if we put b in place of a , c in place of b and a in place
of c. But the expression becomes 0 if b = - a throughout. Hence b + a or a + b must be a factor
of it. Remember this is due to factor theorem read in high school. Similarly b + c and c + a must
be factors of it. As such the expression contains
(b + c)(c + a)(a + b) as a factor. The latter factor is of third degree whereas the expression to be
factorised is of 5
th
degree. So it contains another factor of 2
nd
degree. As the expression is
symmetric in a, b and c; so also all its factors must be symmetric cyclically. A general
expression in three elements and in 2
nd
degree would be
A(a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
) + B(bc + ca + ab)
where A and B have to be determined. So we have complete factorization as
(a + b + c)
5
- a
5
- b
5
- c
5
= (b + c)(c + a)(a + b)[A (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
)+ B(bc + ca + ab)]
Now since this is an identity, the expression holds for any value of a, b and c. Putting each
equal to 1 and each equal to 2 in turn we get, A + B = 10 and 5A +
2B = 35.
Solving the equations, we get, the values of A and B , both equal to 5 and the complete
factorization becomes,
(a + b + c)
5
- a
5
- b
5
- c
5
=5 (b + c)(c + a)(a + b)(a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+ bc + ca + ab)
An expression such as a
2
(b c) + b
2
(c a) + c
2
(a b) is changed to
[ a
2
(b c) + b
2
(c a) + c
2
(a b)], i.e., its own negative when any two of its variables are
interchanged with each other. Such an expression is said to be alternating or anti-symmetric.
More about symmetry and its uses shall be discussed from topic to topic later on; especially in
transformation of graphs.
Puzzle: In finding out factors of
3 3 3
3 a b c abc + + one observes that the expression reduces to
0 if a b c = = is put into it. But neither of the expressions , , a b b c c a is a factor of it.
Explain how.
ans. assuming stand alone expression like a b = etc, does not make the expression 0, it
becomes 0 only when all of a b c = = is assumed. So it indicates, neither of
, , a b b c c a is a factor of the expression
3 3 3
3 a b c abc + + , but a factor of the
expression involves some combination of all of , , a b b c c a at the same time! observe
that ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
{ }
2 2 2
3 3 3
1
3
2
a b c abc a b c a b b c c a + + = + + + +
Page 32 / 681
Page 11
Some other aspects of beauty are continuity, completeness, compactness,
connectedness, convergence and uniformity. Examples shall follow throughout the book.
The concept of continuity of functions shall be discussed in Calculus in a later chapter.
Convergence concept shall be discussed in the chapters for sequences a, series and limits.
While watching a movie or drama we note a touching sequence of events and keep guessing
what should happen at last. If the end comes of our expectation we feel continuity in the story
line. If the end of the story keeps us guessing still , we must feel something lacking in the story,
e.g., there may not be an end to the drama and it may not be said to be complete. What
happens in this case is a sequence of chosen events leads to a limiting event, a point which is
not included in the story; As such the sequence of events is not continuous and the story is not
complete. The concepts as such, are better illustrated in Topology, which is a set of some
subsets called open subsets with a structure closed under arbitrary unions and finite
intersections. The topic of topology is an attempt to provide a common platform to Algebra,
Analysis, Differential equations, etc. etc.
The principle of equivalence in mechanics , as propounded by Newton, states that the
laws of mechanics are same with respect to all inertial frames; i.e. , they do not change if we
change frames of reference with a new one moving at a constant velocity with the old one. An
illustration would be given at the appropriate place
+
. It would be shown that acceleration of
somebody measured in one frame of reference will just be same in be same as measured in a
different frame of reference moving at a constant velocity from the initial frame of reference
taken. It would be just childs play and the reader even might have done the derivation is high
school. Einstein derived the epoch making theory of relativity only from two assumptions; one :
the principle of equivalence with only one word changed ; he wrote Physics in place of
Mechanics. The second assumption is that the velocity of light in empty space does not depend
on ( not added to nor subtracted from) the velocity of its source. The latter assumption is
nothing but wise acceptance of failure to observe the expected result in the famous Michelson
Morley experiment to measure absolute velocity of earth . ( Doesnt it seem that the theory of
relativity was derived from the very antithesis of relativity ?)
The conservation laws in Physics like conservation of mass, conservation of energy,
conservation of momentum, conservation of angular momentum, conservation of spin etc. tell us

+
for those who refuse to wait until then. Let us measure acceleration a of some object while we stand
still on the ground. Acceleration is
t
v v
a
0 1

= , where v
1
, v
0
are its final and initial velocities and t is
time taken for this change of velocity. If we observe the same from object from a train with velocity u, do
not observe the initial and final velocities, but observe the initial and final relative velocities instead , v
1
u and v
0
u . Now acceleration observed from the train is a
t
v v
t
) u v ( ) u v (
0 1 0 1
=
=

, again,
which proves the proposition. One can change all these symbols except for time to vectors and prove the
proposition in case of vector velocities too.
Page 33 / 681
Page 12
that the totalities of quantities like mass, momentum, energy, spin etc before an event like
collision or explosion remains unchanged after the collision or explosion etc., as the event may
be. So total mass, momentum, energy etc. are invariants .The concept is similar to the
concept of identity. So the totals of these quantities in a system do not change i.e., they are
symmetrical about a point of event like collision or explosion etc. Total mass or energy or
momentum in a system of particles before a collision taking place in the system is conserved
after the process of collision. Similar is the case after a chemical reaction is completed. The new
theory of relativity has combined the laws of conservation of mass and conservation of energy
into one law, conservation of mass and energy together, by showing equivalence of mass and
energy. Not a single instance has been observed violating the these principles of conservation.
We would give an expression to illustrate the principle of conservation of momentum and
conservation of energy at appropriate place .
v
The principle of equivalence in theory of relativity
has led to Lorenz transformation of coordinates which in turn, has led to the result of
equivalence of mass and energy. Some of the invariants in transformation of coordinates we
shall discuss later on in the chapter for transformation of graphs. The starting point in solving
problems involving equations of motion is these conservation laws which give the differential
equations of motion in a particular situation; one equation if got from law of conservation of
momentum, another is got from law of conservation of energy; the latter are then solved by
applying standard Mathematical techniques to get the equations of motion. By differential
equation we mean an equation involving physical quantities such as velocity etc. and their rates
of change; the latter called differential coefficients. A differential equation is solved when we get
equations involving the physical quantities only and not involving their differential coefficients.
Do the phrases The principle of equivalence, The conservation laws in Physics and
Constants and invariants in Physics or in Mathematics sound like the concept of identity
we just discussed. Decide for yourself.
A special mention may be made of Heisenbergs uncertainty principle which
enunciates that the product of errors of measurements of complementary physical quantities like
position and momentum shall be at least equal to Planks constant; h p . s > A A ; This is a

v
Suppose two bodies of masses m
1
and m
2
with velocities u
1
and u
2
respectively collide and their
velocities get changed to v
1
and v
2
respectively. By Newtons third law the force exerted by one body on
the other should be equal and opposite. Let them be F and F respectively. Equivalently,
t
) v (u m
t
) u (v m
2 2 2 1 1 1

=
where t is the brief time for which the two bodies are in contact while
colliding, or , m
1
v
1
+ m
2
v
2
= m
1
u
1
+ m
2
u
2
; i.e., the total momentum before collision is the total momentum
after collision , as expected.( vectors may replace scalars throughout, if you please)
Similarly , from the principle of conservation of energy, we can derive an expression of kinetic
energy of a body of mass m, the energy, W say, possessed by it by virtue of its velocity. Surely it would
be equal to the work done by it against a force opposing its motion until it comes to rest. If the body
travels a distance s in the process, then we have, the work done W = Fs = mas = m 2as = m
1
v
2

which is the expression of kinetic energy we sought after.
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Page 13
completely theoretical fact having nothing to do with precision of measuring instruments. If we
set As = 0 to know s or position completely precisely, it requires Ap to become infinite; i.e., the
momentum p shall have infinite error in its measurement and thus cannot be determined at all.
This is nothing but symmetry; just in the same sense as 4/1 and are symmetrical.
Symmetrical conjugates combine with each other to result in identity ! The way they combine or
associate with each other may be different i.e. (+4) adds up with ( - 4 ) to result in 0, the identity
of addition and 4/1 and have to be multiplied with each other to result in multiplication identity
1. Break open the identity and you get symmetrical parts; again fit the parts together, you get
the identity. The beauty of the statement lies in the philosophy of quantum theory stating that no
physical quantity can ever be measured deterministically but only probabilities can be expected.
When the notion of exactitude of measurements is lost, the philosophy of cause and effect, the
basic philosophy of all experimental sciences is put at stake. By exactitude of physical laws we
mean the current event is the result of the previous event and the cause of the next. It turns out
that a bigger particle has some chance of tunneling through a smaller particle or simply you
could just pass right through a wall for that matter. The concept of continuum of cause and
effect still thrives, albeit in terms of probabilities though not in terms of exactitude as was in the
good old days of classical physics.
Behind these conservation laws or invariance, there is a grand principle of nature.
Economy of action is the grand principle behind. Events would proceed in the direction in
which the total energy of the system would be the least. Newton was a great integrator. He
integrated the works of Keplers, Hookes and Copernicus and declared the beginning of the
era of scientific progress giving science a foundation; his three laws , appearing almost
axiomatic. Another great integration or synthesis was achieved with the advent of a new era of
Quantum Mechanics, with its harbingers, Max Plank, Neil Bohr and others. Big controversies
about particle nature of radiation and wave nature of matter were settled by giving matter and
energy a common platform , the wave equation due to Schrdinger. Radiation was accepted to
be effected in quanta, or in packets instead of in continuous fashion. Classical Mechanics
predicted that a charged particle shall continuously radiate energy resulting in shrinking of its
orbit and shall fall into the nucleus within very short time and stable atoms were
incomprehensible as such. Neil Bohr used the quantum idea of Max Plank and told to the world
to accept that the electrons simply do not radiate while being in their orbits and only radiate in
lump sums while jumping from orbit to orbit. The structures of orbits became complicated to
comprehend of course, but the dual nature of radiation and matter were explained. Classical
mechanics which beautifully predicted celestial phenomena, could be viewed as a limiting case
of Quantum Mechanics and the two domains were unified. Another great integration or
synthesis was brought about , at about the same time by Albert Einstein for explanation of
behaviour of matter approaching the speed of light and the concept of matter, energy, space
and time had to be redefined. He brought about the Special Theory of Relativity , the single
most outstanding discovery and philosophy of the twenty first century, which identified the
century, together with Quantum Mechanics. The simple idea behind was, that the speed light
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Page 14
does not depend on the speed of its source. Mechanics at lower velocities was viewed as a
limiting case of the theory of relativity. Necessary Mathematics was already at hand , developed
by Maxwell in his electrodynamics theory and the simple idea of constancy of velocity of light in
empty space was acceptance of failure of the famous Michelson & Morley experiment aimed to
use difference of velocities of light in moving back and forth to measure absolute velocity of
earth. These great integrators like Newton and Einstein were motivated by the idea of sort of
identity, symmetry and invariance etc. What was fundamental belief driving behind these
principles of invariance and symmetry it was the principle of economy the way of Natures
doing things. It was as back as the days of Ptolemy and Aristotle when observations were made
regarding angles of incidence and angles of refraction when path of light changed mediums; but
the relationship between them eluded until some three hundred years until the days of Fresnel
who correlated them in the laws of refraction. About a hundred years later, Format gave the law
a firm footing; the law was deduced from the belief that light travels through the path in which
minimum time is taken. It is only through this principle of economy that Hamilton deduced the
Newtons laws again. Euler went further through the problems of maximization or minimization
and created a new discipline in Mathematics which is known as Calculus of Variations
Optimization theory today. The development of these topics are giving rise to Fuzzy Logic
and Neural Networks progressing in the direction of Artificial Intelligence and Industrial
Mathematics at large. Now any idiot can swear that if the grand unification theory is going to be
complete, it would be only through courtesy of belief in natures principle of economy from
which the relative external features like symmetry and identity emerge.
The scientific world today is striving towards grand unification theory of the four
fundamental forces of nature or looking for a common origin of the four forces; namely,
electromagnetism, gravitation, the strong and the weak nuclear forces. It is the sense of beauty
only which enables integration of apparently contradicting theories such as the Classical and the
Quantum Mechanics, the wave theory and corpuscle theories of light, the classical and the
relativistic Mechanics and so on. It is the art and science of Mathematics only which formulates
and guides such endeavors. This is the dream idea of Einstein and we are nearing the idea year
by year.
Newton has given us a comprehensive concept for force, mass, energy, velocity etc.
and explained the gravitational force of universal application with the formula
2
r
Mm
G F =
for
interaction between any two (point masses or spherical bodies of) masses M and m at a
distance r from each other. So gravitational force has been recognized as a fundamental force
in nature. This force is responsible to hold together solar systems and nebulae as well as pieces
of any matter together to have some shape or size. it goes without saying that solids have
definite size and shape only because of small intermolecular distance between them; liquids
have only definite size or volume as intermolecular distance is more than that in the solid state
and gasses have no definite size nor shape but for the large intermolecular distances. Similar
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Page 15
is the Coulombs law of electrostatic attraction or repulsion, describing the force between two
point charges Q and q at a distance r apart from each other to be
2
r
Qq
k F =
. Electric currents
or moving charges showed magnetization as natural magnets and as such, all magnetism was
ultimately attributed to electric currents. Faraday imagined that , if a motion of electric charges
gives rise to magnetic poles in effect, a motion of magnetic poles must produce some electric
current and it was very much true. This led to the fact that electricity and magnetism are not two
different entities , but are manifestation of one thing, electromagnetism which also included the
Coulombs law for magnetic force
2
2 1
r
m m
F =
between two magnetic poles
1
m and
2
m at a
distance r apart.. So electromagnetic forces are fundamental forces responsible for binding
electrons to the nucleus to form atoms and are sufficient to explain away chemical properties of
matter. Though the electrostatic attraction and gravitational forces both vary inversely as square
of distances, the magnitude of the latter is 1038 times the former.
EXAMPLE 3: Calculate the forces between a proton and an electron in an hydrogen atom given
r ~
10
0.53 x 10 m, charge of one electron as well as that of proton being e =
19
1.6022 x 10
Coulomb. in magnitude; mass of electron m =

31
9.1093 x 10 kg, mass of proton M being some
1836 times that of electron; G =
11
6.673 x 10
Nm2/kg2, k = (1/ 4tc0) =

19
9.1 x 10 Nm2/Coul2.
So much of data is absolutely not necessary to compare the forces; neither the distance of
electron from nucleus, nor its mass and charge both; only e/m is sufficient for the purpose , it
being
11
1.76 x 10 Coul/kg.
A single electromagnetic force can be understood to act upon a charged particle,
whether stationary or moving, accounting for electrostatic and electromagnetic forces. This is
Lorentz force given by F = qE + qv x B where q is the charge with velocity
v, E is the electrostatic field, and B is the magnetic induction at the point where the charge lies
instantaneously.
What makes protons stay together inside the nucleus when they should have repelled
each other away ? It is the strong nuclear force which should be great enough to overcome the
electrostatic repulsion and in fact it is of the order of 1038 times the gravitational force between
two protons . or of the order of 100 times the electromagnetic force so that it overcomes
repulsive Coulomb forces between protons in the nucleus. But it is short ranged and almost
ineffective beyond a distance of
15
10
m which is in the order of nuclear radius. Beyond the

nucleus the electromagnetic force reigns supreme , but it dies out fast beyond atomic or
molecular radius though theoretically it acts up to infinite distance. Beyond the atomic radius of
10-10m only gravitational force is visible as there are no charged particles to masquerade it. We
see it acts through great distances as known from its formula. The strong nuclear force is said to
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Page 16
act upon quarks and gluons of which the protons and neutrons are made up of, and thus
accounts for formation of nucleus and disintegration of nucleus too, for that matter. Radiation of
o-particles has been successfully explained in terms of this force. An o-particle is equal to
Helium nucleus consisting of two protons and two neutrons. Crudely speaking neutrons are
necessary to bind protons together in the nucleus on the face of electrostatic repulsion and
more and more of them is necessary as atomic number is increased, until the nucleus becomes
unstable and becomes radioactive to emit an o-particle to become stable. For protons and
neutrons cannot be shed off unless they are in an unit of two plus two of each, i.e., an o-particle.
More correct picture is of course, the one involving quarks and gluons, believed to be ultimate
particle of every matter . Protons and neutrons are believed to be made up of 3 quarks each of
different colour. Colour is a property of quarks and gluons analogous to charge , are of three
types, red ,blue and green and quarks with different colour attract each other and quarks of
same colour repel ach other. Gluons carry a colour and an anti-colour charge.. A proton
consists of three quarks of each different colour. Within a distance of less than 10-15m (a femto-
meter)or nuclear radius the strong force is repulsive and keeps the nucleons (protons and
neutrons) apart. Within a distance of 1 to 2 femto-meters the strong force is attractive force
overcomes the electrostatic repulsion being of the order of 100 times the electromagnetic force
Quarks and leptons were believed to be ultimate building blocks of all matter. The
leptons, which include the electron, do not feel the strong force. However, quarks and leptons
both experience a second nuclear force, the weak force. This force, which is responsible for
certain types of radioactivity classed together as beta decay, is feeble in comparison with
electromagnetism , of the order of 10
-15
compared to electromagnetic forces and act in very
short range of 10
-15
m, within nuclear radius. In |-decay, the nucleus emits an electron with high
energy and an antineutrino of no rest mass and a neutron is converted into a proton in the
process. Similar is the process of electron capture by a nucleus from the innermost shell and
similar is the process of positive electron or positron emission ; in all the three cases the week
nuclear force is involved. Much is to be done in the area of unification of forces or to have
closer look for symmetries and similarities though much has been done. To remind of history, it
was Sir Isaac Newton around 1687 who unified celestial forces with terrestrial forces, i.e.,
made it evident that the acceleration due to gravity is nothing but a manifestation of universal
gravitation. All magnetism was traced back to moving electric charges , thanks to the works of
Hans Christian Oersted and Michel Faraday , around 1825. It is J. Clark Maxwell who showed
that visible light was an electromagnetic radiation; which paved the way to understand that
heat waves, ultraviolet, microwave, x-rays, -rays, radio waves , cosmic rays all are
electromagnetic radiations. Such unification brought about great confusion about wave nature of
particles and particle nature of waves and confusion about ether, the thinnest wall in the empty
space to lean on. So developed the quantum theory to unify waves and particles; a number of
scientists were involved , over many decades and ultimately the concept of ether was
discarded. Mathematics required it to be of very high density and nobody was prepared to
swallow the idea along the gut anyway. Nuclear physics and radio activity brought newer
Page 38 / 681
Page 17
phenomena to observation and again we were in the mesh of particles, particles and more
particles. Force, which was not due to contact, or action at a distance, whether gravitational,
electromagnetic, strong or week nuclear forces, were seen to be understood with carrier
particles of forces; most successfully electromagnetic forces were explained, with exchange of
photon as carrier of electromagnetic forces; just as a play ball influencing the behaviour of a
pack of playing children. ( When two children run toward the ball to catch it, they seem to attract
each other). Albert Einsteins general theory of relativity postulated graviton , photon-like
particle as carrier of gravitational force although quantum theory for it is yet to be fully
developed. Gluon was postulated to be carrier of strong nuclear force or quarks exchanged
gluons on interaction under influence of strong nuclear forces. W-particles and Z-particles were
thought to be the exchange particles for week nuclear forces though big particles they were
indeed, the former with + or charges and the latter neutral. A single electro-week theory was
postulated by Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam, Steven Weinberg around 1980 in order to look
for a common origin of electromagnetic and week nuclear forces and it worked very well. It was
verified experimentally by Cario Rubia and Simon Vander Meer around 1984 but the grand
unification is still a far cry. But the efforts in this direction are not discouraging ; Abdus Salam
had said that the unification is expected if proton decays at all, and it was found to be decaying,
with experiments carried out in the deepest mines e.g., the Kolar gold fields in India. A
significant improvement has been achieved in 2004 towards The Grand Unification Theory or
The Theory of Everything and Nobel prize for Physics has been shared by three physicists; for
the first time for theoretical research.
3:Super-symmetry and anti-symmetry :
Particles have broadly been divided into two types, fermions having spin quantum number or
, and bosons are the other type, having spin numbers 1.The symmetry we have referred in
connection with conservation of momentum etc. means that total momentum after a collision
(say) is equal to total momentum before collision. A similar super-symmetry is displayed in
subatomic level. Fermions can be transformed into bosons without changing the structure of the
underlying theory of the particles and their interactions and vice versa ( i.e., back again to
fermions). Super-symmetry provides a connection between the known elementary particles of
matter (quarks and leptons, which are all fermions) and the messenger particles that convey the
fundamental forces (all bosons). Thus it shows that one type of particle is in effect a different
facet of the other type. Super-symmetry reduces the number of basic types of particle from two
to one. This feature has in fact encouraged to look for a grand unification theory. Another
advantage of super-symmetry is that it requires a particular fermions must have a super-
symmetric conjugate boson particle somewhere. This has doubled the number of types of
fundamental particles known and compelled scientists to look for an anti-particle of every
particle discovered or postulated. Super-string theory of 1970s which assumes strings as

Three people shared the 2004 Nobel prize for Physics for a major development in the Grand Unification
Theory (GUT), or Theory Of Everything (TOE), or Quantum Chromodynamics (QC), by successfully
including gravitation into the common fold of the field theories.
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Page 18
ultimate extended particles to explain all the four fundamental forces has been supported by
concept of super-symmetry, although it has problems to sort out. It works in a field of 10
dimensions, , 6 of which are assumed to be truncated to very short distances within which
quarks have a free play. This is rather strange and asymmetrical considerations to explain the
most recent theory of everything TOE. But any asymmetry, as it were, promises of more
subtle symmetry. For example, Higgs suggested breaking of symmetry for explaining week
nuclear reactions where parity did not seem to be conserved and this led to the concept of
super-symmetry in course of development. In Mathematics, we come across non-commutative
algebraic structures or operations more often than not. Not only it is tolerated with open mind,
but is sincerely accepted as it gives philosophical insight and is meant for theoretical
development after all.
An example of breaking symmetry:
If , are the two roots of quadratic equation
2
0 ax bx c + + = , then ,
b c
a a
+ = = .
The expressions are symmetric as , can be interchanged and the sum and product are still
the same. If one tries to solve the quadratic equation from the sum of product of the roots, one
again lands on the same quadratic equation. Same is the case with n-th degree equations, only
the n relations between the roots and coefficients does not help substantially in getting the
roots. But when we get from ( ) ( )
2
2 2
2
4
4
b ac
a

= + = . The sum and
difference of the roots gives us the roots immediately. This is called breaking of symmetry.
Galois carried further the argument and discovered that such process cannot be possible for 5
th
degree equation and beyond, although an equation of n-th degree must possess n roots. The
roots only could be numerically calculated. Breaking symmetry although did not produce the
roots, it produced valuable knowledge!
To explain symmetry from a different angle , just imagine what would have been the situation if
both the roots of the quadratic
2
0 ax bx c + + =
been equal. Then the expression must have
been a whole square ! And what if the two roots are not equal in general; then we should try to
take out a whole square out of it i.e.
2 2
2
2
2 2 2
b b b
x x c
a a a
| | | |
+ + =
| |
\ . \ .
removing the remaining
terms whatsoever to the other side of the equation. And this is the whole square method taught
in high school. If the roots are not equal, they must differ from the average of the two roots by
the same amount and this is in fact so. The average of the roots is
2
b
a
and the actual roots

differ from it by the same amount , namely
2
4
2
b ac
a
. If (3 , 5) is an unsymmetrical division of
8 , then they must differ from the symmetrical division of 8 i.e., 4 by the same amount
1
.
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Page 19
4:Division:
Symmetry may be considered as a division of identity. Subtraction may be viewed as a division
into unequal parts and can be represented by ordered pair (a, b) standing for a b.
A rational number is a division and can be represented by an ordered pair. An irrational number
is a continued fraction, again a division. A complex number can be represented by an ordered
pair, so it is some sort of division. So vectors and matrices are. Quaternions were discovered as
vector division. The sequences and series may be thought of as some sort of division . e.g,
2 3 4
1
1 ............
1
x x x x
x
= + + + + +
. The entire Calculus may be viewed as some sort of

division, limits of division. In a locus in Coordinate Geometry the point varies but the scheme, or
the equation represents the entire locus; So it is a concept of entirety ,similar to the concept of
identity, invariants, constants fixed points etc. A function f(x) =0 may be written as x = (x); the
roots of the former are fixed points of the later. In short, the writer believes Mathematics and
Physics are visible with the telescope or microscope of identitydivisionsymmetry . The
difficulty and its removal together constitute a division of knowledge. Symmetry is a division into
symmetrical parts of a whole. Symmetry and identity are only different views of looking at the
same thing. By saying momentum is conserved in a collision is same thing as saying total
momentum before collision is equal to the total momentum after collision. It is the invariance
laws or conservation laws of momentum and energy produce differential equations of motion
which in turn, yield the equations of motion when solved. Thus identity division symmetry is
the only formula for ultimate knowledge of Nature.
Thus 'identity' and 'symmetry' are intimately connected with each other and the
connection is 'division'
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This section is not a part of the preview.
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
Page 1
CHAPTER 3:SYMBOLIC LOGIC, MATHEMATICAL LOGIC AND LOGICAL GATES
Boolean algebra is a mathematical structure designed by an undergraduate student in America,
with a view to translate descriptive logic into the symbolic language of Algebra, so that large
pieces of logic or multiple pieces of them could be handled mechanically instead of conjuring
everything in mind . This was required before the advent of computer languages where may be
millions of logical files are used in programming. Moreover in the development of electronics,
thousands of tiny electrical circuits are used in integrated circuits or ICs. How they are formed
and joined to one another - the question is addressed by Boolean Algebra, symbolic logic,
Circuit logic, logical gates like 'Or' gate, 'AND' gate,' NOT gate, and gradually complicated
combinations of them. This chapter is aimed at giving the bare fundamentals.
1:Boolean Algebra
From the study of set theory you must be thinking that the operations like union, intersection,
symmetric difference etc. have some algebraic structure underlying them . In case it is so, we
can work out on them as if doing algebra and we could do some mechanical processing just as
we do with equations with brevity. For example, equal thing added to equal things give equal
results is the underlying description of the process of transposition in equations. Imagine what
a load of literature we had undergone if transposition had not been used in symbols !. Similarly,
there is Boolean algebra in symbols, which not only takes care of set-theoretic operations but
connects logical whole sentences in an useful manner also. An wonderful application of the
subject is switching logic in electrical circuits.
Definition - A Boolean algebra is non-empty set B with two binary operations defined in it,
denoted by + and . ( in generalized sense, not always in arithmetic sense) , each having
closure, associative, commutative properties, either operation being distributive over the other,
not only . over + . but also vice versa. Also the operations assure an identity element , 0 (
a symbol, not zero) of the operation + and 1 , ( a symbol, not one), identity of .; and each
member x in the set has a complement ( or negation of x), denoted by x such as x + x = 0 and
x.x =0.
In other words, a non-empty set B is a Boolean algebra, if,
a) For ( for all) x, y B, x + y B and x.y B, closure property of + and .
b) For x, y B, x + y = y + x and, x.y = y.x Commutative property of + and .
c) For x, y, z B, x+(y+z) = (x+y )+z , and (x.y).z = x.(y.z) both + and . associative.
d) For x, y, z B, x+(y.z) = (x+y ).(x+z) , and x.(y+z) = x.y + x.z both distributive.
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Page 2
e) ( there exists) 0 in B : (such that) x + 0 = x = 0 + x x B, 0 is called identity of +.
f) 1 in B : x .1 = x = 1.x x B, 1 is called identity of .. (The left identity is the same
as the right identity because of commutative property; this is in case of both the
operations.)
g) x B for each x B, called complement or negation of x, : x + x = 1 , x . x = 0
Examples of the last property is relatively rare; at least it is not true in case B is the set of real
numbers and if + and . stand for addition and multiplication respectively. Remember that the
symbols + and . are borrowed from Algebra to represent the binary operations they
stand for, and not addition or multiplication. Still then we continue to call the operation
+ as addition and . as multiplication
Comparing with set theory, the operation + is analogous to the set theoretic operation U i.e.,
union and the operation . Is analogous to the set theoretic operation i.e., intersection. The
symbol 1 in Boolean Algebra is analogous to the universal set in set theory and the symbol 0
in Boolean Algebra is analogous to the null set () in set theory. Just watch
' , ' A A U A A = = u
This does not mean that everything in set theory is just translated into algebraic symbols and set
theory may be dispensed with, never. The following examples shall illustrate which are Boolean
algebra and which are not.
Example1
Let ( ) P S be the set of all subsets in S. The operations +, . and are defined by
, . , ' A B A B A B A B A S A + = = = verify that the structure ( ) ( )
, ,., ' , P S S + is a
Boolean algebra. This is Boolean Algebra of sets.
Take A, B and C any three statements in S and write , for for . v
And follow the above line of arguments.
For an example which is not a Boolean algebra, see example 8 below.
Not only the many instances of set theory, Boolean Algebra also takes care of a large part or
symbolic logic or mathematical logic ( see example 6 below). First let us be familiar with some
operators associated with symbolic logic or mathematical logic.
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Page 3
2:Symbolic logic
Let us see the analogy of union and intersection operations in set theory and the connector
operations disjunction (symbol v , or) and conjunction (symbol . , and), joining Statements
(sentences) in mathematical logic or symbolic logic with and , joining sets in set theory.
In symbolic logic, the symbol c called contradiction plays the role of 0 in mathematics or
in set theory. If p denotes any statement, ~ p denotes negation of p which plays the role of
complement A in set theory. The symbol t stands for tautology plays the role of 1 in
mathematics or U , universal set in set theory .
REMEMBER
a) ( ) ( ) Associativity A B C A B C = in set theory
is analogous to ( ) ( ) p q r p q r v v = v v in symbolic logic.
b) ( ) ( ) Associativity A B C A B C = in set theory
is analogous to ( ) ( ) p q r p q r . . = . . in symbolic logic.
c) commutativity A B B A = in set theory
is analogous to p q q p v = v in symbolic logic.
d) commutativity A B B A = in set theory
is analogous to p q q p . = . in symbolic logic.
e) ( ) ( ) ( ) distributivity A B C A B A C = in set theory
is analogous to ( ) ( ) ( ) p q r p q p r v . = v . v in symbolic logic.
f) ( ) ( ) ( ) distributivity A B C A B A C = in set theory
is analogous to ( ) ( ) ( ) p q r p q p r . v = . v . in symbolic logic.
g) Existence of identities A A = in set theory is analogous to p c p v = in logic.
h) Existence of identities A U A = in set theory is analogous to p t p . = . in logic.
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Page 4
i) Corresponding to complement law ' A A U = in set theory there is ~ p p t v = in logic.
j) Corresponding to complement law ' A A = in set theory there is ~ p p c . = in logic.
It should be observed that there is some similar algebraic structure underlying both set
theory and symbolic logic . We can safely say that symbolic logic and set theory are both
instances of Boolean Algebra under proper operation. To further emphasize and illustrate
this point, see these typical examples.
k) De Morgans Laws : Corresponding to De Morgans Laws in set theory
( ) ' ' ' A B A B = and ( ) ' ' ' A B A B = we have ( ) ( ) ( ) ~ ~ ~ p q p q . = v , and
( ) ( ) ( ) ~ ~ ~ p q p q v = . .
Example2
The operations + and . And are defined on the set of all logical statements, S say; as
, . , ' ~ p q p q p q p q p p + = v = . = . To show that ( ) , ,., ', , S c t + is a Boolean algebra.
A Boolean algebra is generally written in this manner, writing the set, the two binary operations,
negation, contradiction and tautology in a bracket.
We just verify
a)
. .
p q q p as p q q p
commutative property
p q q p as p q q p
+ = + v = v
`
= . = .
)
b)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) . . . .
p q r p q r as p q r p q p
associative property
p q r p q r as p q r p q r
+ + = + + v v = v v
`
= . . = . .

)
c)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
. .
. . .
p q r p q p r as p q r p q p r
distributive property
p q r p q p r as p q r p q p r
+ = + + v . = v . v
`
+ = + . v = . v .

)
d) A contradiction of every statement is a no statement ; denote it by 0 it is also a
statement which is in the set S this is precisely our contradiction element c. Also there is
a statement which accepts every statement . this is precisely the tautology element t and
may be denoted by 1. Now it may be verified that
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Page 5
0
existence of identity elements for 0 and 1
.1
p p as p c p
p p as p t p
+ = v =
`
= . =
)
e) For each statement p in S, there exists ' ~ p p = in S such that ' 1 p p + = as ' p p t v =
(tautology) and . ' 0 p p = as ' p p c . = , the contradiction element.
This completes the proof.
In logical statements one thing to note is that contradiction c plays the role of or null set in set
theory and 0 in arithmetic . One may be confused to reconcile to it in the elementary stage and
may ask how they are the same thing or equivalent. But the fact is, they are neither the same
thing nor equivalent but the corresponding things in proper context. Just remember that 0 and
are neither same nor equivalent but they correspond. In the same manner, tautology t in logic
corresponds to 1 in arithmetic and universal set U in set theory.
Example3
Take { } 0,1 A= and let the binary operations + and . and be defined as on the tables
Table for +
+ 0 1
0 0 1
1 1 1
Table for .
. 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 1
Table for
0 1
1 0
The tables for + and . themselves restate the closure laws , for, result of combination of every
member with every other is given and shown to be a member. Verify associative law with the
help of the tables for the two binary operations. Note that is not an operation , but tabulates
the existence of negation element for any element. Verify the distributive laws with the help of
both the tables taken together , i.e., like
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1. 1 1 1.1 1 1.1 1.1 1 1 1
1. 1 1 1.1 1.1
and + = = + = + =
+ = +
distributive law for .. Similarly distributive law for
+ may be verified.
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Page 6
Also verify that the zero element of + is 0 and unit element of . Is 1.
The last table confirms existence of negation elements of every member, 0 = 1 and 1 = 0.
Now everything is verified and the structure given is a Boolean algebra .
Example4
Denote D
4
the set of all divisors of 4, i.e. { }
4
1, 2, 4 D = . Define + and . as
( )
( )
least common multiple of ,
. greatest common divisor of ,
4
complement ' of any element a is given by ' =
a b a b
a b a b
a a
a
+ =
=
Show that ( )
4
, ,., ', 0,1 D + is not a Boolean algebra
Construct the tables of binary operations and complement list as
Table for +
+ 1 2 4
1 1 2 4
2 2 2 4
4 4 4 4
Table for .
. 1 2 4
1 1 1 1
2 1 2 2
4 1 2 4

Table for
1 2 4
4 2 1
Verify that criteria of Boolean algebra such as closure, associativity, commutativity are satisfied
for both operations. Verify that the unit element or identity of addition is 4 and the zero
element is 0.
To verify distributivity, note that 1 +( 2.4) = 1 + 2 = 2 using tables for addition and
multiplication. Also verify similarly (1 + 2). ( 1 + 4) = 2.4 =2; so 1 + ( 2.4 )= (1 + 2).(1 + 4 ). So
the distributive law of + over . are verified.
To verify distributivity of . over + note that 1.(2+4)=1.4=1 and (1.2)+(1.4)=1+1=1; so we get,
1.(2+4)=(1.2)+(1.4). So both the distributive laws are verified.
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Page 7
To find out complements, note that 1 = 4 ( unit element of
4
D ) and 1.4 = 1 (zero element of
4
D ).
So 4 =1.
From the table for we get 2 =2. But from the other tables 2 + 2 = 2 + 2 =2 nor 4.
And 2.2 = 2.2 =2 , not 1. Thus 2 is not 2. This is a contradictory result . Thus the structure is
not a Boolean algebra.
Exercise1
If
6
D is the set of divisors of 6 and + means lcm of two numbers and . means GCD of the
numbers,
6
complement ' of any element a is given by ' = a a
a
, show that the structure is a Boolean
algebra.
Exercise2
Show that
8
D is not a Boolean algebra , D
8
defined as the set of divisors of 8 and the operations
and
complement define as : + means LCM, . means GCD and complement
8
' = a
a
Exercise3
If { } ( )
1, 2 S P = the power set of { } 1, 2 , the binary operations + stands for union, . Stands for
intersection, stands for complement, null set stands for 0 element and the set { } 1, 2 stands for
unit element 1, show that the structure is a Boolean algebra.
Exercise4
Do the above exercise for { } 1, 2, 3 in place of { } 1, 2 .
Exercise5
For a set { } 1, 2, 3,........
n
S = the binary functions + is defined as ( ) max , x y x y + = , the . Function
is defined as ( ) . min , x y x y = , verify that conditions of closure, associativity, commutativity are
satisfied.
Exercise6 (remember)
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Page 8
In any Boolean algebra, the identity elements are unique.
Proof :
If not, let 0
be another identity element 0 = . Since both are identities, 0 0 0
+ = and0 0 0

+ = . Since
+ is commutative, 0 0 0 0

+ = + . This implies 0 0
= , i.e. the identity element is unique.

Similarly prove 1 1
=
3:Duality in Boolean Algebra
In Geometry, there are many theorems which still hold good if points in the theorem are
replaced by lines and vice versa. Such a relationship between points and lines is called a
Duality . In any Boolean algebra, if we interchange the two operations and interchange their
identity elements, the result shall still be another Boolean algebra.
As example let us write dual statement of ( ) ( ) 1 . 0 x y y + + = . If + is replaced by . and 1 is
replaced by 0 and vice versa, the statement shall be simply converted to( ) ( ) 0. 1. x y y + = .
Try finding the dual statements of 1) ( ) 1. 0 x x + = and 2) ( ) 1. ' 0 ' x x = + and verify that the dual
statements are( ) 0 .1 x x + = and ( ) 0 ' 1. ' x x + = respectively.
This simple theorem is the result of commutativity, associativity and distributivity of the
two operations. The reader can work out the details as an exercise.
In fact we may prove dual of any statement in a Boolean algebra to be true.
Exercise 7 (remember)
To prove dual of statement x x x + = i.e. . x x x = to be true
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Page 9
First understand the validity of x x x + = . In the Boolean algebra B, x x x + = means p p p v = if x
in B stands for statement p and + stands for v . More clearly,
( )
( ) ( )
( )
0 (0 )
. ' . ' 0
. ' ' ' '.'
.1 ' 1
x x being identity
x x x as x x
x x x x distributivity of over
x x as x x
x x
= +
= + =
= + + +
= + + =
= +
Now to prove the dual statement . x x x =
We have
( )
( ) ( )
( )
.1 (1 )
. ' ' 1
. . ' '.' ' '
. 0 . ' 0
.
x x being identity
x x x as x x
x x x x distributivity of over
x x as x x
x x
=
= + + =
= + +
= + =
=
You would be delighted to compare the two proofs; just + and . Are interchanged and 0 and 1
are interchanged mechanically. This , i.e. symmetry is the beauty of dual statement.
Find the dual statements of the following:(the statements are not necessarily true, however just
work with them) . Hint : Just replace . with + , and 0 with 1 and vice versa .
a) ( ) ' ' ' . x y x y + =
b) ( ) . 0 x y x + =
c) ( ) . ' ' ' x y x y = +
d) ( ) ' '. ' x y x y + =
e) ( ) ( )
. 1 x x y x + + =
f) . ' x y y x y + = +
g) ( ) ( )
' . ' 1 x y x y + + =
h) ( ) ( ) ' . ' '. ' . x y x y x y x y + + = +
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Page 10
i) ( ) ( ) ( ) ' . ' . ' ' 0 x y y z x z + + + = (

j) ( ) ( ) . 1 . x y x x x y y + + = + +
To prove dual of statement 1 1 x + = i.e. .0 0 x = to be true
First understand the validity of 1 1 x + = . In the Boolean algebra B, 1 1 x + = means p t t v = if x in B
stands for statement p and + stands for v
, where
t
stands for tautology
. More clearly,
( )
( ) ( )
( )
1 ' (1 )
'.1 '.1 '
' . 1 '.' ' '
1. 1 ' 1
1
x x being identity and this is law ofcomplements
x x as x x
x x x distributivity of over
x as x x
x
= +
= + =
= + + +
= + + =
= +
Now to prove the dual statement .0 0 x =
We have
( )
( ) ( )
( )
0 . ' (0 )
. ' 0 ' 0 '
. ' .0 '.' ' '
0 .0 . ' 0
.0
x x being identity and it is by law of complements
x x as x x
x x x distributivity of over
x as x x
x
=
= + + =
= + +
= + =
=
To prove dual of statement ( ) . x x y x + = i.e. ( ) . x x y x + = to be true
First prove ( ) . x x y x + = . In the Boolean algebra B, ( ) . x x y x + = means ( ) p p q q v . = if x
,
y in B
stands for statement p
,
q and + stands for v
, . stands for
. . More clearly,
( )
( ) ( )
.1 (1 )
. 1 1 1,
. .1 '.' ' '
x x being identity
x y as y as in the previous example
x y x distributivity of over
=
= + + =
= + +
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Page 11
( ) ( ) . .1 . x y x as x x x x y = + = = +
Now to prove the dual statement ( ) . x x y x + =
We have
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
0 (0 )
.0 .0 0
. 0 ' ' '.'
. 0
.
x x being identity
x y as y by above example
x y x distributivity of over
x y x as x x
x x y
= +
= + =
= + + +
= + + =
= +
To prove dual of statement 0' 1 = i.e. 1' 0 = to be true.
By example 66 above, we have, 1 1 x + =
for all x in B.
In particular , taking
0 x =
and putting it in the above , we have
0 1 1 + =
, so
0' 1 =
.
Now to prove the dual
1' 0 =
, take
.0 0 x =
for all x in B.( by example 66)
Putting a particular value
1 x =
in this, we have
1.0 0 =
By commutativity,
0.1 0 =
, so
1' 0 =
.
It is trivial to note that ( ) ' ' x x =
and this statement itself is its dual statement.
The former may be proved from
' 1 x x + =
, the definition of
' x
.
By commutativity,
' 1 x x + =
, so that
x
is the complement of
' x
.
To prove ( ) ' ' ' x y x y + = and its dual statement ( ) ' ' ' xy x y = + .
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Page 12
To prove ( ) ' ' ' x y x y + = , it is sufficient to show that ( ) ( ) '. ' 1 x y x y + + = , i.e. ( ) ( ) '. ' x y and x y + are
complements of each other.
Now
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
'. ' '. ' ,
'. ' ,
' . ' , ,
1. ' ' 1,
'
', ,
1, ' 1,
x y x y y x x y by commutativity
y x x y by associativity
y x x x y by distributivity
y x y as x x being complements of eachother
y x y
x y y by commutativity
x as y y complem
+ + = + +
= + + (

= + + + (

= + + + = (

= + +
= + +
= + + = ( )
1, 66
ents
by example above =
Hence ( ) ( ) '. ' 1 x y x y + + = , so ( ) ( ) ' '. ' x y x y + =
Similarly, for proving the dual statement ( ) ' ' ' xy x y = + , we need to prove ( ) ( ) . '. ' 0 x y x y + = , i.e.
( ) ( ) '. ' x y and x y + are complements of each other.
Exercise 14
Prove that
a) ( ) ' ' ' . x y x y + =
b) ( ) . 1 x x y x + + =
c) ( ) . 1 x x y x + +
d) ( ) ( ) . 1 . x y x x x y y + + = + +
e) . ' 0 . x y x y x = =
f) if 0 . ' '. x y x y x y = = + for all y.
g) if 0 0 x y x y + = = =
h) If x y x z + = + and ' ' x y x z + = + , then y z =
Exercise 15: Remember
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Remembering the principle of duality in Boolean algebra De Morgans laws may be stated in
this form:
a) ( )' '. ' x y x y + =
b) ( ) . ' ' ' x y x y = + dot replacing + and vice versa as per principle of duality.
Prove by showing that truth tables are same for both sides.
X Y X+Y (X+Y)'
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
X Y X' Y' X'.Y'
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0
You can observe the results are identical for both sides of a) . Similarly prove b).
Exercise 16: Remember
Prove the following with the help of truth tables.
a) 1 1, .0 0 x x + = = (boundedness laws)
b) ( ) ( ) . , . x x y x x x y x + = + = ( absorption laws)
c) ( ) ( ) '. , . ' . x x y x y x x y x y + = + + = (elimination laws)
d) If 1, . 0 x y x y + = = , then ' x y = (Unique complement theorem)
e) ( ) ' ' " , 0' 1 x x x = = = (Involution theorem)
4:TRUTH VALUE OF LOGICAL STATEMENTS
We have seen how Boolean Algebra handles logical statements in Algebraic fashion. It is now
time to do some mathematics with statements themselves. We have already shown informally
what are logical statements and how they are connected by operators AND and OR,
represented by symbols . ( called Conjunction operator) and v (Disjunction operator)
respectively and also have seen how they are analogous to the set theoretic operations and
respectively. Logically, all statements fall into one of the following two categories True ,
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False. We just want to bring under a structure, all sorts of ethics and beliefs included. Whenever
we accept some statement say p to be true, we assign a truth value, i.e. T to it and similarly
when we accept a statement say q to be false, we assign a truth value F to it. Sometimes
True is denoted by Yes or 1 and False is denoted by No or 0 also.
For example, let p: Hari is brother of Ram, q: Hari is son of Shiva. Then p. q: Hari is brother of
Ram and Hari is son of Shiva. Similarly pv q: Hari is brother of Ram or Hari is son of Shiva.
As told previously the statements p, q may be accepted as true or false by choice. If both the
statements p, q are true, then p. q is true as well as pv q is true. But in case p is true and q is
false, p. q cannot be true (evidently both are not true). In this case at least one of the
statements is true obviously; i.e., pv q. These facts could be listed in the following table called
truth table .
Truth table for p. q
p q p. q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Note that .
combination of both statements are false when each of them is false. ( it is
contrary to the notion negative of negative is positive, because here the statements are
joined, not one operating on the other)
Truth table for pv q
p q pv q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Closely watch the difference between the tables before proceeding from here.
There is another operator NOT apart from the operators AND and OR, called negation
operator, the negation of statement p is denoted by p. If truth value of p if T then that of p is
F and vice versa.
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The truth table for ~ p is obviously the following one. Here negation of negation of p is p.
p ~ p
T F
F T
Remember
The operator or connector OR in mathematics is never used in mutually exclusive
sense. The statement pv q means p, or q or both. It is not either exclusively p or q.
5:The connector if.then and contrapositive statements
Two statements may be joined with the help of a conditional connector if.then; in
symbols
p q
and the statement
p q
is called a conditional statement. In this type of statements, p
is called antecedent and q is called consequent.
For example : If it rains today, the pond cannot be dug.
We could write p: It rains today; q: the pond cannot be dug.
The same compound statement may also be written in many other ways. For example, the
pond cannot be dug if it rains today. When it rains today, the pond cannot be dug. The pond can
be dug only if it does not rain today. It rains today is sufficient condition for the pond cannot
be dug.
Remember
The order in which the two statements are written is not important , but the writing should be
unambiguous so that p q
. Further , in mathematical logic, statements are viewed objectively.
Even p and q are unrelated statements, one may choose to write
p q
, there is no bar, for we
are studying a structure only. For example one may write p : You see a falling star , and q: you
would pass the exam and one may connect the two such as If you see a falling star, you would
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Page 16
pass the exam. Still as another example, take p: 2 + 4 =8 and q : Ram would get a hat ; and
connect the two as : if 2 + 4 =8 then Ram would get a hat.
This consideration shall be evident when we study the truth value of p q
.
Remember
a) When p is true and q is true, evidently p q
is true.
b) When p is true and q is false, p q
is false.
(We need not preempt
p q
, only it follows that
p q
is false. Understandably we have
accepted forming of
p q
even if p and q are unrelated subjects. As an example, if p:
Ram is son of Hari and q: Shiva is son of Gopal, the statement
p q
becomes, If Ram is
son of Hari and q: Shiva is son of Gopal. The combined statement should be evidently
false in case the second statement ( q) is false, as the implication q is false.
c) When p is false and q is true, p q
is true.
For example, if p : 9 is not divisible by 3 and q: 45 is divisible by 3, we have the combined
statement p q
: if
9 is not divisible by 3 then 45 is divisible by 3. Since the consequence
of this combined statement 45 is divisible by 3 is true, there is no objection in accepting
the combined statement to be true.
d) When p is false and q is false, p q
is true.
For example p : 2 + 4 = 5 and q: 2 + 3 = 6 both statements are false. If we connect the
two false statements with if. then, it would be If 2 + 4 = 5 then 2 + 3 = 6. It is true that
a false statement shall generate a false statement.
Truth table for
p q
The above facts may easily be remembered by looking at the truth table for p q
.
p q
p q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Remember
p q
is false only when truth value of p is T and truth value of q is F, otherwise it is true.
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In this way the symbol is different from i.e., Implies. The latter whenever connects two
statements, the combined statement is supposed to be necessarily true; but not in case of .
To carry the structure forward, let us work out some more truth tables, so that writing the
statements and connecting them only through symbols would be more facilitated.
( Perhaps now you understand when negative of negative is positive and when it is not)
Truth table for
( ) ~ p q v
This would show how if then i.e., is correlated tov and . . To this end, we copy the truth
table for p q
in the first three columns in the table below, then take
~ p
in the fourth column,
and
q
in the fifth column and work out
( ) ~ p q v
in the last. See for yourself the last column using
table for
v
worked out in the beginning.
p q
p q ~ p q
( ) ~ p q v
T T T F T T
T F F F F F
F T T T T T
F F T T F T
Truth table for
( ) ~ p q v
~ p q
( ) ~ p q v
F T T
F F F
T T T
T F T
Remember
The truth table for p q
is same as the truth table for
( ) ~ p q v
as evident from above and so we
may write the statements
p q
and
( ) ~ p q v
are equivalent statements;
Remember
( ) ~ p q p q v
.
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Let
: p
do not reach the station on time,
: q
you miss the train. Then
p q
stands for if
you do not reach the station on time, then you miss the train and
( ) ~ p q v
stands for
Either you reach the station on time or you miss the train. This is a small but powerful result
and is required in many of the problem below.
An equivalent statement of the above is
( ) ( ) ~ ~ p q p q .
which would be proved below,
with the help of De Morgans laws stated below.
6:
De Morgans laws applied to statements Remember
Remember De Morgans laws in set theory,
( ) ' ' ' A B A B =
and
( ) ' ' ' A B A B =
. These
applied to statements become
( ) ( ) ( ) ~ ~ ~ p q p q v .
and
( ) ( ) ( ) ~ ~ ~ p q p q . v
respectively; as
~ p
in logical statements correspond to
' A
(complement of
A
in set theory).
Remember
If
p q
then
~ ~ q p
, this is called contrapositive statement of
p q
.
This is shown as follows:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ p q p q q p q p q p v v v
in view of commutativity and as per
the above result.
For example contrapositive statements are like this :
The contrapositive of If you can gather 100 Rupees then surely you could gather 10 Rupees is
If you cannot gather 10 rupees , you cannot gather 100 rupees.
The contrapositive of if you can swim across the river then you can swim the backyard pool is
if you cannot swim across the backyard pool, you cannot swim across the river.
Further practice in the following paragraphs shall reinforce your understanding of symbolic
representation of mathematical logic.
Exercise 17
Rewrite the following sentences in symbolic form p q
a) If you study well you would get good results
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b) If you are lucky you win a lottery
c) If you say no to tobacco you would not catch cancer
( The sentences are given only for exercise. Do not connect them to real life situation . for
example in
a) let p: you study well and q: you would get good results. We rewrite p q
. In real life,
studying well is not sufficient for getting good results, it might be luck or situation too. Similarly in
b) if you dont win a lottery, you might still be lucky otherwise. In c) you may observe that many
non-smokers also get cancer.)
Similarly you might observe that unrelated subjects are connected by if.then in the following.
Remember that we are here only studying structure of mathematical logic, not ethics religion or
belief.
Exercise 18
Rewrite the symbolic form p q
in plain language.
a) p: 2 + 3 = 7 , q: 4 + 6 = 14 ( if 2 + 3 = 7 then 4 + 6 = 14)
b) p: 2 + 2 =5, q: Sita would get a chocolate. ( if 2 + 2 =5 then Sita would get a chocolate)
c) p: any integer is divisible by 3, q: sum of its digits are divisible by 3.( if any integer is
divisible by 3, then the sum its digits is divisible by 3)
The following exercises are on truth value.
Exercise 19
In the following the truth value of p is T, that of q is F and that of r is T. Find the truth value of the
logical expressions.
A) ( ) p q r v
. Ans.
( ) T F T T T T v = =
,as
( ) T F T v =
and
T T T =
.( refer truth
value table for
p q
.
B) ( ) p q r .
Ans.
( ) T F T T T T . = =
C) ( ) p q r
. Ans.
( ) T F T T T T = =
, as
F T T =
and
T T T =
.
D) ( ) p q r .
. Ans.
( ) T F T T T T . = . =
, as
F T T =
and
T T T . =
E) ( ) ~ p q r v
.Ans.
( ) ~ ~ T F T T T T F F v = = =
, as
T F T v =
and
T F F =
F) ( ) p q r .
. Ans.
( ) T F T F T F . = . =
,as
T F F =
and
F T F . =
.
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Exercise 20
Prepare the truth tables of the following statements:
a) ( ) p q r v
b) ( ) p q r .
c) ( ) p q r .
d) ( ) ~ ~ p q q v (

e) ( ) ( ) ~ p r q r . v (

7:Truth table method of proving logical statements
Apart from analytical proof, we could also prove a logical statement from truth tables. This would
be evident from the following exercise.
Exercise 21
To prove ( ) ( ) ( ) p q r p r q r v .
We have to make truth tables for a) ( ) , p q and p q v b) ( ) , p q and p q r v c)
( ) , p q and p r , d) for ( ) , p q and q r , e) for ( ) ( ) , p q and p r q r . and then show that
the truth tables for b) and for e) are one ant the same by making a common table for all of
the above, combining the above truth tables together.
Remember that This is general method of proving these kind of problems.
We do the common table here for all of a) ,b), c) ,d) and e) above and you can extract the
individual tables from it as an exercise.
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Page 21
( ) ( ) ( ) p q r p q p r q r p q r p r q r
T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F F
T F T T T T T T
T F F T F T F F
F T T T T T T T
F T F T T F F F
F F T F T T T T
F F F F T T T T
v v .
The reader should verify that the last two columns are identical, showing that
( ) ( ) ( ) p q r p r q r v . .
Exercise 22
To show that ( ) ( ) ~ ~ p q p q . Remember
Hint : Just take negative of both sides of ( ) ~ p q p q v
and apply De Morgans laws.
Exercise 23
Show that ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
~ ~ ~ ~ q p p q .
(Just the contrapositive of the above)
Exercise 24
Using truth table method, show that p q and q p do not imply one and the same thing.
8:Biconditional statements
Two logical statements may be combined with , i.e., implies and is implied by. For example
look at the following statements
a) Three angles of a triangle are equal three sides are equal.
b) Prakash is son of Ramesh Ramesh is father of Prakash.
Either side of each of the statements follow from the other side.
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In logic we generalize the concept as if and only if and denoted by , not by . The reason
is , the truth value of a combined statement joined by is always true; but the truth value of a
combined statement joined by is true only if both the sides are true and also true if both
sides are false.
Remember.
The truth table for p q is given below:
p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
It is easy to understand the fourth line, that one false statement follows from another false
statement and vice versa. The second and third line simply say that a true statement cannot
follow from a false one and vice versa.
More generally, ( ) ( ) p q p q q p . Remember
Again we could make truth tables for ( ) ( ) , , , , , p q p q q p p q p q q p . separately, draw
the common table from them and show equivalence of the last two table columns as in ex 73
above.
For brevity we are giving here only the common table, the reader should draw individual tables
first and draw the common table from them as an exercise.
( ) ( ) p q p q q p p q p q q p
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F F F
F F T T T T
.
The last two columns show the equivalence as desired.
Exercise 25
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Page 23
To prove ( ) ( ) ( ) ~ ~ ~ p q p q p q . v . Remember
We can prove this with the help of truth tables. Also see the following for analytical approach.
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) { }
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
~ ~
~ ~ ~ ' '
~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~
p q p q q p by definition
p q p q q p
p q p q q p by De morgan s laws
p q q p p q
p q p q p q
.
.
v
. v .
. v .
Exercise 26
Show that ( ) ( ) ( )
~ ~ p q p q p q . v .
9:Premises, conclusion and arguments
Sometimes we draw some conclusion from a collection or sequence of statements. The
sequence of the statements along with conclusion together form what is called an argument.
The statements which lead to the conclusion are called antecedents or premises or
hypotheses ( plural of hypothesis). Sometimes the conclusion may be a valid one or may be
invalid also. We would discuss some methods to test the validity of an argument. But remember
that an argument is merely a sequence of statements ending in some conclusion; not
necessarily a dispute. If
1 2 3
, , ,.....
n
S S S S is a sequence of statements leading to a conclusion S ,
then the argument is denoted by( )
1 2 3
, , ,..... ;
n
S S S S S . An argument ( )
1 2 3
, , ,..... ;
n
S S S S S is said to
be valid if S is true whenever all of
1 2 3
, , ,.....
n
S S S S are true.
Example4 ;
Let
1
: S n is a natural number;
2
: S a natural number is an integer;
3
: S an integer is a rational
number;
4
: S a rational number is a real number and : S n is a real number. Here
1 2 3 4
, , , S S S S are
premises or hypotheses or antecedents S is the conclusion and it is valid. The sequence
( )
1 2 3 4
, , , ; S S S S S is an argument and it is valid.
10:Methods to test validity of an argument
We construct a truth table for the hypotheses and the conclusion. If truth value all of the
hypotheses are true in a row and the conclusion is also true in that row, then the
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Page 24
argument is valid. Such a row in which all hypotheses are true is called a critical row. There
may be more than one critical row in such a table. The conclusion should be true in every
critical row; otherwise the argument shall be invalid.
The last statement may be differently worded as follow; which gives an alternative test of
validity of any argument. The argument ( )
1 2 3
, , ,..... ;
n
S S S S S is valid if the statement if
1 2 3
.....
n
S S S S . . . . then S is a tautology is true, else invalid.
If there is no critical row; i.e., there is no row in which all the hypotheses are true, the
argument is considered invalid.
Example 5;
Test the validity of the following argument. ( )
1 2
:~ , : , : ~ S q S p q S p q v . .
Let us construct the truth table as follows:
hypothesis hypothesis conclusion
p q ~ q p q v ~ p q .
T T F T F
T F T T T
F T F T F
F F T F F
The third row is the only critical row and the conclusion is also true there. So the argument is
valid.
Example6 ;
Test the validity of the following argument.
1 2
:~ , : , :~ S p S p q S q v
hypothesis hypothesis conclusion
p q ~ p p q v ~ q
T T F T F
T F F T T
F T T T F
F F T F T
The third row is the only critical row and the conclusion is false there. So the argument is invalid.
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Example7 ;
Show that the following argument is valid. ( )
1 2
: , : ~ , : S p q S p S q v
In the alternative method, we would verify the conditional if ( ) ( ) ~ p q p v . , then q is a
tautology. Let us construct the truth tables for
1 2
, , S S and S as follows.
1
S
2
S
1 2
S S .
1 2
S S S .
S
p p q v ~ p
( ) ( ) ~ p q p v . ( ) ( ) ~ p q p q v .
q
T T F F T T
T T F F T F
F T T T T T
F F T F T F
The fifth column is seen to be a tautology. Hence the argument is valid.
Exercise 27:
Examine the validity of the argument:
1 2
: ; : ; : S If p then q S p S q
Hypotheses Conclusion
p q p q p q
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T F F
The first row is the only critical row and conclusion is also true. So the argument is valid
Exercise 28:Show that the following argument is invalid:
. ( )
1 2
: ; :~ ; : S p q r S r S p q v v v
p q
r
q r v
( ) p q r v v
~ r
p q v
T T T T T F T
T T F T T T T
T F T T T F T
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Page 26
T F F F T T T
F T T T T F T
F T F T T T T
F F T T T F F
F F F F F T F
The fourth, sixth and eighth rows are critical rows in all of which conclusion is true. So the
argument is valid.
Exercise 29:
Show that the following argument is invalid: ( ) ( )
1 2
: ~ ; : ; : S p q r S q p r S p r v .
p q
r ~ r ( ) ~ q r v p r .
( ) ~ p q r v ( ) q p r . p r
T T T F T T T T T
T T F T T F T F
T F T F F T F T
T F F T T F T T F
F T T F T F T F
F T F T T F T F
F F T F F F T T T
F F F T T F T T T
Mark the critical rows are the third, 6
th
and 9
th
and 10
th
rows. In the sixth row, the conclusion is F.
So the argument is invalid.
Exercise 30:
Show that the following argument is invalid. ( )
1 2
: , : ~ , :~ S p q S p S q v
2
S S
1
S
1 2
S S .
1 2
S S S .
p q
~ p ~ q p q v
( ) ( ) ~ p q p v . ( ) ( ) ( ) ~ ~ p q p q v .
T T F F T F T
T F F T T F T
F T T F T T F
F F T T F F T
Since the last column is not a tautology (not always having truth value T) the argument is invalid.
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Page 27
The student should compare the two methods and understand the similar reason behind them.
In one method, all the critical rows must have conclusion T and in the second method, the
conclusion must be always true for being a tautology.
Show the validity or invalidity of the arguments below:
Misc Exercise :
31.
1 2
: ; :~ ; :~ S p q S p S q (invalid)
32.
1 2
: ; :~ ; : S p q S q S p v (valid)
33.
1 2
: ; :~ ; : S p q S p S q v (valid)
34.
1 2
: ; : ; : S p q S q S p (invalid)
35.
1 2
: ; : ; : S p q S q p S p q v (valid)
36.
1 2 3
: ; : ~ ; : ; : S p q S p q S p r S r v (Invalid)
37.
1
: ; : ; S p S p q v (Valid)
38.
1
: ; : ; S q S p q v (Valid)
39.
1
: ; : ; S p q S p v (Valid)
40.
1
: ; : ; S p q S q v (Valid)
41.
1 2
: ; :~ ; :~ S p q S q S p (Valid)
42.
1 2 3
: ; : ; :~ , : S p S p q S q r S r v (valid)
43. ( )
1 2
: ; : ; : S p q S p r S p q r . (valid)
44. ( )
1 2 3
: ~ ; : ; : ; : S p q r S p q S q p S r . v (

(Invalid)
11:Boolean expressions and functions:
If ( ) , ,.,',0,1 B + be a Boolean algebra in the usual sense, where
{ }
1 2
, ,.........
n
B x x x = , a Boolean
expression in these variables would be defined like this:
a)
1 2
0,1, , ,.........
n
x x x , each of them is a Boolean expression.
b) If x and y are Boolean expressions, then
', , ( . . ), . , . ., x x y i e x y x y i e x y + v . are Boolean expressions.
Example6:
Show that ( )
1 2 3
. x x x + is a Boolean expression and find its value if
1 2 3
0, 0 1 x x and x = = =
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The expression is a Boolean expression evidently as conditions a) and b) are satisfied. Its value
becomes ( ) ( )
1 2 3
. 0.0 1 0 1 1 x x x + = + = + =
Exercise45:
Show that ( ) { }
1 2 3
. ' x x x + is a Boolean expression and find its value when
1 2 3
0, 0 1 x x and x = = = . Ans. 0, as 1 = 0.
12:Boolean Function:
Functions represented by Boolean expressions are Boolean Functions. In other words, if
( )
1 2
, ,.....
n
X x x x be some Boolean expression in the variables mentioned, then
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
, ,..... , ,.....
n n
f x x x X x x x = is a Boolean function.
Example7
Remember the definition of function from the previous chapter, it is a single valued
correspondence between two sets A and B and is denoted by ( ) : f A B Its domain is the
subset of A for which the correspondence exists and the range or co-domain is the set of
corresponding values in B. The function { }
( )
{ }
2
: 0,1 0,1 f , is a Boolean function if
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 2
. . ' f x x x x x = + .
The right hand side expression is evidently a Boolean expression , hence it is a Boolean
function. Its
domain is { } { } { } ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { }
2
0,1 0,1 0,1 0,0 , 1,0 , 0,1 , 1,1 X = = , the Cartesian product of
{ } { } 0,1 0,1 and . We would use only Boolean functions whose domain is given by { } 0,1
n
,
where n is a natural number, and call it an n-place Boolean function. The structure of the
domain is by the number of variables in the expression. For example, in a function
1 2 3
. ' x x x + , we
see that each member of the domain contains three variables, of the type
( )
1 2 3
, , x x x , which is a
member of { } ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { }
3
0,1 0,0,1 , 0,1,1 , 1,0,1 , 1,0,0 ,........... = etc. as the variables can take only values
0 or 1.
Exercise46
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Page 29
a) Find ( ) ( )
1 1 2 3
'. . ' x x x x + if
1 2 3
0, 1, 1 x x x = = = . Ans. 1
b) Find ( ) ( )
1 1 2 3
'. . ' x x x x + if
1 2 3
1, 0, 0 x x x = = = . Ans. 0
c) Find ( ) ( )
1 1 2 3
'. . ' x x x x + if
1 2 3
0, 0, 1 x x x = = = . Ans. 1
Exercise 47:
Construct input-output table for the Boolean expressions as follows:
a) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 2
. . ' f x x x x x = +
b) ( )
1 2 1 2
. '. f x x x x =
c)
( ) ( )
1 2 3 1 2 3
. . . ' f x x x x x x = +
d)
( ) ( )
1 2 3 1 2 3
. . . ' . f x x x x x x =
12:Arrow diagram for Boolean function
The input-output tables for Boolean functions may be represented by an arrow diagram. For
example, take the following table:
Input Output
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
We can take ordered triplets of the inputs such as (1, 1, 1), (1,1,0) etc. and construct an arrow
diagram connecting the ordered triplets of inputs to the respective output. Compare the arrow
diagram with the input-output table like the one given below:
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Verify that the arrow diagram is equivalent to the input - output table.
Exercise48
Make an arrow diagram for the following table:
Input Output
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
13:Boolean function from input-output tables.
The following example would illustrate how do we construct a Boolean function for a given input-
output table.
Input Output
x
1
x
2
x
3
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
(1,1,1) (1,1,0)
(1,0,0)
(1,0,1)
(1,1,1)
(0,1,1)
(0,1,0)
(0,0,1)
(0,0,0)
0
1
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Page 31
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
Observe that there is 1 in the output in the 3
rd
, 6
th
and 8
th
row. We can take
1 2 3
. . 1 x x x = when all
input are 1 each. If any input
2
x is 0 in any row, we can put
2
' 1 x = in this case and still get the
result
1 2 3
. '. 1 x x x = . Thus we get
1 2 3
. . 1 x x x = in the 3
rd
row,
1 2 3
. '. ' 1 x x x = in the 6
th
row, and
1 2 3
'. . ' 1 x x x = in the 8
th
row. We can write
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
. . . ' . ' ' . . ' 1 x x x x x x x x x + + = for the rows where
output is 1. ( Note that 1 or 1 is 1, i.e., 1 + 1 = 1). Observe that this represents the complete
table; for it is automatically understood that the output is 0 for all other inputs. Thus
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
. . . . . ' . ' ' . . ' f x x x x x x x x x x x x = + + is the Boolean function representing the table, as
you may verify that when any member in the bracket in the left side of the equation is 0, the right
side is 0.
We can now list the rules for finding Boolean function for an input output table.
1) Identify all rows having output 1
2) Take the combinations of inputs
( )
1 2 3
. . x x x where all the inputs are 1 and take
complements of inputs if anyone is 0; i.e., put
2
' x in place of
2
x , if
2
0 x = .
3) Then combine all such expressions with OR i.e. ..
4) This is the Boolean function
( )
1 2 3
. . f x x x , we need not write
( )
1 2 3
, , f x x x
Exercise49
Construct a Boolean function for the following input output table.
Input output
x
1
x
2
y
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 1 0
Ans. ( )
1 2 1 2
. . f x x x x =
The other outputs except 1 are automatically taken care of, in the Boolean function thus arrived
at.
( observe)
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Exercise50
Input Output
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
Exercise51
Input Output
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
14:LOGIC OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND SIGNALS
Switches lamp
p q On/off
closed closed on
closed open off
open closed off
open open off
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Look at the electrical circuits above; in the series circuit , first one, the lamp would be on
only when both the switches are closed (on) and the lamp would be off when any one of the
switches if open (off). Compare this with the truth table of p q . denoting truth values 1 for T
and 0 for F. This is same as the Input-Output table for binary operation AND. Also mark here
that performing the operation AND is same as taking minimum of 1 and 0. See the table below.
p q
p q .
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
Switches lamp
p q On/off
closed closed on
closed open on
open closed on
open open off
p
q
battery
lamp
Switches p and q are in parallel; lamp would be
lighted when any one of the switches are closed.
p q
battery
lamp
Switches p and q are in series; lamp would be
lighted when both switches are closed.
Page 75 / 681
Page 34
Exercise 52: remember
Show that if p, q etc have values
1 2
, x x , which are Boolean variables 0 or 1, then the input- output
table for AND is represented by a Boolean function ( )
1 2 1 2
, . f x x x x = , the Boolean expression
where . represents AND.
Hint : Show that their input-output tables are same.
In the parallel circuit , compare the table with truth table of p q v , using 1 and 0 for T and
F respectively. This is same as the Input-Output table for binary operation OR. Also mark here
that performing the operation OR is same as taking maximum of 1 and 0. See the table below.
p q
p q v
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
Exercise 53: remember
Show that if p, q etc have values
1 2
, x x , which are Boolean variables 0 or 1, then the input- output
table for OR is represented by a Boolean function ( )
1 2 1 2
, f x x x x = + , the Boolean expression
where + Represents OR.
Hint : Show that their input-output tables are same.
In electrical engineering and in electronics, large number of tiny electrical circuits are
integrated to give desired outputs. These are called integrated circuits or ICs. These ICs of chips
are having various uses today, in computers, music systems, cars , calculators, digital watches,
robots and industrial control systems etc. Depending upon their level of integration ( number of
circuit components or logic gates) the ICs are called SSI ( small scale integration, no. of ICs s
10), MSI ( Medium scale integration, no. of ICs s100),LSI,( Large scale integration, no. of ICs s
1000), or VLSI ( very large scale integration, no. of ICs > 1000).
A logic gate means a logical operation is performed on logical inputs and results in a
single output. The logic is commonly Boolean logic.
The AND gate and the OR gate is represented in the following symbols with their
input- output function shown in their side.
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Logic gates are not necessarily series or parallel electrical circuits only. They may be
combinations of them or other electrical contrivances to meant to modify the input values of
currents or signals or bits to desired output. For example there is a NOT gate corresponding to
NOT function in Boolean Algebra, i.e. complement in set theory. This is a logical requirement to
develop logical tools involving gates and may not be represented by a simple series of parallel
electrical circuit. The gate concepts are useful in optical systems, even in mechanical systems.
The diagram or symbol for it is given below along with input-output table.
Such a gate inverts the input signal, 1 to 0 and 0 to 1. In other words T to F and F to T. As such
it is called an inverter. Do not confuse it with home or office inverter which is used to supply
output current even if the input current is cut off; but not does not make out put current 0 when
there is input current in the mains. As an example of a NOT gate we can cite the example of a
burglar alarm or bank safety siren; it buzzes only when the circuit breaks. The small circle in the
symbol for NOT gate ( and in many other we would know later on) is called bubble.
The logical gates are primarily used theoretically to modify the pulse waveform of signals
apart from carrying out mathematical logical operations. It is explained below:
A and B are two square wave input signals taking values 0 ( at the lower level) and 1 (at the
higher level) at different times as given below. If the two signals are combined by the operation
x x
1 0
0 1
NOT NOT x x
NOT gate converting signal x to x
OR
OR
1
x
2
x
1 2
x x +
AND
AND
1
x
1 2
. x x
2
x
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OR, the output signal Y = A OR B, i.e. A+B is calculated with the help of the two figures for A
and B as given below.
It is
evide
ntly
unde
rstoo
d
that
the output signal Y is clearly A OR B, i.e. A+B.
SIGNALS
1
t t <
1 2
t t t s <
2 3
t t t s <
3 4
t t t s <
4 5
t t t s <
5 6
t t t s <
6
t t s
Input signal A 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
Input signal B 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Output signal A OR
B
0 1 1 1 0 1 1
Input signal A
Input signal B
Output signal A OR B
t
1
t
2
t
3
t
4
t
6
t
6
Page 78 / 681
Page 37
It is
evide
ntly
unde
rstoo
d
that
the output signal Y is clearly A AND B, i.e. A.B
Exercise 54:
Construct input-output table for the combination of gates shown in the figure.
If x
1
= 0 passes through NOT gateit becomes x
1
= 1, input for AND gate. If the other input for
SIGNALS
1
t t <
1 2
t t t s <
2 3
t t t s <
3 4
t t t s <
4 5
t t t s <
5 6
t t t s <
6
t t s
Input signal A 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
Input signal B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
Output signal A AND
B
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
x
1
x
2
x
x
1
Input signal A
Input signal B
Output signal A AND B
t
1
t
2
t
3
t
4
t
6
t
6
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Page 38
AND gate is x
2
= 0, then the output x = 0. Similarly work out output for all possible values of
inputs and complete the table as follows:
x
1
x
1
x
2
x
1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
Exercise 55:
Find the output x for the above combination of gates if x
1
= 1, x
2
= 0, x
3
= 1.
Ans. x = 0 . Hint : observe that x
4
= 1, x
4
= 0, so x = 0. .
Exercise 56:
Complete the input-output table for the above.
Hint.
Complete the table for all possible values of
inputs
Exercise57
Find the input-output tables for the following two circuits and show that they have the same
output s for the same inputs. Such circuits are called equivalent circuits.
x
1
x
2
x
4
x
4
x
3
x
1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
4
x
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Exercise58:
Find out the input-output tables for the two circuits given below and show that they are
equivalent.
a)
2
nd
circuit
y
x
1
x
2
1
st
circuit
x1
x2
y
x
1
x
2
y
2
2
nd
circuit
x
1
x
2
y
1
1
st
circuit
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Page 40
Hint: The input-output table for the 1
st
circuit is given below:
Input Output
x
1
x
2
y
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
b)
2nd circuit
1
st
circuit
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Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Page 1
CHAPTER 5A: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS PART I
1:Functions
A function is either one to one relation or many to one relation or mapping. No member of A is
related to more than one member of B. If relation is a subset of the Cartesian product A x B,
function is a relation or mapping from A to B with restriction that no member of A corresponds to
more than one member of B. For example, if
{ } , , , A a b c d =
and
{ } 1, 2,3, 4 B =
and the subset
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { }
,1 , , 2 , , 2 , , 3 S a a b c =
then S is not a function. Similarly
2 2 2
y p x =
or
2 2
y p x =
is not a function of x, but
2 2
y p x =
is a function of x, as it is single valued.
The reverse case is admissible; more than one member of A may correspond to the same
member of B. In that case the mapping is many to one. So, only one to one mappings or many
to one mappings are functions, not one to many nor many to many mappings. Not only the next
chapter, Entire Calculus, most of Analytical Geometry, most of algebra etc. are only study of
functions. A member of B may correspond to even all the members of A, but a member of A
should not correspond to more than one member of B, in a function. We would return to the
subject in the next chapter onwards. A mapping or function f from the set X into the set Y is
written as
: f X Y
.It maps a member
a X e
to a member
b Y e
, written as
( ) f a b =
. The
members of A for which this mapping is defined form a subset D of X, called domain , D of the
function and the subset of Y, called the range R, of the function. Unless otherwise stated we
take
D X _
as the domain. Every member b in the range is image
( ) f a
of some member a in
the domain and a is called inverse image of b. The correspondence
D R
is necessarily
single valued as per definition of function. If the correspondence is also one-to-one we can set
up a single valued correspondence from R to D also just listing
b a
in place of every
a b
.
Evidently this correspondence shall be single valued and a function as such, from Y to X. This is
denoted as
1
: f Y X
and is called inverse function of f. Do not confuse

( )
( )
1
1
f b with
f b
. If Y = R we say the function is onto Y instead of into Y. Note that if

replace Y with R, every one to one function has got an inverse function. Hence every one-to-
one and onto function admits of an inverse function.
Two mappings
f
and
g
are said to be equal i.e.
( ) ( ) f g f x g x = =
for all x in the domain.
If
X
is a subset of
Y
, a mapping
( ) I x x =
for all
x X e
is called an identity mapping.
Exercise1
Show that if an identity mapping exists, then it must be unique.
Ans. Let
( ) I x x = be an identity mapping and
( ) J x x = be another, It follows that
( ) ( ) I x x J x = = . So
( ) I x is unique.
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Exercise2
Show that if an identity mapping
( ) I x x = exists, then
( )
1
I x x
= , i.e.
( )
1
1
I I
= .
The proof is trivial , since,
( ) ( )
1 1
I I x I x

= ,
since
( ) I x x =
. But ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
1 1 1 1
I I x I x I x I x x I I

= = = =
Exercise3
If
1
f

exists, verify by way of example that
1 1
f f I ff

= =
Exercise4
If
1
f

exists, show that
( )
1
1
f f
= ; the left inverse is same as the right inverse and it is unique.

Ans.
If
1
f

exists, then ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
1 1 1
f f x x f x f x f f

= = = .
And if
( ) f x y = , then ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1
f y x f f y f x y ff I

= = = = . So
1 1
ff f f I

= = .
Now
1
f

is not unique, let there be another inverse function of f exist ,
1
g f

= such that
fg gf I = = . Then,
( ) ( )
1 1 1 1
g gI g ff gf f If f

= = = = = , a contradiction.
Exercise5
If : f X Y for nonempty sets , X Y , be a one-to-one function, show that there is an into
function : g Y X such that gf I = . Note that X is the domain.
Hint: Take all the inverse images and note that every inverse image is unique in view of the
function being one-to-one.
Exercise6
If : f X Y for nonempty sets , X Y , be a onto function, show that there is an into function
: h Y X such that hf I =
Hint : take all the inverse images and choose only one inverse image for any y Y e .
Whether nor not f admits of an inverse function,
( )
1
a f b
= has a meaning,
( ) f a b = ; b is
called image of a and a is called inverse image of b. Similarly
( ) f A B = means the set B is
the set of images of points in the set A and
( )
1
f B A
= means the set of inverse images of the

members in the set B . More conveniently,
( ) ( ) { }
: f A f x x A = e ,
( ) ( ) { }
1
: f B x f x B
= e .
Exercise7
If : f X X for nonempty sets , X Y , be a one-to one onto function, show that there is a
function : h X X such that hf I = and also h is one-to-one and onto.
In other words, every one to one and onto function admits of an inverse function.
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Exercise8
If : f X Y for nonempty sets , X Y , be a one-to one onto function, show that there is a
function : h Y X such that hf I = and also h is one-to-one and onto.
Example1
There are functions which may not have any formula of transformation . Such as
: f X Y
where
{ } { } 1, 2,3 , , , X Y a b c = =
. The function may be defined only by the listing
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 , 2 , 3 f b f c f a = = =
.
Exercise9
If
, A X B X _ _
and
: f X Y
is a function from X to Y, show that
( ) ( ) ( ) f A B f A F B _
.
Exercise10
Whether the following statements are true of false?
( ) f = (true)
( ) f X Y _ for any function : f X Y (true)
Exercise11
Show that
( ) ( )
i i i i
f A f A = .Consider the following example.
Exercise12
Is it true that
( ) ( )
i i i i
f A f A =
. (false). The true statement is
( ) ( )
i i i i
f A f A _
.
See the above example. Two disjoint sets A and B may not have disjoint images. So the images
of intersection is not necessarily equal to intersection of images.
1
2
3
4
5
6
a
b
c
d
e
f
A
B
f(A)
f(B)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , , f A B f A f B but f A B and f A f B = = =
c
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No such conclusion can be drawn about relating ( ) ' f A and ( ) ( )' f A
Exercise13
Show that for a function
: f X Y
,and both sets are non-empty
a)
( )
1
f
=
b)
( )
1
f Y X
=
c) If
1 2
B B Y _ _
, then
( ) ( )
1 1
1 2
f B f B

_
d) If
i
B Y _
for
i I e
, then
( ) ( )
1 1
i i i i
f B f B

=
.
e) If
i
B Y _
for
i I e
, then
( ) ( )
1 1
i i i i
f B f B

=
.
f) If
B Y _
then
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
' ' f B f B

_
Exercise14
: f X Y
,and both sets are non-empty then ( )
1
ff B B
_ in general
and if ( )
1
ff B B
= for all B Y _ then

f
is onto and vice versa.
Exercise15
: f X Y
,and both sets are non-empty then ( )
1
f f A A
_ in general
and if ( )
1
f f A A
= for all A X _ then

f
is one to one and vice versa.
Exercise16
: f X Y
,and both sets are non-empty and for any
1 2
, A X A X _ _
if ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
f A A f A f A = i then
f
Exercise17
: f X Y
,and both sets are non-empty and for any A X _ if
( ) ( ) ( ) ' ' f A f A _ then
f
Exercise18
: f X Y
,and both sets are non-empty and for any A X _ if
( ) ( ) ( ) ' ' f A f A = then
f
Exercise19
Any idea about total number of relations in A x D ? It must be the total number of subsets of
A x D. The Cartesian product A x D contains m x n members if A contains m members and D
contains n members. Total number of subsets of a set containing mn members is 2
mn
evidently.
Exercise20
Find the total number of one to one onto functions
: f X Y
if X has m elements and Y has n
elements.
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Hint : each member in X, say x
1
can be taken to any member of Y in n ways. So the total
number of functions is n
m
.
Exercise21
Any subset of the Cartesian product XxY
is a relation in general and it is a function only when
no
member of
X
is connected to more than one member of
Y
.If
1 2
, A X A X _ _
and
1 2
, B Y B Y _ _
,show that
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2
A xB A xB A A x B B =
.
Exercise22 remember
Any subset of the Cartesian product XxY
is a relation in general and it is a function only
when no member of
X
is connected to more than one member of
Y
.If
1 2
, A X A X _ _
and
1 2
, B Y B Y _ _
,show that
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
A xB A xB A A x B B A A x B B A A x B B = ( ( (

.
Exercise23
If
{ } , , A p q r = and
{ } 1, 2, 3 B = , determine which of the following are mappings
a)
( ) ( ) ( ) { }
,1 , , 3 , , 2 p q r
b)
( ) ( ) ( ) { }
,1 , , 3 , , 3 p q r
c)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { }
,1 , , 2 , , 3 , , 3 p q q r
d)
( ) ( ) { }
,1 , , 2 p q
e)
( ) ( ) ( ) { }
, 2 , , 3 , , 3 p q r
Ans. a), b), d) and e).
Exercise24
In the non-empty sets , X Y , s function is defined as : f X Y . Take
1 2
, ,....... x x and define a
binary relation R such that
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
x Rx f x f x = . Verify that this is an equivalence
relation.
Exercise25
If
{ } , , A a b c = and
{ } 1, 2 B = , then
a) How many mappings are there in total from A into B?
b) How many of them are one to one?
c) How many mappings are there in total from A onto B?
d) How many one to one and onto mappings are there in total from A onto B?
Hint . there are six ordered pairs in total, and half of them would be dropped from consideration
as the mappings have to be single valued. Then count for each case.
2:Examples of functions
1) Function of integers( Sequences)
Take a sequence of fractions 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16. as an example for covering a given
distance in successive steps. In 1st step, 1/2th distance is covered, in the second step half of
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the rest is covered ,half of the rest covered in the next step and so on. One reaches the
destination in this manner albeit , but it seems never possible at first glance. We observe that,
half of the rest is always left out, which of course, becomes smaller and smaller indefinitely.
One can neglect it as per ones wish or purpose .Purposes may differ ,e .g. a grain of rice may
be looked upon as 0 by a grain merchant, but certainly it is not 0 for an ant, or a chemical
analysist. But Mathematics ensures uniform standards of development without bearing on any
individuals or their purposes; so we always talk of arbitrarily small instead of small for
any one or for any purpose. Look at the table
below
Instead of this table, we could write t(n)=(1/2)n, in function notation, where t is said to be a
function of n, varying in the domain , D ={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,.} of natural numbers and the
values of the function form a set range R={1/2,1/4,1/8,1/16..} of numbers.. thus the
numbers 1/2,1/4,1/8,1/16.. are just labeled by natural numbers 1,2,3,4.etc. This is a
function of natural numbers.
The domain and range need not be or natural numbers even be countable for making functions
in general . They can be intervals like ]2,5] with all the numbers between 2 to 5, 2 not included
,may be completely closed intervals [4,9] both 4 and 9 included or completely open intervals
like ]5,16[ both 5 and 16 not included, etc., may be entire set of real numbers R etc. e.g.,
f(x) = 2
x
., f(x) = cos 2x etc. ,where the domains are entire set of real numbers. The domain
is the set of all values of independent variable ( such as n in the above example)and
the range is the entire set of values of dependent variable(such as t(n)) . For our
purpose , we understand functions as single-valued functions and real-valued (range in
the set of real numbers), viz. , a number in the domain set shall not correspond to more than
one number in the range set. In this sense y
2
= 4x is not a function in ] - ,[, but it is a
function in [ 0,[, but y = 4x
2
is a function undisputedly. The entire edifice of Real Analysis and
Calculus stand on the assumption of single-valued-ness of function.
Such functions whose domain is the set of integers is called a sequence. The domain must be
the set of natural numbers and the range is countable in such functions. You know some
sequences are converging or diverging. An example of a diverging sequence is
1,2,3,4,5,6.
Series is just a sequence of partial sums ( of first n terms ) of any sequence, like s
1
,
s
2
,s
3
s
n
..etc. Again, some series may be converging, diverging, some may also be
oscillating like 1, - 1, 1, -1, 1, -1 ..etc.
Example2:
If ( ) ( ) ( ) 1! 2! 3! ........... 2 ! 1 ! ! f n n n n = + + + + + + , for n a being a positive integer, show that
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2 3 1 2 f n n f n n f n + = + + + .
Example3:
If the functions , , a x x a x + are in A.P. find the integer values of a, if 0 a x > > .
n 1 2 3 4
t(n) 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16
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Ans. : We have 2 x a x a x = + + . By squaring,
2 2 2 2
4 2 2 x a x a x a x x a a x = + + + = . Squaring again,
2 2 2 2
4 4 x a ax a x + =
i.e.,
4
5
a
x = since 0 x = . Then the A.P . , , a x x a x + becomes, , 2 ,3
5 5 5
a a a
. The
integer values of a must be 5n where n is a positive integer.
2) example of a function of many variables
We meet functions everywhere in all branches of Physics, Economics and Geometry and
in every discipline which would prefer to use a logical framework. Take an example of the
universal law of gravitation - the force of gravitation F between to bodies of masses m and M
at a distance r apart is given by
2
r
Mm
G F =
(gravitation).[
2
r
Qq
4
1
F =
(electric charges)
2
2 1
r
m m
4
F =
(magnetic poles) Coulombs laws for electric charges and magnetic poles ]
The independent variables are masses of the bodies and distance between them in case of
gravitation , electric charges of the bodies and the distance between them in case of
electrostatic force and the pole strengths of the bodies and the distance between them in case
of magnetostatic force and the force is the dependent variable. We can vary the masses,
charges or poles or distance between the bodies as we wish and measure the force between
the bodies. This is the idea behind independent variable or we can think of them as control
variables.
This small expression has a world if information coded in it. It has occurred to Newton that two
point masses of one unit each at a distance of one unit apart ,attract each other with a force,
which remains the same wherever we place the system and whenever we observe them. This is
given by a constant G, called the constant of universal gravitation whose value depends upon
the systems of units we use. Suppose this arrangement of two point masses of one unit each at
a distance of one unit comprise one force system in which a force equal to G is observed. If we
take one of the point mass 4 units instead of one, we can logically think there are 4 force
systems of force equal to G in each system and the total force observed shall be 4G. in the
second step, if we replace the second mass of one unit by a mass of 3 units, logically the
arrangement shall be equivalent to 4x3 = 12 force systems together making the force 12 G. In
the third step, let the distance of the second point mass from the first point mass be doubled.
One may naturally think the force to be halved this time. But while we have increases the
distance of the second point mass from the first to double, we cannot keep the distance of the
1st point mass from the 2nd fixed and it would be doubled automatically at the same time. So
we should expect the resulting force to decrease to instead of . The formula is fondly called
the inverse square law of universal gravitation which must have occurred to Newton while he
observed the apple fall. So forever let the apple fall and let our heads roll, roll on and on to
enlightenment. Gauss used simple Euclidean Geometry we all know, to show that the point
masses could be replaced by spheres of masses M and m apart from each other and the
formula still holds. Coulomb, Ampere, Gauss, Wersted, Maxwell thought in the same lines and
showed that the same inverse square law would hold for electric charges and magnetic poles
for forces of attraction or repulsion, with the G replaced by a constant involving permittivity of
the medium for electric charges and masses replaced by electric charges and for magnetic
forces, with the G replaced by a constant involving permeability of the medium for magnetic
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poles and magnetic poles replaced by masses. Presuming the inverse square law for electric
charges or magnetic poles merely did not suffice though it perfectly stood to reasoning. The
effect of the forces were measured at different distances, taking different charges and pole
values and the results were compared to the assumed formula with values of which the
observations were fairly approximate. Then only the formulae could have been accepted. This is
the way experimental sciences are built up. Experimental observation is made measuring a
large number of different values of a variable upon which the quantity to be investigated is
supposed to depend upon,( here in this case force is measured at different distances) and the
process is carried on, in turn for all the variables that are supposed to be independent ( in this
case the charges and the poles) and then the results are compared to some known function of
the variables. If the measurements are sufficiently approximate to the functional values the
empirical formula is established. If no such function is found, the rates of change of the force
are calculated and recognized as close to a known function. From this function , (called the
derived function) the original function is reconstructed with the help of Calculus through the
process of integration (the inverse process of deriving or differentiation). Most of the time simple
integration is not possible as in case the derived function is presented as a relation among , or
is a compound combination of derivatives, called a differential equation. Solution of the
differential equation gives us the function of course. An entire branch of Calculus is devoted to
differential equations. A function contains infinite, nay, all values of independent variables and
the relationship from which the dependent variables value can be obtained. This can be done
with the help of an equation or a set of equations. Alternatively the sets of values of independent
variables combined with values of dependent variable could be presented in the form of a table.
The table becomes infinitely long very often , so a graph of it shows all the values at the same
time in a picture, a point representing a set of values for independent and dependent variables.
For a set of independent variables, the value of the dependent variable can be got easily from
the graph, but not sufficiently accurately for the scale used in the graph. But the interpretation of
a graph reveals much of the behaviour of the function. The equation is the ultimate recourse ;
put any value of independent variable , calculate and get the value of the dependent variable.
Thus it contains all the values of the function in a small code ! More wonderful is the fact that the
differential equation of the function ( an equation which may or may not contain the function
itself often) contains a finer code just like a seed contains the entire code of the tree or a set of
DNAs or genes in every cell contain entire code of the animal or plant. The code or the
differential equation of the tree also contains the information how the tree would grow if some
branches are cutoff at some point of time, or the tree is allowed to grow in a glass case or it is
planted in a pot (boundary values of independent variables or boundary value problems), or how
the tree would grow on different soils and climates and if planted in different seasons (initial
value problems). Now solutions of differential equations build Physics including Quantum
Physics, Astronomy, Economics, and all those sciences which use Mathematics as their
framework. Every branch of Mathematics such as Algebra, Theory Of Equations, Modern
Algebra, Coordinate Geometry Vector Analysis, Tensor Analysis, Topology, Functional Analysis,
etc. etc. aim at solutions of differential equations. What types of differential equations can be
solved, under what circumstances, their different kinds of solutions comprise what is called
existence problems. More often than not, the differential equations give solutions not in closed
and compact forms of algebraic or trigonometric functions but as in forms of infinite series of
functions, necessitating the study of circumstances under which these series converge and are
meaningful.
Functions of many independent variables like the one example, the formula for force
under universal gravitation, or Coulombs laws are functions of many variables and are more
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abundant than functions of a single variable. There can be vector functions of scalar variables,
scalar function of scalar or vector variables and all sorts of them. Study of function of a single
variable enables us to study a function of many variables with respect to each of the variables in
turn. But all the while single valued-ness of the functions must be emphasized - the force can
be same for hundred different arrangements of masses and distances but for one arrangement
of masses and distance, there are not two values of force.
3) Function of a continuous variable
Suppose y = sin x , a function from the set of real numbers to the interval [0, 1]. The labels here
i.e., the independent variable are not natural numbers but real numbers.
We know a few values of the function from simple geometry like sin 30
0
, sin 60
0
, sin 90
0
, etc.
if the function is a rule to associate the members between two sets, we should know sin 32
0
, sin
21
0
, as easily as we know sin 30
0
. But this is not so easy. We have to study the nature of
the function from many angles . whether a small change in independent variable 30
0
to 31.2
0
will
result in a small change in the dependent variable so that we can at least have an approximate
idea about sin 31.2
0
; i.e. whether the function is continuous or not. Then another question may
arise whether the function increases at a constant rate in a small interval or in approximately
constant rate . To be exact, suppose you know sin 30
0
and sin 31
0.
. Can you just have
0 0
sin30 sin31
2
+
for
0 0
30 31
sin
2
+
?. For these questions to be answered, we need to study rate of
change of functions or differentiation.
A function is essentially a correspondence between members of a set A, with the
members of the set B, written as f: A B. The members of the set A , related by the function
to B constitute the domain of the function D and the set of values of the function in B constitute
the range R. (We write f(x) = y when x and y are related as per rule(s) of the function f.). Take
an example f(x) = x
2
or y = x
2
. We have been used to think that the variable x has underwent
some process called squaring or has been modified in a very complex manner such as
y = sin x. Though it codifies all the values connected by the relation, we are very much
distracted to interpret the relationship. From simple Geometric considerations we get the values
of sin t/2, t/4, etc. but tend to retreat when asked the value for sin 40
0
. Now the approach is to
discard the notion that the angle is modified in a complex manner by the sin operator and it
would suffice for its study only remembering that y = sin x is only a set of pairs of values
mapped against each other and the tools of Calculus would take care of the function in its
entirety. The limiting process aims at getting value of the function at a particular point,
differentiation decides how rapidly it increases or decreases and Taylors theorem prepares its
table. Integration is reverse process of differentiation and attempts to construct unknown original
functions whose rates of change we happen to be known in studying a physical phenomenon. It
would be injustice to claim that Calculus has laid the foundation of Algebra, Theory of Equations
or Geometry, but it has enriched these disciplines; there is no doubt about it. The statement
shall be evident more prominently in the later chapters. Study of functions through the eyes of
Algebra or Coordinate Geometry or Theory of Equations shall be compared with study of the
functions with the help of Calculus and the statement we have made, shall be evident as we
proceed. Further, Algebra has attempted to include Calculus by including the process of taking
limits of functions and Geometry has attempted to complete itself without help of Calculus. But
under the umbrella of Calculus, a lot of simplicity and elegance can be achieved without
sacrificing rigor at the same time. A particular example shall be given under Taylors theorem. It
is the correspondence between the variables which is important which takes everything about
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the function in its fold, including dependence of one variable upon the others or vice versa and
including modifications of the independent variables. So we forget about modifications or
dependence and only remember the set of functional values; the independent variables just
serve as labels attached on them.
A function f from a subset D (domain) of A to a subset R (Range) of B is a rule
or a set of rules by which a member of D is associated with a member of R. If no
member of D is associated with more than one member of R, the function is single
valued. If R is a subset of real numbers the function is real valued . In Calculus we are
interested only in single valued real valued functions. If R = B the function is onto .
Example4
Construct a function to express the area of the two portions of a square cut by a st line parallel
to one of its diagonals.
Ans. :
Let AR be x, independent variable. The AQ = AP = 2 x so the area ( ) f x , say, of
2
1
2 2
2
APQ x x x A = = .This is in the first of the two figures above. If PQ cuts BC and DC
instead of AB and AD, as in the 2
nd
figure above , let ( ) f x be the area of the portion ABQRPD
= area of the square the area of PQC A . Now 2 AC a = , AR x = , 2 RC a x = ,
( )
2 2 PC CQ a x = = .So the area of
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
1 1
. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
PQC CPCQ a x a x a x a x ax A = = = = + .
Now the area of the portion ABQRPD = ( )
( )
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 f x a a x ax ax a x = + = .
B
C
D
A
P
Q
R
A B
C D
P
Q
R
O O
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Page 11
Combining the results, ( )
2
2 2
, 0
2
2 2 , 2
2
a
x for x
f x
a
ax a x for x a
s s
s s
Where , 2
2
a
AO AC a = =
Onto, Into, one-to-one and one-to-one onto functions
A one- to- one into function is called an injective. A onto function is called a
surjective .A one-to-one and onto function is a bijective.
For example, if : f R R , ( )
2
2
1
x
f x
x
=
+
,then it is not one to one nor onto. In other words, If
the function : f R A , ( )
2
2
1
x
f x
x
=
+
is onto, Then the range must be | | 0,1 A =
If, for any member in R, there is only one member of D, the function is one-to-
one. When the domain and range are interchanged, the new function got, is the inverse
function of the old one. For the inverse function to be single valued, the function has to
be one-to-one . As we mean functions have to be single valued always, a one to one and onto
function admits of an inverse function.
The point needs a little more clarification. The set B is often called the co-domain of the
function f; The range is always a subset of co-domain. The function is surjective if co-domain
is same as the range, i.e., if every member of the co-domain has a pre-image in A. The
correspondence between the variables (independent and dependent as they are called) may not
necessarily be one-to-one ,but if it is so, the function admits of an inverse function with the
domain and the range interchanged, e.g., y = sin x in the interval [0,900 ] admits of an
inverse function x = sin
-1
y, y = 2x in the domain ]- , [ admits of an inverse function
x= y/2, y= 10
x
in the interval [0,[ has an inverse function x = log 10 y and so on. (sin
-1
y
should not be confused with (sin y)
-1
;it is the angle whose sine is y ).
We represent a function in the form of a table of pairs of independent and dependent
variables as you have done a table of pairs of values before drawing a graph of a function.
Alternatively we represent a function with the help of an equation or set of equations, rule or a
set of rules. A function could also be represented by its graph. Of the three approaches to
represent a function, the set theoretic approach, is simplest, for it ensures the desired single
valued-ness. Tables would be containing generally infinite pairs and would be of little use except
while drawing the graph of the function. Graph of a function is pictorial visualization and is an
aid to understanding and interpreting the relationship between the variables.
EXAMPLES IN GENERAL
EXAMPLE 5:
A function father of may be constructed between the set H = {All human beings} and
the set H = {All human beings}, denoted by f( H) H, aeH, f(a) = b, beH.(Figure out the
domain and the range!)You wonder whether objects that are not numbers could be used in
functions; but they can be .Does this function admit of an inverse function ? No. (Why?)
Page 93 / 681
Page 12
We are rather interested only functions involving numbers only, although functions may be
formed between any two sets.
EXAMPLE6
Which functions are their own inverses? Try f(x) =|x| , x in [ 0,[. or g(x) = 1/x, x
in R. (Both of them are ) . The function is called modulus function or absolute value function,
to be more fully described later on.
EXAMPLE7
y = f(x) = 3, a constant. It is a straight line parallel to X-axis.
Is it really a function in the sense we defined it? Yes, it is. Whatever may be the value of x, y =
f(x) = 3. The domain is the set of real numbers and the range is the set {3}. It is single valued
too; the function does not take a value of x to more than one value in the range. Does this admit
of an inverse function ? No. It is single valued; but not one-to-one; it is many to one. Its inverse
is one to many and that is not a function, as function is either one to one or many to one.
EXAMPLE8 :
Take another example x = 3 . This is not a function if x is regarded as independent
variable. The domain is the set {3} and there is no range. It can be regarded as a function if
independent variable is taken as y with domain entire set of real numbers and the dependent
variable is taken as x with range {3}. This too does not admit of an inverse function.
Example9
Verify that the function
( ) 2 f x x = in R is one-one and onto. Hint : Take any value of x and find
a unique value of y and vice versa.
Example10
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 2 1, 1 2 f f f x x for x = = = > in N is onto but not
one to- one.
Example11
( )
2
f x x = in R neither onto nor one-one.
Example12Verify that the function ( )
1,
1,
x if x even
f x
x if x odd

=

+
in N is a bijective.
Example12
Verify that any onto function
{ } { } , , , 1, 2, 3, 4 a b c d must be one-one.and any one-one function
{ } { } , , , 1, 2, 3, 4 a b c d must be onto.
Example13
Give an example showing that the above result may not be true for an infinite set.
EXAMPLE 14 Function with a discontinuity or hole:
Page 94 / 681
Page 13
Take another example. y = x, for x e [0,1[, y = 2 x, for x e ]1,2] and y = 2 for x = 1.
(A single function described by an equation ,or a set of equations or a rule or a set of
rules). A function can also be represented by its graph. Let us draw the graph of the latter
function ( see the first figure below) Observe that when x is very near 1, y is also very near 1,
as seen from either of the two equations y = x, for x e [0,1[, y = 2 x, for x e ]1,2], but y =
2 when x is exactly equal to 1. This leaves a hole or discontinuity in its graph at x = 1.
EXAMPLE15 : Greatest integer function or step function.(see 2
nd
figure above)
It is denoted by [x] meaning the greatest integer not greater than x. If x= 3.76 , [x] = 3,
if x = 5.999, [x] = 5 etc. From x = 3 to 4 it remains 3 then suddenly changes to 4 when
x=4. The function suddenly jumps in steps and as such, is called a step function.
The step function y = [x] is also written in another notation y = Int(x) ; the integral part of a
number x. This is a simpler concept to understand and one should observe that it is equivalent
to the former definition. One can create as many step functions as one pleases; e.g.,
(
(
+
=
x tan log
x x sin
y
4
or any standard functions or expressions inside the square bracket would be a step
function.
Example16
Show that the greatest integer function is neither one-one nor onto.
Example17
Show that | | kx changes value at every integral multiple of
1
k
, k being a non-zero rational
number.
Example18
Find the domain of ( ) | | | | | |
2
2 3
3
f x x x x x
(
= + + +
(

if 3 x < . Calculate the number of points in
the
range.
A function represented by a set of
equations.
X
O
P(1.2)
Y
(1,0) (2,0)
.
O X X
Y
Y
(1,1)
(2,2)
(3,3)
Step Function
Page 95 / 681
Page 14
Hint : Value of | | x would change whenever x increases or decreases by 1; ie, the points at
which the function would change is 0, 1, 2.
Value of | | 2x would change whenever x increases or decreases by 2; ie, the points at which the
function would change is
1 2 3 4 5
0, , 1, , 2,
2 2 2 2 2
= = , as x < 3.
Value of
2
3
x
(
(

would change whenever x increases or decreases by
3
2
; ie, the points at which
the function would change is
3
0,
2
, as x < 3.
Value of | | 3x would change whenever x increases or decreases by3; ie, the points at which the
function would change is
1 2 4 5 7 8
0, , ,1, , , 2, ,
3 3 3 3 3 3
, as x < 3.
So the total number of points where the value of the function would change is 12
Exercise26
Find x if | | 2 3 x x ( + <

. Ans. 1 x < < .
Example19 remember
Verify that a function : f R R such that
( ) f x ax b = + ,called a linear function is both one-
one and onto.
Example20
Verify that a function : f N N such that ( )
1
,
2
,
2
n
if n is odd
f n
n
if n is even
+

Is a
bijective. Hint. For any n N e , show that
( ) n f m = for some m N e and vice versa.
Example21
Verify that a function : f R R such that
( )
1
1
x
f x
x
+
=
is one-one but not onto.

Hint. The point x = 1 does not belong to the domain.
EXAMPLE 22characteristic function
If f(x) = 1 when xe A cR, f(x) = 0, when x e A, f(x) is called the characteristic function
of A. Find the domain and the range of the function. Does this has an inverse function?
Ans : The domain is R and the range is {0,1}. This does not admit of an inverse
function because it is not one-to-one.
Exercise27
Page 96 / 681
Page 15
Find a characteristic function describing your class, college, town.
EXAMPLE 23 :Norm or modulus function or distance function:
A graph of f(x) =
x
is given below.

Properties of modulus function :
)
) ,
) ;
) ;
i x a a x a
ii x a x a or x a
iii x y x y triangle inequality sum of two sides is greater than the third
iv x y x y triangle inequality difference of two sides is less than the third
s s s
> s >
s +
>
Example24
Verify that the mod function is neither one-one nor onto.
Example 25: A function whose range consists of only two symbols, { + , - } is called sign or
signum function. Thus y = signum x or y = sgn (x) means y is the sign of x.
Example26
A function
: f R R
such that
( )
1, 0
0, 0
1, 0
if x
f x if x
if x
>
= =
<
is called a signum function. And

can be written as
( ) sgn( )
x x
sign x or x
x x
= =
.Verify that it is neither one-one nor onto.
MISC EXAMPLES
Examine whether the following statements are correct.(Write T for true, and F for false).
27) Every function is a relation
O
X
X
Y
P
Q
Y = |x|
y = |x|
Page 97 / 681
Page 16
28) Every relation is a function.
29) Inverse of an onto function is onto always.
30) Inverse of a bijective function is always a bijective.
31) If both g and f are onto , gf is onto.
32) If both g and f are one-to-one , gf is one-to-one .
Ans : a) T, b) F, c) T, d) T, e) T, f) T,
Example 33: A function y = [x] is integral part of x , ( greatest integer not greater than x) or
floor of x. Similarly a function y = {x} is called fractional part of x.
Properties of greatest integer function :(see for yourself)
| |
| | | |
| | | | | |
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
) integer
ii) integer
iii)
) . . cos
) 1
)
i x x x is an
x I x I I is an
x y x y
iv x I x I take e g x ec x
v x I x I
vi x I x I
| | |
| |
| |
=
+ = +
+ > +
> > = (

> > + (

< < (

( ) ( )
| |
| |
| | | | | |
) 1
) integer
) integer 1
)
vii x I x I
viii x is an x x
ix x is not an x x
x x y x y x x
| | s < + (

=
=
+ = + + (

Exercise28
Show that
| |
( ) 1
1 sin 2 sin 3 sin ........... sin
2 3 2
n n
x x x
x n
n
+
( ( (
+ + + + + + + + =
( ( (

if
0 sin x t s s
Hint: Since
sin , sin2 , sin
2
x
x x
etc are < 1, if
0 sin x t s s
. So
| | 1 sin 1, 2 sin 2,
2
x
x
(
+ = + =
(

etc.
Exercise29
Evaluate : a)
| | | | 1 2 2 x x x + + =
, b) | |
2
2 3 0, 2 x x x x ( + = <

,
Page 98 / 681
Page 17
Ans : a)
1
1,
2

`
)
, b)
{ } 0,1
exercise30
Show that
1 1 1 1 2 1 100 1 1
............ 100.
2 2 100 2 100 2 100 2
( ( ( ( (
+ + + + + + =
( ( ( ( (

Hint :
1 50 51 100
1 1 1 1 2 1 49 1 50 1 51 1 100 1
...... ......
2 2 100 2 100 2 100 2 100 2 100 2 100
0 0 0 .....
st terms st to th term
| | | | ( ( ( ( ( ( (
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
| |
( ( ( ( ( ( (
\ . \ .
= + + +

( ) ( )
1 50 51 100
1
. 0 1 1......1 50 1 50 100
2
st terms st to th term
(
+ + + = = =
(

exercise31 :
Show that | | | |
1 2 1
............
n
x x x x nx
n n n
( ( (
+ + + + + + =
( ( (

if n is an integer.
exercise32 :Solve the equations for [x + y]: | | 2 5 y x = + and | | 3 2 7 y x = +
Hint : We have | | | | | | | | | | 2 5 3 2 7 2 5 3 2 7 0 0 1 x x x x x x + = + + = + = s <
So { } x x = , fractional part of x; which gives, | | | | { } 2 5 5 5 5 y x x y x = + = + = + = (

.
Properties of fractional part of a function:
{ }
{ }
{ } { }
| | { } | | { }
) ; 0 1
) ; integer
iii) 1 ; integer
iv) , ,
i x x if x
ii x x if x is an
x x if x is an
x x x I f where x I and x f
= s <
=
=
= + = + = =
Example 34: A function ( ) y x x = = (
(
, meaning thereby the least integer greater than x or
ceiling of x. Thus 0.21 1; 2.23 3; 3.25 3; 0.2 0 = = = = ( ( ( (
( ( ( (
etc.
Example 35:
Show that 1 x x = + (
(
if | | x x < and x x = (
(
if | | x x = .
Example 36:
Evaluate : | |
2 2
2 x x x = + (
(
. Ans. :
1
0,
2
n

+
`
)
Properties of ( ) y x x = = (
(
:
Page 99 / 681
Page 18
( ) ( )
) integer,
) integer,
i if x is an x x
ii if I is an x I x I x I
= (
(
+ = + = + (
(
See that | | x converts x to n, where n x s ; but x (
(
converts x to n + 1.
3:Algebra of functions
If : f R R and : g R R be two real valued functions, we define the sum, difference, product,
quotient functions square cube etc. as the functions have to be added, subtracted, etc. point by point.
The domain of definition of the result shall evidently be the intersection of the domains of the two
functions.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
. . sin cos sin cos
. . sin cos sin cos
. . . . sin.cos sin .cos
/ / . . sin/ cos sin / cos tan
. . . sin sin .sin sin
f g x f x g x e g x x x
f g x f x g x e g x x x x
f x f x f x e g x x x x
+ = + + = +
= =
= =
= = =
= = =
Exercise 33
If
( )
3
1 f x x x = + + , find
( ) ( ) f b f a
for b a
b a
Ans.
( ) ( )
3 3
2 2
1 1
1
f b f a
b b a a
a ab b
b a b a
+ +
= = + + +

Exercise 34
If
( )
1
ln
1
x
f x
x
=
+
, find the domain and range, Ans. ] 1,1[ D = and range = R
example 37
If
( )
1
ln
1
x
f x
x
=
+
, find
( ) ( ) f a f b + and
1
a b
f
ab
+ | |
|
+
\ .
. What do you infer?
Ans.
( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1
ln ln ln . ln
1 1 1 1 1
a b a b a b ab
f a f b
a b a b a b ab
+
+ = + = =
+ + + + + + +
Page 100 / 681
Page 19
1
1
1
ln ln
1 1
1
1
a b
a b a b ab
ab
f
a b
ab a b ab
ab
+
+ + | |
+
= =
|
+
+ + + +
\ .
+
+
Thus we have
( ) ( )
1
a b
f a f b f
ab
+ | |
+ =
|
+
\ .
The following exercise shall lead you to composite functions.
Exercise35
If : f R R is such that
( )
2
2
x
f x
x
+
=
,
a) find its domain and range Ans.
{ } 2 D R = , Range R =
b) find ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2 , 2 , f x f x f x and f x (

Ans.
( )
2 2 1
2
2 2 1
x x
f x
x x
+ +
= =

,
( )
2 4
2
2
x
f x
x
+
=
,
( )
2
2
2
2
2
x
f x
x
+
=
, ( )
2
2 2
2
x
f x
x
+ | |
= (
|

\ .
Exercise36
If
1
y x
x
= +
, find
2 3 4
2 3 4
1 1 1
, , x x x
x x x
+ + +
Hint raise the expression to the powers 2,3 and 4.
Example38
If the domain of definition of
( ) f x is ] 1, 2] what is the domain of definition of
( ) 3 4 f x + ?
We have
5 2
1 3 4 2 5 3 2 ] , ]
3 3
x x x < + s < s e
Example39
If the domain of definition of
( ) f x is R and ( ) 0 1 f x < s , ( ) Max f x M = and if
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2 f x y f x y f x g y + + = , show that ( ) 1 Max g y s .
Ans. : ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2 2 f x g y f x y f x y f x y f x y M M M = + + s + + s + = ,so
( ) ( ) f x g y M s , cancelling 2. Now ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) f x g y M f x g y M s s .But ( ) f x M s , as
( ) Max f x M = , so ( ) ( ) 1 1 g y Max g y s s
4:COMPOSITE FUNCTION
Page 101 / 681
Page 20
We may connect two functions
: f A B
and : G B C such as
2 3 y x = +
and
2
z y =
so that
we can form a composite function
: gof A C
such as ( )
2
2 3 z x = + .This takes a member of
A to a member of C via B. The composite function
fog
shall be defined only when the
intersection of the range of
f
and the domain of
g
. It is not that the domain shall be domain
of
f
and the range shall be range of
g
. The domain of the composite function shall be the set
of inverse images ( some authors say, pre-image) of this intersection. You may verify this
aspect from the examples by finding out the domains and ranges of the functions such as
2
sin x ,
2
sin x ,
2
ax b + , ( )
2
ax b + , ; examples so chosen in pairs like
fog
and
gof
, so as to
show an additional point, the inverse function of
fog
is not necessarily
gof
. When
fog
and
gof
both exist and are equal to each other, and both functions are one-one and onto,
they are inverse functions of each other as shown below.
Composite functions always obey associative laws.( h(g(f(x))) = (hg)(f(x) )
Extras
If you regard composite functions or functions of functions as product functions, note that the
result appears in the reverse order; i.e. for computing g(f(x)), first compute f(x)and then
compute g(f(x)).
Exercise37
If
: f R R
,
: g R R
and
: g R R
be three real valued functions, show that
( ) ( ) ) , ) . . a f g oh foh goh b f g oh foh goh + = + = etc.
First show by way of an example and then in general.
Exercise38
Let there be a function
: f X Y
, both sets being nonempty . We denote an identity function in
X as
:
x
i X X which takes any member of X to precisely that same member and similarly an
identity mapping in Y is denoted as :
y
i Y Y .This is just to distinguish identity mappings in
different sets. Then show the following:
a) If
: f X Y
is one to one, there exists a function : g Y X such that
x
gf i = .
b) If
: f X Y
is onto, there exists a function : h Y X such that
y
fh i = .
c)
Changing Y to X in the above description, i.e., if there be a function : f X X , using
the above two results show that this function is one to one and onto there exists a
function : g X X such that
x
gf i fg = = .
d)
In c) above show that gf is also a one to one and onto function from X onto X.
e)
In d) above, show that ( )
1
1 1
gf f g

=
f)
Show that in general, ( )
1
1 1
gf f g

=
Page 102 / 681
Page 21
g) see the graph of the identity function y = x.
Exercise39
Let there be a function
: f X Y
, both sets being nonempty . Take A as a subset of X and B
as a
subset of Y. Then show the following results.
a) ( )
1
ff B B
_
b) If ( )
1
ff B B
= for all subsets of Y, then

: f X Y
c) ( )
1
A f f A
_
d) If ( )
1
A f f A
_ for all subsets A of X then

: f X Y
e) If ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
f A A f A f A = for all
1 2
, A X A X e e then
: f X Y
is one to one and vice
versa.
f) If ( ) ( ) ( ) ' ' f A f A _ for all subsets of X, then
: f X Y
g) Let there be a function
: f X Y
, both sets being nonempty . If
: f X Y
is onto, and
X is countable, show that Y is countable.
5:INVERSE FUNCTION OF THE COMPOSITE FUNCTION
If both g and f are one-to-one , (gf)
-1
= f
-1
g
-1
Ans : Let f(s) = t and g(t) = u, so that f
-1
(t) = s and g
-1
(u) = t, u = gf(s)
Now f
-1
g
-1
(u) = f
-1
(t) = s = (gf)
-1
(u), hence (gf)
-1
= f
-1
g
-1 .
So that
( ) ( )
1 1 1 1
1 f og o g of

= , or the identity function.
The functions
2
x and x are inverse of each other but
( )
2
2
x x = as the functions are neither
one-one nor onto, if the functions are considered in R. but
( )
2
2
x x = in R
+
.
Exercise40
Find ( )( ) fofof x if ( )
2
1
x
f x
x
=
+
. Ans.
2
1 3
x
x +
.
Example40
Show that if
: f A B
is one-one and
: G B C
is one-one then
: gof A C
is one- one.
Y
Y
O
X X
y = x
Page 103 / 681
Page 22
We should show that if
( ) ( ) gof gof o | = then o | = . Now
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) since is one-one.
since is one-one
gof gof g f g f
f f g
f
o | o |
o |
o |
= =
=
=
Exercise41
Show that if
: f A B
is one-one and
: G B C
is onto then
: gof A C
is onto.
Exercise42
But the reverse is not necessarily true. Take an example
{ } { } : , , , , , , , , f a b c d a b c d e f such
that
( ) f x x = and
{ } { } : , , , , , , , , , , g a b c d e f a b c d e f such that
( ) g x x = . Show that gof is
onto but not f
.
Exercise43
Can you find ( ) g x if ( )
n
f x x = and( ) ( ) ( ) gof x ng x = . Ans. ln x
Exercise44 remember
Show that any linear function y ax b = + is monotonically increasing ( or monotonically
decreasing),
one-one and onto and admits of an inverse function. what is the inverse function ? Ans.
x b
y
a
= . This is also linear and monotonic.

Exercise45 remember
Show that the sum and product of two monotonically increasing functions in an interval is
monotonically increasing.
Exercise46
Find the inverse function of
,
,
x x is rational
y
x x is irrational
.Is it monotonic?
Exercise47
1
1
x
y
x
=
+
. Ans.
1
1
y
x
y
=
+
Exercise48
Show that
l
y
x
= is monotonically decreasing in the domain which does not include the point 0
and has an inverse function
Exercise49
Page 104 / 681
Page 23
ln
5
x
y =
Example50
Take
{ } , , , A a b c d B C = = =
. Define
f
as
a b c d
b c d a
| |
|
\ .
,taking a to b, b to c, etc.
Define
g
as
a b c d
c d a b
| |
|
\ .
,
a) what is
gof
? Ans.
a b c d
gofA
d a b c
| |
=
|
\ .
b) What is
fog
? Ans.
a b c d
fogA
d a b c
| |
=
|
\ .
c) How many such functions can be defined on A?
Ans. Since each function is a permutation, total number of them is
4
4
4! 24 P = =
d) In the set of these functions
{ } , , , ....... F f g h =
show that the operation of compositing
is closed, associative, and has an identity element and every member
f
has an inverse
1
f

.
Ans. If
f g
are any two functions,
f
takes a member of A to A and
g
takes a member of A
to A, so
gof
takes a member of A to a only. Thus the composition operation is closed.
Now, take any three members
a b c d
f
b c d a
| |
=
|
\ .
,
a b c d
g
d c a b
| |
=
|
\ .
and
a b c d
h
c a d b
| |
=
|
\ .
,find out
( )
a b c d a b c d a b c d
fo goh fo go fo
c a d b a d b c b a c d
| | | | | | | |
= = =
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .
and
( ) fog oh and show
that they are equal. Thus the operation is associative.
The identity element is
a b c d
i
a b c d
| |
=
|
\ .
, that takes any member to itself. and for any
a b c d
f
b c d a
| |
=
|
\ .
, we have
1
a b c d
f
d a b c
| |
=
|
\ .
as
1 1
fof i f of

= = (verify)
e) Verify that the left inverse is the right inverse also .
Take an inverse, and verify that
1 1
fof i f of

= = .
f) Show that if the inverse if it exists, is unique.
If g and
1
f

are two inverses of f , we have
1 1 1
g goi gofof iof f

= = = = .
Page 105 / 681
Page 24
g) Define
2 3 2 4 3
, , f fof f fof f fof = = = etc. and find them
h) Show that there is a positive integer m, such that
m
f i = .
If you construct functions
2 3 2 4 3
, , f fof f fof f fof = = = etc., since the
operation is closed, and there are finite number of elements in
{ } f , then some member
would eventually be repeated, i.e., there are positive integers m and n such that
m n
f f = . If n < m, take
1 1 m n
f of f of

= repeatedly until you get
m n
f i
=
i) Verify the laws of indices
( )
, ,
m
m n m n m n n m m mn
f of f f of f f f
+
= = =
The set of functions
{ } f on A with the binary operation of composition is called a permutation
group.
Exercise51
Distinguish between the domains of the functions. Are the functions identical?
a) 1,
x
y z
x
= = Ans. latter not defined for x = 0.
b)
2
ln y x = , 2ln z x = Ans. latter not defined for x < 0
c)
( )
2
2
, , y x z x x = = =
Ans. z is not defined for x < 0, is not single valued
d)
2 2
1. sin cos y z x x = = + Ans. both are same
e)
( )( ) ln 1 2 y x x = ,
( ) ( ) ln 1 ln 2 z x x = +
Ans. y not defined for 1 2 x s s , z is not defined for 2 x s
Exercise52
The function
( )
2
3 2 f x x x = + defined in R is not invertible as it is not one-one. But it is
invertible if defined in N or R
+
. Verify.
Exercise53
If : f A B and : g B A be two functions
A
gof I = , the identity function in A, and
B
fog I = ,
identity function in B, then the functions : f A B and : g B A both are invertible.
Verify taking any invertible function such as
( )
3
f x x = and ( )
3
g x x = , both in R
+
.
Note that you need not find out
1
f

actually.
Exercise54
Page 106 / 681
Page 25
( ) 1
2
x x
y

=
Exercise55
If : f X Y for nonempty sets , X Y , be a into function, and
( )
1
ff A A
_ and
( )
1
ff A A
= for
all subsets of X show that f is onto.
Exercise56
If : f X Y for nonempty sets , X Y , be a into function, and
( )
1
f f A A
_ and
( )
1
f f A A
= for
all subsets of X show that f is one-to-one.
Exercise57
If : f X Y for nonempty sets , X Y , be a into function,
( ) ( ) ( ) f A B f A f B = all subsets
of X show that f is one-to-one.
Exercise58
If
: f X Y
for nonempty sets
, X Y
, be a into function, and if
( ) ( ) ( ) ' ' f A f A _ then show that
f
is onto.
6:Increase and decrease of functions : preliminary investigation.
Sometimes mere inspection, finding our domain and range and preliminary investigation without
recourse to special tools of Calculus like limits continuity and differentiation etc. helps to take
stock of situation , especially in simple cases. For example, in a periodic function , we can
easily find out the interval of increase or decrease. A few examples would illustrate the point.
Example51
The well known quadratic function
( )
2
f x ax bx c = + + can be written as , taking out a perfect
square, ( )
2
2
4
2 4
b ac b
f x a x
a a
| |
= + +
|
\ .
, we observe that
a) If a > 0, the expression shall decrease as
2
2
b
x
a
| |
+
|
\ .
decreases, i.e. x in the interval of
] , ]
2
b
a

, and again increase as
2
2
b
x
a
| |
+
|
\ .
increases , in the interval
[ , [
2
b
a

and thus its
minimum value is
2
4
4
ac b
a
at
2
b
x
a
=
if 0 a > . If 0 a < the situation just reverses, the function
Page 107 / 681
Page 26
increases in the interval
[ , ]
2 2
b b
a a
, is maximumthere at
2
b
x
a
=
and the maximum value is
2
4
4
ac b
a
.
Note: A function is monotonically increasing if
( ) ( )
2 1 2 1
0 0 x x f x f x > > . See next
example.
Example52
Show that
( )
3
f x x x = + is monotonically increasing.
We have ( ) ( ) ( )( )
3 3 2 2
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 2
1 f x f x x x x x x x x x x x = + = + + + , or
( ) ( )
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 1 1 1 2 1 1
3 3
2 1 1
4 2 4 2 4
x x x x x
x x x x x x x

| |
| |
+ + + + = + + +
` | |
\ .
\ .
)
.
Since the expression under {} is positive,
( ) ( )
2 1 2 1
0 0 x x f x f x > > . Since this is so for
arbitrary choice of
2 1
, x x , the function monotonically increases in R throughout.
Exercise59
Show that the function
( )
2
log 1
a
y x x = + + monotonically increases.
7:LOGARITHM FUNCTION
If f(x) = e
x
and gf(x) = 1, show that g(x) = ln x.
Ans : If gf(x) = 1, g = f
-1
. But f
-1
is ln . So g(x) = ln x.
Exercise60
Show that the inverse function of
( )
2
log 1
a
y x x = + + is
( ) sinh ln x y a =
Ans. we have ( )
2 2
1, 1 sinh ln
2
y y
y y
a a
a x x a x x x y a

= + + = + + = =
EXAMPLE 53
Find inverse function of sin x
Ans : If y = sin x, sin
-1
y = x, x = ( sin
-1
y ),
EXAMPLE54 If ,
1 1
2
2
x
x
x
x f + = |
.
|
\
|
+ find f(x) .
Ans :
We have 2
x
1
x 2
x
1
. x 2
x
1
x
x
1
x
x
1
x f
2
2
2
2
2
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + + = + =
|
.
|
\
|
+ , so f(x) = x
2
-2, 2 x > .
8: The Implicit Function
Page 108 / 681
Page 27
Take the implicit function
2 2
2 2 0 x ax y by c + + + = , where x is not expressed in terms of y
nor vice versa. Such is the definition of implicit functions. Sometime it may be possible in simple
cases, to derive y in terms of x. Take no botheration for solving this, only try to know where it
crosses x axis, by putting y = 0 and where it crosses the y axis , by putting x = 0. If
1 2
, x x be
the x intercepts and
1 2
, y y be the y intercepts , then show that
a)
1 2
1 2
y y b
x x a
+
=
+
b)
1 2 1 2
2 x x y y c + = c)
1 2 1 2
x x y y =
Exercise61
If
: f R R
be such that
( )
3 4
5 7
x
f x
x
+
=
and
: g R R
such that
( )
7 4
5 3
x
g x
x
+
=
find
( ) gof x and
( ) fog x . What do you infer?
Exercise62
Find the domain of the following.( for which the function has real values)
a) ( ) f x x a b x = + Ans. [a, b]
b) ( )
1
sin 1
f x
x
=
Ans. , for sin 1 x s

c)
( ) ( ) ( ) ln 2 3 f x x x = + + Ans. ] 3, 2[ R ,
( )( ) 2 3 x x + + is negative in] 3, 2[
d) ( )
2
3
ln
2
x x
f x

= Ans. [1, 2]
Hint. ( )( )
2 2
2
3 3
ln 0 1 3 2 0 1 2 0
2 2
x x x x
x x x x

> > + s s
e) ( )
2
1
2 3
x
f x
x x
=
+ +
Ans. R = ] - , [
f)
( ) ln 3
x
f x = Ans. ]0,1[ ]1, [ , not defined for x = 1 or < 0 .
g)
( )
1
sin
1
2
1
x
f x
x

= +
+
Ans. 1 x = , 1 1 x s s , so 1 1, . . ] 1,1] x i e < s
h) ( )
1
sin
1
2
3
x
f x
x
= +
Ans. , as 1 1, x < s and 3 x > incompatible.

i)
( ) ( ) ln sin 3 f x x = Ans.
( ) sin 3 0 0 3 3 3 x x x t t > < < < < +
j) ( ) ( )
2
lnsin 3 25 f x x x = + Ans. ]3, 3 [ 4 ]3, 4] x and x x t e + s e
Page 109 / 681
Page 28
k)
( ) ln cos f x x = Ans.
0
cos 0 0 90 ]0, ]
2
x x x
t
> < s e
l)
( ) ( ) ( )
3 4 5
log log log f x x = Ans.
( )
4 5 5
log log 0 log 1 5 x x x > > >
m) ( )
3 2
f x x x =
Ans. x >1
n) sin x Ans. 0
2
x
t
s s
9: Functions as Expressions:
We remember the expressions met in high school, like
a
0
x
n
+ a
1
x
n-1
+ a
2
x
n-2
+. a
n
= y.(1)
which is called a polynomial in x defined as a finite power series in x, where the coefficients
a
0
, a
1
, a
2
,. a
n
etc. rational numbers , not all 0. Some authors insist these coefficients to be
integers and their treatment does not make any substantial difference as one could multiply the
polynomial with LCM of denominators of the coefficients to make them all integers. The
polynomial or the power series may be also written as y =
=

n
0 r
r
r n
x a .if the series is equated to
0, and the equation is satisfied for some value of x, say x = o , then that value o is called a root
of this equation. The highest power n of x here is called degree of the polynomial . We say y
is a function of x or y = f(x) where f stands for some operation or operations to modify x into y.
Expressions like
7
5
3
2
4
x 3 4
x ax
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=y (say) = h(x) (say), (2)

which are obtained from x with a finite number of algebraic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, raising to power, taking root etc. , are called algebraic
expressions or functions . Comparing the set theoretic definition of function with this meaning
of function in the traditional sense, the set theoretic definition gives an impression that the value
of a function is known as soon as value of the independent variable is chosen, but the algebraic
expression or closed form gives the impression that the functional value for any given value of
the independent variable can be calculated from the expression for the function. Anyway, we
can express a large class of functions ( continuous real valued and infinitely differentiable
called smooth functions or smooth curves) into polynomials or infinite converging power series ,
and in both cases we can calculate the value of the function for a given value of independent
variable.
As a most general example, an expression ( )
( )
( )
P x
y x
Q x
= (3)
where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials and coefficients of P(x) and Q(x) are rational numbers and
degree of P(x) is less than that of Q(x), is called a rational algebraic expressions or
functions. Obviously the values of y are defined for Q(x) = 0. If o,| ,,o etc. are real roots of
Q(x) = 0, and = minimum of |o|,|||,||,|o| etc., the function is clearly defined in the interval
x = ] - , [ without any controversy .
Page 110 / 681
Page 29
To simplify the expressions like ( )
( )
( )
P x
y x
Q x
= ,we need to factorise the denominator and convert
the expression into partial fractions. So that we could expand each partial fraction into an infinite
convergent series and add the serieses together term by term to get a final series
representation of the function. So we need study partial fractions first.
10: A little explanation about functions
Functions are also mappings as stated in the beginning of the chapter and transformations for
the reason that they transform in the dependent variable. Expressions may be understood as
rules for describing a function, mapping as tabular representation and transformation as a
graph. However the concept of mapping is inclusive of all other concepts of function.
Many functions and many kinds of functions we have met so far confirm to this definition
single valued mappings between two sets. If the domain is natural numbers, and the range is a
subset of real numbers, the function is what we call a sequence . If the domain is a finite subset
of natural numbers, we can list all pairs ab and there is no need to give a formula for it or a
verbal description. But if the function is from the set of natural numbers to a subset of real
numbers, obviously we cannot list all the ordered pairs, and have to spell out a rule ( or a set of
rules) to describe the function. Same is the case when the domain is an interval represented by
a continuous variable. So the concept of function although seems simple, it embodies a lot of
information, just like a seed has an entire tree hidden in it. Consider an example : let the real
numbers be represented by their decimal expansion in which infinite repetition of 9s are
avoided, such as, is represented by 0.5 , not by 0.499999( which is just the same as 0.5).
If this number is x, take y as the integer in the sixth place of its decimal expansion ; (of x). This
is a perfectly respectable function, only described verbally, but sufficiently definitely. In contrast,
y = sin x is a function so useful that it has been given a special symbol! Again, y = x
4
is a
function just described by a formula without any verbal description. However in all the cases, it
is the correspondence which takes care of the listing, the rule or the formula, or the graph of th
function so to say. There is no restriction about what the objects of the domain and the range
would be; they may not be numbers even. For example, let A be the set of all rectangles and B
the set of all circles superscribed on these rectangles. There is a natural correspondence
between the two sets which is obviously a function. What we are interested in algebra is real
valued sequences or integral functions and what we are interested in Calculus or in Analysis is
real valued or complex valued functions.
11: Zeroes or roots of a function.
It is required now to tell something about zeroes of a function. Look at the function
( ) ( )( ) 1 2 f x x x = defined in the domain of real numbers. In other words, take any real
number for x a = , it gives a real number for
( ) f x ,
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 2 f x a a = . The graph of the
function is given below.
Page 111 / 681
Page 30
The graph does not go below the horizontal line
( ) 0.25 f x y = = . So the range of the function
is [ 0.25 , [. Put any value of
( ) 0.25 f x > you would get two values of x , e.g., taking
( ) 2, f x = we have
( )( )
2 2
1 2 2 3 2 2 3 4 0 x x x x x x = + = + = which gives two
values
3 5
2
for x. Now it is clear that the function can take any value 0.25 > . Only as special
cases when the value of the function is 0, i.e.,
( )( ) 1 2 0 x x = , i.e., 1, 2 x or x = = the
function becomes 0, i.e.
( ) 0 f x = . Then the values of x i.e., 1, 2 x or x = = are called roots
of zeroes or solutions of the function
( ) f x . Remember that the function stands for its entire
graph, and the roots are only the points of intersections of the graph with X axis.
In Algebra we often come across functions of the type
( )
4 3 2
3 5 2 6 7 f x x x x x = + + +
called
polynomial functions and the fundamental theorem of Algebra guarantees that any polynomial
of finite degree, has at least one zero (solution), real or complex. Further ahead we would know
that a polynomial of n degree has n solutions an equivalent statement of the fundamental
theorem. It is Abel who pointed out that for a polynomial of degree 5 or more, roots cannot be
found out only by algebrical manipulation in general case, we have to find them out in numerical
method i.e., by algorithms developed for approximation and further approximation. In addition
to algebraic functions, we also come across all sorts of functions in Calculus, such as
( ) sin f x x =
,
( )
x
g x e =
etc. and we have to study limit, continuity, derivative of functions etc in
general for locating the roots, finding their nature etc. A particularly important theorem may be
mentioned Taylors theorem.
Example55
Find the roots of the function ( )
2 2 2
3 7 4 3 2 1
10 2.10 10
x x x x x x
f x
+ + + +
= .
Ans. : Put ( )
2 2 2 2 2
2
3 7 4 3 2 1 3 7 4 3 2
10
0 10 2.10 10 0 10 2.10
10
x x x x x x x x x x
x x
f x
+ + + + + + + +
+
= = =
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 2
4 1 2 1 3 7 4 3 2
10 2.10 10 10 2.10 10
x x x x x x x x x x + + + + + + + + + +
= = .
X
Y
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2.16
-1.44
-0.96
-0.48
0.24
0.72
1.2
1.68
2.4
0
Graph of
( ) ( )( ) 1 2 f x x x =
f(x) = (x-1)(x-2)
y = - 0.25
Page 112 / 681
Page 31
Let
( )
2
2 1
10
x
z
+
= , so the above equation reduces to
2
2 10 0 1 11 z z z = = . Since
( )
2
2 1
10
x
z
+
= , Z>0, so 1 11 z = + .Hence
( )
2
2 1
10 1 11
x+
= + . Solving again,
( )
10
1
1 log 1 11
2
x = + .
12: Partial fractions :
Now ratio of two polynomials P(x) and Q(x) where degree of P(x) is less than that of Q(x)
) x ( Q
) x ( P
y = can be regarded as
)... x )( x )( x ( b
) x ( P
0
| o
where b
0
is leading coefficient of Q(x)
and (x - o), (x - |) etc. are factors of Q(x). (if degree of P(x) is equal to or greater than that of
Q(x),we can always divide P(x) by Q(x) up to a number of steps as necessary to arrive at a
remainder R(x) whose degree is less than that of Q(x), and take R(x) in place of Q(x) for our
consideration). This further can be written as
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
+
o
....
x
B
x
A
b
) x ( P
0
,where A, B ..etc are
constants. The method is called breaking up the function into partial fractions One of its
components |
.
|
\
|
o x
A
b
) x ( P
0
, or
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
o
x
1
1
b
) x ( AP
0
which can be expanded into a infinite
converging power series
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
o
+
o
+
o
+
o
...
x x x
1
b
) x ( AP
3
3
2
2
0
for |x| < |o|. The reader can verify
........ x x x 1
x 1
1
2 2
+ + + + =
by actual long division. The question whether it has any meaning

at all or not depends on whether the series on the right is convergent or not. The series
converges for |x| < 1.The product
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
o
+
o
+
o
+
o
...
x x x
1
b
) x ( AP
3
3
2
2
0
would be an infinite power
series in x , convergent for |x| < |o| and this is why we had to define the polynomial for values of
x less than minimum of absolute values of roots of Q(x).Ultimately
) x ( Q
) x ( P
would be a converging
power series in x. Tow special cases are worth mentioning here. When a root of Q(x) say is
repeated, the corresponding partial fraction shall be
|
|
.
|
\
|
o
+
o
2
0
) x (
C
x
A
b
) x ( P
which again can
be seen to be a converging infinite power series in x, as long as x < |o|. If Q(x) contains a factor
like
Sx
2
+ Tx + V, which is not further reducible to simple factors, then the partial fraction is of the
type
V Tx Sx
N Mx
2
+ +
+
where the denominator is irreducible any further. Nevertheless, the latter
fraction can be turned into an infinite power series in x, converging for a certain range of values
of x to be discussed later ( see quadratic equations). The fact that the partial fractions
Page 113 / 681
Page 32
|
.
|
\
|
o x
A
,
|
|
.
|
\
|
o
2
) x (
C
or
V Tx Sx
N Mx
2
+ +
+
can be turned into infinite power series, can be verified by
actually dividing the numerator by the denominator; only conditions for convergence need be
considered then.
We can summarize the rules of decomposition into partial fractions through evident
examples :
Rule 1:
For a non-repeated factor (x - o) in the denominator, we can take a partial fraction like
o x
A
where A is a constant. As an example, to break
) x )( x (
t sx
| o
+
into partial fractions, put
) x )( x (
t sx
| o
+
=
o x
A
+
| x
B
sx + t A(x - |) + B(x - o) for all values of x
A + B = x and A| + Bo = - t. These two equations can be solved to get values of A and B.
Alternatively, putting x = o and x = | in turn we get, so + t = A(| - o) and s| + t = B(o - |) which
gives values of A and B.
Example56
( )( )( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
2
2
5 41
Let
3 1 2 1 3 1 2 1
5 41 1 2 1 3 2 1 3 1
x x A B C
x x x x x x
Ax x A x x B x x C x x
+ +
= + +
+ +
+ + = + + + +
Putting x = 3 , 1. And respectively , we get
3 47
, , 25
4 4
A B C = = =
Rule 2:
For a repeated factor (x - o)
2
in the denominator, we can take two partial fractions like
o x
A
and
2
) x (
B
o
where A and B are constants. As an example, to break
) x ( ) x (
v tx sx
2
2
| o
+ +
, put
) x ( ) x (
v tx sx
2
2
| o
+ +
=
o x
A
+
2
) x (
B
o
+
| x
C
sx
2
+ tx + v A(x - o)(x - |) + B(x - |) + C(x -
o)
2
.
Equating coefficients of similar powers of x from both sides, we get three equations in A, B and
C , which could be solved easily.
Example57
Page 114 / 681
Page 33
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 3
3
2 2 2
2
2
3 3 3
1
Let
1 1
1 1 1
, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
A B C D E F
x x x x x
x x x x
or Ax x x Bx x x C x x
Dx x x Ex x Fx x
= + + + + +
+
+
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
Putting x = 0, 1, 1, we get, C =1, E = , F = .
To find A, B and D, we equate the coefficients of x
5
, x
4
, x
3
, in both sides and get,
0
2 0
0
A D F
A B E F
A B C D E F
+ + =
+ =
+ + + =
Solving the equations with the already known quantities ,we get, A = 2, B = 1, D = 7/4 .
Rule 3:
For an irreducible quadratic factor x
2
+ bx +c in the denominator, we can take a partial
fraction like
c bx x
B Ax
2
+ +
+
where A and B are constants. As an example, to break
) c bx x )( x (
v tx sx
2
2
+ + o
+ +
, put
) c bx x )( x (
v tx sx
2
2
+ + o
+ +
=
o x
A
+
c bx x
C Bx
2
+ +
+
Simplifying and equating the coefficients of like powers of x from both sides we get three linear
equations involving A, B and c as unknowns which can be solved easily.
Example58
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2
1
Let
1 4
1 4 1
A B Cx D
x x
x x x
+
= + +
+
+
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
2
2 2
, 1 1 4 4 1 .....................( ) or A x x B x Cx D x a + + + + +
Putting x = 1, we get, B = 1/5
Then we equate the coefficients of like powers of x in both sides to get,
0
2 0
4 2 0
A C
A B D C
A C D
+ =
+ + =
+ =
Solution of these equations with already known quantities give
C = 2/25 , A = - 2 / 25, D = - 3/25 .
Otherwise
Page 115 / 681
Page 34
Since
( ) ( )
2
4 2 2 x x i x i + = + , we can also put x = 2i in (a) above to get,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 2 2 1 2 3 4 8 3 6 4 iC D i iC D i C D i C D + = + = +
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get,
8 3 1, 6 4 0 C D C D = + = , which give C = 2/25 , D = -3 /25 .
Such examples like (1), (2) or (3) are called algebraic functions and term may be
equivalently defined in one of the three alternative manner as discussed above.
Exercise63
Convert
( )( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
1 2
3 4
x x
x x
+ +
+ +
into partial fractions.
Hint. Write
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
1 2
1 2 1 2
1 1
3 4 3 4 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 1
3 4 3 4
x x
y y y y
y y y y x x
y y y y
A B
y y y y
+ +
+ + + +
= = + =
+ + + + + +
+ + + +
+ = + +
+ + + +
Ans. A = 2, B = 6
Misc.Exercise
Convert into partial fractions
64)
( ) ( ) ( )
2 1
1 2 3
x
x x x
+
Ans. A = 1/6 , B = 1/3 , C =
65)
( ) ( )( )
1
1 1 1 2 x x x + +
Ans. A = 1/6 , B = , C = 4/3 .
66)
( ) ( )
2 2
1
1 3 x x + +
Hint. Put x
2
= y. Ans. A = , B =
67)
( )
3
2
1
1 x x +
, Hint. Make it
( )
3
1
2 1 y y
, Ans. A = B = C = 1 , D = 1
68)
( )( )
4
2
1 1
x
x x +
Hint.
( )( )
2
1
1
1 1
x
x x
= + +
+
Ans. A = , B =
69)
( ) ( )
2
1 1
x
x x + +
Ans. A = - , B = = C.
70)
( ) ( )
2
3 5
3 2 1
x
x x
+
Ans. A = - 27/25 , B = 9/25 , C = 8/25 .
Page 116 / 681
Page 35
71)
( ) ( )
2
3 5
1 1
x
x x
+
+
Ans. A = , B = 4, C =
13: Transcendental Functions
Now the question is, whether there are any other infinite power series which no doubt converge
but cannot be expressed in one of the three forms as above. Yes there are so many of them,
and those functions are expressed as infinite converging power series which cannot be
reduced to algebraic expressions in closed forms are called transcendental functions.
This is a definition by exclusion or denial of cases or it is a negative definition all right; the
concept must be understood properly in the context of all functions belonging to a certain class
to be discussed later( in the chapter for Taylors theorem which expresses f(x + h) in terms of
f(x), h etc as a power series).Such functions belonging to that class (the class of
continuous and infinitely derivable functions) can be expanded to converging power
series and for that class of functions only we make a distinction , whether it is algebraic or
transcendental. There may be both algebraic and transcendental functions both of which are
convergent infinite series in x; the only difference between them is that transcendental functions
cannot be reduced to algebraic expressions.
Some examples of transcendental functions
32. sin x = ........
! 7
x
! 5
x
! 3
x
x
7 5 3
+ + 33. cos x = ........
! 6
x
! 4
x
! 2
x
1
6 4 2
+ +
34. e
x
= . ..........
! 4
x
! 3
x
! 2
x
x 1
4 3 2
+ + + + + 35. tan x = ........
15
x 2
3
x
x
5 3
+ + +
where n! stands for 1x2x3..n and called factorial n. (The values are arrived at using
trigonometry and De Moivres theorem later on).
2 3
1
1 ............inf 1
1
x x x inite terms if x
x
= + + + <
is an Algebraic function in contrast. See

that sin x, cos x, tan x, e
x
etc. cannot be obtained by performing a finite number of operations
on x; but
1
1 x
is obtained by only 3 number of operations on x.
It is not out of place to mention these functions as examples of transcendental functions,
keeping their derivations until Taylors theorem. Each of these series taken up to a finite number
of terms is not transcendental function; nor any of these is equal to the function in the left of it,
though it may be regarded as an approximation to the function represented by the name given
in the left side. Again, e
x
is not to be confused as an algebraic function of x as it is a
transcendental number e raised to the power x and not x raised to some power.
14: POLYNOMIALS AND ALGEBRAIC AND TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS:
Page 117 / 681
Page 36
Polynomials are finite power series . Algebraic functions are obtained from x
(independent variable) by performing a finite number of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, squaring, cubing etc. but not extracting roots , otherwise the function is
transcendental. Trigonometric, logarithmic and hyperbolic functions etc. like sin x, ln(1+x),
cosh x etc. are transcendental functions. Since Real numbers are presented to us in many
forms, notably integers, rational numbers, Algebraic numbers and transcendental numbers so
also the functions are presented to us in corresponding forms. A comparative table between
numbers and functions is given below :
NUMBERS FUNCTIONS IN ONE VARIABLE
1 Integers
Positive integers, 0 and negative integers
Rational Algebraic functions or polynomials such as
a
0
x
n
+ a
1
x
n 1
+a
2
x
n 2
+.+ a
n 1
x + a
n
where a
0
,
a
1
,a
2
etc. are rational numbers. A polynomial is a finite
power series.
2 Rational numbers integers, terminating
or non-terminating recurring decimals.
Satisfy yourself that any non-terminating
recurring decimal is a rational number.
Non-terminating recurring decimals can be
represented in closed forms with a line
drawn on the recurring part.
Algebraic functions in the form P(x) / Q(x) where
P(x)and Q(x) are polynomials. Naturally this would be a
polynomial or a converging infinite power series in x.
Converging because the sum of the series is already
P(x) / Q(x)
e.g.
2 3
1
1 ............inf 1
1
x x x inite terms if x
x
= + + + <
3 Algebraic numbers either rational

numbers or roots of polynomials
a
0
x
n
+ a
1
x
n 1
+a
2
x
n 2
+.+ a
n 1
x + a
n
where a
0
, a
1
,a
2
etc. are rational numbers.
This can be a rational number or irrational
number expressed as a combination of
finite number of known irrational numbers.
Algebraic functions obtained from a finite number of
polynomials P(x) , Q(x) etc. by a finite number of
Algebraic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, squaring, cubing, division etc., not taking
roots. This would also be a converging power series in
x . Converging because the sum of the series is already
an Algebraic expression in closed form.
4
3
1 x x
y
x
+ +
=
4 Transcendental numbers irrational
numbers those cannot be expressed as a
root of a polynomial as above. They cannot
be expressed as a combination of finite
number of known irrational numbers. t, e,
etc. are examples of such numbers,
though Algebraic irrational numbers are
These are converging infinite power series in x which
may be expressed in closed form such as
sin x, e
x
etc. or may not be expressed in closed forms.
A new symbol is required for each new series.
Page 118 / 681
Page 37
much more in number than rational
numbers and transcendental numbers are
much more than Algebraic irrational
numbers. Each transcendental number has
to be named with a new symbol, or has to
be approximated to a desired degree.
3 5
sin ............inf
3! 5!
x x
x x inite terms = +
2 3 4
1 .........inf ,
2! 3! 4!
x
x x x
e x inite terms xinradians = + + + +
15: Rational integral algebraic functions and polynomials :
We have now known linear and quadratic functions in a little detail. Graph of a linear function is
a straight line and graph of a quadratic equation is a conic section.In general a function or
polynomial like ( )
1 2
0 1 2
.................. .....................(1)
n n n
n
f x a x a x a x a

= + + + ,(where the coefficients
0 1 2
, , ................
n
a a a a etc. are rationals) is called a rational integral algebraic function .
Whereas a function or polynomial like
n
2 - n
2
1 - n
1
n
0
m
2 - m
2
1 - m
1
m
0
.q x q x q x q
.p x p x p x p
) x ( Q
) x ( P
) x ( g
... + +
... + +
= =
....(2)
is simply called a rational algebraic function or simply algebraic function . If the coefficients of
(1) are simply real numbers, it is simply called a polynomial.(some authors like to restrict the
coefficients to integers and some others assume them to be rational numbers; but for our
purpose, they may be real numbers as well and even complex numbers if explicitly stated
somewhere) The terminology is quite analogous to integers and rational numbers. The
polynomials are analogous to integers and the algebraic functions are analogous to rational
numbers .In the study of functions in general, (perhaps the only purpose of Calculus), a little
special attention need be given to these two types of functions as they are most frequently met
with in Geometry and Physics. To have a closer look at rational algebraic functions consider the
power series
4 3 2
2
( ) .
f g
f z az bz cz d z e
z z
= + + + + + + which can also be expressed as
( )
6 5 4 3 2
2
1
( ) f z az bz cz dz ez fz g
z
= + + + + + + which is in the form ( )
( )
( )
p z
f z
q z
= and consider another
power series
( )( )
( )
6 5 4 3 2
1
( )
1
g z az bz cz dz ez fz g
sz t z
= + + + + + +

. These are ratios of polynomials
just as rational numbers are ratios of integers , the denominators not being zero of course. The
latter expression g(z) shall be a convergent power series for |sz| < 1 and |z| < |t|, or simply for |z|
< min(|t|, 1/|s|). Expressions of the type 1/q(z) can be factorised into real or complex linear
factors in z like
1
(1 )( ) sz t z
which can further be broken into partial fractions of the types
(1 )
n
sz
and
( )
m
t z
which would result in converging power series for restricted values of z. Thus the
algebraic functions are analogous to rational numbers which are convergent series of decimals
and the limit of the series is expressible as a ratio of integers.
Irrational numbers are also converging power series of 1/10; but the only
difference is that they cannot be expressed as ratio of integers. Similarly there are
transcendental functions of x which are convergent power series in 1/x but they cannot be
expressed as ratio of polynomials. Examples of transcendental functions are , sin , cos , ln ,
x
e x x x
etc.
Page 119 / 681
Page 38
It must be noted that values of e
x
may not be a transcendental number always
even if e
x
is always a transcendental function. In fact, any algebraic number, any rational
number and any integer is some power of e, i.e. e
x
for some value of x, which is equal to
logarithm of that number. And certainly this does not mean that every number is transcendental.
If f(x) is put equal to zero, f(x) = 0 becomes an equation , as we know; and the
values of x for which f(x) = 0 are called its roots or its zeroes; zeroes of the equation. The roots
of the equation f(x) = 0 are important .Not only they indicate that at certain points the function
becomes zero, but they are the only thing, out of which the function is constituted; as we shall
see a little later. That is, if o
1
, o
2
, o
3
, .o
n
etc. are roots of f(x) = 0 , f(x) itself is nothing but a0(x
-o
1
)( x - o
2
)(x - o
3
).(x - o
n
)which would be proved a just a little after. A polynomial f(x) =P(x) /
Q(x) where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials of degree (highest power of x) m and n
respectively is called a rational algebraic function of degree m n
16: Operators vs. Functions
When we consider expressions in a single variable x such as ax
2
+ 2
x
, sin x, px
4
+ qx + r etc.,
we carry out some operation on x , which modifies x into the value of expression concerned.
The expressions are called functions of x, as they are nothing but some templates or place
holders such as a[ ]
2
+ 2
[ ]
, sin [ ], p[ ]
4
+ q[ ] + r etc. , which hold different values of x to give
different values of the expressions on computation . The notion given to us in our early days of
high school appears somewhat complex or intricate and we are seldom able to study the
functions or different sets of operations performed on x in a simple manner. Suppose in these
place holders, one puts 2x + 3 instead of x and thus we arrive at a combination of operations or,
a function of a function ,which further makes the matter difficult to understand. Let us denote px
4
+ qx + r by (x)o and let us denote 2x + 3 by (x)t so that the combined operation may be
expressed by ((x)t)o or (x)(too) which shall stand for p(2x + 3)
4
+ q(2x + 3) + r. Such is the
notation for writing functions as operators from the right of the argument (x) to further right. In
general case, operators may not be commutative meaning thereby (x)too may not be equal to
(x)oot depending upon the nature of o and t . If the two functions o and t are not commutative
according to the nature of expressions they stand for. It may so happen that (x)too may be
equal to (x)oot for a particular value of x, but that does not make the operators or functions
commutative and we do not say too = oot, if the expressions are such. But succession or
compounding of operators is associative in general. It means (x)(too)ou = (x)to(oou) for all x if
at all the functions are well defined. Different associations of the same operators or functions in
the same sequence of application do not matter.
Hitherto we have loosely used operators and functions synonymously; in fact they are so, to a
large extent. Had we called t, o,u etc as functions, we would have written the notations in a
different manner. Such as (x)t should have been written as t(x); (x)(too) should have been
written as o(t(x)), (x)(too)ou should have been written as u(o(t(x)) and so on; in right to left
manner It follows that grouping of functions in the same order is associative when we consider
function of functions.
To demonstrate a difference between an operation and a function in their inherent nature,
consider the following .
17: Linear functions vs linear operators:
Page 120 / 681
Page 39
An operator o is linear if (a b)o = ao bo where is a binary operation such as addition,
multiplication etc. If the operator takes members a, b belonging to set A to members ao and bo
respectively in set B, we say the operation is preserved in set B as in set A , for the similar
operation can be carried out in set B when the members of set A are taken to set B. Such an
operator is called homomorphic and the relation it stands for is called a homomorphism. A
one-to-one homomorphism is an isomorphismor the corresponding operator is called an
isomorphic. Isomorphism is otherwise defined as a one-to-one and onto correspondence
between two sets. Prove that the latter concept is equivalent to what we have said just now.)
Function notation and terminology are slightly different. A function f:AB is called linear
or of first degree, if f(x) = Mx + N for some constants M and N for all x belonging to domain of f
in set A. Graph of this function is a straight line with slope M and intercept on Y axis N. If the
members of set A can be added to one another in usual sense , we have,
f(x + y) = M(x +y) + N =( Mx + N )+ (My + N) N = f(x) + f(y) N = f(x) + f(y) .
So a linear function does not define a homomorphism as a linear operator does.
Exercise 72
If f is a linear function such that f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) , prove that the graph of the function passes
through the origin.
Let f(x) = Mx + N for some constants M and N; ( as it is given to be linear function)
so that we have,
f(x + y) = M(x +y) + N =( Mx + N )+ (My + N) N = f(x) + f(y) N
But f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) as per the question.
So f(x) + f(y) N = f(x) + f(y) . Hence it follows that N = 0 and thus, f(x) = Mx.
Putting x = 0, we get f(x) = 0 . That means that the point (0, f(0)) is on the graph or the graph of
the function passes through the origin.
Thus it may be understood that operator concept has wider scope and application than function.
It can operate on other algebraic objects not only on numbers, such as differential operators
operating on functions and numbers as well. (The example shall be evident on study of
differential equations).
18: Graphs of functions:
Let the function be f(x) = 2x
2
+ 3 or let y = 2x
2
+ 3. The expression is equivalent to a rule which
states that the function of a variable x is twice the square of the variable added to 3, for all
values of the variable. So a rule can be adopted in exchange of the expression. Still in another
manner, we might explicitly write down all possible cases how the rule works. This is done by
means of a table, listing all possible values of the function for all possible values of the variable.
As example we may use the following table instead of the expression or rule quite in an
equivalent manner. This table we were making before drawing the graph of the function in high
school.
x 0 1 -1 2 -2 3 -3 \2 t .. .. . .
y 3 5 5 11 11 21 21 7 2t
2
+ 3 .. .. ..
Page 121 / 681
Page 40
Still in another manner, the function can be represented by its graph as in the following
figure.
Note that we are making sketches of graphs for illustration and not actually drawing the graphs
to scale.
The graph starts from the point (0, 3) on the y axis, corresponding to the value x = 0, and
extends over to infinite distance along y axis in two branches symmetrically placed around y
axis. We can get the value at any point of the variable x by drawing an ordinate parallel to y-axis
at x. That finishes its equivalence with the table representation of the function or representation
by rule or expression. The different representations have their own different utilities and
advantages.
The table representation brings out one important aspect; that the function is nothing but
merely a correspondence between members x and y , symbolically x y of two sets X and Y
all values of x and all values of y in entirety. X and Y are called the domain and the range of the
function f and are subsets of real numbers.
a) Quadratic Functions of a single variable: Parabolas:
O
X X
Q
Y
Y
M N
Page 122 / 681
Page 41
Y
y=x
2
X O X

x=y
2
O X X
Y
Y

A graph of y = x
2
is given (see Fig.2.4a ).This curve is a parabola as it would be seen
later. Parabolas are curves , any point on which is at equal distances from a fixed point and a
fixed straight line called focus and directrix of the parabola. The graph is symmetrical about the
y-axis as the equation is not changed when x is replaced by x. it means that if the curve is
rotated about y-axis, it coincides with the original curve. Such functions are called even
functions. To verify its symmetry about x-axis, put y in place of y. The equation is now
changed and hence it is not symmetrical about x-axis. The graph of x = y
2
given in Fig.2.4b is
also a parabola; but in this case y is not a function of x as a value of x corresponds to two
values of y. However x is a function of y here. Neither of the cases admit of inverse functions as
there is no one-to one correspondence. Quadratic functions in two variables represent conic
sections or
plane sections of cone which is dealt very extensively in latter chapters.
b) The Exponential Function
A graph of exponential function a
x
for cases a>1 and a<1 is given below. .Note
a
0
= 1 in both cases ) (fig.2.5). Exponential function increases for a>1 and decreases for a <1.

Fig.2.4a, graph of y=x
2
, and Fig.2.4b, x = y
2
X
X
Y
Y
P(0,1)
y = 2
x
X
X
Y
Y
y =(1/ 2)
x
P(0,1)
O(0,0)
O(0,0)
y= a
x
, a < 1
y= a
x
, a>1,
Page 123 / 681
Page 42

If a > 1, say a = 2, y = 2
x
is shown in above figure. As 2
0
=1,so the point (0,1) lies on the graph.
y increases to as x increases to . For x < 0, -x > 0 and 2
x
= 1 / 2
-x
,the fraction goes on
diminishing to 0
If a < 1, say a = 1 / 2, y = 1 / 2
x
is shown in fig.2.5b. As 2
0
=1,so the point (0,1) lies on
the graph. The fraction goes on diminishing to 0 as x increases. For x < 0, -x > 0 and 1 / 2
x
= 2
-x
which goes on increasing to as decreases to - .
X
Y
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
1
2
4
6
8
10
0
Compare the graphs of y = e^x and the graph of y = e^(-x)
y = e^x
y = e^(-x)
X
Y
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
-1
1
2
4
6
8
10
0
compare the graphs of y = 2^x and y =(1/2)^x
y = 2^x
y=(1/2)^x
X
Y
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-9
-7
-5
-3
-1
1
2
4
6
8
10
Compare the graphs of y e^x and that of y = e ^(-x) meeting at (0, 1)
Page 124 / 681
Page 43
c) Logarithmic functions
These are inverse functions of exponential functions. This is evidently from definition of
logarithms. For example, if
x
a y = , then log
a
y x = . Thus y is positive for all values of x if a > 1.
If a >1,
x
a has the domain R and range only positive real numbers; so logarithm of a negative
number is impossible ( imaginary).
X
Y
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
-1
1
2
4
6
8
10
0
y = log x
x = log y
x = log y is is same as 10
x
y = which is inverse function of y = log x
X
Y
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-10
-8
-5
-2
1
2
4
6
8
10
0
Compare the graphs of( )^x,(1/3)^ x, ()^x all intersecting at (0, 1) and compare them with graphs of2^x, 3^x, 4^x
y = (1/2)^x
y = (1/3)^x
y = (1/4)^x
X
Y
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
1
2
4
6
8
10
0
compare the graphs of 2^x, 3^x, 4^x all intersecting at (0, 1)
y = 2^x
y = 3^x
y = 4^x
(0, 1)
Page 125 / 681
Page 44
d) The Hyperbolic Function
Graphs of hyperbolic functions
x -x
e e
sinh x =
2
and
x -x
e + e
cosh x =
2
are given here. cosh x is always positive and increases to as x (tends to) or x - .
cosh x =1 for x =0, so point (0,1) is on the curve . cosh x remains unchanged if x is replaced by
x . So it is symmetric about y-axis.
Sinh x passes through the origin as it is 0 for x = 0. It tends to through positive values
of x and it tends to - through negative values of x. If x is replaced by x, sinh x becomes - sinh
x ; so it is antisymmetric about y-axis.
Exercise73
Prove that
2 2
cosh x -sinh x= 1 (Prove by just applying their definitions .Just
square up and subtract to prove it.).They are called hyperbolic functions (sinh x is read as sin
hyperbolic x).
X
Y
-2-1.5 -1 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5
0
Compare the graphs of y = ln x and y = - ln x
y = ln x
y = - lnx
X
Y
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0
Compare the graphs of y = log x and y = log (-x)
y = log x
y = log (-x)
Page 126 / 681
Page 45
Similarly,
sinh x
tanh x =
cosh x
,
1
coth x =
tanh x
,
1
sech x =
cosh x
, and
1
cosech x =
sinh x
Prove also that
2 2
1 tanh x = sech x ,
2 2
coth x - 1 = cosech x ,
2 2
cosh x + sinh x = cosh 2x , 2 sinh x cosh x = sinh 2x ,
( ) sinh x + y = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y ,
( ) cos h x + y = cosh x cosh y + sin h x sinh y .
Note that hyperbolic functions are not periodic.
e) Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Inverse hyperbolic functions are defined in the same lines of inverse circular functions e.g.
-1
x = sinhy y = sinh x . Investigate the domains and ranges of the functions.
Verify and remember the following results by just using the definition
-1
x = sinhy y = sinh x .
As an example, solve
y -y
e +e
x = sinhy =
2
for y and get the first formula in the following. See it
how. =
y -y 2
2y y y
e +e x x - 1
x = sinhy = e - 2xe +1=0 e
2 2
. Only the + sign is to be
retained since
2
-1 x x > and ln x function is defined only for positive values of x.
X O X
Y
Y
y=sinh
x
y=sinh x, passes through the
origin and is antisymmetric
about y=axis.
X O X
Y
Y
y=cosh
(0,1
y=cosh x, graph of uniformly
heavy chain hanging freely
under gravity.
Page 127 / 681
Page 46
( (

-1 2 -1 2 -1
2 2
-1 -1 -1
1 1+x
sinh x =ln x + x +1 , cosh x =ln x + x - 1 , tanh x = ln
2 1- x
1 1- x 1+ 1- x 1 1- x
coth x = ln , sech x =ln , cosec x =ln
2 1+x x x
Let
1
sinh y x
= ,
so that
2 2
sinh 2 1 0 1
2
y y
y y y
e e
x y e xe e x x
= = = = + ,
or,
( )
2
ln 1 y x x = + . But since
2
1 x x + is negative, its logarithm has no meaning. Also we
have
1
sinh y x
= .So
( )
2 1
ln 1 sinh y x x x
= + + = .
Similarly,
( )
1 2
cosh ln 1 x x x
= . But both values are positive here .

1
cosh x
will not be
single valued , hence not a function, if both values are taken. To modify the definition of
1
cosh x
to make it a function, note that , for 1 x > ,

2
1 1 x x + + > and
( )
2
ln 1 0 x x + + > ; and
2
2
1
1 1
1
x x
x x
+ = <
+ +
, for which
( )
2
ln 1 0 x x + < .Hence the definition of
1
cosh x
is
modified and restricted to its positive values ; i.e.,
( )
1 2
cosh positive values of ln 1 x x x
= + .
Now, if
1
tanh y x
= ,
2 1
1 1 1
tanh tanh ln
1 2 1
y y y
y
y y y
e e x e x
x y e y x
e e x e x

+ +
= = = = = =
+
The function is obviously defined only for 1 x <
Work out the following as exercises
75)
1
1 1
coth ln
2 1
x
x
x
+
=
, defined only for 1 x > ,

76)
2
1
1 1
sec ln
x
h x
x
+
= only for 0 1 x < < and
77)
2
1
1 1
cos ln
x
ech x
x
+
= positive or negative sign is taken as x is positive or negative
respectively, for ,logarithm function is only defined for positive values of the argument.
f) Periodic Functions in General
Graphs of periodic or circular functions, sin x, cos x, tan x and cot x are given in Fig.1.9
& 1.10:(Note the domain and range in each case and the values of functions at 0, /2, ,
3/2, 2. and -/2, -, -3/2, -2 The values repeat at each interval of 2. Such
Page 128 / 681
Page 47
functions whose values are repeated at definite intervals are called periodic functions
and the interval is called a period. In general if a function f(x) is periodic with a period
if f(x) = f (x + n ) where n is any +ve or -ve integer.
Note that the domain of sine or cosine functions is the entire set of real numbers. Each of their
range is [-1,1]; maximum value they can have is 1 and minimum is -1 (sin t/2 =1 = cos 0, sin
3t/2 = -1 = cos t, sin 0 = 0 = cost/2) .Remember the formulae for complementary angles,
supplementary angles etc. from the previous chapter. Similarly cosecant and secant functions
being reciprocals of sine and cosine their domain is entire set of real number and range is ]-,
1] [1,[ and their absolute values are never less than 1. no trigonometric function, in fact ,
none of the periodic functions in general, can admit of an inverse function as many points in the
domain are taken to one point in the range by the function. When the domain and range are
interchanged, the correspondence is not single valued and therefore is no function; since we are
interested in single valued function only. If sin
-1
= t/6 , 5t/6 , 13t/6 etc, which value should
we take? So sin
-1
can be a function if the domain is taken [0, t/2] , so that there is no periodicity
or repetition. Observe the figures and note suitable intervals in which each of the trigonometric
functions tan, cot, sec and cosec can suitably admit of inverse function.
O
x
=
-
X X
Y
Y
x
=
/
2
x
=
3
/
2
x
=
-
/
2
x
=
-
3
/
2
y = tan x y = cot x
X
X
O
X
=
-
x
=
-
2
x
=
2
Y
Y
/2 -/2
y =cos x
X X
Y
(0,1)
(/2,0)
(,-1)
(-/2,0)
(-,-1)
(2,1)
O
X X
Y
Y
(/2,1) (-3/2,1)
(,0) (2,0)
(-,0)
(-2,0)
y = sin x
Y
Page 129 / 681
Page 48
Note the distinction between the terms inverse (1/x, reciprocal) and inverse function.
In general, a function ( ) f x is called periodic if the functional values repeat after a definite
interval in the independent variable. In symbols, if ( ) ( ) f x f x T = + , it is a periodic function and
T is called the period.
There is no need to recount trigonometric functions already taught in high school. Only the
domain and range of the functions may be investigated and remembered
Example74
A function ( ) sin y A t e = + , where t , time is independent variable for the displacement y of a
vibrating body. The displacement repeats back and forth starting from initial position y = 0 to
maximum displacement y = A, ( for maximum value 1 of sine function) , (called the amplitude)
from which point it returns back to the position y = 0 and moves back to a maximum distance
y = A , (corresponding to minimum value 1 of the sine function) and again returns back to
the 0 position. Such kind of motion is called a simple harmonic motion or SHM.
The period T is given by
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
sin sin 2 A t A t T t T t T
t
e e e e t
e
+ = + + + + = =
T is time taken to make a complete revolution. The reverse of it it number of revolutions per
second
1
T
u = is called frequency. If y =0 is the starting point then 0 = . Otherwise if we take
any other point as starting point 0 = . It is called the initial angle or the phase angle.
Exercise78
If T is a period of any periodic function , show that 2T, 3T, T etc are also periods.
Exercise79
Find the period of the function ( ) cos sin f x a x b x = + .
y=cosec x
X O X
y=1
y=-1
/2
x
=
x
=
-
-
- 3/2
Y
Y
O X X
Y
Y
x
=
/
2
x
=
3
/
x
=
-
/
2
y=1
y=-1
y=sec x
x
=
-
3
/
2
Page 130 / 681
Page 49
Hint.
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
cos sin cos sin
cos cos sin sin cos
a b
f x a x b x a b x x
a b a b
a b x x a b x
| |
= + = + +
|
+ +
\ .
= + + = +
As we could take
2 2
cos
a
a b
=
+
and
2 2
sin
b
a b
=
+
, sum of their squares being 1.
Exercise80
Find the maximum and minimum of the function ( ) cos sin f x a x b x = + .
Ans. Since ( ) ( )
2 2
cos f x a b x = + , the maximum is
2 2
a b + when the cosine function is
1 and minimum
2 2
a b + when the cosine function is -1.
Ex81: Show that maximum and minimum of two functions ( ) f x and ( ) g x can be defined as
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
max ,
2 2
f x g x f x g x
f x g x
+
= + ,
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
min ,
2 2
f x g x f x g x
f x g x
+
= remember
Miscexercise remember
Find the periods of the following functions :
82) sin
n
x , n is even integer Ans :
83) sin
n
x , n is odd integer Ans : 2
84) cos
n
x , n is even integer Ans :
85) cos
n
86) tan
n
x , n is any integer Ans :
87) cot
n
x , n is any integer Ans :
88) sec
n
89) sec
n
co x , n is odd integer Ans : 2
90) sin , cos , tan , cot , sec , cos x x x x x ecx Ans. :
Example75 remember
If two simple harmonic motions of the same frequency are executed on the same body in the
same line, show that their sum is also a simple harmonic motion in the same line.
Suppose
1
sin y A t e = and ( )
2
sin y B t e = + are two such SHMs on the same body
.Displacements of the same body in the same direction is to be arithmetically added.
Then we have
( )
( )
1 2
sin sin sin sin cos cos sin
cos sin sin cos
y y y A t B t A t B t B t
A B t B t
e e e e e
e e
= + = + + = + +
= + +
Page 131 / 681
Page 50
Now
( )
( )
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
cos sin cos sin 2 cos
2 cos 2 cos
A B B A B B AB
A B AB A B AB

t
+ + = + + +
= + + = +
We can put
2 2
cos
cos
2 cos
A B
A B AB
+
=
+ +
and
2 2
sin
sin
2 cos
B
A B AB
=
+ +
, as sum of their
squares is 1 and putting
2 2
2 cos A B AB C + + = , we have,
( )
1 2
cos sin sin cos sin y y y C t C t C t e e e = + = + = +
So this is again seen to be a SHM in the same line with the same period , but with a different
phase
sin sin
tan
cos cos
B
A B

= =
+
and new amplitude
2 2
2 cos C A B AB = + +
If both the SHMs are in the same phase, i.e., if 0 = , the resulting SHM is also in the same
phase and has maximum amplitude A B + . If both the SHMs are in opposite phase ,i.e. if t =
then the amplitude is minimum A B but the resulting SHM is also in the same phase.
Exercise91
Show that sin cos x x + is periodic , and find its period .
Exercise92
Show that the functions
2
) sin , )cos )cos a x x b x c x + are not periodic.
Hint. Assume the contrary in each case and arrive at some impossibility.
Take ( ) sin sin y x x x T x T = + = + + + if possible, derive cos
2
2sin
2
T T
x
T
| |
+ =
|
\ .
, it is a
contradiction since the left side is a variable and the right side a constant.
Similarly prove the other two.
Exercise93
For a periodic function
( ) ( ) f x f x T = +
. Show that
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 f T f f T = =
Exercise37
If ( ) [ ] f x x x = , i.e. fractional part of x, show that it is periodic and has 1 as the period.
Exercise94
The function ( )
1
0
when x rational
f x
when x irrational
repeats itself and so it is a periodic

function. But it has no period . verify.
Exercise95
If the functionsin cos x px + is periodic , show that p must be an integer or a rational number.
Hint. Use ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 f T f f T = = to prove sin 0 T T mt = = , cos 1 cos 2 aT nt = = ,or,
Page 132 / 681
Page 51
2
n
am n a
m
t t = = .
Exercise96
Show that a periodic function cannot have an inverse function unless the domain of the inverse
mapping
is restricted to a suitable half period.
Example76: Wave Functions
Suppose the particles in a medium vibrate in a vertical direction one after another. The
advancing wave propagates in the medium causing the particles farther and farther to vibrate .
Snapshot of a typical advancing wave shall be the graph of a sine or cosine function since not
all the particles in the medium are in same phase at the same time. Displacement of a particle
at a distance x from the origin at any time t may be given by
( )
2
sin y A x vt
t
= is such a
typical wave equation. The velocity v of the wave is given by
v
T
=
, where
, or wavelength is
the distance of any two adjacent particles in the same phase. The wave has travelled precisely
this distance by the time any particle has completed one revolution in time period T. Also since
the frequency
1
T
q =
, we may write
v
T
q = =
Exercise97
Verify from the wave equation that is the distance travelled by the wave in time period T
g) Inverse Circular Functions
Graph of inverse circular functions is given below ;(One expects X and Y coordinates
are interchanged . Of course, yes. But with one difference; these functions are not periodic and
the pieces of the graphs do not repeat themselves as the graphs of Trigonometric functions)

O
X
X
Y
(1,/2)
X
X X X
O
O
Y
Y
(-1,-/2)
(1,0)
(0,/2)
(-1,)
Y=sin
-1
x
Y=cos
-1
x Y=tan
-1
x
y = / 2
y = - / 2
Y Y Y
Page 133 / 681
Page 52
( In all such cases, domain of inverse function must be chosen where the function is
one-to-one, so that the inverse function exists).
The formulae for inverse trigonometric functions can be translated easily from the corresponding
trigonometric functions just by using the definition of it e.g. if sin y x = , then
1
sin y x
= .
This is just as you derive the laws of logarithm from the laws of indices by just using the
definition of logarithm. One such example is illustrated below.
Example77
a) To prove log log
n
a a
M n M = , just put symbols, log
a
M p = so that
p
a M = ; now
( )
log log
q
p q pq q
a a
a M a M pq q M = = = = . Just with the definition and symbols.
b) To prove
1 1
sin cos
2
x x
t

+ = by using sin cos
2
t
u u
| |
=
|
\ .
. Just from the definition
1 1 1 1
sin sin cos cos sin cos
2 2 2
y x y x y x y x x x
t t t

| |
= = = = + =
|
\ .
Similarly try proving the following on your own and remember; in case of difficulty, see any
standard book on trigonometry for inverse circular functions.
Examples78
a)
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
1 1 1
cosec x = sin , cot x = tan , sec x = cos , etc.
x x x
b)
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
sin x +cos x = = tan x +cot x = sec x +cosec x

2
Y=cot
-1
x
Y=sec
-1
x
Y=cosec
-1
x
O
O
X X X X
X
X
O
Y Y Y
Y Y
Y
(0,/2)
(-1,)
y=/2
(1,0)
y=/2
(-1,-/2)
(1,/2)
Page 134 / 681
Page 53
c)
2
-1 -1 2 -1 -1 -1 -1
2 2
x 1- x 1 1
= sin x = cos 1- x = tan = cot = sec = cosec
x x
1- x 1- x
d)

-1 -1 -1
x y
tan x tan y = tan
1 xy
,
+ +
+ +

-1 -1 -1 -1
x y z
tan x tan y tan z = tan
1 xy yz zx
e)
( )
-1 -1 -1 2 2
sin x sin y = sin x 1- y y 1- x ,,,
( )
-1 -1 -1 2 2
cos x cos y = cos xy 1- y 1- x
f)
( )
-1 -1 2
2sin x = sin 2x 1- x ,
( )
2
1
-1 -1
2cos x =cos 2x ,
g)
2
-1 -1 -1 -1
2 2 2
2x 2x 1- x
2tan x = tan = sin =cos
1- x 1+x 1+x
Exercise99
Find the domain of
1 2 1 2
tan sin 1
2
x x x x
t

+ + + + = and solve it.
Hint. We have to restrict
2 2 2
0, 0 1 1 0 0, 1 x x and x x x x x or + > s + + s + = =
Ex100: Show that ( ) ( )
1
x y
f x f y f
xy
| | +
+ =
|
\ .
for a function ( ) f x in | | , t t , if ( )
1
tan f x x
=
h) Cubical Parabola
y = x
3
represents a cubical parabola . The figure below illustrates what it is.
Spiral Equation of a spiral is r = a in polar coordinates ,an approximate figure is
given below.
X X O
Y
Y
y
=
x
3
cubical parabola, graph of y = x
3
Page 135 / 681
Page 54
Only for raising interest in the reader we give below a table of special curves.
62:Some Special Curves
Name of the curve Who studied it or what it is
famous for / description
equation
Eulers Spiral or clothoid or
Cornus spiral
Euler, Cornu. r
m
=a
m

Spiral of Archimedes Archimedes r
m
=a
m
, , m = 1
Fermats spiral Fermat r
m
=a
m
, , m = 2
Hyperbolic 0r reciprocal spiral Johann Bernoulli r
m
=a
m
, , m = -1
Cochleoid a snail-form curve r = a sin /
Frequency curve, probability
curve, Gaussian curve, and
normal curve of error
Abraham de Moivre, Karl,
Fredrick Gauss.
y = 1 / (2)
1/2
e
1/2 x
^
2
Catenary, or chainette is the form
that a perfectly flexible chain
assumes when suspended by its
ends and acted upon by gravity
alone
Leibniz, Christian Huygens,
Euler
y = a cosh (x/a)
Logarithmic, or logistic curve y = a log (y/m) or y = me
x/a
Tractrix, or tractory, or
equitangential, curve
Leibniz, Bernoulli x = a (cos + logtan [ /2])
Quadratrix of Hippias Hippias of Elis discovered in
connection with dividing an
angle into any number of equal
parts and squaring the circle
rsin = 2a
Semi-cubical parabola (Christian
Huygens)
A path along which a particle
may descend under the action
of gravity so as to describe
equal vertical spaces in equal
times.
x
3
=ay
2
Folium of Descartes Rene Descartes x
3
+ y
3
= 3axy
Strophoid Isaac Barrow x = a sin (a-2) / sin (a )
Lemniscate of Bernoulli Jakob Bernoulli (x
2
+ a
2
)
2
= a
2
(x
2
y
2
)
or r
2
= a
2
cos 2
Swastik curve (y
4
x
4
)=xy or
cos sin
cos sin
4 4
2
= r
Page 136 / 681
Page 55
Error function
2
x
y e
=
( We could eliminate u from the two equations to get a relation between x and y, but the result
wont be of any practical importance)
Example78 : graph of error function (probability curve).
18:Behaviour of functions when their domains are changed ;
A function : f A B is defined in the domain D A _ and having the range R B _ . It may be
possible that the same function ( the same rule of transformation for taking a member of A to a
member of B) may be extended to a larger domain ' D , such that ' D D A c _ (the range may or
may not be extended) and we may write if as : F A B with domain ' D such that ( ) ( ) f x F x = for
all x D e . The function F is called an extension of the function f in ' D and f is called a
restriction of F in D .Give 10 examples of such extensions or restrictions.
We would discuss below some functions changing totally the rule of transformation if their
domain is changed.
a) Even and odd functions:
If the function does not change when x is replaced with -x, i.e. ,if
f(x) = f(-x) the function is called even. x
2
.,x
4
, cos x ,cosh x etc. are even functions. If
f(x) = -f(-x) the function is called odd function. x
3,
x
5
, sin x, sinh x etc. are odd functions
.If f(x) = f(-x) the graph is symmetric about Y-axis.
For example, signum x is an odd function, since signum (- x) = - signum x; as (-x ) is negative
as x is positive and vice versa. ( signum x = 1 for x >0, = -1 for x ,0)
Take another example, ( ) ( )
| |
1
x
f x = . Note that if | | x is an even number, | | x is an odd
number and vice versa; so ( ) ( ) f x f x = and therefore it is an odd function.
Note that if f(x) = g(x) + g(-x) does not change if x is replaced with -x, and hence, it is
even function.
Similarly f(x) = g(x) + g(-x) changes to -f(-x) when x is replaced with -x, hence it
is odd function. Any function f(x) can be expressed ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
=
2 2
f x f x f x f x
f x
+
+
i.e., as a sum of even and odd functions if defined in an interval like [ q, q] .A function
X
Y
y = e^(-x^2), error function in statistical analysis
Page 137 / 681
Page 56
may be neither odd nor even e.g. y = ln x. lack of symmetry compels to seek symmetry at a
different level.
Exercise99
a) If f(x) is even, g(x) is even, f(x).g(x) is even.
b) If f(x) is even and g(x) is odd, f(x).g(x) is odd.
c) If f(x) is odd and g(x) is odd, f(x).g(x) is odd.
d) If f(x) is odd and g(x) is odd, fg(x) is odd.
e) If f(x) is odd and g(x) is even, fg(x) is even.
f) If f(x) is even and g(x) is even, fg(x) is even.
Ex100 :
Ans. Putting 0 x y = = in
( ) ( ) f x f y
x y
f
P P
+
+ | |
=
|
\ .
we have,
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )( )
0 0
0 0 2 0
f f
f f P
P
+
= = .
So ( ) 0 0 f = may be one of the options.
Putting y x = in
( ) ( ) f x f y
x y
f
P P
+
+ | |
=
|
\ .
we have,
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 0 .0 0
f x f x
f f x f x Pf P
P
+
= + = = = , by above. So ( ) f x is an odd
function.
Exercise101
Express the functions as a sum of even and odd functions.
a)
2
2
1
x
x
+
+
b)
x
a c)
2
x x +
Exercise102
Verify that product of any two odd functions is even, two even functions is even. Product
of an odd function and an even function is odd..
Exercise103
Put x in place of x in the following and determine which are odd/ even functions.
Page 138 / 681
Page 57
a)
x
b)
2
x x

c)
2
sin x x

d)
1
2
x
e)
( )
2
log 1
a
y x x = + +
exercise104 :
Given that
( )
1
2
x
f x f
x
+ | |
=
|
+
\ . being an even function, find its domain.
Ans ; Since
( ) ( ) f x f x =
as the function is even, we have
( ) ( )
1
................(1)
1
2
1 2
...............(2)
2
x
x
x
x
f x f f x
x x
x
x
+
=
+ | | +
= =

|
+ +
\ .

=
+
On simplification,
1 5 1 3
,
2 2
x

=
`

)
Exercise 105:
If the function
( )
1
1
x
n x
a
x a
+
is symmetric about Y axis then show that
1
3
n =
.
b) Symmetric and alternating functions:
If the value of a function is not changed by interchanging a pair of variables the function is a
symmetrical function. For example,x
2
+ y
2
+ xy(x+y), x
3
+y
3
+z
3
+3xyz,(x-a)(x-b)(x-c) etc.
Evidently sum, difference, product and quotient of symmetric functions shall be symmetric also.
A function may totally change its sign when two of its variables are interchanged. For example,
(x + y + z){ (x
2
(y - z) + y
2
(z - x) + z
2
(x - y)} will be negative without change in its structure, if x
and y are interchanged. The function is said to be an alternating function with respect to x and
y. This example also shows that product of a symmetrical function and an alternating function
shall be alternating function.
A function may neither be symmetrical or alternating.
But, If b x a s s ,or, a x b s s ,adding a+b to all sides, b x b a a s + s (and some function f(x)
and f(a+ b - x)are both defined in the domain [a, b] and , then, we can replace any function
f(x) with f(a+b- x) anywhere in a problem by changing the variable x to a + b x; for
the nature and structure of the two functions remains same and they have same domain
absolutely.
Page 139 / 681
Page 58

C
Y
cycloid
Z
T U
V
c) Implicit Functions :
A polynomial of second degree ax
2
+2hxy + by
2
+ 2gx +2fy +c = 0 may be solved for y in
terms of x as follows.
ax
2
+2hxy + by
2
+ 2gx +2fy +c = 0 by
2
+2hxy+2fy + ax
2
+ 2gx +c = 0
by
2
+2(hx +f)y +( ax
2
+ 2gx +c) = 0
( ) ( )
b
b f hx f hx
y
c 2gx ax
2 2
+ + +
= ..(1)
But sometimes such endeavor is not practical or just not possible. Nevertheless, there is no
difficulty in study of the eqn. in Calculus. Standard tools of differentiation and integration would
be sufficient to study the eqn. which we write in the form (x, y) = 0 where is regarded as a
function of both x and y and the fact that y is a function of x , is understood to be contained
implicitly in the eqn. (x, y) = 0. Such functions are called implicit functions.
The eqn.(1) can be written as ( ) ( ) c 2gx ax
2 2
+ + + = + + b f hx f by hx . In order that it may be a
linear expression in x, the part under the root should be a perfect square so that our eqn. (x, y)
= 0 may be product of two linear factors.
This implies (hx + f)
2
b (ax
2
+2gx +c) should be a perfect square
x
2
(h
2
ab) +2x(hf g ) + (f
2
bc) should be a perfect square
x
2
(h
2
ab) +2x(hf g ) + (f
2
bc) =0 should have equal roots
its discriminant (hf g )
2
- (h
2
ab) (f
2
bc) = 0.
af
2
+ bg
2
+ ch
2
abc 2fgh = 0
is the required condition that ax
2
+2hxy + by
2
+ 2gx +2fy +c = 0 may be resolved into two
linear factors. Compare the case of quadratic equation in single variable where the discriminant
is not necessarily a whole square.
64:Parametric equations of curves.
It is often to express the two variables x and y as different functions of a single variable so that
the functions could be worked upon easily with Calculus tools as implicit functions become
explicit in this way. However the economy of variables results in two equations for one.
Example80
Eliminate t from the equations to show that they represent a parabola.
a) x = at
2
, b) y = 2at.
Ans : y
2
= 4ax it is equation of a parabola
Example81
Eliminate u from the equations to show that they represent an ellipse.
a) x = a cos u b) y = b sin u
Ans : x
2
/a
2
+ y
2
/b
2
= 1 it is equation of an ellipse as we shall learn later on.
Example 82
A cycloid is a curve traced out by a point on the circumference of a wheel which rolls without
sliding ,along a straight path. The parametric equations are,
a) x = a(u - sin u) , b) y = a (1- cos u).
Page 140 / 681
Page 59
In the picture, let P be the point on the circle which starts from the origin O , describing the
curve OPVS as the circle moves along the X-axis .While the point P moves from O to P along
the curved path OPVS the radius PC turns clockwise about the vertical direction and let it
describe an angle at the centre of the moving circle , u = angle PCR . The point P is raised
from O on the ground to its present position as the points to the right of it on the circle touch the
ground (X-axis) successively. Thus the distance traveled by the circle OR should be equal to the
arc described by P, i.e., arc PR . If it is not understood, let the circle retrace its path to its
original position and as such, the point P is lowered back to its original position O. Hence OR =
arc PR = r u, where r is radius of the circle. Now x = OQ = OR QR = OR PM = ru - r
sin u = r(u - sin u). and y = PQ = MR = CR CM = r r cos u = r(1 cos u) . Taking a =3
what we get from graphing is given below.
Misc Exercise
Eliminate the parameter from the pairs of parametric equations
106)
2
4tan , sin cos
2
t
x y a t b t = = +
107)
1 2
sin , 1 x t y t
= =
108)
( )
2 1
ln 1 , tan x t y t t
= + =
X
Y

Cycloid: x = 3(t-sint), y = 3(1-cost)
x = 3(t-sint), y = 3(1-cost)
Page 141 / 681
Page 60
109) ( )
2
1
, tan 2 1
t
x e y t

= = +
110)
sin cos
,
1 cos 1 cos
a t c t
x y
b t b t
= =
+ +
111)
3
2
2,
3
t
x t y t = + =
112)
( )
1 2 1
sin 1 , cos 2 x t y t

= =
Exercise113
Find the range of ( )
3 2 2 3
2 2 2 2 5
x x x x
f x

= + + + + . Ans. 9 x s < .
Exercise114
Show that the function ( )
3 2
3 sin f x x x x x = + + + is one-one and onto.
Exercise115
If ( ) : f x A B , { } { }
1 2 6 1 2 3
, ,..... , , , A a a a B b b b = = is an onto function, and there are
exactly three elements such that ( )
1
f x b = , then find how many such functions are possible.
Ans. 120.
Exercise116
Find the domain of the function
1
2
x
x
. Ans. 2 1 x < < and 1 2 x < < .

Exercise117
Express
( ) sin cos
4
f x a x b x c
t
| |
= + + +
|
\ .
as a function of a single trigonometric ratio Sin or cos
and find its domain and range. Also specify when the function is onto, one to one and one to
one and onto.
Page 142 / 681
Page 61
( ) sin cos sin cos cos sin cos sin cos
4 4 4 2 2
a a
f x a x b x c a x x b x c x b x c
t t t | | | | | |
= + + + = + + + = + + +
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
2
2
2 2
2 2
2 1
2 2 1
2
sin cos
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
b
a
a b
x x c
a b a a b a
| |
| |
+
|
|
|
| |
+ | |
\ .
= + + + |
|
|
\ .
| \ .
| | | |
+ + | | | |
+ + |
| | | |
|
\ . \ .
\ . \ .
\ .
( )
2
2
1
2
2
2
sin tan sin
2 2
2
b a
a b a
x c A x c
a
u
| |
+
|
| |
+ | |
|
= + + + = + +
|
|
| \ .
\ .
|
\ .
where
2
2
2
cos
2
2 2
a
a b a
u =
| |
+ | |
+
| |
\ .
\ .
and
2
2
2 1
2
sin
2
2 2
b
a b a
u
+
=
| |
+ | |
+
| |
\ .
\ .
,
2
2
2
tan
2
b a
b a
a
a
u
+
+
= =
2
2
2 2
2
2
2 2
a b a
A a b ab
| |
+ | |
= + = + +
|
|
\ .
\ .
. The domain is R and the range is [c A, c +A].
The function is an onto function if | | : , f R c A c A + . The function is one to one in the sub-
domain | | 0 2 ,2 x x u t u t u s + s e . The function is one to one and onto if
| | | | : , 2 , f c A c A u t u + .
Exercise118 remember
There is one injective from A to B and one from B to A. If both are finite sets, show that there is
a bijective from A to B . Hint : 1
st
prove that they have same number of elements.
There are two finite sets A and B having m and n number of elements respectively.
Show that the total number of mappings from A to B is
m
n .
Exercise120
Page 143 / 681
Page 62
There are two real valued bijective functions ( ) f x and ( ) g x which are mirror images of each
other about the line y = a. Then show that ( ) ( ) f x g x + is neither one-one nor onto.
| | ( )
2
sin
1
x
f x
x x
t
=
+ +
is a constant function.
Show that the total number of distinct functions from A to A is
n
n if the set has n elements.
Exercise123
If ( )
1
,
2 100
n
f n
(
= +
(

find ( )
151
1
f n
.Ans.104.
Exercise124
How many bijectives : f A A are there if { } 1, 2, 3 A = and
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 3, 2 1, 3 2 f f f = = =
Ans. 2.
Exercise125
If ( ) ( ) ( ) 2 1 2 f x f x f x = + + + , ( ) 0 2 f = , ( ) 1 3 f = then find ( ) 5 f . Ans. 7.
Page 144 / 681
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 2: Limit, Continuity And Differentiation
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 8:The Concept Of Limit Of a Function Part I
Page 1
CHAPTER 8:THE CONCEPT OF LIMITSOF A FUNCTION PART I
1:Concept of Limit:
In the figure 2. 1. above, for all values of x less than 1 we have y = x i.e., when x is
very near to 1 remaining less than 1 at the same time, y is also near 1. Similarly when
x is greater than 1, but very near to 1 at the same time, y = 2 x is also near to 1. So
y is nearing 1 from either side when x is near to 1. We say this fact in Calculus language
as limit of y is equal to 1 when x approaches 1.No matter whether f(1) is same as that
limit or different ; even function at that point may not have been defined. The limit
does not depend upon the value of the function at the point in question.
A function f(x) is said to tend to a limit L at x = a, if the value of f(x) can be made
arbitrarily near to L, if x is chosen sufficiently near a [ f(a) may or may not be defined).
In symbolic notation,
a x
Lim

f(x) = L. ](The word arbitrarily is stressed upon because, the statement
being true in the other direction may not suffice. Appropriate example shall be explained a little
later.)

In the above example, (fig.2.1) , we can make 1 f(x) < c if we take the values of x such that 1
x < c as long as x <1;(for ,y = x for all x < 1) .This we write
(1 0)
Lim
x

f(x) = 1 or say, f(x) tends to 1 from left or from below or say left handed limit of the
function at x = 1. Similarly we can see that we can make f(x) 1 < c if we

choose the
values of x such that x 1 < c ( as f(x) = 2 x for all x more than 1 but less than 2). We write
this as
(1 0)
Lim
x +
f(x) =1 and say that the function f(x) tends to 1 from right or from above or
say the right handed limit of f(x) at x = 1 is 1. Imagine what would have been the result if our
function had been defined as f(x) = 3 x, instead of 2 x for x values above 2; the right handed
limit would have been 2 instead of being 1.
Page 145 / 681
Page 2
We say that the limit of a function f(x) exists at a point x = a if the left-handed and the right-handed
limits both exist and are equal, otherwise we say the limit does not exist.(The definition of limit
should be unequivocal and unambiguous, otherwise which one should we choose for our limit?)
Both the above statements of criteria for a limit of f(x) at x = a to be L may be combined
in a single statement:
1 x
Lim
f(x) = Lfor every such that f(x) L < , however small, we can find a such
that x a < Only one case of failure would ascertain non-existence of limit of f(x) at
x = a . (Two symbols L and a are per chance same ( 1 each) in the example taken, they
need not be the same in general).Note also the triangle inequality [ ( p ( < q p < q <
p ] for understanding the combined statement.
The phrase however small needs some explanation. Different people have different standards of
smallness. For example a grain of sugar may be negligible for a sugar merchant, but it is more than
own weight of an ant. The order of smallness or negligibility can be different for different purposes
too. For example, a small grain of copper sulphate is by no means negligible for spectroscopic
investigation. So, for Mathematics, the standard of smallness must be universal, for all people and
for all purposes; therefore the word arbitrarily small. ( do not confuse this with order of smallness ,a
totally different concept.)
Note : and may be thought of as small positive numbers unless otherwise stated.
EXAMPLE 1: Find y Lim
3 x
, if
3 x
9 x
y
2
=
Straight putting x = 3 renders the expression in 0/0 form and is useless. One cannot
substitute x = 3 direct here. A great scientist Einstein had said that a problem is solved as
soon as it is correctly known. So let us take x = 3 + o where the latter is a variable small
number near zero which can be made as small as we please .(Imagine this symbol o to be
a box which encloses the arbitrarily small variable , we need not bother about the variable, we
could take the box anywhere we please easily and toss it away mercilessly at last, when
we could do so. This is the beauty of using symbols exactly where difficulty is met with) .
3 x
9 x
2
=
3 3
9 ) 3 (
2
o +
o +
o + =
o
o + o +
= 6
9 6 9
2
The last o can be discarded at last , then the answer = 6. So our arbitrarily small number (+ve
or ve) has been enclosed within the symbol o and we have chosen no standards of smallness
to be neglected; this can be made as small as one pleases.
The objective of this example is to show that , in working out problems, we may cancel out
common factors from numerator and denominator (for sake of short cut, for , while taking limits,
we may replace zero factors by non-zero infinitesimals, even if the functional value is undefined, as
there is no dependence of limit on functional value). This is by substituting the factor 0 by h,
an infinitesimal. But care must be taken to see that there is no division by 0. See the note below.
NOTE :
Division by 0 is an impossible operation, for example, if you divide a basket containing ten
apples to a number of people giving 0 to each, an infinite number of people you may count. But this
is not a division, since the basket of apples is never exhausted in the process. This is in contrast to
Page 146 / 681
Page 3
the fact that dividend 20 is exhausted in the process if divided by 6, casting a quotient
0 2
0 3
= .
Division of 0 by 0 also not possible since
0 2
0 3
= is obtained from 2.0 3.0 = ( which is true)and
0 4
0 7
= is
also obtained from 7.0 4.0 = ( which is true again). Thus
0
0
is not unique, and in fact arbitrary. So
this is no division; where as
20 2
3
6 3
= is definitely unique. The process of division must end up with
exhausting the dividend and unique dividend.
Now, instead of tossing away
3 x
9 x
y
2
=
by just saying that x = 3 does not belong to the domain of the
function, we are just scavenging for its possible value by assuming
3 x h = +
or
3 x h =
, taking h to
be very small nonzero values. In the above example, we observe that in both cases
3 x h = +
or
3 x h =
,
2
9
6
3
x
h
x

=
. In the last step, we may toss away h to get the limiting value of the function =
6.
Again, if the limit of y for
3 x h = +
is different from the limit of y for
3 x h =
, we do not accept the
limit and say that the limit does not exist. The two limits are referred to as Right handed limit RHL
and left handed limit LHL. The limit exists only if the LHL and RHL are same. It does not exist
when one or both of RHL and LHL do not exist or they are unequal. The whole concept of limit
centers around this idea. A function ( ) f x is said to be continuous at x a = only if ( ) f a is same as
the limit ( ) lim
x a
f x
is same as ( ) f a . This is dealt in the next chapter.

Example2 Find
lim
3
3 3
x
h
h
+
In this example, we cannot substitute 0 by h direct, as may be done in a variety of problems,
since t involves division by 0. Some manipulation must be done to avoid
0
0
. This is done by
rationalizing the denominator. See below.
( )( )
( ) ( )
lim lim lim
3 3 3
3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
x x x
h h
h h
h
h h h h

+ + +
+ +
= = = =
+ + + + + +
Example3 Find
lim
0
3 3
x
h
h
+
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
lim lim lim
0 0 0
3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 1 1
0 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3
x x x
h h
h h
h
h h h h

+ + +
+ +
= = = =
+ + + + + +
There is a special significance of this problem. This limit is rate of change of the function h near
0.
Page 147 / 681
Page 4
Example4
Find
0
lim
x
a x a
x
+
. Ans.
1
2 a
. Hint :Rationalize the exp.
( )( )
( ) ( )
0 0
1
lim lim
2
x x
a x a a x a
x
a
x a x a x a x a

+ + +
= =
+ + + +
EXAMPLE5 : Find limit of f(x) = x
2
/x
2
at x = 0,
The function is identically 1 for all values of x = 1 and is not defined for x =
1.The latter fact does not prevent us from taking limit at x = 1. So, 1
x
x
2
2
Lim
1 x
=
For this reason note here that the functions f(x) = x

2
/x
2
and f(x) =1 are different functions. Are
their domains different?
EXAMPLE 6 : Let
x
x
y = .We have x x = for 0 x > and x x = for 0 x s y = 1 for 0 x > and
y = -1 for 0 x s that the left handed limit is -1 and the right handed limit is 1 when
0 x . Hence y
lim
0 x
does not exist . (If x
1
and x
2
are any two points in the opposite
sides of 0, we have f(x
1
) f(x
2
) = 2, which cannot be made arbitrarily small, say < .3
whatever small interval for x
1
x
2
we may choose. If we assume
2 1
y y < .03,in which
interval around x=0 which is not possible . Evidently we cannot get a o for this case).
EXAMPLE7 : Consider the step function y = [x] ,the greatest integer not greater than x .
In the interval [2 , 3[ the value of the function is constant and = 2; but at x = 3, y = 3.So
the functions value suddenly increased by 1, for virtually no increase of x. In other words, if
we imagine arbitrarily y to increase only by 0.01 around x = 3, we find no small interval
around x = 3, in which the function increases only by 0.01.For, however small interval we
take around x = 3, the function increases by 1.(Note also that 2 y
Lim
) 0 2 ( x
=

whereas 3 y
Lim
) 0 2 ( x
=
+

and are different and hence the limit does not exist.)
EXAMPLE 8 : Can you construct another step function? Try y = [tan x] . Point out the
points where limit does not exist.
(Ans. x = tan
-1
2, x = tan
-1
3, x = tan
-1
3 etc)
EXAMPLE 9 : Examine limit of sin(1/x) when x tends to 0.
When x tends to 0, 1/x becomes larger and larger and sin(1/x) takes all possible values
from -1 to 1. Hence no limit exists in this case.
EXAMPLE 10 : Examine limit of sin(1/x) when x tends to
When . x tends to , 1/x tends to 0 and sin(1/x) tends to 0 accordingly.
EXAMPLE 11 : If x= 1/y, x as y 0.An interesting outcome of this trivial result is as under:
A quadratic equation ax
2
+bx +c =0, is supposed to have two roots anyway. Suppose c = 0, the
case gives, one root x = 0, and the other
b
a
. Putting it in a different way, let
1
x
y
= ; so the equation
becomes
2
0 a by cy + + = .If c = 0, the equation virtually ceases to be quadratic as it becomes
Page 148 / 681
Page 5
2
0. 0 a by y + + = . But still we cling to the nomenclature and call it trivially quadratic. Repeating the
step again, if we put b = 0, the equation becomes
2
0 ax = so that both its roots become 0. but this
reduces the equation to a = 0. We can still continue to call it a trivial quadratic equation.
Note:
It is not always that we can not substitute the value of the variable direct for calculating the
limit. If the expression does not have indeterminate forms such as
0
0
, ,0 ,1
0

etc, we could
direct substitute the value of variable to get the limit . It is only when the expression involves
indeterminate forms we resort to methods of avoiding indeterminate forms , such as
employing an infinitesimal ( , definition), rationalizing, LHospitals rule and other various
tools.
For example
( )
2 2
2
lim 3 2 3*2 2 3*4 2 10
x
x
= = = , as it does not involve indeterminate forms.

2:Extending the concept of limit; Limit When x
There may be limits of functions even when the independent variable tends to infinity, particularly
when the independent variable appears in the denominator. A minor modification must be made
in case the function f(x) tends to a definite number L when x tends to .
For any arbitrary , however small, we can find a number M, sufficiently
large, such that for all x, such that |x| > M , we get | f(x) L | < true.
For example, f(x) = 1/x tends to 0 as x tends to . For |1/x 0| to be less than 0.00025,
we can find a number 4000 such that , for all x, such that |x| > 4000, we have |1/x
0| < 0.00025.
You might think that the definition should have included something like |x - | < . The phrase |x| >
M means the very same idea in a presentable manner.
2a:A further extension of concept of limit; Infinite limits:
In a different situation, if f(x) tends to as x tends to a, then for any large positive
number M ,such that , we can find a sufficiently small number o such that |f(x)| > M for
all x such that |x-a|< o . .
(Please do not confuse here if you are a student. You are advised not to confuse
anywhere in fact. If at all you do, leave the point, proceed appreciably further ,then return
to a point prior to the point of confusion and proceed again leisurely . Either your confusion
shall dissolve or you may be able to find mistake/s at that point ! )
Infinite limits are only nominally limits as we do not have much to do with infinity.
EXAMPLE 12 : Examine the
k Lim
x
x

when i) k > 0, ii) k = 0, iii) k < 0. i) When k
> 0, for any large number M, x
k
> M x >
k
1
M . So , for any arbitrary large number M
we can find a sufficiently large number N =
k
1
M such that x
k
> M for all x > N. So in this
case,
k Lim
x
x

=
Page 149 / 681
Page 6
ii) When k = 0 , x
k
= 0 identically, for all x > 0 . So
k Lim
x
x

= 0.
iii) When k < 0, -k > 0 when x
k
= 1/ x
-k
< c x
-k
> 1 / c
x > ( 1 / c )
-k
= N say, so , for any c such that , x
k
< c , we can find an N such that x >
N. i.e., we can make x
k
arbitrarily smaller by choosing N sufficiently large.
k Lim
x
x

= 0 for
k< 0 .
EXAMPLE13: Examine
Lim
p
z
p
for cases i) z >1, ii) z = 1and iii) |z| < 1
i) for z > 1, z
p
increases indefinitely as p increases indefinitely. Hence
Lim
p
z
p
=
ii) for z = 1, z
p
= 1 for whatever p may be. Hence
Lim
p
z
p
= 1
iii) for |z| < 1, let z = 1/y so that 1/y is either greater than 1 or less than - 1.Then z
p
or
(1/y)
p
decreases to 0 through positive or negative values. Hence
Lim
p
z
p
= 0.
EXAMPLE 14: Find
2
lim tan
. We know from its graph that tan = p/b and p increases indefinitely
and b decreases at the same time so that , for any large number M we can find a such that |/2
| < .
Though the concept of limit is intuitive, it evolved through centuries since Leibniz and Newton
developed Calculus independently, even before that. It did not take shape until the last century and
the present form of definition was contributed by Cauchy and finally Weisstras formulated it. The
concept is so fundamental that it is at the root of all other concepts of Calculus like differentiation,
integration etc.
The concept itself does not give any method or clue to calculate any limit. But if we guess a limit
intuitively or by direct substitution, the definition only confirms whether the number is truly the limit
or not. So far we have had many typical examples and methods of finding limits as given above the
most common method , of course is a cautious guess by direct substitution and by practice only,
you would gain confidence of calculating limits. After the chapter on differentiation, a more formal
method due to LHopital would be introduced with wider applicability in
0
0
, ,1 , 0
0
and

etc.
forms . For which standard technique of differentiation of numerator and denominator is used, such
as rationalization as mentioned above, or changing the variables, considering order of smallness (
explained towards the end of this chapter) or L Hospitals rule ( explained after differentiation
chapter,).
3:Algebra of limits
Infinitesimals are themselves not of any use (Are they?). But infinitesimally increasing or
decreasing sequences, if have limits, the limits are important and throughout Calculus we are
to only study these limits. So we need Algebra of limits to work with limits.(Proofs or
details may be omitted at first reading ;the results are obvious and useful for working
out problems)
Limits of functions behave like algebraic numbers in a manner (provided they exist) that if the
functions are added, limit of the addition function is addition of their limits and such other
results as follows:
Page 150 / 681
Page 7
(a)If
a x
Lim
f(x) = L and
a x
Lim
g(x) = m,
a x
Lim
(f(x) + g(x)) = L+ m =
a x
Lim
f(x) +
a x
Lim
g(x)
a x
Lim
f(x) = L and
a x
Lim
g(x) = m, for each c

1
and c
2
such that f(x) - L< c
1
and g(x) - m<
c
2
we can find o
1
and o
2
such that x - a< o
1
and x - a< o
2
or can find a o where o
= min (o
1
, o
2
) such that x - a< o
Or for f(x) L + g(x) m f(x) L + g(x) m c
1
+ c
2
we can find a o
such that x - a< o . .And c

should be arbitrarily be small; so we may choose
c
1
= c
2
= /2 imposing no restrictions on it arbitrariness.
Hence for every arbitrarily small, such that (f(x) g(x)) ( L + m) we can find a o
such that x - a< o
That proves result (a) of Algebra of limits.
(b) If
a x
Lim
f(x) = L ,
a x
Lim
(p . f (x)) = p . L = p .
a x
Lim
f(x)
If
a x
Lim
f(x) = L , for each c

1
such that f(x) - L< c
1
we can find o
1
such x - a< o
1
Or for each p. c
1
such that p . f(x) -L < p . c
1
we can find o
1
such
x - a< o
1
(multiplying by a positive quantity does not change the direction of inequality.
Or for each c such that p . f(x) p. L < p . c
1
we can find o
1
such x - a< o
1
where we can choose c
1
= c / p .
Or for each c such that p . f(x) p .L < c

we can find o = o
1
such x - a< o setting
c = p . c
1
and o = o
1
which does not restrict any arbitrariness. (-ve value of p does
not affect p , and for p = 0 the inequality holds good trivially)
(c) If
a x
Lim
f(x) = L and
a x
Lim
g(x) = m,
a x
Lim
(f(x) - g(x)) = L - m (to prove)

Setting p = - 1 in result (b) above, we get
a x
Lim
((-1) . g(x)) = ( -1) . m or,

a x
Lim
-g(x) = - m
And putting -g(x) in place of g(x) in result (a) above, we get,
a x
Lim
( f(x) g(x) ) =
a x
Lim
( f(x) + (-
g(x) ) )
=
a x
Lim
f(x) +
a x
Lim
(- g(x)) =
a x
Lim
f(x) -
a x
Lim
g(x) = L m(d)
Page 151 / 681
Page 8
d) If
a x
Lim
f(x) = L and
a x
Lim
g(x) = m,
a x
Lim
(f(x) x g(x)) = L x m (to prove)

If
a x
Lim
f(x) = L and
a x
Lim
g(x) = m, for any c

1
and c
2
such that, for f(x) - L < c
1
and
g(x) - m < c
2
,we can find o
1
and o
2
such that x - a< o
1
and x -
a< o
2
or a o such that o = min( o
1
o
2
) where x - a< o
Or ( f(x) L ) (g(x) - m) + m . ( f(x) - L) + L.( (g(x) - m) )
= f(x)g(x) - m f(x) - L g(x) + Lm + m f(x) - Lm + L g(x) - Lm
= f(x)g(x) - Lm < ( f(x) - L) (g(x) - m) + m . ( f(x) - L) + L.( (g(x) - m) )
< c
1
c
2
+ m c
1
+ L c
2
for x - a< o
For any arbitrary c we can choose c
1
and c
2
such that c
1
c
2
+ m c
1
+ L c
2
< c where we
can find a o such that x - a< o (proved)
(e) If
a x
Lim
g(x) = m,
a x
Lim
) x ( g
1
= 1/ m (to prove) if 0 m=
Let us prove this by disproving its contradiction .If
a x
Lim
1/ g(x) is not 1/ m let

a x
Lim
1/ g(x) = r Utilizing the result (d)

a x
Lim
( g(x) (1/g(x) ) = m .r , not equal to 1.

But identically,
a x
Lim
( g(x) (1/g(x) ) =
a x
Lim
1 = 1 (Identically means ,independent of x or g(x))

That proves m .r must be = 1, i.e., r = 1/m.
(f) If
a x
Lim
f(x) = L and
a x
Lim
g(x) = m,
a x
Lim
(f(x) g(x)) = L m (to prove) if 0 m=

a x
Lim

(f(x) g(x)) =(f(x) x 1/ g(x)) =
a x
Lim
f(x) x
a x
Lim
1/ g(x) ( by result (d)

=
a x
Lim
f(x) x 1 /
a x
Lim
g(x) = L / m
( In the example
x
x
y = if we set y = f(x), x ) x ( g = and h(x) = x, so that
) x ( h
) x ( g
) x ( f y = = ,
) x ( h 0 ) x ( g
Lim
0 x
Lim
0 x
= = but
) x ( h
) x ( g
Lim
0 x
does not exist. The situation arises because division by 0 is
not allowed. But nobody prevents us direct calculating the limit which is earlier shown to be 1)
Page 152 / 681
Page 9
Example
3 2 3 2
1 2 2
4 3 1 4.1 3 2
6 1 6 7
Lim
x
x x
x
+ +
= =
+ +
(g)
a x
Lim
g(f(x)) = g(f(a)) = g(
a x
Lim
f(x) ) i f
a x
Lim
f(x) exists at all. (Without

proof, for details vide next section)
(h) If the functions f, g, and h in the same domain are such that
f(x) g(x) h(x) for all values of x and if

a x
Lim
f(x) = L =
a x
Lim
h(x) . and
a x
Lim
g(x) exists, then

a x
Lim
g(x) = L (Without proof)

Some call it Squeezing Theorem or Sandwich Theorem. The result is quite simple to
understand and is useful for working out problems. You can also work out a sketch proof by taking
a x
Lim
g(x) = M = L and then arriving at a contradiction. is to show that limits of rational functions can
be found by substitution provided the denominator is not zero.
Note : Triangle inequality
Before proving these results the following inequalities may be useful
|p+q| |p| +|q| ....(1)
(Triangle inequality ;Sum of two sides of a triangle is greater than the third.)
| p.q| = p. q... (2)
p.q p .q ....(3)
|p|-|q| |p-q|.....(4)
(Difference of two sides of a triangle is less than the third. This is deducible from (1);
put p + q = a, p = a q. a a - q + q ; a - q a - q
a - q a - q ) remember
Example16:
Show that for a > 0, lim 0
!
n
n
a
n
= .
Hint : If the limit exists, it must be 0 > , being sum of all positive terms. Now take a positive integer
m such that 1 m a m s < + . Now
( )
( )( )
( )
. ....... . .......
. . . ...
! ! 1 2 ..... ! 1 1
n m
a a n m times a a a m times a a a
n m times
n m m m upto n m m m
= s
+ + + +
, as
3 2 1
a a a
m m m
< <
+ + +
etc.
The latter is .
! 1
n m
m
a a
m m
| |
|
+
\ .
. For any m,
!
m
a
m
is constant, but lim 0
1
n m
n
a
m
| |
=
|
+
\ .
as 1
1
a
m
<
+
. Hence the
result.
The general results given below would serve as examples to illustrate the methods of limit
calculation.
Extend the algebra of limits to any finite number of sums, and products of functions step by step.
4:Some Important Limits and methods of finding them: Remember the results
a) Find
a x
Lim
[ x
n
a
n
] / ( x a )
Page 153 / 681
Page 10
=
a x
Lim
[ x
n 1
+ x
n 2
a + x
n 3
a
2
+ x
n 4
a
3
.+ + a
n 1,
, n terms] (By straight division)
= [a
n 1
+ a
n 2
a + a
n 3
a
2
+ a
n 4
a
3
.+. + a
n 1,
, n terms] = n .a
n 1
It is worth observing that limits of polynomials are found by substitution. ( in substituting, what
we tacitly do is cancel 0s from numerator and denominator replacing 0 by h 0.)
Alternatively, we can replace x by a + h where h0,

h
a ) h a (
Lim
a x
a x
Lim
n n
0 h
n n
a x
+
=

=
0 h
Lim
[ a
n
+n. a
n - 1
.h + n(n 1 ) a
n - 2
. h
2
/ 2! +...h
n
- a
n
] / h (by Binomial Theorem)
= n . a
n 1
neglecting h and its higher powers
b)
0 0
sin tan
1 Lim Lim

= = remember
In the figure1.13, an arc of radius OP = perpendicular drawn on OP meet OQ at S. We
have OQ = r . Let the perpendicular from P on OQ meets OQ at R and
PR arc PQ PS PR / r arc PQ / r PS / sin tan
u
u sin
/
u
u tan

u
u sin
1
u
u tan
( PR / r and PS / r both tend to 1 as
tend to 0) see the graph below
Page 154 / 681
Page 11
A variant of the result is often useful .
1 1
0 0
sin tan
lim 1 lim
x x
x x
x x

= = ,
( ) ( ) sin tan
lim 1 lim
x a x a
x a x a
x a x a

= =

.
So
0
Lim
u u
u sin
= 1 =
0
Lim
u

u
u tan

Compare this with
sin cos
lim lim 0
x x
x x
x x

= = .For,
sin
1
0 lim lim 0
x x
x
x x

s s = . Remember
X
Y
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-9
-6
-3
2
4
6
8
10
0
Y(x) = tan(x)/x
X
Y
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-9
-7
-5
-3
-
2
4
6
8
10
0
Graph of x / sin x
y = x / sin x
X
Y
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0
Graph of sin x / x
y = sinx /x
Page 155 / 681
Page 12
Exercise1
Show that
0
sin
lim 1
x
x
x
= . Hint : x x = for x < 0.Remember

example 17
a) Which of the two limits exist,
0
tan sin
lim
x
x x
x x
and
0
sin tan
lim
x
x x
x x

Ans. Since
tan
1
x
x
> ,
sin
1
x
x
s , so,
tan sin
0
x x
x x
> . Hence the former exists.
b) Which of the two limits exist,
1 1
0
tan sin
lim
x
x x
x x

and
1 1
0
sin tan
lim
x
x x
x x

Ans. Since
1
tan
1
x
x
s ,
1
sin
1
x
x
> , so,
tan sin
0
x x
x x
> . Hence the latter exists.
c)
Li m
x
0
cos. x- 1
= 0
x
remember
0 0 . 1 . 1
2
x
2
1
2
x
.
2
x
2
x
sin
2
x
sin 2
x
0 cos x . cos
x
1 x . cos
Lim
0 x
Lim
0 x
Lim
0 x
= =

d) The exponential Series: remember

n

Li m
| |
|
\ .
nx
1
1+
n
= 1+ x + x
2
/ 2! + x
3
/ 3! + x
4
/ 4! + x
5
/ 5! ..upto = e
x

[ The symbol e

stands for Napiers number as introduced in Chapter 1.and the series is called
exponential series]
The Napiers number, the exponential series, the logarithmic series introduced below are
enormously important in the field of Algebra, Trigonometry, Coordinate Geometry, Calculus, Real
and Complex analysis, Physics, etc. The results involving the exponential and logarithmic series are
extremely useful in series summations, preparing logarithmic table etc. It has given Mathematics,
tremendous insight and practical utilities.
n
Lim
nx
)
n
1
1 ( + =
n
Lim [1 + nx.1/n +nx(nx-1)/2!. (1/n
2
) + nx(nx-1)(nx-2)/3! . (1/n
3
)+..up to ]
( by Binomial Theorem)
Page 156 / 681
Page 13
=
n
Lim [ 1 + x + x( x - 1/n) / 2! + x(x - 1/n)(x - 2/n) / 3! .. +up to = 1+
x + x
2
/ 2! + x
3
/ 3! + x
4
/ 4! + x
5
/ 5! ......up to neglecting 1/n .1/n
2
etc. as n
.
Similarly,
n
Lim ( 1 + 1/n )
n
= 1 + 1 + 1/2! + 1/3! + 1/4! ....................up to is denoted by
e (Napiers number) by putting x = 1. The series definitely converges to a finite limit which is a
transcendental number between 2.71 and 2.80
So
n

Li m
1
1
nx
n
| |
+
|
\ .
=
n

Li m
1
1
x
n
n
(
| |
+
( |
\ .
(

=
n

Li m
1
1
x
n
n
(
| |
+
( |
\ .
(

= e
x
Hence e
x
= 1+ x + x
2
/ 2! + x
3
/ 3! + x
4
/ 4! + x
5
/ 5! ......up to which is called the
Exponential series. remember
Again putting x = -1 in the series for e
x
, we get,
e
-1
= 1 - 1 + 1/2! - 1/3! + 1/4! ....................up to
Logarithms to the base e are called natural logarithms .In this manner, log
e
a is written as ln a . e)
x
Lim ( x + 1/x )
x
= e
The result has already been proved for x being any positive integer in the previous
section. If x is not an integer, we can find an +ve integer n such that

1
1
1
1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 (1 ) (1 ) (1 )
1 1 1
1
(1 )
1 1
1
(1 ) (1 )
1
1
1
1
(1 )
1 1
1
(1 ) (1 ) , ... ...
1
1
1
n x n
n
x n
n
x n
n x n
n x n n x n n x n
n
x n
n
Lim Lim Lim
n
for n when x
n x x n n
n
+
+
+
+
+
s s + s s + s + s + + s + s +
+ + +
+
+
s + s +
+
+
+
+
s + s +

+
+
Page 157 / 681
Page 14

1
1
(1 )
1 1 1 1
1
(1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (1 ) .1
1
1
1
1
1
(1 )
n
x n n
x
Lim
Lim Lim Lim e Lim
n n
e
Lim
x x n n n n n n
n n
Lim
e
n x
+
+
+
s + s + + s + s

+
+
+ =

f) 1
n
Lim
n
x
e
n
| |
+ =
|
\ .
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = |
.
|
\
|
+

... upto .......
n
x
! 3
) 2 n )( 1 n ( n
n
x
! 2
) 1 n ( n
n
x
n 1
n
x
1
3
3
2
2
Lim
n
n
Lim
n
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ + =

... upto ..........
n
2
1
n
1
1
! 3
x
n
1
1
! 2
x
x 1
3 2
Lim
n
e ... upto ..........
! 3
x
! 2
x
x 1
3 2
= + + + = neglecting 1/n and its higher powers.
g) Prove
1
1
x a
Lim
x
e
x
+
| |
+ =
|
\ .
We have, , e 1 . e
x
1
1 .
x
1
1
x
1
1
a
Lim
x
x
Lim
x
a x
Lim
x
= = |
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ = |
.
|
\
|
+

+

h) Prove
.
1
1 1
x a x
Lim a Lim
x x
a
e
x x

| | | |
+ = = +
| |
\ . \ .
We have,
a
a
x
Lim
x
a
x
Lim
x
a . x
Lim
x
e
x
1
1
x
1
1
x
1
1 =
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = |
.
|
\
|
+

Again,
a
a
a
x
Lim
a
x
a
a
x
Lim
a
x
x
Lim
x
e
x
a
1
x
a
1
x
a
1 =
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = |
.
|
\
|
+ = |
.
|
\
|
+

,
i)
h
1 upto ....
! 2
h
h 1
h
1 e
2
Lim
0 h
h
Lim
0 h
+ +
=

= 1 neglecting h and higher powers.
Similarly, a
h
1 upto ....
! 2
a h
ha 1
h
1 e
2 2
Lim
0 h
ha
Lim
0 h
=
+ +
=

i.e.,
0
-1
ha
Lim
h
e
a
h
= remember
j) a
x
= e
xln a
, For let ln a = y e
y
= a a
x
= (e
y
)
x
= (e
x
)
y
=e
xy
=e
xln a
Page 158 / 681
Page 15
So
a ln a ln . 1 a ln .
a ln x
1 e
x
1 a
a ln x
Lim
0 x
x
Lim
0 x
= =

if a > 0, Similarly, if a < 0, -a > 0,
) a ln( ) a ln( . 1 ) a ln( .
) a ln( x
1 e
x
1 ) a (
) a ln( x
Lim
0 x
x
Lim
0 x
= =

=

.So in either case,
| a | ln | a | ln . 1 | a | ln .
| a | ln x
1 e
x
1 a
| a | ln x
Lim
0 x
x
Lim
0 x
= =

So,
0
- 1
ln | |
x
Lim
x
a
a
x
=
Similarly,
| a | ln b | a | ln . b . 1 | a | ln . b .
| a | ln bx
1 e
x
1 a
| a | ln bx
Lim
0 x
bx
Lim
0 x
= =

Remember that
, 1
lim 1 1
0 0 1
x
x
if a
a if a
if a
>
= =
s <
k)
0
ln(1 )
1.
Lim
x
x
x
+
= , We have . 1 e . ln ) x 1 ( ln ) x 1 ln(
x
) x 1 ln(
x
1
Lim
0 x
x
1
Lim
0 x
Lim
0 x
= = + = + =
+

l)The logarithmic series: ln (1+x)= log
e
(1+x) = x x
2
/2 + x
3
/3 x
4
/4.up to .
remember
The series converges for 1 x <
To derive it, note that
+ + + + = = .... upto ... ..........
! 4
) a (ln y
! 3
) a (ln y
! 2
) a (ln y
a ln y 1 e a
4 4 3 3 2 2
a ln y y

Putting a = 1+x ,
+
+
+
+
+
+ + =
= +
+
.... upto . ..........
! 4
)} x 1 {ln( y
! 3
)} x 1 {ln( y
! 2
)} x 1 {ln( y
a ln y 1
e ) x 1 (
4 4 3 3 2 2
) x 1 ln( y y
But by Binomial theorem, for x < 1,

+

+
+ + = + .... upto ..... x

! 4
) 3 y )( 2 y )( 1 y ( y
x
! 3
) 2 y )( 1 y ( y
x
! 2
) 1 y ( y
yx 1 ) x 1 (
4 3 2 y
which is just another way of
expressing the above series, and identical with the first one. Hence, equating the coefficient of y
from both the expressions, we get,

+

+
+ = + upto ......... x
4 . 3 . 2 . 1
) 3 )( 2 )( 1 (
x
3 . 2 . 1
) 2 )( 1 (
x
2 . 1
) 1 (
x ) x 1 ln(
4 3 2
, or,
+ = + ........ upto ... ..........
4
x
3
x
2
x
x ) x 1 ln(
4 3 2
n ln ) 1 n ln(
n
1 n
ln ........ upto ... ..........
n 4
1
n 3
1
n 2
1
n
1
)
n
1
1 ln(
4 3 2
+ = |
.
|
\
| +
= + = + and
n ln ) 1 n ln(
n
1 n
ln ........ upto ... ..........
n 4
1
n 3
1
n 2
1
n
1
)
n
1
1 ln(
4 3 2
= |
.
|
\
|
= =
Subtracting the latter series from the former, we get,
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = + .. upto ....
n 5
1
n 3
1
n
1
2 ) 1 n ln( ) 1 n ln(
3 2
which is a rapidly converging series.
Page 159 / 681
Page 16
Putting n = 3 and using ln 1 = 0, we get ln 4 ln 2 = ln (4/2) = ln 2. Putting n=9, we get ln 10 ln 8
and ln 8 = 3 ln 2, we get ln 10. once we get ln 10, we can find log x , (i.e., log
10
x, it is customarily
written in Arithmetic as log
10
x).
m) Hint on preparing a log table:
The logarithmic series provides the clue to prepare a log table, starting at ln 1 =0 and choosing
incremental values of x. But the series is not rapidly converging ,i.e., we cannot have good
approximation values of logarithms of numbers by summing only a few terms from the beginning.
But the logarithmic series provides us designing other series not only for preparing a log table but
opening up a number of possibilities in other areas.
Exercise2
Show that
( )
2
1
lim 1 1
x
x x
+ =
Exercise3
Show that
sin
lim 0
x
x
x
= remember
Hint ; Make
sin 1 1
sin .
x
x
x x x
= s
Exercise4
Find
2
cos
lim
x
x
x
.Ans. 0.
Exercise5
Find
2 2
2 2
sin sin
lim
x a
x a
x a
. Ans. 1 Hint :
( ) ( )
2 2
sin sin sin sin x a x a x a = +
Exercise6:Find
2
sin
lim
cos
x
x x
x x
+
.Ans.
2 2 2
sin
sin
1
1 lim
sin 1 0
lim lim 1
cos cos 1 0 cos
1 lim 1
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x
x x x x
x
x x
| |
|

\ .
= = = =
+ + | |
+ +
|
\ .
Exercise7:Find
lim2 sin2
x x
x

.
Page 160 / 681
Page 17
Ans. : We have
0 lim2 sin2 lim2
x x x
x x

s s
, as
0 sin 2 1
x
s s
.But
lim2 0
x
x

=
, so
lim2 sin2 0
x x
x

=
.
Exercise8Find ( ) 3
1
log
3
1
lim log 3
x
x
x
. Ans.
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
3
1
3
3 3 3
1
1 1 1 lim log .
log 1
log log log
3 3 3 3
1 1 1
lim log 3 lim log 3 log lim 1 log
x
x
x
x x x
x x x
x x x e e e

= + = + = = =
Exercise9:Find
lim sin
x
x
x
c
e
e
.
Ans. Since
sin 0
x
c
e

as x, we have
sin
sin
lim sin lim lim
1
x
x
x
x x
x x x
x
c
c ce
e
e c c c
e ce
c
e

= = =
Exercise10: Show that
1
1
lim 2
1
x
x
x
Exercise11:For |x| <1 show that

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
1
lim 1 1 1 ............ 1
1
n
n
x x x x
x
(
+ + + + =

Exercise12: Find
x c
c x x c
Lim
c x
sin sin
.
We have
x c
c sin x x sin c
Lim
c x
=
x c
c sin x x sin x x sin x x sin c
Lim
c x
=
c cos c c sin
c x
c sin x sin
c c sin
x c
c sin x sin
x x sin
Lim
c x
Lim
c x
Lim
c x
Lim
c x
=
+ =

.
Exercise13:Find
2
2
0
cos
limsin
x
x
x
| |
|
\ .
. Hint :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0
2
2
2 2
0 0
sin 1 sin
sin cos sin sin sin sin
lim lim lim lim
sin sin
sin
lim lim
sin
x x x x
x x
x
x x x
x x x x
x
x
x x

= = =
= =
Example 17 : Find
x
x sin
1
Lim
0 x
. Put sin-1x = , so that x = sin , We have
0 when sin
0.
or x
0. Now,
1
1
1
sin
1
sin x
x sin
Lim
0
Lim
0 x
1
Lim
0 x
= =
u
u
=
u
u
=
u
Page 161 / 681

Page 18
Exercise14:
Find
0
sin
lim
x
x
x
(
(

. Hint :
( )
| |
0 0 0
sin sin sinh
lim lim lim 1 0
x h h
h x
x h h

(
( (
= = = =
(
( (

, as
sinh h <
also
0
sin
lim 0
x
x
x
+
(
=
(

.
1
lim tan 1
x
x
( =

but
1
lim tan 2
x
x
( =

Hint :
1
lim tan 1
2
x
x

(
(
= =
( (

, but
1
lim tan 2
2
x
x

(
( = =
(

.
2
0
lim 0
sin tan
x
x
x x
(
=
(

.
| | | | { }
1
lim 1 1 1 1
x
x x x
+ + =
0 0
tan tan
lim 1 lim
x x
x x
x x
+
( (
= =
( (

. Hint
tan x x >
, so
tanh
1
h
>
, also
( ) tan h tanh
1
h h
= >
.
Exercise19:
Show that
4
1 sin2
lim
4 x
x
x
does not exist.

Hint :
( )
( ) ( )
4 4 4 4 4
1 sin2 1 sin2 1 sin2 1 sin2 1 1 sin2
lim lim lim lim lim .1
4 4 4
4 1 sin2 1 sin 2
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x
x x x

+
= = =

+ +
Now
( ) ( ) ( )
4 4 4 4
1 sin2 1 1
lim lim 1 sin2 lim 1.lim
4 4 4 x x x x
x
x
x x x

= =

. But
( )
4
1
lim
4 x x

does not exist.
| |
| |
0
sin
lim
x
x
x
| |
|
\ .
does not exist, but
0
sin
lim 0
x
x
x
(
=
(

.
Page 162 / 681
Page 19
Exercise21:
Show that
( )
2 2 2
2
1 1 2 2 3 ...... 1
1
lim lim
2
n
n n n n
n
m n
m m
m

| |
+ + + + + + +
|
=
|
\ .
Hint :
( )
2 2
2 2
1 2 1
1 2 1 3 1 ...... 1
1 1 2 3 ... 1 2 3
lim lim lim lim
2 2
n n n
n n n
m n m m
m
m
m m m m
m m

| |
| | | | | |
|
+ + + + + + +
| | |
+ + + + +
\ . \ . \ . |
= = =
|
|
|
\ .
Example 19 : Prove
b a
x
e e
bx ax
Lim
0 x
=
remember
We have
b a
x
1 e
x
1 e
x
e e
bx
Lim
0 x
ax
Lim
0 x
bx ax
Lim
0 x
=

Example 20 :
Examine
) x ( f
Lim
x
where 0 b , and
b ........ x b x b
a ........ x a x a
) x ( f
0
m
1 m
1
m
0
n
1 n
1
n
0
=
+ + +
+ + +
=

remember
We have,
m
1 m
1
m
0
n
1 n
1
n
0
b ........ x b x b
a ........ x a x a
) x ( f
+ + +
+ + +
=

say ), x ( g x
)
x
b
....
x
b
b ( x
)
x
a
.....
x
a
a ( x
m n
m
m 1
0
m
n
n 1
0
n
=
+ + +
+ + +
=
Now,
0
0 Lim
x
b
a
) x ( g =

;So, if n<m,
) x ( f
Lim
x
=
0 0
b
a
x ) x ( g
0
0 m n Lim
x
Lim
x
= =

if n=m,
) x ( f
Lim
x
=
0
0
0
0 m n Lim
x
Lim
x
b
a
1 .
b
a
x ) x ( g = =

if n> m, it would be
or -
according as a0/b0 is +ve or ve.

Similarly
0
( )
Lim n
x
n
a
g x
b
=
.
Exercise22
Find
2
lim
x
ax b
x c
+
+
when 0 a s . Hint : If a < 0, by above formula, limit is - . If a = 0,
2
0.
lim 0
x
x b
x c
+
=
+
Exercise23
Page 163 / 681
Page 20
Find all values of a and b if
2
1
lim
1
x
x
ax b
x
| | +
+ =
|
+
\ .
.
Hint : Since
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1 1
lim lim
1 1
x x
x a a b x b x
ax b
x x

| | + + | | +
+ = =
| |
+ +
\ . \ .
and degree of numerator >
degree of denominator, then
1
0 1
1
a
a
> < . The b could be any real number.

exercise24
If
2
1
lim 0
1
x
x
ax b
x
| | +
+ =
|
+
\ .
, find all values of a and b.
Hint :
( ) ( )
2
1 1
lim 0
1
x
x a a b x b
x
| | + +
=
|
+
\ .
and the degree of numerator > degree of denominator, and
this is only possible only when the degree of numerator < degree of denominator. Both the
statements are possible only when 1 0 a = and 0 a b = , i.e., only when a = 1 and b = 1 this
becomes
1
lim 0
1
x
b
x
| |
=
|
+
\ .
Exercise25 remember
If
2
1
lim 0
1
x
x
ax b c
x
| | +
+ = =
|
+
\ .
, find all values of a and b.
Hint : Since
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1 1
lim 0 lim
1 1
x x
x a a b x b x
ax b c c
x x

| | + + | | +
+ = = =
| |
+ +
\ . \ .
and the degree of
numerator should have been equal to the degree of the denominator. This is possible only when
1 0 1 a a = = .
Now, putting a =1 in the limit we get,
( ) 1 1
lim
1
x
b x b
c
x
+ + | |
=
|
+
\ .
. But the limit is
1
1
b
, so
1 1 b c b c = = .Example 21 :
Find N n ,
n
nx cos
Lim
n
e

We have,
n
1
n
nx cos
0 1 nx cos 0 s s s s So

n , as , 0
n
nx cos
Lim
n
remember
Exercise26
Evaluate ( )
0
lim
x
f x
if ( )
1
1
1
1
x
x
e
f x
e
Hint : ( ) ( )
1 1
1 1
0 0 0 0
1 1/ 1
lim lim 0 lim lim 1
1 1/ 1
h h
x h h h
h h
e e
f x f h
e e

= = = =
+ +
, as
1 1
1
0 1/ 0
h h
h e e
h

Now, ( ) ( )
1 1
1 1
0 0 0
1 1 1/
lim lim 0 lim 1
1 1 1/
h h
x h h
h h
e e
f x f h
e e
+

= + = = =
+ +
,
1 1
1
0 1/ 0
h h
h e e
h

Page 164 / 681
Page 21
So left handed limit = right handed limit.
Exercise27
show that the
( ) 1 cos2
lim
x c
x c
x c
does not exist.

Hint :
( ) ( )
0 0 0
1 cos2 1 cos2
1 cos2 sinh
lim lim lim 2 lim 2
x c h h h
x c c h c
h
x c c h c h h

= = = =

But
( ) ( )
0 0 0
1 cos2 1 cos2
1 cos2 sinh
lim lim lim 2 lim 2
x c h h h
x c c h c
h
x c c h c h h

+

= = = =
+
. So no limit.
Example 22 : Find
2
x
Lim
0 x
x
x cos e
2
We have,
2
x
Lim
0 x
x
x cos e
2
=
2
4 2 6 4
2
Lim
0 x
x
......
! 4
x
! 2
x
1 .......
! 3
x
! 2
x
x 1
)
`
+
)
`
+ + + +

2 2
0 2
1
1 .. .. ..
1 3 2
1
2 2
Lim
x
x higher powers of x
x
| |
+ +
|
\ .
= = + =
Example23
Find
( )
1
1
lim sin sin
x
x
(
. Ans. : 0. Note that RHL is not required as the function is not defined for
x > 1.
Example24
Show that | |
0
lim cot
x
x
does not exist . Hint : Show LHL = , and RHL = - .

So left handed limit = right handed limit. Mark it as a technique.
Example 25
Show that
1
lim cot 0
x
x
( =

. Hint take
1
cot x u
=
Example 26 : Immediate rate of change of a function f(x) is given by
x
) x ( f ) x x ( f
Lim
0 x
o
o +
o
and
is called differential coefficient of the function at any point x, where x is difference in x
between two points x and x + x .
If potential function in a gravitational field is given by V(r)= - GM/r, find the field strength E
= - space rate of potential. We have,
2
Lim Lim Lim
r
GM
r ) r r (
1
GM
r
r ) r r (
) r r ( r
GM
r
r
GM
r r
GM
E =
o +
=
o
o +
o +
=
o
+
o +
=
o o o 0 r 0 r 0 r
Differential coefficient , the next
Chapter, thus may be seen as an application of Limit calculation.
Page 165 / 681
Page 22
5:Many facets of the definition of limit
a) Whether target values are controllable
A function may be regarded as the output of an operation on the independent variable which may
be
regarded as input. For example mixing Ammonia and Hydrochloric acid would produce Ammonium
Chloride gas. The rate of reaction depends upon concentrations of inputs and of course,
circumstantial variables like temperature, pressure etc. in other words, The volume of Ammonium
Chloride at any time t , say, V(t) is a function F, say, of concentration of Ammonia C
A
, that of
Hydrochloric acid C
H
, temperature T, pressure P of the system . In symbols, V(t) = F(C
A
,C
H
, P, T, t),
where F is a function of many variables or may be a set of functions, different for different ranges of
temperature. At any particular time t
1
, with given values of C
H
, P and T, V(t
1
) is a function of C
A
. If
we set a target value L , can we be able to control the input C
A
near a control value C
A1
? In
other words, can we control the output to be within a range of prescribed error i.e. (V
A
(t
1
) < L
< V
A
(t
1
) + ) by controlling the input in a range within (C
A1
< L < C
A1
+ ) ?. If this is so, we say
that V(t
1
) has a limit L at the point C
A
= C
A1
. If you closely observe the meaning, you would
understand that the actual output does not depend upon this L, which is a result of Mathematical
considerations only; it may be different, or altogether may be absent (when suppose, the factory is
under lock up) . Otherwise, when this L is equal to V
A
(t
1
), we understand that the production
process is smooth or continuous, a concept dealt in the next chapter.
b) For every we need a
Take the example ( )
2
2 3 y f x x = = + and we are asked to find ( )
5
lim
x
f x
. We guess a limit L at the

point x = 5, by direct substitution , 53 and make back calculation for finding for every ,
such that
2
2 3 53 x + < .Proceed backwards as
2 2
50 50 50 50
2 50 , , 50 2 50 , , , , 5 5 5
2 2 2 2
x or x or x or x

+ +
< < < + < < < <
We can take bigger of the two numbers
50 50
5 5
2 2
and
+
as a . We need not
look for
best possible but any workable would do.
To find a is thus solving a problem of inequality. Conversely, if we do not find a for any
one , the limit does not exist.
Take an example : show that the step function y = [x] , the greatest integer not greater than x does
not have a limit a x = 3. Observe that for values of x such as 2 3 x s < , y = 2 and for x = 3, y = 3.
Take an = 0.1 and we try to put all values of y between 2.4 to 2.6 and observe that there is no
, which can make [x] lie between 2.4 to 2.6 as it suddenly changes from 2 to 3 at x = 3.
Page 166 / 681
Page 23
c) An example :a limit that does not exist anywhere : true meaning of definition of limit.
Try a function ( )
1
0
when x is rational
f x
when x is irrational
for investigating limit at a rational point. Obviously the

function oscillates too much there and has no limit. You may remember that there is a rational
number
between any two irrational numbers and there is an irrational number between any two rational
numbers.
But for every > 0 such that x a < some > 0 for which ( ) f x L < , say , for example, = 1.1.
The definition of limit is certainly different from this consideration; it says for every (such that
( ) f x L < ) we can find a (such that x a < ), and not the other way round. So the statement
that ( )
lim
x a
f x L
= for any > 0 such that x a < we can find an such that ( ) f x L < , >
0 does not assure existence of limit at x = a.
So also the statement that for any > 0 such that ( ) f x L < we can find an x near a is not
sufficient for guarantying existence of a limit.
Note : The function ( )
1
0
when x is rational
f x
when x is irrational
is called characteristic function of rational

numbers. It simply separates the rational numbers from irrationals simply by attaching different
labels 1 and 0 to them. It is also called Dirichlet function after the mathematician Dirichlet .
But the reverse of the above statements is always true. If an can not be found so that ( ) f x does
not lie near L, i.e. ( ) L f x L < < + is not true or equivalently ( ) f x L < is not true for when
x a < , for some , then L is not the limit.
d) Sequences and limits
On first time reading , falsity of the above two statements may appear strange . For any we are
finding an and still the limit may not exist ! But we see that it is so. Do we have to always check is
backwards whether a suspected limit is actually so and there is no direct method. In fact there is
one, but of a little practical use. See how it is.
The independent variable x may tend to a in many ways, actually in infinite number of ways.
For example if x0, we may imagine it is along the sequence
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
, , , ....................... , .....................infinite terms
2 4 8 16 2 2
n n+
or
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
, , , ....................... , .....................infinite terms
2 1 4 1 8 1 16 1 2 1 2 1
n n+
+ + + + + +
and through infinite number
of such sequences as you can see to it. And similarly x a through infinite number of sequences
Page 167 / 681
Page 24
converging to a. It may be assured that if all the sequences
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 3 4
, , , ,......................infinite terms f x f x f x f x converge to L for every sequence
1 2 3 4
, , , ,......................infinite terms x x x x converging to a then ( ) lim
x a
f x L
= . In other words, the

function ( ) f x L along every path of x leading to a. Can you practically test a limiting value in
this manner ? How many such paths can you take into consideration ? But there is one practical
utility in this development. If you want to disprove that a number L is not the limit of a function f(x) as
x a, you can present a sequence
1 2 3 4
, , , ,......................infinite terms x x x x along which ( ) lim
x a
f x L
= .
Only one example is sufficient to disprove a proposition. But before giving examples for such a
method , it should be shown that the two definitions of limit are equivalent the - method and
the sequence method, the definition is after the mathematician Heine.
Before that let us see a little closely the meaning of convergence of a sequence. A sequence
1 2 3 4
, , , ,........... ...........infinite terms
n
x x x x x is said to converge to a limit a if for every positive , we
can find an integer M such that |x a| < for all n > M. The definition is for any sequence ,e.g.
the sequence ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 3
, , ...... .......infinite terms
n
f x f x f x f x is said to tend to the limit L if for any >
0, we can find a positive integer N such that ( )
n
f x L < for all n > N.
Now the equivalence of Heine definition of limit and that due to Cauchy Weisstras may be easily
seen to be equivalent, Starting from Heines definition , for any > 0, for ( ) f x L < we can find
a sequence ( )
n
f x such that ( )
n
f x L < assures a sequence x
n
such that |x a| < , for some
, for some integer > N. Thus it leads to Cauchy Weisstras definition. Then starting from the
Cauchy Weisstras definition the Heines definition follows easily, for, if ( ) f x L , it tends to the
limit through every path or through every sequence x
n
leading to a.
example27: To find
2 1
lim
3 2
x a
x
x
+
+
in sequence method.
The limit would be limit of the sequence
1 2 3
1 2 3
2 1 2 1 2 1
, , ,............
3 2 3 2 3 2
x x x
x x x
+ + +
+ + +
as n , i.e.
n
x a .So
( )
( )
lim 2 1
2 1 2 1
lim
3 2 lim 3 2 3 1
n
n
n
n
x a
n
x a
n n
x a
x
x a
x x a
+
+ +
= =
+ + +
. (But this method is of little practical use; direct substitution
method is preferable).
example28: To show that limsin
x
x
does not exist.

To evaluate the limit, assuming it exists, let us evaluate it along the path or sequence
n
x n = and
in another way, along the sequence
1
2
2
n
y n
| |
= +
|
\ .
.
Now, along the path
n
x n = , we have limsin limsin lim0 0
x n n
x n

= = = .
Page 168 / 681
Page 25
Now, along the path
1
2
2
n
y n
| |
= +
|
\ .
, we have
1
limsin limsin 2 lim1 1
2
x n n
x n

| |
= + = =
|
\ .
.
Since the two limits are different, the limit does not exist.
Misc exercises
28. Show that the limit
1
1
limsin
1
x
x

does not exist. Hint see above example.
29. Show that the limit limcos
x
x
does not exist. Hint see above example.

30. Find the limit of the sequence
1
, 2 1
, 2
2
n
for n m
n
x
n
for n m
n
+
Hint : The sequence is precisely
1 1 2 1 3 1 4
1, , , , , , , ................
2 3 3 5 5 7 5
. Now
1
lim 0
n
n
, But
1
lim
2 2
n
n
n

+
.
Thus the limit is not unique hence does not exist.
31. Find the limit of the sequence
1
2
2
1
1 , 2 1
2
1
, 2
2
n
n
n
for n m
x
for n m
+
. Ans. No limit exists.

32. For any positive number a, show that lim 0
!
n
n
a
n
=
remember
Hint : Take any natural number 2 m a > . Then , for n > m, we have,
( )
1 1
. . ............ . . ...... . . ...... 2
! 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 2 2
n m
n
m
m
n
a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a
n n m m m n n
| || | | | | |
= = < =
| | | |
+ + +
\ .\ . \ . \ .
Now
1
0
2
n
| |
|
\ .
. So lim 0
!
n
n
a
n
= .
33. Find lim
n
n
n
. remember
Hint : Since 1
n
n > , take ( )
( )
2
1
1 1 1 .....
2!
n
n n
n n n n n
n n
n x n x n nx x x
= + = + = + + + + , 0
n
x > ,
( ) ( )
2
2 2
1 1 2
1 1 1
2! 2! 2
n
n n n
n n n n nx
n x n x x
n

> + > > < . (As n >1)
As
2
lim 0
n
n
= ,
2
lim 1 lim 1
n
n n
n
n

= + =
34. Find lim
n
n
a
for a > 0. Hint :

1
0
lim lim 1
n n
n n
a a a

= = = . remember
Page 169 / 681
Page 26
35. Find
!
lim
n
n
n
n
. Hint : Take
!
n n
n
x
n
= , then
( )
( )
1 1
1 !
1
n n
n
x
n
+ +
+
=
+
so that
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )( ) ( )
1
1 1 1
1 ! 1 ! ! 1 1 !
/ . . . 1
! ! 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
n n n n
n
n n n n n n
n
n n n n n x n n n n n
x n n n
n n n n n n
+
+ + +
+ + + +
= = = = = <
+ + + + + +
.
Thus
1 n n
x x
+
< . The sequence is bounded below and has a limit L say.
Now
( ) 1 1 1 1
1 1 . .... 2
n n n
n
n n
n
n n n n
+ +
| | | |
= = + = + + >
| |
\ . \ .
, so
( )
1
1 1
2 2
1
n
n n n
n
x x
n
+
s s
+
. As both
1
lim , lim
n n
n n
x L x L
+

, So
1
2
L L s , also 0 L s . Thus L =0
36. Show that
( )
3 3 3 3
2
2
1 2 3 ... 1
lim
4
1
n
n
n
+ + + +
=
+
. Hint :
( )
2
2
3 3 3 3
1
1 2 3 ...
4
n n
n
+
+ + + + = . Divide numerator
and denominator by
4
n .
d) Remember the following five results.
37. Show that lim 1
-
x x
x x
x
a b
a b
+
= if 1 a b > > . Hint : Divide both numerator and denominator by
x
a .
38. Show that lim -1
-
x x
x x
x
a b
a b
+
= if 1 b a > > . Hint : Divide both numerator and denominator by
x
b .
39. Show that lim 1
-
x x
x x
x
a b
a b
+
= if 1 a b > > . Hint : Divide both numerator and denominator by
x
a .
40. Show that lim -1
-
x x
x x
x
a b
a b
+
= if 1 b a > > . Hint : Divide both numerator and denominator by
x
b .
41. Take n in place of x in above 4 consecutive questions and prove the results again, n +ve
integer.
42. Show that
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
1. 2. 1 3. 2 ............ .1 1
lim
1 2 3 ... 2
n
n n n n
n
+ + + +
=
+ + + +
.
Hint : ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
2
2
1. 2. 1 3. 2 ............ .1 1 1 1 2 1
2 6
n n
n n n n n r r n n n + + + + = + = + + +

as
the general term is ( ) ( )
2
1 1 r n r n r r + = +
Now
( ) ( )
( ) ( )( )
( )( )
2
2 2 2 2
1 1 2 1
1. 2. 1 3. 2 ............ .1
2 6
lim
1 2 3 ...
1 2 1
6
n
n n
n n n
n n n n
n
n
n n
+ + +
+ + + +
=
+ + + +
+ +
( ) ( )( )
( )( )
( )
( )
2
1 1 2 1
3 1 3 3 2 1 2 1
2 6
1
2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1
6
n n
n n n
n n n n
n
n n n
n n
+ + +
+ + +
= = =
+ + +
+ +
as n .
Page 170 / 681
Page 27
43. Find
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 ! 1 !
lim
2 ! 1 !
n
n n
n n
+ + +
+ +
Ans.: 1 Hint : ( ) ( ) ( ) 2 ! 1 ! 1 n n n + = + + .
44. Find the limit as n of the sequence , , .............. a a a a a a n terms + + + .
Hint : Let the lim . ...
n
n
x a a a n terms L
= + + + = . Squaring
2
2
1 1 4.1. 1 1 4
2 2
a a
L a L L
+ +
= + = = . Since a > 0, and a sequence of positive terms is
positive, the minus sign is avoided. So
1 1 4
2
a
L
+ +
= . Of course the sequence is bounded; that is
to be proved at first to ensure existence of a finite limit if at all. If 0 a > , an upper bound is
2 a a a + = , for , 2, 2 1 2 2 a a a a a a a a a a a a a a s + s + = + + s + s + s and so on
. ... 2 a a a n terms a + + + s .
45. Prove lim 2 2 2 ... 2
n
n
x n terms
= + + + =
46.
Find
( )
( )
1
lim
1
n
n
n
an
bn
+
. Ans. If n is even, n = 2m,
2 1 2 1/
lim lim
2 1 2 1/
m m
am a m a
bm b m b

+ +
= =
.
When n is odd, say n = 2m+1,
( )
( )
2 2 1 / 2 2 1
lim lim
2 2 1 2 2 1 /
m m
a a m am a a
bm b b b m b

+
= =
+ + + also.
47. If
( )
1
1 1
lim
2
sin 2
n
n
x

=
+
, then find all the values of x.
Ans. Since
( )
1
1 1
lim
2
sin 2
n
n
x

=
+
,
( )
1
lim sin 0
n
n
x
=
. This is possible only when
1
sin x
is a proper
fraction, i.e., ( )
1
1 sin 1 1,1 x x
s s e
e) Do the following curves approximate st lines at large distances?
a) Show that for some a and b, remember
2
1
lim - - 0
1
x
x
ax b
x
| | +
=
|
+
\ .
, Hint.
2
1 1
1 1
x x
x
x x
+
= +
+ +
, Show that ( )
2
1
lim lim
1
x x
x
ax b
x

+
= +
+
for a = 1, b = -1. Evidently y ax b = + is a st line.
Page 171 / 681
Page 28
b)
( )
2
-
lim - 1 - - 0
x
x x ax b

+ = , Hint
1 1
2 2
2 2
2
1 1 1 1
lim 1 lim 1
1 1 1 1
lim 1 ...... 0, 1,
2 2
x x
x
x ax b x ax b
x x x x
x ax b for a b
x x

( (
| | | |
( (
+ =
`
| |
( (
\ . \ .

)
| |
= + = =
`
|
\ . )
(expanding the binomial
1
2
2
1 1
x x
| |
|
\ .
and neglecting higher powers)
So the curves
2
1
1
x
y
x
+
=
+
and
2
1 y x x = + are st lines 1 y x = and
1
2
y x = + when x or x
respectively.
Those st lines are called asymptotes of the concerned curves.
Example28 :
Prove that limsin
x
x
does not exist.

Choose a sequence 2
2
n
x n

= + so that lim sin lim sin 2 1
2 n n
n
x x
x n

| |
= + =
|
\ .
Choose another sequence
n
x n = so that
( ) lim sin lim sin 0
n n
n
x x
x n

= =
Since the limits are different in two different paths, the limit does not exist.
Exercise48
a) Show that limcos
x
x
does not exist.

b) Show that limtan
x
x
does not exist

The use of Heine definition is not only useful for proving non-existence of limits. Take the following
example.
Example29 : Find the limit
3
1
lim
2 3
x
x
x
+
+
Let us consider any sequence x
x
converging to 3 in the domain of definition of
( )
1
2 3
x
f x
x
+
=
+
i.e.
avoiding any
3
2
n
x =
which evidently is not in domain of ( ) f x , for, it makes ( ) f x infinite.
Now consider the sequence
1
2 3
n
n
x
x
+
+
, i.e.,
3 1 2
1 2 3
1 1 1 1
, , .................. .........infinite terms
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
n
n
x x x x
x x x x
+ + + +
+ + + +
Page 172 / 681
Page 29
Clearly the limit of this sequence is
3 1 4
6 3 9
+
=
+
, which is a constant , i.e. independent of choice of x
n
.
So,
3
1 4
lim
2 3 9
x
x
x
+
=
+
. The Heines definition also gives us method of testing a limit. ( you can see it is
no better than method of direct substitution in
( )
1
2 3
x
f x
x
+
=
+
).
exercise49
Find
1
1
lim sin
x
x
(

. Hint : | |
1
1
2
lim sin lim 1
2
x
t
x t

(
( = = =
(

, putting
1
sin x t
= so that
2
t

as 1 x
exercise 50 : Find
1 1
3
0
tan sin
lim
sin
x
x x
x

.
1 1
1 1
2
3 3
0 0
3
3
0
tan tan
tan sin
1
lim lim
sin sin
lim
x x
x
x
x
x x
x
x x
x
x

=
ans.
2
1
2
2 2
1
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3
2 0 0 0 0
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 0
2
1
tan
1
. 1 1
tan
1
1
1 1 1
lim lim lim 1.lim
.1
1
1
1 1 1 1 1
lim
2
1 1 1
x x x x
x
x
x
x
x x x
x x x x x x x x
x x
x x x x x
x x x
x x x
x x
x x
x x x
x
| |
|
| |

|
|
+
| |
+
+ + \ . \ .
= = =

+
+
= =
+ +
Note that
1 1
2
sin tan
1
x
x
x

=
and
1 1 1
tan tan tan
1
a b
a b
ab

=
+
f) Function of many variables
But definitely the Heines definition gives good theoretical insight into the problem of existence of
limits. It will help understanding the path concept we have introduced informally in case of function
of two variables ( ) , z x y = . The domain of such functions is entire xy plane or some part of it. And
the graph of the function gives us a surface in a three dimensional (x, y, z) space as ( ) y f x = gives
us a curve in two dimensional plane. For example
2 2 2
x y a + = gives us the surface of a cylinder of
Page 173 / 681
Page 30
radius a standing on the xy plane. Another example,
2 2
cot z x y = + gives us a cone with vertex
at the origin and half vertical angle . And so on. We can extend the definition of limit for such
functions as follows:
A function ( ) , z x y = approaches to a limit L as ( ) ( )
0 0
, , x y x y if, for > 0 such that
0
x x < ( ) , x y L < , we have a such that ( ) ( )
2 2
0 0
x x x x + < , or equivalently
0
x x < and
0
y y < .
The Heines definition takes the shape as A function ( ) , z x y = approaches to a limit L as
( ) ( )
0 0
, , x y x y if, it approaches to L along every path ( ) y f x = in the domain of definition of z
and vice versa.
It is easy to understand that a curve ( ) y f x = is a path in xy plane and if a function z of two
variables x and y has to have a limit at (x
0
, y
0
), it has to have that limit though every path leading to
the point (x
0
, y
0
).
6:Order of smallness and order of largeness , comparison of infinitesimals:
So far we are talking about and tacitly assuming them small positive numbers , but when it come
to a formal statement or definition , we are evidently avoiding the word small ; on the pretext that
definitions and tools of Mathematics are independent of order of smallness which may vary from
person to person or vary as purposes behind. Remember that a grain of rice is negligible for a grain
merchant but never for an artist who want to inscribe a whole book on it. Let us closely look at what
is meant by order of smallness and then formally proceed towards its definition.
First , by an infinitesimal function ( ) x as x a we mean, ( ) lim 0
x a
x
= . Similarly by an
infinitesimal function ( ) x as x we mean, ( ) lim 0
x
x
= . Similarly , by an infinite function

( ) x as x a we mean, ( ) lim
x a
x
= . Similarly by an infinite function ( ) x as x we mean,

( ) lim
x
x
= . Evidently if ( ) x is an infinitesimal function as x a or as x , then

( )
1
x
is an
infinite function and vice versa.
Intuitively we know the series
3
1
1
n
n
i.e.,
3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1
.......................infinite terms
1 2 3 4
+ + + is more rapidly
converging than the series
2
1
n
,i.e.,
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
.......................infinite terms
1 2 3 4
+ + + , i.e., for a desired
approximation , we can we can do with less number of terms of the former series than the later one.
Let us take two infinitesimal functions ( ) x as x a and ( ) x as x a. we say that they are
infinitesimals of the same order if
( )
( )
lim
lim
x a
x a
x
c
x
= if c is a non-zero constant. In that case we write

( ) ( ) x x ~ If
( )
( )
lim
0
lim
x a
x a
x
x
= then we say that ( ) x as x a is of higher order than ( ) x as

Page 174 / 681
Page 31
x a. A similar definition may be given for x . Similarly If
( )
( )
lim
lim
x a
x a
x
x
= then we say that ( ) x

as x a is of lower order than ( ) x as x a. A similar definition may be given for x .
To verify whether these definitions are in consistent with our intuitive idea, the following examples
may be tried.
Example 30
a) Show that
2
3
1
2 3
x
x

+
as x 1 is infinitesimal. Evidently so, since
2
3
1
1
lim 0
2 3
x
x
x
=
+
It is easily verifiable that
b) The sum and product of any finite number of infinitesimal functions as x a are
themselves infinitesimal functions as x a. Same is true for x .
c) The product of an infinitesimal function ( ) x as x a with a bounded function ( ) x , (
bounded means it varies within two numbers A and B, may or may not have a minimum and
maximum, e.g., the set {x:
2
2 x < } has no maximum but has an upper bound 2 x = ) is an
infinitesimal function as x a. Similar is the case for x .
Example 31
Show that
( ) ( )
3 1
2 cos
2
f x x
x
=
is an infinitesimal function as x 2.
The ( )
2
lim 0
x
f x
, as
( )
3
2
lim 2 0
x
x
and
1
cos
2 x
can not be more than 1 or less than 1 .From the
latter example, it seems that using the concepts of infinitesimal may facilitate calculation of limits ;
yes it is so, we would return to that later on. Look at the following examples for understanding
comparison of infinitesimals.
Example 32
Show that both the functions ( ) 16 4 f x x = + and ( ) g x x = are infinitesimals for x 0 and
compare their orders.
Taking limits of the functions for x 0, we see that both the limits are 0 and hence both are
infinitesimals for x 0. Now
( )( )
( ) ( )
0 0 0
16 4 16 4
16 4 1
lim lim lim
8
16 4 16 4
x x x
x x
x x
x
x x x x

+ + +
+
= = =
+ + + +
, a
non-zero constant. So ( ) ( ) f x g x ~ .
Example 33
Show that the functions ( )
3
2 1 f x x x = + and ( )
2
2 3 1 g x x x = + + are both infinite functions
as x and compare their orders of largeness.
Page 175 / 681
Page 32
Both the functions are infinite functions as x . Now
2
2 3
3
2 3
2 3 1
2 3 1
lim lim 0
1 1
2 1
2
x x
x x
x x x
x x
x x

+ +
+ +
= =
+
+
.Hence
( ) g x is infinite function of smaller order than ( ) f x .
8:Equivalent infinitesimals used in calculation of limits Remember
The following propositions are easily proved and shall enable us to work with infinitesimals freely.
One infinitesimal can be replaced with another one of same order (taking into account the
proportionality constant , of course.)
a) An immediate consequence of the above is that , if ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , , , and , x x x x are
infinitesimals
such that ( ) ( ) x x ~ and ( ) ( ) x x ~ then
( )
( )
( )
( )
lim lim
x a x a
x x
x x

= .Also
( )
( )
( )
( )
lim lim
x a x a
x x
x x

= .
b) If ( ) ( ) x x ~ as x a and ( ) ( ) x x ~ as x a, then ( ) ( ) x x ~ .
c) If ( ) ( ) x x ~ as x a and the constant of proportionality is 1, then their difference is an
infinitesimal of lower order and vice versa.
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 lim 1 lim lim lim
x a x a x a x a
x x x
x x x x
x x

| | | |
= = ~
| |
| |
\ . \ .
,x a
d) Sum of two infinitesimals of different order is equivalent to the one of them which is of
lower order; for the other tends to 0 faster and is insignificant.
Example34 :
3
4sin 3 4sin 4 + ~ ~ , since
3
3 is an infinitesimal of higher order.
Misc. Exercise Using the above, prove and remember the following.
51) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) sin tan arcsin arctan ln 1 x x x x x x ~ ~ ~ = = + (

if ( ) x is an infinitesimal
x a.
52)
( )
( ) 1 ln
x
a x a
~ as x a., a > 0 . Put a = e and

( )
( ) 1
x
e x
~ .
53) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1 x x
+ ~ from ( ) ( ) ln 1 x x + ~ (

. If
1
n
= , ( )
( )
1 1
n
x
x
n
+ ~ +
Misc Exercise Using the above, find the following.
54)
( )
0
sin3
lim
ln 1 5
x
x
x
+
. Hint: usesin5 5 x x ~ , ( ) ln 1 4 4 x x + ~ and on simplification, the limit is 5/4.
Page 176 / 681
Page 33
55)
0
1 cos
lim
1 cos
2
x
x
x
. Hint :
2
2
1 cos 2sin 2
2 2
x x
x
| |
= ~
|
\ .
,
2
2
1 cos 2sin 2
2 4 4
x x x
| |
= ~
|
\ .
so Ans. 4.
56)
0
arctan 2
lim
arcsin 3
x
x
x
Hint : arctan2 2 x x ~ , arcsin3 3 x x ~ ; So the limit is 2/3.

57) Calculate 1.03approximately and estimate the error.
Ans. Since 1 1
2
x
x + ~ + (using the formula ( )
( )
1 1
n
x
x
n
+ ~ + ), we have
0.03
1 .03 1 1.015
2
+ ~ + ~ .
To estimate the error,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 1 1
1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 .1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
x
x x x x x x + = + + = + + + = + .But again 1
2
x
x + ~ ,
so the error is
( )
2
2
2
1 1
1 1
2 2 2 8
x x
x
| |
+ ~ =
|
\ .
. If x = 0.03,
2
0.009
0.0011
8 8
x
= = , 0.11%.
58) Show that
1
1
1 2
x
x
~
+
. as 0 x
Hint :
( )
1 1 1 1
1 1 2 1 1 2 1
2 1 2 1 2 1 0
x x x
x x
| |
= + ~ + =
|
+ + + \ .
59) Show that
3
4
sin x x x ~ . Hint use ( ) ( ) sin x x ~ .
60) Find the limit when 0 x of
( )
2
3
3
1 cos 6
5
x x
x
+
Hint : ( )
4
2
3 4 3 3 3
1 cos 6 4sin 6 4 6 6
2 16
x x
x x x x x + = + ~ + ~ , the one with lower order in the sum of
two infinitesimals. Hence the limit is 6/5.
61) Find
( )
3
2
0
sin
lim
arctan
x
x
x
. Hint :
3 3
sin x x ~ , arctan x x ~ .
62) Find
( )
3
5
0
ln 1 3
lim
1
x
x
x
e
. Hint : ( ) ln 1 3 3 x x + ~ ,
3
5 3
1 5
x
e x ~
163) Show that
3 2
3
1 cos sin
2
x x ~ .
Hint :
( ) ( )
3 3
3 1 cos 1 cos3 3cos cos3
cos3 4cos 3cos 1 cos 1
4 4
x x x x
x x x x
+ +
= = =
2 2
2 2 2
1 3 1 1 3 3
3.2sin 2sin .6. .2.
4 2 2 4 2 4 2 2
x x x x
x
| | | | | |
= + ~ + =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
. Also
2 2
sin x x ~
Page 177 / 681
Page 34
Exercise64: research(only if you have time) But remember.
Cauchys necessary and sufficient condition for existence of a limit. The earlier discussion that
the limit, if it exists, does not depend upon any sequence along which the limit is calculated. The
idea is formally stated in the form of Cauchys necessary and sufficient condition for existence of a
limit of some function ( ) f x .
The ( ) lim
x a
f x
exists if and only if for every > 0 such that ( ) ( )

1 2
f x f x < , we can find a such
that x a < whenever
1 2
, ] , [ x x x a x a e + .
Hint : use triangle inequalities.
Exercise65
Show that the following limits do not exist. a)
0
1
limcos
x
x
b)
1
0
1
lim
2
x
x
e
+
Exercise66 :Miscellaneous questions and Problems :
Work out and remember these frequently used limits. remember the following ten
results
a)
0 0 0
sin tan
lim 1 limcos lim
x x x
x x
x
x x

= = =
b)
-1 -1
0 0
tan sin
lim 1 lim
x x
x x
x x

= =
c)
0
-1
lim ln , 0
x
x
a
a a
x
= > ; in particular
0
-1
lim ln 1
x
x
e
e
x
= =
(Hint use
lna
a e =
,
ln x x a
a e =
and
expand
ln x a
e
as an exponential series)
d) ( )
1
0
1
lim 1 lim 1
x
x
x x
x e
x

| |
+ = = +
|
\ .
also x could be replaced by natural number n.
e)
1
lim 1
nx
x
n
e
n
| |
+ =
|
\ .
f)
0
cos. -1
0
Lim
x
x
x
=
g)
0
log (1 ) 1
log
ln
Lim a
x a
x
e
x a
+
= =
,in particular
0
ln(1 )
1.
Lim
x
x
x
+
=
(Hint expand
2 3 4
ln(1 ) - .................
2 3 4
x x x
x x + = +
)
h)
( )
0
1 -1
lim
m
x
x
m
x
+
=
(Hint. take help from (c) and (g)
Page 178 / 681
Page 35
i)
ln
lim 0, 0
m
x
x
m
x
= >
k)
-1
-
lim
-
n n
n
x a
x a
na
x a
=
prove by using binomial theorem
( ) 1
n
n
n
h
a h a
a
| |
+ = +
|
\ . for all values of a or
factorize
( )( )
1 2 2 3 2 1
- ..........
n n n n n n n
x a x a x ax a x a x a

= + + +
Exercise67
Using
0
-1
lim ln , 0
x
x
a
a a
x
= > , prove that when x0 and ( ) 0 f x , remember

( )
( )
( )
( )
0 0
-1
lim ln lim
f x
x x
f x a
a
g x g x

= if the latter limit is L. remember
Hint.
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
0 0 0
1 1
lim lim lim ln .
f x f x
x f x x
f x a a
a L
g x f x g x

= =
Exercise68 Remember for further problems of form
1
.
If x0 and ( ) 0 f x ,and
( )
( )
0
lim
x
f x
L
g x
= then ( )
( )
1
0
lim 1
L
g x
x
f x e
+ = (

.
Hint.
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
0
0
lim
1 1
lim
0 0
lim 1 lim 1
x
x
f x
f x
g x
g x L
g x f x
x f x
f x f x e e

+ = + = = ( (
`

)
Exercise69: If x0 and ( ) 0 f x ,and ( ) ( )
0
lim
x
f x g x L
= then ( )
( )
0
lim 1
g x
L
x
f x e
+ = (

. remember
example35 :
Show that
tan
2
2
lim 2
x
a
x a
a
e
x
| |
=
|
\ .
.
Ans.
( )
0
0 0
tan tan
2 lim 1 tan lim tan lim tan 2
2 2 2
lim tan lim cot
2 2 2
lim 2 lim 1 1
x a x a h
h h
x x
a h a x x a x h
a a
x a x a a h a
x a x a
h h h h
a h a a h a
a a
e e e
x x
e e e

+ | | | | | |
| | |
+ \ . \ . \ .

| | | | | | | |
+
| | | |
+ + \ . \ . \ . \ .
| | | | | |
= + = = =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
= = =
( ) 0 0
2
2
lim lim
2 2
tan
.1
2
h h
h
a
a
h a h a
a
a
e e
+ | |
|
\ .
= =
Exercise70 When
( ) lim 1
x a
f x
=
and
( ) lim
x a
g x

, show that remember
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
-1
lim
lim lim 1 -1
x a
f x
g x g x
g x
x a x a
f x f x e

= + =
Also its particular cases already proved above, namely,
Page 179 / 681
Page 36
( )
1
0
lim 1
x
x
x e
+ =
, b)
1
lim 1
x
x
e
x
| |
+ =
|
\ .
, c)
( )
1
0
lim 1
x
x
x e
+ =
, b)
lim 1
x
x
e
x

| |
+ =
|
\ .
,
Ex 71: Show that
( )
log 3
3
1
lim log 3
x
x
x e
=
Ans.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3
3
3
1
1 log
log 3 log 3 log 3
log
log
3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1
lim log 3 lim log 3 log lim 1 log lim 1 log
x x x
x e
x
x
x x x x
x x x x e
=

= + = + = + =
Exercise 72: Find
lim
x c
x
x a
x b
+
+ | |
|
+
\ .
.
Hint : As x, we have
x a
x b
+
+
1, and x + c . So
( ) ( )
( )
lim lim
lim lim 1 1 lim 1
x x
x c x c x c a b x c
x c a b
a b
x b x b
x x x
x a x a a b
e e e
x b x b x b

+ + + + | | | |
+
| |

+ + \ . \ .

+ | + | | | | | | | | |
= + = + = = =
| | | | |
+ + +
\ . \ . \ . \ . \ .
Exercise73: Find
2
1
2
2
0
1
lim
1
x
x
ax
bx
| | +
|
+
\ .
. Ans.
( )
( )
2
2 2
2 2
0
1
1
1 2 2
lim .
1
2 2
0 0
1
lim lim 1
1 1
x
a b x
x x
a b
bx x
x x
a b x ax
e e
bx bx

+

| | | | +
= + = =
|
|
+ +
\ .
\ .
Exercise 74: Find
( )
1
2 2
0
lim 1 tan
x
x
x
+
. Ans.
( )
2
2
0
0
1 tan
1 1 1
lim
limtan .
2
2 2 2 2
0
lim 1 tan
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x e e e
| |
|
|
\ .
+ = = =
Exercise 75. Find
( )
cot
1
lim 1 sin
x
x
x

+
. Ans.
( )
1 1
limsin .cot limcos
cot
1
1
lim 1 sin
x x
x x x
x
x
x e e e

+ = = =
Exercise 76: Find
1
0
lim tan
4
x
x
x
| | | |
+
| |
\ . \ .
. Ans.
0 0
1 1 1
2tan 1 2tan 1
lim lim
2 1 tan 1 tan
0 0 0
1 tan 2tan
lim tan lim lim 1
4 1 tan 1 tan
x x
x x
x x x
x x x x
x x x
x x
x e e e
x x

| | | |
| |
\ . \ .

| | + | | | | | |
+ = = + = = =
| | | |

\ . \ . \ . \ .
Exercise77:
Show that
1
ln
2
1
lim tan ln
4
x
x
x e
| | | |
+ =
| |
\ . \ .
Ans.
Page 180 / 681
Page 37
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) 1 1
1 1
1
tan ln tan ln 1 1
ln ln 2 lim . 2 lim .
ln
1 tan ln ln ln 1 tan ln 2
1 1 1
1 tan ln 2tan ln
lim tan ln lim lim 1
4 1 tan ln 1 tan ln
x x
x x
x x
x
x x x x
x x x
x x
x e e e
x x

| | | | + | | | |
+ = = + = = =
| | | |

\ . \ .
\ . \ .
Exercise78 :
If
( )
2
2 3
0
lim 1
x
x
ax bx e
+ + = Show that then

1
2
a = and b may be any real number.
Ans.
( )
( )
2
0
2 2
lim
2 3 3 2 3
0
3
lim 1
2
x
ax bx
a
x x
x
ax bx e e e e e a
+ + = = = =
More and difficult problems may be found in the next chapter , the chapter dealing in
LHospitals rule and in the chapter for improper integrals using Newton-Leibnitz formula.
Page 181 / 681
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 10:Continuity And Theory Of Equations
Page 1
CHAPTER 10:CONTINUITY AND THEORY OF EQUATIONS
1:The Concept of Continuity.
It is easier to understand
discontinuity than to understand
continuity. We all understand what
continuity and discontinuity
concepts are. But the concepts are
to be formalised for mathematical
use. In Mathematics the concepts
of continuity and discontinuity are
abundantly used. Let us start with
discontinuity. In the accompanying
graph, you may observe that you
cannot draw the graph with a pencil
in a single go, i.e., without lifting its
head out of the paper even for
once. That is exactly continuity of
the graph. Now it remains to translate this idea into language of Mathematics. When x tends to 1
from below, y tends to 1,when x Consider the same graph of the previous section repeated
here and the same equation y = x, for xe [0,1[, y = 2 x, for x e ]1,2] and y = 2 for x=1.When
x tends to 1 from above, also y tends to 1. But when x is exactly equal to 1, y = 2 ,as if leaving
a hole in the graph at x = 1. This indicates two things, 1) the graph would have been
continuous if this hole would not have been there and 2) we could make the graph
continuous by plugging this hole by defining y = 1 instead of 2 , at x = 1.In other words,
the graph would have been continuous at x=a.
If
0 h
Lim
f(a + h) = f(a) a function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a. If it is

continuous at all points the function is simply said to be continuous.
The statement
a x
Lim
f(x) = f(a) can be restated as : for every such that

f(x) f(a) < ,we can find a such that x a < (If definition of limit is applied by
taking L = f(a) as per above statement.
These are the two statements describing the concept of continuity in mathematical language; the
first one describes continuity in terms of the concept of limit . Though this is sufficient for the
*
X
O
X'
Y
Y'
y=x
(1,2)
(x = 1) (x = 2)
y = 2 - x
(Fig.2.1)
Page 182 / 681
Page 2
purpose of describing continuity, the second sentence above describes the concept of continuity
in a manner similar to the c o description of the concept of limit. This gives real insight into the
understanding of the concept, while description of continuity in terms of limit is like a formula in
mathematics with which it is easier to work out.
A function which is continuous at any point of an interval is called continuous in the interval.
Example1
Show that
x
e is continuous in R,
sin
tan
cos
x
x
x
= is continuous at 0,
2
t

.
A function shall be discontinuous at x = a , naturally, if
a) the limit of the function at x = a does not exist ( or the left and right handed limits
exist but they are not equal)
Example2 The function [x], the largest integer not larger than x at x = 3 , or at any
integral value of x is discontinuous, as
2
lim[ ] 2
x
x
+
= , but
2
lim[ ] 1
x
x

=
b) when the limit exists but not equal to the functional value ,
Example3 The function given in the beginning of this chapter, defined as
( )
, 0 1
2, 1
2 1 2
x for x
f x at x
x for x
s <
= =
< s
; Here, ( ) ( )
1 1
lim 1 lim
x x
f x f x
+
= = , but ( ) 1 2 f =
c) where there is no functional value defined at x = a.,
Example4 In the function ( )
2
4
2
x
f x
x

=
( ) ( )
2 2
lim 4 lim
x x
f x f x
+
= = , but ( ) 2 f is not defined.
d) When the limit is infinite.
Example5 ( ) tan f x x = at
2
x
t
= . Here tan x = and tan x =
e) When there is a wide gap in the graph ( Horizontal, vertical or both. See the figure:
Page 183 / 681
Page 3
f) When there are too much oscillations at a point, e.g., the graph of the function
1
sin y
x
=
at x = 0. See the following graph
We can proceed as near as 0 on the graph from both sides but there is no limiting value neither
the functional value there. Another example may be taken
1
sin y x
x
= . Like the graph of
1
sin y
x
= ,
the graph of
1
sin y x
x
= also goes through myriads of oscillations as 0 x from both sides, but the
oscillations become smaller ever in vertical width as we approach 0. See the graph below. So we
have a limiting value 0 of the function at x = 0. Still the function is discontinuous there as there is
no functional value defined there.
X
Y
-1.8-1.6-1.4-1.2 -1 -0.8-0.6-0.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
-2.52
-1.96
-1.4
-
1.12
1.68
2.24
2.8
0
Graph of
1
sin y
x
| |
=
|
\ .
frequently oscillating near x = 0 and not defined there
y= sin (1/x)
Page 184 / 681
Page 4
The topic of removable and non- removable discontinuity shall be dealt in detail subsequently.
The algebra of limits can be applied to continuous functions without any concern. Thus if f(x)
and g(x) are continuous functions , so also f(x) + g(x), f(x) - g(x), k. f(x) where k is a
constant, f x) . g(x) and f x) / g(x) would be continuous.(if g(x) is not 0)
Example6
Show that ( ) sin cos f x x x = + , ( )
sin
2
x
g x = ,
( )
sin
cos
x
x
x
= are continuous in 0,
2
t

A pitfall: Example7
Give an example of a function
( )
( )
f x
g x
which is discontinuous at x = a but both ( ) f x and ( ) g x both
are continuous at x = a. Does it contradict algebra of limits? Why?
Ans. Try ( ) f x x a = + , ( ) g x x a = . Try another ( ) f x x a = , ( ) g x x a =
it does not
contradict algebra of limits, because Algebra of limits excludes the cases where denominator
becomes 0.
Exercise1
X
Y
-0.82 -0.656-0.492 -0.328 0.32 0.492 0.656 0.82
-0.72
4
-0.36
0.45
0.63
0.81
0.99
Graph of sin(1/ ) y x x = has no value at x = 0. But it is near to 0 near
it. As
1
1
sin x
s , the graph is enveloped between graphs of y =x, y = -x
y = xsin(1/x)
Page 185 / 681
Page 5
Give an example of a function ( ) f x . ( ) g x which is continuous at x = 0 even if ( ) f x is
discontinuous at x = 0. Does it contradict algebra of limits ?
Ans. Try ( )
1, 0
0 0
for x
f x
for x
>
=

<
and ( ) 0 g x =
Algebra of limits says if
( ) f x
and
( ) g x
are continuous at a point so also
( ) f x . ( ) g x
but is it
never says that
( ) f x . ( ) g x
cannot be continuous if one of
( ) f x
and
( ) g x
or both of them are
discontinuous.
Exercise2
What is the difference between
( ) 1 f x =
and
( )
x
g x
x
=
Hint. The second function is discontinuous at x = 0, as it has limit 1 there but no value, not
defined there.
2: A further result in Algebra of limits: (limit of a composite function)
If f is a function of x (e.g. f(x) = x
2
) and g is a function of f ( e.g., g(f) = sin f, ) the
composite function or function of a function , g(f(x)) = sin x
2
. If limit of f(x) is L at x = a
, consider whether limit of g(f(x)) = g(L) . This at once requires L must be f(a), i.e., f
must be continuous at x = a and (obviously L belongs to the domain of g) .Otherwise,
g(L) might not exist and we arrive at nowhere .
Under this condition
a x
Lim
g(f(x)) = g(f(a)) = g(
a x
Lim
f(x) )
A sketch proof may be given as follows :
For every > 0 such that ( ) ( ) g f x g f a c < ( (

, we can find a such that ( ) ( ) f x f a o < , for g
is a continuous function of f. Further for every > 0, such that ( ) ( ) f x f a o < , we can find a >
0 such that x a < , for , ( ) f x is continuous at x = a. This gives, For every > 0 such that
( ) ( ) g f x g f a c < ( (

, we can find a > 0 such that x a < which proves the function
( ) g f x (

is continuous at x = a.
Page 186 / 681
Page 6
Example8
It wont be difficult to see that the theorem could easily proved for g = f
2
(
a x
Lim
f(x) .
a x
Lim
f(x) =
a x
Lim
( f(x) )
2
as per a result of Algebra of limits) .
This result also could be extended as continuous function of a continuous function
has to be continuous as it is expected at the point concerned.
A pitfall: Example9
Consider the function tan z y = .Evidently it is continuous at y = 0. Now let sin
2
y x
t
= . This is also
continuous at x = 0. But tan sin
2
z x
t | |
=
|
\ .
is discontinuous at 0 as it tends to there. Does it
contradict the above theorem ? . No. because the argument of z is
2
t
there, not 0 as required by
the theorem. Think a little hard.
Exercise3
The function
( )
1
1
f x
x
=
has obviously a discontinuity at x = 1. show that ( ) f f x (

has no
discontinuity
anywhere. Find the point of discontinuity of ( ) { }
f f f x (

.
Hint.
( ) ( )
1 x
f f x
x
= and ( ) { }
f f f x x ( =

(verify)
Concept of continuity is used to study of functions , particularly at points where they are
expected to change suddenly. We are thus able to know whether near such points we
could smoothly extrapolate the curve . Actually rates of change of a curve from point to
point is the tool required to extrapolate a curve, as you might have correctly guessed.
But in order to have rate of change to exist, or to have any meaning, continuity is the
minimum requirement , as we would see later.
Example 10 : Can you construct a function discontinuous at x = a, x = b, and x = c and
continuous everywhere else ?
Page 187 / 681
Page 7
Try
c x
) c x (
b x
) b x (
a x
) a x (
2 2 2 2 2 2
or

c x
) c x (
.
b x
) b x (
a x
) a x (
2 2 2 2 2 2
(Functional values at a, b, c do not exist).

Exercise4
Put the denominator equal to 0 and solve for finding the points of discontinuity.
a)
2
sin
1 cos
x
x
b)
( )
3
2
2
6 11
2 2
x x
x x
+
+ +
c)
3
3sin
4cos 2
x
x
d)
2 2
sin
cos 2
x x
x
e)
tan
1
cos
sin
x
x
| |
|
\ .
Ans. a) 0 b) denominator has no real root, hence no point of discontinuity. c)
1
1
cos
2
d) no discontinuity as the denominator has no real root. e)

1
2
sin
t
Example 11 : Can you construct a function which is discontinuous everywhere?

Let f(x) = 1 for all rational values of x in [2,5] and Let f(x) = 0 for all
irrational values of x in [2,5] . Try taking limit of the function anywhere in the interval,
say at x = 3.2. The limit does not exist because in any small interval we may please to
take around x = 3.2, the function oscillates infinite times between 0 and 1. Because
between any two irrational numbers, there exists a rational number and between any two
rational numbers there exist an irrational number. So the function has no limit at any point
of its domain. The question of continuity does not arise. (This is called Dirichlet function.)
Exercise5
Show that ( ) f x is continuous if ( ) f x is.
Hint :. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) f x h f x f x h f x + s +
Exercise6
Find out the number of points of discontinuity of | | sin cos x x + in the interval 0 2 x t < < , if | | a
denotes integer part of a. Ans. 5 points.
Page 188 / 681
Page 8
Example 12: Examine continuity at x= 0, of
1
sin. , .. 0,
( )
..0.. .. 0
x when x
x
f x
and when x

=

=
`

=

)

We have ,
0
x
1
sin x 0
x
1
sin x 0 x
x
1
sin x 0
x
x
1
sin . x x
x
1
sin x 1
x
1
sin
Lim
0 x
Lim
0 x
Lim
0 x
Lim
0 x
= = s s s
< < <

which is f(0).
Hence f(x) is continuous at x = 0.
Exercise7
Test for continuity of
( )
| | sin cos
,
2
2
1
2
x
when x
x
f x
when x
t
t
t
at
2
x
t
= . Ans. Continuous
Exercise8 If { } b denotes fractional part of b,
Test for continuity of
( )
{ } sin cos
,
2
2
1
2
x
when x
x
f x
when x
t
t
t
at
2
x
t
= . Ans. Discontinuous
Example 13 : Investigate
x
x sin
) x ( f = for continuity. Its limit is 1 as x 0 and it is
not defined for x = 0 ., so discontinuous there.
Further note that for
x
x sin
) x ( f = x = 0 is a point of Removable
Discontinuity. For, if we define f(x) such that
sin
, , 0
( )
1, , 0
x
for x
f x x
for x
the function
becomes continuous at x = 0.
Example 14 : Find
x
ax sin
Lim
0 x
what should be value of the function if the function is made
continuous there?
Page 189 / 681
Page 9
We have a 1 . a
x
ax sin
a
x
ax sin
Lim
0 x
Lim
0 x
= = =

then
( ) 0 f a =
would make it continuous
Example15:Find
a x
a sin x sin
Lim
a x
. How can you make it continuous?

We have, a cos 1 . a cos
2
a x
2
a x
sin
c x
Lim
2
a x
cos
2
a x
2
a x
sin
2
a x
cos
a x
a sin x sin
Lim
a x
Lim
a x
Lim
a x
= =
+
=
+
=

by defining
( ) 0 cos f a =
the function could be made continuous.
Exercise9
If
( )
1
1
f x
x
=
, find
( ) ( ) ( )
f f f x
and discuss its continuity.
Hint.
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1
1 1
1
1 1
1
x
f f f x f f f f x
x
x x
x x
| |
|
| | | | | |
= = = = =
|
| | |

\ . \ . \ .
|
+
\ .
3:Removable and non-removable discontinuity; discontinuity of 2
nd
kind.
In a previous example, we have seen what is a removable discontinuity. It is a point at which the
functional value is different from the limit at that point or not defined, leaving a point hole there .
Take another example of 3 removable discontinuities ( )
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 3 3 5 5
x a x b x c
f x
x a x b x c

=

.Take
another example ( )
1 1
, 0 , 1 ,
2 2
1 3
1 1, 1 1
2 2
3 3
2 , 1
2 4 2
x for x for x
f x x for x x for x
x
for x and x for x
= < < = =
= = < < = < <
= = = >
Find the 3 points of removable discontinuities yourself as an exercise and remove the three
discontinuities by suitably defining the function at those points.
But, instead of point hole, if there is wide vertical gap ( or horizontal gap or a gap in both
directions) in these functions . Examine from its graph and find where it is.
Page 190 / 681
Page 10
a) ( )
, 2
1 2
x for x
f x
x for x
<
=

+ >
b)
( )
2
2
3 2
1 2
x for x
f x for x
for x
<
= =
>
Such a function with finite number of discontinuities is called piecewise continuous functions.
Such piecewise continuous functions have some useful and interesting properties. For example, if
the domain of the function can be partitioned into a finite number of open or half closed intervals,
and if it is continuous inside each of th intervals then we can find the area under the curve
or graph of the function bounded by the two ordinates at the extremities and the x axis. This is
Riemann integration of the function ; the area is unaffected if a finite number of ordinates are
removed. But if there is a wide horizontal gap such as ( )
1, 2
3 3
for x
f x
for x
<
=

>
, the function is
not defined in the interval [2, 3] and this is evidently not a piecewise continuous function. The
area under the curve bounded by two ordinates at the extremities has no meaning.
Example16
To look into the phenomenon of continuity a little closer, let us examine the Dirichlet function
( )
{
1,
0,
if x is rational
x
if x is ir rational
= which is everywhere discontinuous for non-existence of limit.
As in case of limits, remember the Heines definition the ( ) lim
x a
f x L
= should be unique
through every sequence x
n
converging to a. Similarly, if ( ) f x is continuous at x = a, if
( ) ( ) lim
x a
f x f a
= through every sequence x

n
converging to a. Similar statement for limit
.
Example17
Show that ( )
2
2
,
,
x if x is rational
f x
x if x is irrational
is nowhere continuous.
At any point x = a, rational or irrational, we can find a sequence of rational numbers x
n
converging to a, so that ( )
2
lim
x a
f x a
= ; we can also find a sequence of irrational numbers x

n
converging to a, so that ( )
2
lim
x a
f x a
= ; since there are two different along two different paths, the
limit does not exist and hence it is discontinuous at x = a, and everywhere for that matter.
Example18
Page 191 / 681
Page 11
Can you give an example of a function continuous everywhere except at x = 2, x = 3.75? The
discontinuity should be non-removable.
Ans. Try ( )
{
1, 2
0, 3.75
for x
f x
for x
<
=
>
Example 19: Distinguish between the following discontinuities
a) ( ) | | 2 f x x x at x = = (jump discontinuity)
b)
( )
1
sin 0 x at x
x
= = (oscillating discontinuity)
c)
( )
1
3
3
x at x
x
| = =
(infinite discontinuity)
d) ( )
2
9
3
3
x
x at x
x

= =
+
(removable discontinuity)
Misc. exercise10
a) Whether the following functions ( 1 to 20 under b) are continuous?
b) If not, can you make these functions continuous by suitably defining functional values at the
point of discontinuity if any?
1) ( )
10 1
x
f x
x
= 2) ( )
10 1
x
f x
x
= 3) ( )
sin x
f x
x
=
4)
( )
1
3
2
f x x
x
=
5)
( )
2
cos
x
f x
x
+
= 6)
( )
cos x
f x
x
=
7)
( )
cos
x
f x
x
= 8)
( )
2
2
7 12
x
f x
x x
=
+
9) cos 2 y ec x =
10)
( ) tan
2
x
f x
t
= 11) ( )
2
2
1
1 sin
x
f x
x
=
+
12) ( )
5
2 f x x =
13)
2
1 1
,
2 1
z when y
y y x
= =
+
14)
2
1
1
x
y
x
| |
=
|
+
\ .
Page 192 / 681
Page 12
15)
2
2
1 tan
1 tan
x
y
x
=
+
16)
1
1
1 2
x
+
at x =0 17)
tan x
x
at x = 0
18)
2
4 3
5
x x
x
at x = 0 19)
1 1 x
x
+
when x = 0 20)
2
sin
1 cos
x
x
Answers 1), 2), 3),6), 9),17), 18), 19) continuous except at 0 4) continuous except
at 2 5), 7), 20) continuous except at
3
,
2 2
t t
8) continuous except at 3, 4.
10) continuous except at 1, 3. 11), 15), 16) everywhere continuous, 13)
discontinuous at
1
,1
2
x =
14) continuous except at 1 .
Exercise11
Whether the functions are continuous. If not, what is the type of discontinuity ?
a)
[sin ] x
b)
[tan ] x
c)
( )
2
1 x x
(

Exercise12
A function is defined like ( )
2
2, 0
2 2
1 2
at x
f x x for x
x for x
=
= + <
>
. Find out whether the function is continuous at

x = 0, and at x = 2. If discontinuous, which kind of discontinuity it is?
Henceforth try to understand the statements making mental picture of the same. The
proofs may be omitted at first time reading and the results may be remembered to work out
problems. Thereafter the proofs shall boost confidence gathered by and by in course of
working out problems.
Ex13: Let
2
, 2 y t t t x t t = + = then define y in terms of x ; i.e. find ( ) y f x = and discuss its
continuity.
Ans. when 0 t > , we have
2 2 2
2 , 2 x t t t y t t t = = = + = .
When 0 t < , 2 3 x t t t = + = , and
2 2
0 y t t = = . Thus ( )
2
2 , 0
0, 0
x for x
f x
for x
>
=

<
.
Page 193 / 681
Page 13
Now verify that ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
lim 0 0 lim
x x
f x f f x
+
= = = . so the function is continuous.
Ex14. If ( ) 1 2 , 0 4 f x x for x = + s s , ( ) 2 g x x = for 1 3 x s s , then show that ( ) fog x is
continuous for 1 2 x s s .
Ex15: Show that the function ( )
2
1, 0,
1, 0,
1, 0
x x
f x x
x x
<
= =
>
is discontinuous at 0 x = and the discontinuity

could be removed by defining ( ) 0 1 f = .
Discontinuity of 2
nd
kind:
When at least one of the limits ( )
0
lim
h
f a h
+ and ( )
0
lim
h
f a h
is infinite ( or both are) the

discontinuity is called discontinuity of 2
nd
kind.
Ex16: Show that the function ( )
1
f x
x
= has a discontinuity of 2
nd
kind. Find 10 examples like that.
4:A little more about real number sets and sequences., limit points and bounded
sequences
The concepts of limit and continuity of functions are intimately related to sequences. So we must
spend some time investigating sequences which would , of course give further help in
understanding properties of continuous functions.
Informally, a sequence , already intuitively known, may be regarded as a function of positive
integers or the set of natural numbers.
n
T or n-th term of the sequence is actually ( ) T n , the
functional value of T , when x = n, the argument of the function. A sequence
n
T ,
1, 2, 3, 4,............... n = converges to a limit L, if , for every > 0, there exists a natural number M,
such that ( ) T n L c < , for all N > M. Such sequences are said to be convergent sequences . A
sequence which is not convergent , either may be divergent or oscillatory . For example, the
sequence ( )
2
T n n = is divergent. whereas
( ) sin
3
n
T n
t
= is oscillatory.
A number is a limit point of a sequence ( ) T n if any neighbourhood of , i.e., the open interval
] , + [ contains infinite number of members of ( ) T n , for any > 0. It is easy to
understand that if only one limit point exists for a sequence, it is convergent to the limit point as
Page 194 / 681
Page 14
the limit; if more than one limit points exist, the sequence oscillates between them and it is
oscillatory, if no limit point exists, it is divergent.
Exercise17
a) If is a limit point of a real number set A, show that there is a sequence in A converging to
and vice versa.
b) If is a limit point of a real number sequence t
n
, n = 1,2,3.., show that there is a
subsequence of t
n
converging to and vice versa.
A sequence is bounded if there are real numbers A and B such that ( ) A f n B s s for all n. Next,
any infinite bounded sequence has a limit point- this is called the Bolzano-Weisstras
theorem. Consider the range of the integral function ( ) f n . If the range contains infinite number of
points, there would be at least one point ( ) f m = , around which infinite number of points in the
range will remain in the neighbourhood ] , + [ ,otherwise the range would not be bounded
if only finite number of points remain around neighbourhoods of all points in the range, as there
are infinite number of points in the range. According to the definition of limit point, this point in
the range is a limit point.
The set of limit points S of a set D is called derived set of D.
There is a theorem on upper bounds and lower bounds ; the set of upper bounds of a set of
real numbers has a smallest number, and the set of lower bounds of a set of real numbers
has a largest number. Let D be a set bounded above and consider two subsets L and U of the
set of real numbers such that L = { x : x is not an upper bound of D} and U = { x : x is an
upper bound of D}. so that L U R = , the set of real numbers , If x L e and y U e , then x y < . By
order completeness property of R , either L would have the greatest member of L or U would
have the smallest member of U. ( order completeness property of R otherwise means that if
, x y R e ,then either x y > or x y < or x y =
; the two statements may be verified to be same
). Let L
have the greatest number of it. Then is not an upper bound of D. So there is a number b of D
such that < b . Let a be a real number such that < a < b. the number a is greater than the
greatest number of L so a U e . Also a cannot be an upper bound of D since it is smaller than a
member b of D. Thus L e and not to U. If L has not its greatest number of it, then U must be
having smallest number of it , because of order completeness property of R. Complex numbers
have no order completeness property.
The least of upper bounds of a set S bounded above is called supremum of S or sup S.
And the greatest of lower bounds of a set S is called infimum S or inf S.
Page 195 / 681
Page 15
Further, a bounded sequence has greatest and least limit points. For, if S is a bounded set of
real numbers, then [ , ] S a b c . If S is the set of limit points of S, then ' [ , ] S S a b c c . Let
sup ' inf ' G S and g S = = . It may be shown that both G and g belong to S, i.e., they are
themselves limit points of S. Take ]p, q[ a neighbourhood of G ; then there is an in S such that
p q < < , which says that ]p, q[ a neighbourhood of and as such it contains an infinite number
of members of S , as ' S e means that is a limit point of S. Thus ' G S S e c .similarly g S e .
The above analysis shall facilitate exploring useful properties of continuous functions.
Continuity at end points
If a function ( ) f x defined in the interval [a, b] is said to be continuous at x = a, if ( ) ( ) lim
x a
f a f x
+
=
and similarly it is said to be continuous at x = b if ( ) ( ) lim
x b
f b f x

= .
5:Properties of continuous functions
It is needless to say that sum, difference and product of continuous functions are
continuous. This is in view of Algebra of limits. ( prove them as exercises). Also if ( ) f x and
( ) g x are continuous functions in a domain and ( ) 0 g x = then
( )
( )
f x
g x
must be continuous in that
domain. There are further important properties . These properties tell more about roots of
functions, their location and even help in estimating the roots approximately in some cases.
These are not only true for polynomials or n-th degree equations but transcendental
functions which are represented by converging infinite power series which cannot be
expressed in closed forms like
2
4
2
3
4
1
5
x ac
x
x
x
+
etc. , such as trigonometric, inverse
trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions etc. Closed forms are not like sin x tan
-1
x etc,
they are only names given to infinite converging series they stand for. In contrast a converging
infinite series like
2 3
1 ................ x x x upto + + + for |x| < 1, can be expressed as
1
1 x
which is a
closed form. Both polynomials ( finite power series) and functions in closed forms are called
algebraic functions in contrast to transcendental functions. An algebraic function or expression
in x is one which is derived from x by a finite number of algebraic operations on it; algebraic
operations means addition, subtraction, multiplication, division , raising to power and extracting
roots. It may be noted in passing that transcendental functions may have algebraic irrational
numbers as roots, even rational numbers and even integers. For example, ln 0 e x = has solution
x = 1. Only analysis of roots of a polynomial comprise a branch of Mathematics, called Theory Of
Equations. Some properties of functions would be revealed after the differentiation chapter also
Page 196 / 681
Page 16
so that something of theory of equations also may be explained thereafter. Regarding solving
polynomial equations, centuries elapsed for finding solution of quadratic, cubic and biquadratic
equations. Then Abel pointed out that equations of degree five or more cannot be solved in
general by standard algebraic methods ( in terms of roots and powers of coefficients) although an
n-th degree polynomial with rational coefficients has n roots. The fundamental theorem of
Algebra is that every equation of nth degree has at least one root, real or complex. Though
known for centuries earlier, this was first proved by a most gifted genius, Karl F Gauss in the last
century once when has 22, then at 44 and then at 82, with further improvement each time. The
attempts to prove the fundamental theorem of algebra has created many branches of
Mathematics, modern algebra, analysis, topology, spectral theory, functional analysis and
differential equations, etc. A polynomial equation however can be solved by numerical methods to
any desired degree of approximation ( also on computer).
To cheer you up, you can at least prove that a polynomial of odd degree with all of its coefficients
positive has a real root. See one exercise after monotonic functions given below.
Exercise18
Show that a polynomial
1
0 1 1
.........
n n
n n
y a x a x a x a
= + + + + of n-th degree is everywhere

continuous.
Hint. Prove that
n
x is continuous everywhere by showing lim
n n
x a
x a
= . Use binomial theorem in

expanding ( ) 1
n
n
n
h
x h x
x
| |
+ = +
|
\ .
for including all real values of x.
6:Further Properties Of Continuous Functions
A) A continuous real function f(x) in a closed interval [a, b] must be bounded.
Suppose the range is not bounded . So we can have a sequence x
n
in [a, b] and a
natural number M such that ( )
n
f x n > for all n > M. Let be a limit point of this
sequence x
n
as the sequence is bounded. Since the function is continuous at , there is
a > 0 such that ( ) ( ) 1 f x f < whenever x o < . This implies
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) f x f x f f s + for x o < . So ( ) ( ) 1
n
n f x f < < + for infinite values of
n as is a limit point of this sequence x
n
. This is quite impossible since n. Thus
the ( ) f x must be bounded and ( ) f x for that matter.
A pitfall: example 20
Page 197 / 681
Page 17
A function
( )
1
f x
x
= is continuous in the interval ]0, 1] . Is it bounded ? Cite the reason for the
same. ( the domain is not a closed interval!). Does it contradict the above theorem?
(The interval is not closed !)
B) A continuous real function f(x) in a closed interval [a, b] attains its maximum and
minimum values.
By the above theorem, the sup f = M and inf f = m , say both belong to the range of f as
the function is bounded. Then let ( ) ( ) f M and f m o | = = . Suppose the function
never attains the value M so ( ) 0 M f x = . Thus from algebra of limits we have
( )
1
M f x
is a continuous function in the same interval and hence bounded by the
previous theorem. Since M is the supremum, there is a number in [a, b] such that
( )
1
f M
k
> for any given number k. it follows that
( )
1
k
M f
>
for any given number

k and hence
( )
1
M f x
is not bounded. This is a contradiction , so ( ) f x must attain its
sup M. Similar argument for m.
A pitfall: Example 21
The function ( )
{
1, 1 0
, 0 1
x for x
f x
x for x
+ s s
=
< s
attains its maximum and minimum values in the
interval [-1, 1] even if it is discontinuous at a point in the interval. There is no point in thinking
discontinuous functions cannot attain maximum or minimum when the function is discontinuous.
Exercise19
Show that the function ( ) [ ] f x x x = does not attain any maximum value even if it is bounded.
Hint. It is not continuous. (graph the function to see that it is a saw tooth wave).
Exercise20
Take a function ( )
2 [ 1, 0]
1
]0,1]
2
x for x
f x
x for x
e
=

+ e
.Find its point of discontinuity.

Page 198 / 681
Page 18
Show that the function has both maximum and minimum in the interval, even if it is not continuous.
Exercise21
2 1, 1 0
2 , 0
2 1, 0 1
x
x
x
for x
for x
f x
for x
+ s <
=
=

< s
in the interval [1, 1] is bounded but never

attains bounds or never reaches maximum or minimum values because it has a discontinuity at
x = 0.
C) If the function f(x) is continuous at an interior point of [a, b] , then there is a
such that ( ) f x and ( ) f have the same sign for all x such that x o < .
Since ( ) f x is continuous at , for any given > 0, there is a > 0 such that
( ) ( ) ( ) f f x f c c < < + whenever x o < i.e., ] , [ x o o e + .Take ( ) f positive
and ( ) f c < , that makes ( ) f x positive in ] , [ x o o e + , in view of the inequality
( ) ( ) ( ) f f x f c c < < +
Then take ( ) f negative and ( ) f c > .This makes ( ) f x negative in ] , [ x o o e + .
When these two statements are combined, we can say that ( ) f x and ( ) f for one
such that ] , [ x o o e + . This property is very important and has further applications
in deriving important results, in maxima minima considerations, in mean value
theorems and in limits of indeterminate forms, etc.
D) If the function f(x) is continuous at an end point of [a, b] , then there is a such
that ( ) f x and ( ) f have the same sign for all x such that x o < .
The argument of the previous proposition may suitably modified to get this result.
Do this as an exercise.
Page 199 / 681
Page 19
IMPORTANT NOTE :
The two wonderful properties as above do not require the function to be continuous
throughout the interval
x o <
except at the point .
NOTE As a deduction, if
( ) 0 f =
then
( ) 0 f x =
in the small interval
x o <
.
E) Intermediate value theorem
When the function ( ) f x is continuous in [a, b] and ( ) f a and ( ) f b are of opposite
signs, there is a point in [a, b] at which ( ) 0 f = . Also = sup S, S being the set of
limit points in [a, b] for which ( ) 0 f x >
.
Suppose ( ) 0 f a > and ( ) 0 f b < . By the previous theorem if ( ) 0 f a > , there is an interval
[a, a + ] in which ( ) 0 f x > . Thus the number of limit points in [a, b] for which ( ) 0 f x >
is infinite and let that subset be S and let = sup S. If possible let ( ) 0 f < . Then a = ,
for ( ) 0 f a > . Now if ( ) 0 f < , then there is an such that ( ) 0 f x < for all points in x [
, ]. Since = sup S, there is an S such that o q < < which implies
( ) 0 f q < , but S so that ( ) 0 f q > . We have arrived this contradiction assuming
( ) 0 f < . So ( ) 0 f < is not possible.
Now suppose ( ) 0 f > . So b = as ( ) 0 f b < . Then by the above theorem, there is a
such that ( ) 0 f x > whenever [ , ] x e + , so that we have ( ) 0 f + > i.e.,
S + e . But this itself is a contradiction as sup S = . Thus ( ) 0 f > is also not
tenable. This forces ( ) 0 f = , which was to be proved. Deduce a similar proof for the
case ( ) 0 f a < and ( ) 0 f b > .
Exercise22
When the function ( ) f x is continuous in [a, b] and ( ) f a . ( ) f b < 0, there is a root of ( ) f x in
[a, b].
Hint. and ( ) f a and ( ) f b are of opposite signs.
Exercise23
Page 200 / 681
Page 20
Does the negation of the above result assert that there is not root of ( ) f x in [a, b] ? give an
example.
Ans. consider
2
y x =
So the statement is not true backwards; i.e., the condition is sufficient, but not necessary.
Exercise24 remember
Let a continuous function ( ) f x defined in [a, b] have a finite number of roots in it, say
1 2
, ,......
n
x x x in it arranged in increasing order i.e.,
1 2
......
n
x x x < < < .show that in each of the
intervals ]x
1
, x
2
[,]x
2
, x
3
[,]x
3
, x
4
[,..the function retains the same sign.
Ans. The occurrence of changing sign in any interval results in existence of another root
there.
Exercise25: Show that the function 1 sin x x = + has a real root.
Hint : take a function ( ) sin 1 f x x x = + , then ( ) 0 1 f = ,
3 3
2 2
f
t t | |
=
|
\ .
. So there is a root in
between.
Exercise26: Show that cos 0 x x = has at least a real root.
Hint. cos y x x = is as x and is - as x - as cos 1 x s .
Exercise27: Show that every odd function ( ) ( ) f x f x = has at least one real root if it is
continuous.
Hint. ( ) ( ) f f = , so there is a root in ]- , [.
Exercise 28: Show that any polynomial of odd degree has a real root. Hint : it direct follows
from above.
Exercise 29: Show that any polynomial of degree 3 (cubic equation) has a real root. Hint : it
direct follows from above
Exercise30: Show that an odd continuous function ( ) ( ) f x f x = has 0 as a root.
Hint. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 0 0 0 0 f f f f = = =
, so 0 is a root.
Page 201 / 681
Page 21
Exercise31 : Show that the function ( )
( )
2
2
1 1 0
1 0 2
x for x
f x
x for x
+ s <
+ s <
is discontinuous at x = 0 and
hence never assumes 0 value in the interval of definition [1, 2] even if the function has opposite
signs at the end points.
F) When the function ( ) f x is continuous in [a, b] and ( ) ( ) f a f b = , ( ) f x takes every
value between ( ) f a and ( ) f b .
Take any value k between ( ) f a and ( ) f b and design a function ( ) ( ) x f x k = so that
( ) ( ) a f a k = and ( ) ( ) b f b k = are of opposite signs as k is between ( ) f a and
( ) f b . By the previous theorem, there is an in [a, b] such that ( ) 0 = . That is,
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 f k f k = = = . So assumes the value k in [a, b].
G) When the function ( ) f x is continuous in [a, b] and ( ) Maxf x M = , ( ) min f x m = the
function takes every value between M and m. In fact, [M, m] is the range of the
function.
( do it as an exercise)
H) A continuous rational function ( ) f x ( which takes only rational number values)
must be a constant function.
If no, let ( ) f a A = , ( ) f b B = , and A B = . As the function is continuous, it would assume
every real number value. We can find an irrational number , A B s s , such that ( ) f c =
,and a c b s s .This is a contradiction since the function takes only rational values. To reconcile the
contradiction we must have A B = = . Thus the function is a constant function.
Exercise32: There is one real root of
3
3 1 0 x x + = in [1, 2]. Divide the interval into smaller
subintervals and approach the root correct up to two places of decimal. Hint : apply the criteria of
odd function having a root, repeatedly to smaller and smaller subintervals.
Ans. 1.53
Exercise33: Design a function ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
f x x a x b x = + so that ( ) f a a = and ( ) f b b = . Find at
what point the function attains the value a)
2
a b +
.b) ab
Page 202 / 681
Page 22
Exercise34:
Show that the function ( ) [ ] f x x x = attains minimum value in any interval of length greater than 1.
Exercise35: If ( ) f x is continuous in [0, 1] and | ( ) f x | < 1, Show that ( ) f x has a fixed point
in [0, 1], i.e. ( ) f x x = there.
I) A fixed point mapping ( ) x x = may be arrived in many ways from an implicit function
( ) , 0 g x y = . A solution of ( ) , 0 g x y = is a fixed point of ( ) x x = and vice versa, whereas
the former is easier to solve in some cases. The variables in ( ) , 0 g x y = may or may not
be separable in ( ) , 0 g x y = and that does not affect choice of ( ) , x y x = , out of
( ) , 0 g x y = . In fact many choices may be available, some may be better than others in
finding the solution and even some may not lead into a solution. Details are dealt in a
separate section after differentiation including Piccards method of successive
approximation to a root of not only polynomial equations but any well behaved
function.
The results obtained above have far reaching consequences. For example, the intermediate
value theorem guarantees existence of a root in an interval at the ends of which the function has
opposite signs. The last theorem is used in proof of Rolles mean value theorem which is the
basis of a number of mean value theorems leading to Taylors theorem, which is reconstruction of
smooth functions as power series.
Exercise36: If a spring is stretched, each point of the spring in the old position is carried though a
mapping to a point in the new position. Show that there is a point on the new position of the spring
which is the image of the same point in the old position. ( fixed point mapping)
Exercise37: Show that the equation
5
6 3 0 x x + = has a root in [0, 1]
Exercise38: Show that the equation
5
18 2 0 x x + = has a real root. Does it belong to [1, 1].
Exercise39: For the function ( ) ( )
2
1 1, 1 f x x x = + > , show that the fixed points given by
( ) ( )
1
x f x f x
= = are {0, - 1 }
Exercise40: The cubic equation
3
15 1 0 x x + = has three roots as you know.
Show that all the three roots lie inside [4, 4 ].
Page 203 / 681
Page 23
Exercise41: Solve the equation
3
3 1 0 x x = by finding values of x for which 3 1 y x = + crosses
3
y x = or by finding the x values for which
3
3 y x x = crosses 1 y =
Exercise42: Solve the equation 2sin x x = ( three roots)
J) Wavy curve method to analyse an algebraic function
As an application of intermediate value theorem. Take a function ( ) ( )( )( ) 1 2 3 f x x x x = .
Plot the points x = 1, x =2, x = 3 on the number line, where the function takes 0 values. If x <1, all
three factors ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 , 2 , 3 x x x are negative, so the value of the function is negative. For 1 < x <
2, the factor x 1 is positive, but both of x 2 and x 3 are negative so that product of the three
factors ( ) f x is positive. If the values of x are between 2 and 3, x 1 and x 2 are positive but x
3 is negative, so that ( ) f x is negative. For values of x beyond 3, All the three factors are positive
and so the value of the function is positive. This is a consequence of intermediate value theorem.
The rational function is continuous and it takes positive values for x > 1 and negative values for x
< 1,( in whatever small interval you take around x = 1 ), it is bound to have 0 value at x = 1 . Of
course, before applying the rule, we must see that all the coefficients of x be of the same sign.
This does not mean that a continuous function which does not change sign around a point should
not have a zero at the point. For example, look at the figure :
X
Y
-3-2.5-2-1.5-1-0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
-6.6
-4.2
-2.4
0.6
1.8
3
4.8
6
0
Graph of the function ( ) ( )( )( ) 1 2 3 f x x x x = .
f(x) - (x -1)( x- 2)(x -3)
Page 204 / 681
Page 24
If the function is piecewise continuous, such as ( )
( )( )
( )
1 2
3
x x
f x
x

=
, or a point where the

function does not exist, these points of discontinuity must be excluded from consideration and the
analysis should be separately done for each continuous piece. Look at the graph
7:Monotonic functions and continuity of inverse functions.
The function
2
y x = is monotonically increasing in the interval [0, [ as
2 2
2 1 2 1
0 x x x x > > >
and monotonically decreasing in the interval [0, - [ as
2 2
2 1 2 1
0 x x x x < < > . There are
abundant examples of monotonic functions . They occupy a special place in analysis since they
always have inverse functions. As two different arguments
1 2
x and x do not lead to same value
of the function ( either
1 2
y y > or
1 2
y y < ) so that the function ( ) y f x = admits of an inverse
function ( )
1
x f y
= as ( )
1
f y
does not have two values for same value of y. This is precisely
requirement of or necessary criteria of a function. Constant functions are trivially monotonic
functions also and therefore we sometimes make a distinction between them by calling them
X
Y
-
10
-
9
-
8
-
7
-
6
-
5
-
4
-
3
-
2
-
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
0
-
9
-
7
-
5
-
3
-
1
1
3
5
7
9
0
Graph of ( )
( )( )
( )
1 2
3
x x
f x
x

=
, having a discontinuity at x = 3; 2 continuous pieces.

f(x) = (x -1)(x -2)(x -3)
X
Y
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-9
-7
-5
-3
1
1
2
4
6
8
10
0
Graph of the function y = sin x +1 having zeroes even all values of it are positive
y = sin x +1
Page 205 / 681
Page 25
strictly monotonic. Monotonic functions are continuous in the interval of their definition and so
also their inverse functions a fact from Real Analysis we can freely use. The proofs are not
difficult and rely on the fact that monotonic functions are bounded and have a maximum and
minimum in the domain of definition.
Exercise43: If all the coefficients in the function
2 1 2
0 1 1
...................
n n
n n
y a x a x a x a
+
+
= + + + + are
positive. Show that it has a unique solution for x for every given value of y.
The function is monotonically increasing and thus admits of an inverse function, ( ) x f y = .
This is a small step towards visualising the fundamental theorem of Algebra every polynomial
has a root. it is by and large a consequence of continuity of polynomials although generally we
read theory of equations in Algebra. The beauty of properties of continuous functions is that
existence of roots of not only polynomials but transcendental functions are also found out, albeit
under certain conditions. Another small step in the direction is - a polynomial of odd degree with
real coefficients has at least one real root; see a problem given below in theory of equations.
Another small step in this direction is - Every polynomial of even degree
( )
2 2 1
2 0 1 2
........... 0
n n
n n
p x a x a x a
= + + + = whose absolute term is negative , has at least two real

roots following the above problem.
Exercise44: A sequence
n
n
a
b
is monotonic and 0
n
b > . Show that the sequence
2
1 2 3
2
1 2 3
.........
...........
x
n
n
n
a a x a x a x
b b x b x b x
+ + + +
+ + + +
is monotonic.
Hint. Let
n
n
a
b
be increasing , then
( ) ( )
2 2 1
1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3
1
2 1 2
1 2 3 1 1 2 3
2 1 2
1 2 3 1 1 2 3
......... .........
......... .........
......... .........
i
i n n i n
n n n n i
i i n
n n
n n
n n
n n
a x
a a
b a a x a x a x a b b x b x b x
b x b b
a a x a x a x a a x a x a x
b b x b x b x b b x b x b x
a
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
= < + + + + < + + + +
+ + + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + +
=
( ) ( )
( )( )
2 2
1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3
2 1 2 1
1 2 3 1 1 2 3 1
......... .........
0
......... .........
n n
n n n n
n n
n n
b b x b x b x b a a x a x a x
a a x a x a x b b x b x b x
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + + + + + + +
>
+ + + + + + + +
.
Exercise 45: Prove that a linear function ( ) f x ax b = + must be monotonic, either increasing
or decreasing.
Page 206 / 681
Page 26
Hint : A st line is increasing for +ve slope and decreasing for ve slope.
8:Continuous linear operators
Exercise46: remember
A linear operator f (function)is such that ( ) ( ) ( ) f x y f x f y + = + . If it is continuous we
would show that it must be a constant multiple of x, i.e., there is some , such that
( ) f x x o = . (This is a st line and passes through the origin).
First, it may be seen easily that the operator carries additive identity and inverse to those
elements in the range. Taking x = y = 0, we have ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 f f f f f + = + = = .
Similarly putting y = x , we have ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 0 f f x x f x f x f x f x = = + = + = .
Now, if x is a positive integer n, then the result follows for positive integral values of x , as
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1....... 1 1 ....... 1 1 , f x f n f n f f n terms nf xf x say o = = + = + + = = = ,
It also follows for negative integral values of x also, as, if x is a negative integer, put y = x , so
that ( ) ( ) ( ) f x f y f y y x o o = = = = .
If
p
x
q
= , a rational number, then
( ) ....... ....
p p p p p p
f p f q f q times f f q times qf
q q q q q q
| | | | | | | | | |
= = + + = + + =
| | | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ . \ .
.
Or
p p
f q qf
q q
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
. Thus the result is true for rational values of x also. Lastly, if x is a real
number, let
1 1
, ,.................
n
x x x be a sequence of rational numbers converging to x .
Then ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
, ,.................
n n
f x x f x x f x x o o o = = = Since ( ) f x is continuous,
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
, ,.................
n
f x f x f x converge to ( ) f x . So ( ) f x x o = for all real numbers, x.
The importance of the result is quite wide as far as spaces with concept of open sets in
topological spaces, not only real numbers. The result is repeatedly applied below to find other
similar results useful to solve problems. There it means that the continuous mappings are
Page 207 / 681
Page 27
structure preserving and carry identity and inverse elements to the identity and inverse
elements of the target space respectively.
Exercise47 remember
If a function ( ) f z is such that ( ) ( ) ( ) f x y f x f y + = + is continuous at z = 0, show that it is
continuous everywhere.
Hint. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 0 0
lim lim lim lim lim
z a h h h h
f z f a h f a f h f a f h f a

= + = + = + = (

.
Exercise48 remember
If a function ( ) f z is such that ( ) ( ) ( ) f x y f x f y + = + is continuous at z = a, show that it is
continuous everywhere.
Exercise49 remember
If a function ( ) f z is such that ( ) ( ) ( ) f x y f x f y + = + is continuous at x = 1, then ( ) ( ) 1 f x xf =
.Exercise50: If ( ) f x is a continuous function , ( ) ( ) ( ) f x y f x f y + = + and ( ) 1 1 f = show that
( ) f x x = .
Ex51: If ( ) f x is a continuous function , ( ) ( ) ( ) f x y f x f y + = + and ( ) 1 1 f =
show that
( ) ( )
( )
tan sin
2
0
2 2 ln 2
lim
sin 2
f x f x
x
x f x
= .
If a continuous function ( ) f z is such that ( ) ( ) ( ) f x y f x f y + = , show that ( )
kx
f x a =
.
Hint.
If
( ) ( ) ( ) f x y f x f y + =
,
( ) ( ) ( ) log log log
a a a
f x y f x f y + = +
. So, by a result above
( ) ( ) log
kx
a
f x kx f x a = =
If a continuous function ( ) f z is such that ( ) ( ) ( ) f xy f x f y = + , show that ( ) log
a
f x k x = or 0.
Hint. Taking y = 0, we have ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 0 0 f f x f f x = + = ; this is one of the possibility
Page 208 / 681
Page 28
If ( ) ( ) ( ) f xy f x f y = +
, then we can prove in the lines of a problem above
( ) ( )
n
f x nf x =
for
positive integer, negative integer, rational number or real number, whatever is n. So
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
n n
f x
nf x f x
a a a = =
. But this is possible when
( ) f x
a x =
and
( )
n
f x
n
a x =
. This tantamount to
( ) log
a
f x x =
,
( )
log
n n
a
f x x =
.Also
( ) log
a
f x k x =
would lead up to the same result
( ) ( ) ( ) f xy f x f y = +
.
If a continuous function ( ) f z is such that ( ) ( ) ( ) / f x y f x f y = , show that ( ) ln f z z =
Hint : Just try in the above lines.
If a continuous function ( ) f z is such that ( ) ( ) ( ) f xy f x f y = , show that ( )
a
f x x =
for some
real number a.
We have,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n
n
f xy f x f y f x f x = =
. ( starting from positive integer, go to negative
integer, rational number and real number as done in problems above).This implies
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) log log log
n
n
a a a
f x f x n f x = =
. But
log log
n
a a
x n x =
from law of logarithms. Subtracting,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
1
log log
n n n
n
n
a a n n
f x f x f x
f x f x x
x
x x x x f x x

= = = =
.Thus
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n n n n n n n n z z
f x f x f x f x x x f x f x f x x f x f x x f x x

= = = = = =
Ex56: If
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) f x y z f x f y f z + + = + +
, is a continuous , derivable real valued function on R,
and if
( ) 2 4, f =
and
( ) ' 0 3 f =
, then find
( ) ' 2 f
.
Ex57: Given
( )
1
lim 1
n
n
f x n x
| |
=
|
\ .
for x >0, Show that
( ) ( ) ( ) f xy f x f y = +
for y >0.
Exercise58:
If
( ) ( )
1 1
f x f f x f
x x
| | | |
+ =
| |
\ . \ .
and
( ) f x
is a cubic expression only, then show that
( )
3
1 f x x =
Page 209 / 681
Page 29
Hint : Let
( )
3 2
f x ax bx cx d = + + +
. Then
( )
2 3
3 2 3
1 1 a b c
f d a bx cx dx
x x x x x
| |
= + + + = + + +
|
\ .
.
( ) ( ) ( )
3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3
3 3
1 1
ax bx cx d a bx cx dx ax bx cx d a bx cx dx
x x
+ + + + + + + = + + + + + +
. Expanding and
comparing the coefficients of
3 5 4 3
, , , .... x x x x
etc. From both sides, d=1, c=0, b=0, a =
1
. So,
( )
3
1 f x x =
.
If
( ) ( )
1 1
f x f f x f
x x
| | | |
+ =
| |
\ . \ .
and
( ) f x
is of n-th degree polynomial, then show that
( ) 1
n
f x x =
If
2
2
1 1
f x x
x x
| |
+ = +
|
\ .
find the function.
Hint : we have
( )
2
2 2
2
1 1 1
2 2 f x x x f x x
x x x
| | | |
+ = + = + =
| |
\ . \ .
Exercise61 remember
If a continuous function ( ) f z is such that ( ) ( ) ( ) f x y f x f y + = = , show that ( ) f x k =
for some
real number k.
We have
( ) ( ) 0 f x y f x + =
for any x, y. Putting x = 0,
( ) ( ) 0 0 , f y f k say + = =
or,
( ) f y k =
for any
y.
1
2
x
x = has a root in [0, 1].
Miscellaneous exercises remember
Exercise63
Would a function ( ) ( ) f x g x or ( ) ( ) . f x g x or ( ) ( )
f g x necessarily be discontinuous at some point
is one of them is so? Give examples to support your answer.
Exercise64
Page 210 / 681
Page 30
a) Show that sum and product of two discontinuous functions may be continuous.
b) Show that sum and product of two functions one of which is discontinuous may
be continuous.
Exercise65
Page 211 / 681
4Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
Chapter 14: Mean Value Theorems And Taylors Series And Applications of Differentiation
Page 1
CHAPTER 14: MEAN VALUE THEOREMS AND TAYLORS SERIES

1: Turning points and Rolles theorem
Continuous functions assure small changes in the function for small changes in the independent
variable. Again , if the function is continuously differentiable in an interval, i.e., it has no sharp
points, that small change in the function is approximately proportional to the small change in the
independent variable and is the product of the small change in the independent variable and the
slope of the graph or derivative at that point. This linear approximation is only a first approximation;
having a bearing on the fact that a small part of a curve is a straight line. Though this is true for all
smooth curves, we need better approximations of the function for curves or functions which are a
little too much curved. Since the first approximation is in terms of the first derivative of the function,
better approximations must be in terms of higher derivatives. In fact we assume that a function
should be derivable as many times as we please in order that we may find out a derivative of any
order we desire for analysing approximation. For example, a polynomial in x ( a finite power series
with real coefficients) or a sine or cosine function are infinitely derivable. That is what we mean by
smooth curves.
When we have conjured up that curves approximate st lines in small intervals, we have to look for
turning points so that they become really curves in a finite interval. The Rolles theorem is towards
this end.
First let us consider a continuous derivable function ( ) f x which has a value ( ) f a at x = a, and
returns to the same value at x = b; i.e., ( ) ( ) f b f a = . Explicitly we have assumed, continuity of the
function in the entire interval [a, b], derivability in the interval, may be except for the end
points, and equality of the functional value at the end points. Derivative at the end points have
no meanings unless the function extends beyond the points on either side, for we have to take
X O
Y
y = f(x)
(a,
f(a))
(b, f(b))
(c, f(c))
F(c) = 0
y = f(c)
Rolles Theorem; al least one tangent is parallel to the x axis.,
O
Page 212 / 681
Page 2
( )
lim
0 x
f x
x
A
A
from both sides and the two limits need be equal for the limit to exist. Same thing about
the exclusion of sharp points from our consideration. For, around a sharp point, the quantity
( )
lim
0 x
f x
x
A
A
tends to different limits from opposite sides and thus this limit does not exist, and for that
matter the derivative at that point. Under these conditions, equal values at the end points ( of the
interval) of the curve assure that the curve turns downwards while going up or turns upward while
going down at least at one point in the interval.
Now, the continuous function might have been constant throughout the interval [a, b] ; in that case
its derivative must be 0 throughout. Else, the function might have increased up to some point and
then decreased to return to the value ( ) f a . In that case, the derivative has been positive for the
portion the function has increased and negative for the portion the function has decreased. Loosely
speaking, the derivative may be expected to be zero somewhere as it changes from positive values
to negative values ( or vice versa) . But this expectation is an assurance only when the derivative is
continuous; for, a continuous function must attain every value between an upper and lower bound.(
the positive value an upper bound for the derivative and the negative value , a lower bound , say, so
that it must be zero somewhere). But we do not assume continuity of the derivative; but even then
the derivative takes the zero value at least once. Interestingly, this is how it is proved. The function
being continuous in the closed interval ( a consequence of its derivability) is bounded and assumes
least upper bound M, say,
( ) f c M =
and greatest lower bound m , say and
( ) f d m =
. As
( ) ( ) f b f a =
both M and m cannot be equal to ( ) ( ) f b and f a them in general. (If it happens
anyway,
( ) ( ) f b f a M m = = =
reducing the function to be a constant throughout the interval, as a
result of which
( ) ' 0 f x =
for all points in the interval.) Now, if ( ) ( ) ( ) f c M f b f a = = = , then
a c b = = so that a c b < < .For this point, ( ) f c M = , ( ) ' 0 f c = .Otherwise, if ( ) ' 0 f c > , there is a
0 o > for which ( ) ( ) f x f c > for ] , [ x c c o e + , in short, the function is increasing there, which is a
contradiction as
( ) f c M =
is the supremum. So ( ) ' 0 f c > is impossible. Then if possible, let
( ) ' 0 f c < . Then the function is decreasing in some interval i.e., there is a 0 o > for which
( ) ( ) f x f c > for ] , [ x c c o e . This is also impossible since
( ) f c M =
is the supremum. This forces
( ) ' 0 f c = .
Thus the tangent to the graph must have been al least once parallel to the x-axis, or the derivative
must have a zero or a root in the interval. If the function has several cycles of increase and
decrease during the interval [a, b] then there would be several zeroes of its derivative; but at least
Page 213 / 681
Page 3
one is assured. The same is the case if the function first decreases and then increases to return to
its value at a. This is Rolles theorem which has very far reaching consequences. For, existence of
a root of a given function may be tested theoretically by analysing its integral. If the integral of the
function satisfies Rolles theorem, the function has a real root !
Actually the middle part of the proof may be stated as what is called Fermats theorem. It goes like
this, if a function ( ) f x is defined on a certain interval, and has a maximum or minimum at an interior
point x
0
, and if derivative of the function exists at this point , then ( )
0
' 0 f x = . Actually a maximum or
minimum may exist at the point, without existence of derivative at the point. For example, ( ) f x x =
has a minimum at x = 0, but it has no derivative at that point. Another example, the function
( )
( )
1
, 0
2
1
1 , 1
2
f x x for x
f x x for x
= s <
= s s
has a maximum at x = , but has no derivative there. The proof is

already elaborated in the middle part of Rolles theorem and is left to the reader as an exercise.Now
you understand why the points of a function at which 0
dy
dx
= are called turning points of the curve.
( There may be other turning points of the curve apart from the points at which 0
dy
dx
=
,
and we would
discuss about them later) the points where the function is maximum or minimum are included in the
set of x values for which 0
dy
dx
= . For other points at which 0
dy
dx
= , where the function is neither
a maximum nor minimum, condition of Rolls theorem is not satisfied in an interval containing the
point i.e. ( ) ( ) f a f b = for any interval [a, b] containing the point . At such points the function is
stationary i.e. neither increasing nor decreasing around the point or the horizontal tangent crosses
the curve at the point (a point of inflexion) . See figures below.
Stationary point as a turning point
Tangent crossing the curve at a turning point
Page 214 / 681
Page 4
The following two exercises relate to theory of equations.
Exercise1
Show that a polynomial of n-th degree has at most n 1 turning points.
Hint. The derivative of the polynomial is of degree n 1 and thus can have at most n 1 zeroes.
Exercise2
The curve (parabola)
2
y x bx c = + + , or the quadratic polynomial has two roots; those are roots of
the equation
2
0 x bx c + + = , the points where
2
y x bx c = + + crosses the x axis or y = 0. The
roots are real distinct if there are two points of intersection; coincident if x axis is a tangent to the
curve and imaginary if the parabola lies entirely above or entirely below the x axis. Show that
the vertex of the parabola is the point
2
4
,
2 4
b c b | |
|
\ .
.if the roots are complex , p iq p iq + , say,
the vertex of the parabola is
( )
2
, p q .
Hint. Vertex of the parabola would be at a point where 0
dy
dx
= , i.e.,
2
2
4
2 0 ,
2 2 2 4
b b b c b
x b x y b c
| | | |
+ = = = + + =
| |
\ . \ .
. If the roots are complex , p iq p iq + ,
then sum of the roots 2 2 b p iq p iq p b p = + + = = and product of the roots
( ) ( )
2 2
c p iq p iq p q = + = + . So the vertex
2
4
,
2 4
b c b | |
|
\ .
becomes
( )
2
, p q .
point of Maximum as a turning point point of Minimum as a turning point
Page 215 / 681
Page 5
2: Lagranges mean value theorem.
Why Rolls theorem and following others are called mean value theorems shall be evident from the
following theorem due to Lagrange. Now suppose that , of all the three conditions for Rolles
theorem, the function does not satisfy the condition ( ) ( ) f b f a = . Then
( ) ( ) f b f a
b a
is the slope of
the secant of the function through the end points of the interval [a, b]. We take a function
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
f b f a
g x f x x a
b a
. It may be easily seen that ( ) g x satisfies all three conditions of

Rolles theorem ( verify) , so that ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
' 0 '
f b f a
g x f x
b a
= =
for at least
one point in the interval [a, b]. That is, ( )
( ) ( )
'
f b f a
f x
b a
for al least one point in [a, b]. This is

Lagranges mean value theorem.
After all what do you mean by
( ) ( ) f b f a
b a
? It is nothing but the slope of the secant joining the

points ( ) ( ) f b and f a .The function ( ) g x is nothing but the function ( ) f x rotated anti-clockwise
through an angle so that the secant joining the points on the graph at the end points of the interval is
parallel to the x-axis. In other words, there is al least one point in the interval [a, b] where the slope
of the function ( ) f x is parallel to the secant joining the end points. This is the reason these
theorems are called mean value theorems. Remember the average speed defined to be total
distance divided by total time whereas instantaneous speed was slope of the tangent of the distance
X O
Y
y = f(x)
(a,
f(a))
(b, f(b)) (c, f(c))
Lagranges Theorem:
( ) ( )
tan
f b f a
b a
o
, just a rotation of axes through an angle in Rolles theorem
f(c) =
( ) ( ) f b f a
= o
Page 216 / 681

Page 6
time graph. If
( ) f x
stands for distance travelled and x stand for time duration then
( ) ( ) f b f a
b a
is
easily seen to be average speed
.
Justification to first approximation of function as discussed above
is evident if we put b = a +h. The Lagranges theorem becomes ( ) ( ) ( ) ' f a h f a hf x + = + ,for some
x in the interval say , 0 1 x a h where u u = + s s ,which is a first approximation to ( ) f a h +
i.e.
a linear approximation. For small values of h, we may replace ( ) ' f x by ( ) ' f a in view of its
assumed continuity.
Also you may understand ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
f b f a
g x f x x a
b a
in this manner.. At any point x between

the points a and b, proportional part of difference of ordinates
( ) ( ) f b f a
, i.e.,
( ) ( )
x a
f b f a
b a
(

is deducted from
( ) f x
., in effect, the graph of the function
( ) f x
is rotated
through an angle whose slope is
( ) ( ) f b f a
b a
.i.e., it makes
( ) ( ) g b and g a equal.
3: A derived function cannot have discontinuity of the first kind. remember
This is a very powerful result jumps from Lagranges mean value theorem unexpectedly and is very
useful. We have to show that if ( ) f x is continuous at a point x = c, and ( ) lim '
x c
f x l
= then
( ) ' f c l = This means that ( ) ' f x has to be continuous at x = c if it exists.( however if ( ) ' f x does
not exist at x = c, then ( ) f x can have a discontinuity of second kind; e.g., at a sharp point on the
graph of a function, say two st lines intersecting at a point, ( ) ' f x does not exist at the point of
intersection and it is a constant , different at different sided of the point, i.e. a jump discontinuity
there)
Let us take ( )
0
lim '
x c
f x l
+
= ; so there is an interval ]c, c + h], h > 0, at every point of which
( ) ' f x
exists and therefore
( ) f x
is continuous in the interval ]c, c + h[. In addition,
( ) f x
is continuous at
x = c also as given, then we have
( ) f x
is continuous in the closed interval [c, c + h]. Applying
Lagranges theorem to this closed interval [c, c + h] we have a point ] , [ c x e for which
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ' '
f x f c
f x f c x c f f
x c

= =
, for | | c, c h x e + .Taking
Page 217 / 681
Page 7
0, . . 0 x c i e x c + , we have ( ) ( )
0
lim '
x c
f x f
+
= which is equal to l as given. Similarly we
could proceed to show ( ) ( )
0
lim '
x c
f x f l

= = also. Thus ( ) ' f c exists and l = .
4: Another mean value theorem :Cauchys mean value theorem.
If two functions ( ) f x and ( ) F x are continuously derivable in the interval [a, b], and ( ) ' 0 F x = in
that interval, then there is al least one point in the interval where
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
'
'
f x f b f a
F x F b F a
when
( ) ( ) 0 F b F a = Let us take a function ( ) ( ) ( ) g x f x AF x = + where A is a constant to make ( ) g x
satisfy Rolles theorem. Evidently continuity and derivability of ( ) g x in the interval is assured. The
condition ( ) ( ) g a g b = gives ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
,
f b f a
f a AF a f b AF b or A
F b F a
+ = + =
so that
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
f b f a
g x f x F x
F b F a
.and by Rolles theorem there is at least one point in the interval

[a, b] where ( ) ' 0 g x = , or
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
'
'
f x f b f a
F x F b F a
.
The fact that ( ) ( ) F b F a is never 0 is assured by
the fact that A is finite and ( ) ' 0 F x = in the assumption ; otherwise ( ) F x would satisfy conditions of
Rolles theorem and ( ) ' 0 F x = for some point in the interval.
(Compare this to LHopitals rule
( )
( )
( )
( )
lim lim
'
'
x a x a
f x f x
F x F x

= if the limits exist. To be treated later on.)
Cauchys mean value theorem may also be understood as Lagranges theorem taking parametric
equations ( ) y f t = and ( ) x F t = . (left as an exercise).
Cauchys mean value theorem may also be expressed in a different form. If two functions ( ) f x and
( ) F x are derivable in the interval [a, a + h], and ( ) ' 0 F x = in the closed interval, then there is at
least one such that 0 < < 1, for which
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
'
'
f a h f a f a h
F a h F a F a h
u
u
+ +
=
+ +
.
A pitfall :Two functions ( ) f x and ( ) F x are derivable in the interval [a, a + h], and ( ) ' 0 F x = in the
closed interval, then each one satisfies conditions of Lagranges theorem and there is a such that 0
< < 1, for which ( ) ( ) ( ) ' f a h f a f a h u + = + and ( ) ( ) ( ) ' F a h F a F a h u + = + so that
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
'
'
f a h f a f a h
F a h F a F a h
u
u
+ +
=
+ +
. What is the mistake in this statement?
Page 218 / 681
Page 8
Evidently both ( ) ( ) ( ) ' f a h f a f a h u + = + and ( ) ( ) ( ) ' F a h F a F a h u + = + may not be true for
the same value of .
5: Another mean value theorem : Darbauxs theorem.
Suppose that ( ) ' f x is continuous in the interval [a, b] including those at the end points, we are
looking beyond the end points and ( ) ' f x is continuous throughout before entering and after leaving
the interval also, then if ( ) ( ) ' ' f a f b = then for any number between ( ) ( ) ' ' f a and f b would
also be ( ) ' f c for some number c in the interval [a, b]. This is evidently so, as a continuous function
( ) ' f x varies between ( ) ( ) ' ' f a and f b , it would take every value between them, so also .
Then ( ) ' f c = for some [ , ] c a b e .The theorem may also be differently worded as follows: if the
function is continuously derivable in the closed interval [a, b] and if ( ) ( ) ' ' f a and f b
are of
opposite signs, then there is at least one point c between a and b such that
( ) ' 0 f c =
.
We can dispense with the assumption ( ) ' f x is continuous in the interval [a, b] with the help of
a previous result that if a derivative exists in a closed interval, it is continuous too.
Exercise3
Verify whether the following functions satisfy all the conditions of Rolles theorem.
a)
x
in [-2, 2] b)
( ) ( )
2
3
x
f x x x e
= +
in [ 3, 0]
c)
1 x y + =
in [-1 , 1] d)
2
3
1 x y + =
in [-1, 1]
e)
ln sin y x =
in
5
,
6 6
t t (
(

f)
2
ln
x ab
a bx
+
+
in [a, b]
g)
( ) ( )
m n
x a x b +
in [a, b] for m, n positive integers.
h)
sin
x
x
e
in [0, ] i)
( )
1 1
1 1
f x
x x
= +
+
in [-1, 1]
Exercise4
Show that the equation
3
3 15 8 0 x x + = has only one real root.
Exercise5
Verify whether conditions of Lagranges mean value theorem is satisfied by the following and solve
for ( ) ' 0 f x = if so.
a) ( )
2
3 5 f x x = in [ 2 ,0] b) ( ) ln f x x = in [1, e]
c) ( )
2
f x lx mx n = + + in [a, b] d) ( )
x
f x e = in [0, 1]
e) ( )
2
9 f x x = in [3, 4] f) ( ) ( )( )( ) 1 2 3 f x x x x = in [0, 4]
Page 219 / 681
Page 9
Exercise6
1
1
1
x for x
f x
for x
x
<
=

>
does not fulfill the conditions of Lagranges

theorem.
Ans. The function is not differentiable at x = 1 as there is a sharp point there.
Exercise7
We know the logarithmic series ( )
2 3 4
ln 1 ..................
2 3 4
x x x
x x + = + , where 1 x < .
In this manner we cannot have any idea of ( ) ln 1 e + as 1 e > . But we have Lagranges theorem to
help.
Apply Lagranges theorem
( ) ( ) ( ) ' , , 0 1 f x h f a hf a h for some such that u u u + = + + < < to ( ) ln f x x = in the
interval [ , 1] e e + , ( i.e., , 1 a e h = = and show that
( )
1
ln 1 1 , 1 e for some such that e e
+ ~ + < < +
Similarly apply Lagranges theorem to ( ) ln f x x = in the interval[1,1 ], 0 x x + > and show that
( ) ln 1 , 1 1
x
x for some such that x q q
q
+ ~ < < +
Hence show that
( ) ln 1 , 0
1
x
x x x
x
< + < >
+
Exercise8
Show that
1
1
2
n n
N
+ <
if
2
n N >
Hint. Apply Lagranges theorem to ( ) f x x = in the interval [n, n+1],
to get ( ) ( )
1
1 1
2
f n f n n n
+ = + = for some such that 1 n n < < + .

Now , if
2
n N > , then
2
N > and
1 1
2 2 N
< , i.e.,
1
1
2
n n
N
+ < .
Exercise9
Applying Cauchys mean value theorem to the following pairs of functions, show that the arithmetic
mean of a and b i.e.,
2
a b +
is a point in ]a, b[ where
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
'
2
'
2
a b
f
f b f a
a b F b F a
F
+ | |
|

\ .
=
+ | |
|
\ .
Page 220 / 681
Page 10
a)
( ) ( ) ,
x x
f x e F x e
= =
b)
( ) ( )
2
, f x x F x x = =
c)
( ) ( ) sin , cos f x x F x x = =
.
d)
( )
2
f x ax bx c = + +
in an arbitrary interval [m, n]
Hint.
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
'
' 2
b a c
a b c
b a c
f c f b f a
e e e a b
e e e c
F c F b F a e e e

+
= = = =

Exercise10
Show that
2
1
cos 2
2
0
lim sin
2
bx
x
e
ax
t
t

| |
=
|
\ .
.
Hint :
2
0 2
2 2
1
1 1
limcos .
2
cos
cos cos 2 2
2
2 2
0 0
lim sin lim 1 cos
2 2
x ax
bx
bx bx
x x
e
ax ax
t
t
t t
t t

| | | |
= =
| |

\ . \ .
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
0
0
sin
2
2
lim . .
2
2
sin lim
2
2
2 sin cos
2 2
2
2 sin cos
2 2
2
x
x
bx a
ax
a b
ax
bx b
a
ax ax
ax
e e e
a
bx bx
bx
t
t
t t t
t t t

| || |
| |

\ .\ .
= = =
| || |
| |

\ .\ .
Exercise11
Applying Cauchys mean value theorem to ( ) ( )
1
, f x x F x
x
= =
in [a, b] , a > 0,
show that
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
'
'
f ab
f b f a
F b F a
F ab

=
, i.e.,
, c ab =
the geometric mean of a and b.
Exercise12
Applying Cauchys mean value theorem to
( ) ( )
2
1 1
, f x F x
x x
= =
in [a, b] , a > 0,show that c is the
harmonic mean of a and b.
Exercise13
A function is continuous in [a, b] and derivable in ]a, b[ show that there is at least one c in ]a, b[ such
that
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
'
2
f a f b f c
a b c
Exercise14
Page 221 / 681
Page 11
A function has continuous derivatives of 1
st
, 2
nd
,..(n 1) th order in [a, b] i.e.,
( ) ( )
( )
( )
1 1 2
, ,....................
n
f x f x f x
are all continuous in [a, b] and

( )
( )
n
f x exists for ]a, b[. Also for
1 2 1
..............
n
a x x x b
< < < < < we have ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

1 2 1
........
n
f a f x f x f x f b
= = = = = .
Show that there is at least one point in ]a, b[ such that
( )
( ) 0
n
f u = .
Hint. Since every subinterval
1 1 2 1
[ , ],[ , ]..............[ , ]
n
a x x x x b
satisfies conditions of Rolles theorem,

we have a certain set of points
1 2
, ,..............
n
such that
1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1
[ , ], [ , ],.............. [ , ], [ , ]
n n n n n
a x x x x x x b

e e e e for which
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
' ' .............. ' 0
n
f f f = = = = , by. Rolles theorem Now ( ) ' f x is a function satisfying
conditions of Rolles theorem in
1 2 2 3 2 1
[ , ],[ , ],................[ , ]
n n

, so that there is a certain set of
numbers
1 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 1
[ , ], [ , ],................ [ , ]
n n n
q q q

e e e such that
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
'' '' .............. " 0
n
f f f q q q = = = = . Thus the argument can suitably be repeated to ultimately
have at least one ] , [ a b u e , such that
( )
( ) 0
n
f u = .
Exercise15
Find
( )
1
0
1
lim
tan
x
x
e x
x
+
.Ans.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1
1
0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
lim lim lim lim .1 lim
tan tan 1 1
x x x x
x x x x x
e x e x x x x
e
x x x x

+ + + +
| |
= = = =
|
+
\ .
6: Meaning of sign of derivative Testing for monotony: Greatest and least values
Exercise16
Show that a)
( ) ' 0 f x =
in [a, b] means
( ) f x c =
, a constant.
b)
( ) ( ) ' ' f x g x =
in [a, b] means
( ) ( ) f x g x c =
, a constant
c)
( ) ' 0 f x <
in [a, b] means
( ) ( )
2 1
0 f x f x <
when
2 1
x x >
the function is monotonically decreasing.
d)
( ) ' 0 f x >
in [a, b] means
( ) ( )
2 1
0 f x f x >
when
2 1
x x >
the function is monotonically increasing.
Exercise17
If
( ) ( ) F x and f x
are continuous in [a, b], and
( ) ( ) ' ' F x f x >
in ]a, b[ , then show that
( ) ( ) F x f x >
in ]a, b[
Exercise18
Page 222 / 681
Page 12
Show that
ln 0
a b a a b
for b a
a b b

< < < <
Exercise19
( )
sin x
f x
x
= monotonically decreases in the interval [0, /2]
Exercise20
Using the above problem, show that
2
sin
x
x x
t
< < in the interval 0
2
x
t
< <
Exercise21
Show that ( ) 1 1
p
p
x x + s + for x > 0 , and 0 1 p s s
Hint. Take
( ) ( ) 1 1
p
p
f x x x = + +
. Then ( ) ( )
( )
1
1
1 1
1 1
' 1 0
1
p
p
p p
f x px p x p
x
x

(
= + = > (
+
(

, as
1 0 0 p and x > > .
So,
( ) ( ) 1 1
p
p
f x x x = + +
is increasing and positive since
( ) 0 0 f =
Exercise22
Prove the inequality ( )
k
k k
a b a b + s + for a, b > 0 when 0 1 k s s .
Hint. use the above putting
a
x
b
= , and
1
p
n
= , n a natural number.
Exercise23
If p > 1 and 0 < y < x, show that ( ) ( )
1 1 p p p p
py x y x y px x y

s s
Exercise24
Using derivative of the function
( )
3
1
tan
6
x
f x x
=
, show that
3 3
1
tan
3 6
x x
x x x
< <
Exercise25
Find out the intervals in which the following functions are increasing and decreasing:
a) 5
x
e x + b) ln x c)
2
2 ln x x d) sin cos x x +
e) cos x x f)
( )
2
ln 1 x g)
2
ln
x
x
h)
2
2
1
x
x +
i) cosh sinh x x j)
sin x
x
k)
1
x
e l)
1
tan x
Page 223 / 681

Page 13
Greatest or least values of a function in an interval [a, b] only at the critical points i.e., where
derivative is 0, or at the extreme points a or b. In an open interval ]a, b[ ( ) f a and ( ) f b are not
available.
Exercise26
Find the greatest and least values or both in the following in the specified intervals
a)
x
xe
in [1, ] b)
2
ln x x in [1, e] c) sin sin 2 x x in ]- , [,
d)
( ) ( )
2 2
1 2 1 x x + in [ 1, 1] e) x x + in [ 1, 1]
Exercise27
Show that the function ( ) cos f x x a + increases monotonically and has one positive root for a >
1 and has no positive root for a < 1.
Exercise28
Show that the equation
2
x
e
x
= has only one positive root in ]0, 1[.
7: Taylors theorem or generalized mean value theorem:The Lagranges theorem
( ) ( ) ( )
1
' f a h f a hf a h u + = + +
gives first approximation to
( ) f a h +
. We can repeat this for
( ) ' f x
,
( ) '' f x
,
( ) '" f x
as we have assumed continuous differentiability of these functions to any order we
please. Thus
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
1 2 1 2
2
1 1 2
2 3
1 1 2 1 2 3
2 3
1 1 2
4
1 2 3 1 2 3 4
' ' ''
' ''
' '' '''
' '' '''
'''' .............
f a h f a hf a h f a h f a hf a h
f a hf a h f a h
f a hf a h f a h f a h
f a hf a h f a h f a
h f a h up to
u u u u
u u u
u u u u u u
u u u
u u u u u u u
+ = + + = + + + (

= + + +
= + + + +
= + + +
+ +
and so on up to infinity , provided the infinite series converges. (this is the only weakness of this
proof, we have to prove convergence for any particular function at hand.) the coefficients
1 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4
, , , u u u u u u u u u u etc. can be determined by comparing it with expansion of a known function
( )
x
e for f x .The convenience is that
x
e is unchanged under successive differentiation .Now,
compare the above series with
2 3
.....................................................
2! 3!
h h
a h a h a a a a
e e e e e h e e up to
+
= = + + + +
Page 224 / 681
Page 14
remembering that ( ) ' f a , ( ) '' f a , ( ) '" f a etc are all
a
e , we have
1 1 2 1 2 3
1 1 1
1, , ,.............
2! 3! 4!
etc u u u u u u = = =
Finally, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 4
' '' ''' '''' .............
2! 3! 4!
h h h
f a h f a hf a f a f a f a up to + = + + + + .
This is expansion of ( ) ( ) f a h near f a + in terms of small h. The series would converge as
h 0 under assumed conditions as coefficients of powers of h are constants.
The result has far reaching consequences in analysis of functions particularly expanding closed form
functions into converging infinite series or summing of infinite converging power series called
transcendental functions, preparing tables, and solving differential equations. Finite power series
is called a rational algebraic function in contrast.
8: Taylors theorem in Remainder Form.
In course of Tailors expansion of a function f(x) around x = a, i,e, while writing terms of f(a +h) it
often so happens that the derivatives of f(x) are all zero at x = a , after a number of terms,
particularly when f(x) is itself a finite power series . If it does not happen, i.e., if infinite number of
terms have to be taken in series expansion of f(a +h), we may be interested in stopping the process
at some point, say we do not want to go beyond nth step. Then the n-th term shall not in general be
the n-th term of the corresponding infinite series unless the further derivatives of f(x) are 0. To find
the last term we want to stop at, say n-th step, we can design another function g(x) related to f(x) in
the following manner , designed to satisfy Rolles theorem.
Let
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 1
1 2 1
.............
2! 1 !
n
m
n
a h x a h x
g x f x a h x f x f x f x K a h x
n
+ +
= + + + + + + +
So that ( ) ( ) g a g a h = + may be true to satisfy Rolles theorem for some value of constant K.
We have ( ) ( ) g a h f a h + = + and
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 1
1 2 1
.............
2! 1 !
n
n m
h h
g a f a hf a f a f a Kh
n
= + + + + +
for any arbitrary pre-assigned number m.

The condition ( ) ( ) g a g a h = + implies
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 1
1 2 1
.............
2! 1 !
n
n m
h h
f a h f a hf a f a f a Kh
n
+ = + + + + +
Page 225 / 681

Page 15
The function ( ) g x is continuous in [a, a + h] and derivable in ]a, a + h[ and ( ) ( ) g a g a h = + , so
satisfies all conditions of Rolles theorem , so that for some 0 < < 1, ( ) ' 0 g a h + = u .
But
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
1
'
1 !
n
m
n
a h x
g x f x mK a h x
n
+
= +
all other terms cancelling out.

Now ( ) ' 0 g a h + = u means
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
1
1
1
1
0 ' 1
1 !
n
n
m
n m
h
g a h f a h mKh
n
= + = +
u
u u u
i.e.,
( )
( )
( )
1
1 !
n m
n m
n
h
K f a h
n m
= +
u
u
.
This gives
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 1
1 2 1
.............
2! 1!
1
1 !
n
n
n m m
n m
n
a h x a h x
g x f x a h x f x f x f x
n
h a h x
f a h
n m
+ +
= + + + + +
+
+ +
u
u
Putting x = a + h, ( ) ( ) 0 g a h f a h + = + + and ( ) ( ) g a h g a + = gives,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 1
1 2 1
............. 1
2! 1 ! !
n n
n m
n n
h h h n
f a h f a hf x f x f x f a h
n n m
+ = + + + + + +
u u
Since m is any arbitrary pre-assigned number, we may put m = n and get the following.
9: The philosophy behind Taylors theorem
A tiny part of a curve about a point is a segment of a straight line. We find the slope of this straight
line to expect in what direction the curve would turn next when we leave the point. Also we get
approximate length of this tiny segment from Lagranges mean value theorem. Better approximation
would be if we regard a tiny part of the curve at the point of consideration as part of a circle, a
second degree approximation. A point a little ahead of the point under consideration and another
point behind it, form a triangle and a unique circle passes through these three points. The radius of
this circle is the radius of curvature of the curve at that point. We can generalize this thinking by
taking a general second degree curve , i.e., a conic section instead of a circle. This is done by taking
the first three terms of the Taylors series, as it is a second degree equation. But this is after all a
second degree approximation of the function of the curve at the point under consideration trying to
know , of what conic section our tiny segment of the curve may be. If this does not give us a fair view
of the tiny segment of our curve, or if we require better approximation for some purpose, we may
take more number of terms in the Taylors series to any desired degree of approximation( then the
comparison curve taken between any three adjacent points shall not be merely a conic section i.e.,
of 2
nd
degree, but a curve of higher degree equation, ensuring a better approximation). If we want to
exactly plot the next infinitesimal segment or a neighboring point in the curve, Taylors infinite series
is there, if the curve is smooth at all, whatever may be the scheme of the function for which the curve
stands. Since the Taylors infinite series coincides with the function exactly, after the Taylors series
for the particular function is worked out, we no more need any other forms in which the function
might have been expressed( we do not need any comparison curves, as the curve itself is accurately
described, i.e. to any degree of approximation). Thus a professor explained to the writer many years
Page 226 / 681
Page 16
back, when the two had a rendezvous in a train journey. He compared the role of a tailor who fits an
outfit to your body contours by taking only a finite number of measurements !
10: Lagranges form of Taylors theorem in Remainder theorem
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 1
1 2 1
.............
2! 1 ! !
n n
n n
h h h
f a h f a hf a f a f a f a h
n n
+ = + + + + + +
u
.
We could well have assumed this from the beginning, and arrived at the derivation in a much simpler
way; but in that case we could not have derived what is known as
11: Cauchys form of Taylors theorem in Remainder theoremfor m = 1.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 1
1
1 2 1
............. 1
2! 1 ! 1 !
n n
n
n n
h h h
f a h f a hf x f x f x f a h
n n
+ = + + + + + +

u u
The method may look somewhat artificial to the student at first reading in comparison to infinite
series form.
But an elegant proof without use of Calculus would be given below which follows from simple
concept of a power series. The theorem is extended to include functions which are converging
infinite power series only through methods of Calculus such as one given above. Before that, a few
more important and interesting facts. First, the Taylors theorem in remainder form does not assume
that the function f(x) is infinitely differentiable( it should be only as many times as the number of
terms taken before the remainder) . In Mathematics, if a result is obtained with fewer assumptions
it broadens the scope of applicability of the result. The theorem in remainder form can be
applied to functions which are not infinitely differentiable !
One more interesting and useful result about Taylors theorem. If we take a = 0 and h = x, the
theorem assumes
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 1
1 2 1
0 0 0 ............. 0
2! 1 ! !
n n
n n
x x x
f x f xf f f f x
n n
= + + + + +
u
which
is Maclaurins series in remainder form, expansion of a function around the point x=0.
And the infinite convergent Taylors series reduces to ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 2
0 0 0 ................
2!
x
f x f xf f = + + +
,i.e. estimation of any function in terms of its derivatives! Suppose we take a function
( ) sin f x x = . Apart from a few values of sin x like when x = 0, x = 30
0
, 60
0
etc. all of us must have
wondered in high school why should not we know sin 1
0
, sin 22
0
etc. Now for small angles say for
.012
0
Maclaurins series would give value of sin .012
0
and Taylors series would give the same for
further increments of the angle. in fact we could construct a whole sine table with the help of these,
formulae, at least in principle. And why sine values, values of all smooth functions may be got in the
same way. (by smooth functions we mean, continuously derivable functions, i.e., neither the function
has any sharp point nor its derivatives this is not a too costly assumption) Of course better
methods are available for rapidly converging series (power series); however the Taylors an
Maclaurins series is the baseline. A few examples may be worked out easily enhancing your
confidence. Just you have to find out the derivatives at x = 0 in each case.
Misc Exercises remember
Page 227 / 681
Page 17
29)
( )
2 1
1 ............. ........................
2! 1 ! !
n n
x
x x x
e x up to terms
n n
= + + + + +
, value of each
derivative is 1, the exponential series.
30)
3 5 7
sin ........................
3! 5! 7!
x x x
x x up to terms = + +
31)
2 4 6
cos 1 ........................
2! 4! 6!
x x x
x up to terms = + +
32)
3 5
2
tan ........................
3 15
x x
x x up to terms = + + +
33) ( )
2 3 5
ln 1 ........................ , 1
2 3 5
x x x
x x up to terms x + = + + < , the logarithmic
series
34) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
1 1 1 1 2 ........................ , 1
2! 3!
m x x
x mx m m m m m up to terms x + = + + + <
Binomial theorem for negative or fractional index
35)
3 5 7
sinh .......
3! 5! 7!
x x x
x x up to terms = + + + + hyperbolic sine series.
36)
2 4 6
cosh 1 ..........
2! 4! 6!
x x x
x up to terms = + + + + hyperbolic cosine series.
37)
2 3
1
1 .............................. 1
1
x x x up to terms x
x
= + + + <
38)
Find
2
1
, 1
1
for x
x x
<
+
39)
3 5
1
1 1 3
sin . . . ........................
2 3 2 4 5
x x
x x up to terms
= + + + and carry on and

on.
12: Youngs form of Taylors theorem
if
( )
n
f a
exists for
( ) f x
and M is defined from the equation
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 1
1
' '' ...............
2! 1 ! !
n n
n
h h h
f a h f a hf a f a f a M
n n
+ = + + + + +
then
( )
0
lim
n
h
M f a
=
.
Peanos form of Taylors theorem
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
' 0 '' 0 0
0 ...............
1! 2! !
n
n
n
f f f
f x f x x x o x
n
= + + + + +
, where
( )
n
o x
stands for an
expression of order
n
x
.
Page 228 / 681
Page 18
13: Maxima and minima of a function using Taylors theorem
If c be an interior point of domain of definition [a, b] of the function ( ) f x and if
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 3 1
..................... 0, 0
n n
f c f c f c f c f c
= = = = = = and n is even, then ( ) f c is a

maximum if ( ) 0
n
f c < and minimum if ( ) 0
n
f c > and not an extreme value if n is odd.
The condition ( ) 0
n
f c = implies that ( )
n
f a exists for n = 1, 2,3.n in a small neighborhood of c
i.e., in ]c
1
, c
1
[ which results in the statement :
If ( ) 0
n
f c >
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 1
1 1
0
] , [
0
n n
n n
f x f c for c x c
for c c
f x f c for c x c
o
o o
o

( < = < <
+
(
> = < < +

for some 0 o < <
1
o (i)
And if ( ) 0
n
f c < ,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 1
1 1
0
] , [
0
n n
n n
f x f c for c x c
for c c
f x f c for c x c
o
o o
o

( > = < <
+
(
< = < < +

for some 0 o < <
1
o (ii)
Taylors theorem gives,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 1
1 1
' '' ............... ,
2! 1 ! !
n n
n n
h h h
f c h f c hf c f c f c f c h h
n n
u u o

+ = + + + + + + <
Or, ( ) ( ) ( )
1
,
!
n
n
h
f c h f c f c h h
n
u u o
+ = + + < as ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1
....... 0
n
f c f c f c
= = = = (iii)
Now if ( ) 0
n
f c > and n is even, from (i) and (iii), ( ) ( ) f c h f c + > for ] , [ h c c o o e + , so ( ) f c is a
minimum in this interval. Otherwise, if ( ) 0
n
f c < and n is even, from (ii) and (iii), ( ) ( ) f c h f c + < for
] , [ h c c o o e + , so ( ) f c is a maximum in this interval.
If n is odd, and ( ) 0
n
f c < , then
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
f c h f c when c x c h c
f c h f c when c x c h c
o
o
+ > < = + < +
+ < < = + <
, hence ( ) f c is not
an extreme value. Similarly, ( ) f c is not an extreme value if n is odd, and
( ) 0
n
f c > .
14: Convexity, concavity and point of inflection
Everybody has an intuitive idea of what is a convex portion of graph and what is a concave portion.
To be a little more specific, if a portion of a graph is convex upwards or convex as seen from
above, evidently the graph first increases and then decreases as x increases in that interval of
consideration (with tacit assumption of the continuity and differentiability of the graph in the interval,
of course). Albeit the interval includes a maximum and the established condition for this is
2
2
0 0
dy d y
and
dx dx
= < , for some point in the interval. But this is situation at some point in the
interval. The concept of convexity is for a small interval chosen around the point in question. From
this rough intuitive idea we may proceed toward formal concept. It is clear that a function or curve
is convex upwards around a point if every point on the curve in a small interval around the
point lies below the tangent line at the point and concave upwards vice versa. Also convex
Page 229 / 681
Page 19
upwards means concave downwards and vice versa. Now we have to translate this statement to
mathematical language.
First, consider all the y coordinates in the interval are positive .
Let P be the point ( ) ( )
, P x f x , Q be the point ( ) ( )
, Q x h f x h + + on the curve and R be the point on
the tangent where the ordinate QN meets the tangent at P. PM is evidently ( ) f x , QN is ( ) f x h + .
The equation of the tangent PR is ( ) ( ) ( ) ' Y f x f x X x = , if ( ) , X Y is any point on the tangent. If
Y is ordinate of R whose abscissa is ON = X = x + h, putting this value in the equation of the
tangent, we have ( ) ( ) ' Y f x hf x = , or, ( ) ( ) ' Y f x hf x = + From Lagranges theorem,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
' '' , , 0 1
2!
h
f x h f x hf x f x h for some u u u + = + + + < <
i.e., ( ) ( )
2
'' , , 0 1
2!
h
QN f x h Y f x h for some u u u = + = + + < < .Since Y RN = ,
( )
2
'' , , 0 1
2!
h
RQ RN QN f x h for some u u u = = + < <
The point Q shall lie below the tangent line if ( ) '' 0 f x h u + < , which is assured if ( ) '' 0 f x < in a
small interval around x. So the function or the curve of ( ) f x is convex upwards at x = a, if
( ) '' 0 f x < in a small interval around x = a. Similarly the function or the curve of ( ) f x is
concave upwards at x = a, if ( ) '' 0 f x > in a small interval around x = a.
Note 1: In the above consideration, we are excluding the cases where the curve the curve is convex
or concave as seen from x direction, i.e. convex from right or concave from right. For, in those
cases a vertical line crosses the curve at two points and this is not included in definition of function,
which should be single valued. Nevertheless , such situation can be analysed by considering x as a
function of y, i.e., by considering
2
2
d x
dy
instead of ( ) '' f x .
O
P
M
Q
N
R
Convex upwards Concave upwards
Page 230 / 681
Page 20
Note 2: Also the cases where the tangent is parallel to the y axis, i.e.,
dy
dx
= is excluded from the
above analysis. In that case,
dy
dx
is not single valued and as such, not a function.
All the above consideration will change suitably if all y coordinates in the interval are
negative. But ( ) ( ) " f x f x would be negative when the curve is convex upwards and vice
versa.
Exercise40
The criteria can be extended to nth derivative: if ( ) ( )
( )
( ) " 0, '" 0............... 0
n
f x f x f x = = =
and n is even and
( )
( )
1
0
n
f x
+
< then the curve is convex upward at the point, and concave if
( )
( )
1
0
n
f x
+
>
In the above analysis, the tangent at the point where we consider convexity or concavity does
not cross the curve there, i.e. all parts of the curve in the interval are on one side of the tangent. You
may wonder does a tangent ever cross the curve, that too, at the point of tangency. After all the
tangent is supposed to intersect the curve at two coincident points. But see the figure and convince
yourself that this is also possible when the curve is concave upwards on one side of the tangent and
convex upwards on the other side.
Such a point is called point of inflection . If ( ) '' f x at the point is 0, the Taylors theorem gives
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
3
3 3
' ''' , , 0 1, '' 0
3!
''' '''
3! 3!
h
QN f x h f x hf x f x h for some as f x
h h
QN RN f x h QN RN f x h
u u u
u u
= + = + + + < < =
= + + = +
which is of opposite signs corresponding to whether h is positive or negative.
The criteria for the point of inflection is ( ) ( ) " 0 '" 0 f x and f x = = at the point.
Note : If
dy
dx
= , then consider
2 3
2 3
d x d x
and
dy dy
instead of ( ) ( ) " '" f x and f x .
15: Taylors theorem from Remainder theoremin Algebra
Point of inflection
P
M
R
Q
N
Page 231 / 681
Page 21
The above treatment holds for all sorts of functions, rational algebraic ( represented by a finite power
series) or transcendental functions as infinite converging power series, with only restriction of infinite
times derivability or perfect smoothness of the curve. However the theorem might not have been
discovered or designed in that manner. Rather, some one might have noticed it by unlocking an
algebraic function when the argument is given a small increment. This is a point of interest as well as
an easy application found in some algebra books and is being given below.
Let ( )
1 2
0 1 2
.......................
n n n
n
f x a x a x a x a

= + + + , a power series in x. Replacing x by x + h,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
0 1 2
.......................
n n n
n
f x h a x h a x h a x h a

+ = + + + + + + . Simply expanding term by
term, according to binomial theorem and rearranging terms in ascending powers of x, we have,
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
0 1 2 1
1 2 3
0 1 2 1
2
2 3
0 1 2
.......................
1 2 ...........
1 1 2 .........2
2!
................................................
n n n
n x n
n n n
n
n n
n
f x h a x a x a x a a
h na x n a x n a x a
h
n n a x n n a x a

+ = + + + +
( + + + +

( + + +

+
( ) ( )
0
.................................
1 2 ................2.1
!
n
h
n n n a
n
+ (

The expressions in the square brackets are easily seen to be ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
, , .............
n
f x f x f x + and the
expression outside the bracket on the right side is seen to be f(x).
Hence ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 2
.........................
2! !
n
n
h h
f x h f x hf x f x f x
n
+ = + + + + .
Actually the argument is extended to all smooth functions; as they all are convergent power series
only, transcendental functions included.
Thought for you: write Taylors theorem for x = 0 . it would give
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 2
0 0 0 ......................... 0
2! !
n
n
h h
f h f hf f f
n
= + + + +
So that you can get values of the function near x = 0. More surprises wait for you. Now h to x and get
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 2
0 0 0 ......................... 0
2! !
n
n
x x
f x f xf f f
n
= + + + +
What does this mean ? you get the value of a function in terms of its value at 0, of course under
the assumptions of the Taylors theorem. This is not only true for polynomials also true for
transcendental functions also.
16: LHopitals Rule: limit of indeterminate form
0
0
When both the limits ( ) 0
Lim
x a
h x
= and ( ) 0
Lim
x a
g x
= again,
if ( ) 0 h x = and
lim
( )
0
x a
dh x
dx
= and
) x ( h
) x ( g
) x ( f = where g(x) and h(x) are continuously and
successively differentiable in some domain and h(x) not 0, then
Page 232 / 681
Page 22
2
2
lim lim lim
2
2
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
x a x a x a
dg x d g x
dx dx
f x
dh x
d h x
dx
dx

= = when
2
2
( ) ( )
0
dh x dh x
dx dx
= = and the argument can suitably be
extended further forward; also backwards, i.e.,
lim lim
( )
( )
( )
x a x a
g x dx
f x
h x dx

=
}
}
etc.(remember
lim
lim
lim
( )
( )
( )
x a
x a
x a
g x
f x
h x
= cannot be written when ( ) ( ) 0, 0 g a h a = = )

This is useful for finding limits of indeterminate forms
0
0
which meet blind end while calculating with
standard techniques. Proof is obtained with the use of Lagranges mean value theorem
( ) ( ) ( ) ' , 0 0 1 a a a for x a x a means for some + = + + = + s s | c | c| uc c c u .
(Remember
( ) ( )
( )
lim
0
'
a a
a
a a
+
=
+
c
| c |
|
c
)
We have ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
' , , 0 0 1 g a g a g a for x a x a means for some + = + + = + s s c c u c c c u
and
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
' , , 0 0 1 h a h a h a for x a x a means for some + = + + = + s s c c u c c c u
so that
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
2
1
1 2
2
'
'
'
, 0 0 0 , 1
'
g x g a g a g a
h x h a h a h a
g a
as g a h a when for
h a
+ + +
= =
+ + +
+
= = = s s
+
c c u c
c c u c
u c
c u u
u c
On taking the limits ,
lim lim
( ) '( )
( ) , '( ) 0
( ) '( )
x a x a
g x g a
f x if h a
h x h a

= = =
This is of course assuming
( ) ' g x
and
( ) ' h x
are continuous at
x a =
Example1 :
2
lim
1
15 4
1
x
x
x
+
+
If x = 1, this is
0
0
and cannot be calculated. But
( )
2
2
2 1
15 4
4
2 15
d x
x
dx
x
+ = =
+
and
( ) 1 1
d
x
dx
+ = ,
for all values of x, and hence 1 for x = - 1 also. So
2
lim
1
1
15 4 1
4
1 1 4
x
x
x
+
= =
+
, a finite number even
if both numerator and denominator 0.
Exercise41
Page 233 / 681
Page 23
Try to prove the result by applying Cauchys mean value theorem.
Exercise42
Find ( )
2
lim
x
x
x t
. Ans. if ( )
2
lim
x
x
K x t
= , then
( )
( )
2
2
2ln
ln limln lim lim 0
1
x
x x x
x
x
K x
x
t
t
t
t

= = = = differentiating numerator and denominator.
Exercise43
Find
1
ln
0
lim
x x
x
e
. Ans. If
1
ln
0
lim
x x
x
e K
= , then
1
2
ln
0 0 0 0
1 1
1
ln limln lim ln ln lim ln lim
1
ln ln
x x
x x x x
x x
K e e e e
x x x
x

= = = = = ,So 0 K e
= = .
Exercise44
Find
1
lim
x
x
x
e
t
| |
|
\ .
. Ans. Let
1
lim
x
x
x
e
K
t
| |
=
|
\ .
, then
( )
1
ln ln
1 ln 1
ln limln lim ln lim lim
1
x
x x
x
x x x x
e
e e x
K
x x x
t
t
t t

| | | |
= = = = =
| |
\ . \ .
, differentiating numerator
and denominator

| |
|
\ .
form. So K e = .
Exercise45
If , o | are roots of
2
0 ax bx c + + = , then show that
( )
2
2
2
lim 1
a
x
x
ax bx c e
o |
o
o

+ + + = .
using ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
0
lim
0
lim 1
x
f x g x g x
x
f x e

+ = (

when
( ) 0 f x
.
Hint. :
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
0
2 2 2 2
lim
2 2
0
lim 1 lim 1 lim 1
h
ah h
a
h x x h
x x h
ax bx c a x x ah h e e
o |
o |
o o
o o
o | o |

+

+ + + = + = + + = =
Exercise46
Find
( )
1
2
0
1
lim
tan
x
x
e x
x
+
. Ans.
( ) ( )
1 1
1
2
2
0 0
1 1
lim lim
tan sec
x x
x x
e x x
x x

+ +
= differentiating both numerator and
denominator., i.e.,
( )
( ) ( )( )
( )
1
2
0
1
lim
1. 1 0 1 1 tan
x
x
x e
e
x x
+
= =
+ + +
.
Page 234 / 681
Page 24
Ex47: Discuss continuity of the function
( )
cos
,
2
2
1,
2
x
if x
x
if x
f x
t
t
t
=
Ans.
( )
2 2 2
cos sin
lim lim lim sin 1
1 2 2
2
x x x
x x
f x f
x
t t t
t t
t

| |
= = = = =
|
\ .
applying L Hopitals rule. So continuous.

17: A generalization of the above theorem
When both the limits
( ) 0
Lim
x a
f x
=
and
( ) 0
Lim
x a
g x
=
and
( )
( )
'
lim
'
x a
f x
l
g x
=
then
( )
( )
lim
x a
f x
l
g x
=
.Prove it in
the same lines. This is particularly useful when
'( ) 0
Lim
x a
f x
=
and
'( ) 0
Lim
x a
g x
=
do not separately
hold.
18: Indeterminate form 0.
lim lim lim lim
( ) ( ) ( ), ( ) 0 ( )
x a x a x a x a
f x g x H x when g x and H x

=
can be found as a corollary
to the above result by putting
1
( )
( )
H x
h x
= so that
lim
( )
x a
H x

means
lim
( ) 0
x a
h x

and if
'( ) 0 h a = , then
lim lim
( ) ( ) ( )
x a x a
f x g x H x

=
takes the form
( ) ( )
lim lim
( ) ( )
( )
x a x a
g x g a
f x
h x h a

= =
Example2 :Find
lim
2
4 3sin
7cot
x
x
x
t
This is in 0. form i.e., in

0
0
form. So,
( )
( )
lim lim lim
2
2 2 2
4 3sin
4 3sin 3cos
0
7cot 7cos
7cot
x x x
d
x
x x
dx
d
x ec x
x
dx
t t t

= = =
19: Indeterminate form
When both the limits ( )

Lim
x a
h x
= and ( )
Lim
x a
g x
= and
lim lim
( ) ( )
0
x a x a
dg x dh x
dx dx

= = and
) x ( h
) x ( g
) x ( f = where g(x) and h(x) are continuously and
successively differentiable in some domain and h(x) not 0, then
2
2
lim lim lim
2
2
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
x a x a x a
dg x d g x
dx dx
f x
dh x
d h x
dx
dx

= = when
( )
0
dh x
dx
= and the argument can suitably be extended
further forward; also backwards, i.e.,
lim lim
( )
( )
( )
x a x a
g x dx
f x
h x dx

=
}
}
etc.(remember
lim
lim
lim
( )
( )
( )
x a
x a
x a
g x
f x
h x
=
Page 235 / 681
Page 25
cannot be written).Let us apply Cauchys mean value theorem to the problem. Let
lim
( )
( )
x a
dg x
dx
l
dh x
dx
= .
This means that, for any pre-assigned small +ve number , we can determine a corresponding small
+ve number , so that
( )
( )
dg x
dx
l l
dh x
dx
c < < +c for a x a o < < +o . Now , if be a fixed number such
that a a o < < + o , we can find another number , such that
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
'
'
g g x g
h h x h
|
|
where
x < | < i.e., a a < | < + by Cauchys mean value theorem. Also
lim
( )
( )
x a
dg x
dx
l
dh x
dx
= implies that both

'( ) g x and '( ) h x both are defined in the interval a a o < < + o and '( ) 0 h x = there. Now,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
'
'
1
g
g x
g x g g x g
h h x h h
h x
h x
| |
\ .
= =
| |
|
\ .
|
|
, or
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
' 1
' 1
h
g
h x g x
h x g
h
g x
| |
|
\ .
=
| |
|
\ .
|
.On taking limits x , the
expression becomes
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( )
( )
lim
' 0 1 '
' 0 1 '
x a
g x g g
h x h h

= =
| |
| |
as
( )
( )
( )
( )
lim lim
0
x a x a
h g
h x g x

= =

, ( ) h , ( ) g are
constants and the limits ( )
Lim
x a
h x
= and ( )
Lim
x a
g x
= .We can make

( )
( )
'
'
g
h
|
|
as near to
lim
( )
( )
x a
dg x
dx
l
dh x
dx
= , by suitable choosing as discussed in the beginning. Hence the theorem.

Generalization follows by repeatedly applying the theorem
The proof could have been much simpler by writing
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
1
g x h x
h x
g x
= in
0
0
form as conditions of
LHopitals Rule would have been applicable, but the difficult route was taken to demonstrate an
application of Cauchys mean value theorem
Example3 :Find
2 3
lim
1 2 3 4
x x
x x x
e
+ + +
Page 236 / 681
Page 26
This is in
form . Then
2 3 2
lim lim lim lim
1 2 3 4 2 6 12 6 24 24
0
x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x
e e e e

+ + + + + +
= = = =
by repeatedly applying the theorem.
20: Indeterminate form-
When both the limits ( )
Lim
x a
h x
= and ( )
Lim
x a
g x
= ,for calculating ( ) ( )
( )
Lim
x a
h x g x
, we may write
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) { }
2
1 1
( )
1
g x h x
h x g x
g x h x
= and see if LHopitals rule apply.

Example4 :Find
( )
lim
2
1 1
ln 1 2
x
x x
(

Just a simplification reduces it to
0
0
form. We have
( )
( )
( )( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
lim lim
2 2
lim
2
lim
2
lim
2
2 ln 1
1 1 0
ln 1 2 ln 1 2 0
1
1
1
0 . .
1
ln 1 .1 2
1
1 1
1 ln 1 2
1 1 1
1
1 . 1.ln 1 1
1
x x
x
x
x
x x
is now in form
x x x x
x
on differentiating both numm and denum
x x
x
x
x x x
x x
x

( (
=
( (

(

(
=
(
+
(

(

=
(
+

=
+ +
lim
2
, 0 .
1 1
1 ln1 1 2
x
again on differentiating both numm and denum
(
(
(

(
= =
(
+ +

21: Indeterminate form 0
0
,
0
, 1
etc.
Let ( ) ( )
( ) g x
y x f x = and we have to consider ( )
Lim
x a
y x
when ( ) 0
Lim
x a
f x
= and ( ) 0
Lim
x a
g x
=
We have ( ) ln ln ( ) y g x f x = . Since ( ) 0
Lim
x a
f x
= , ln ( )
Lim
x a
f x
= . So our ( ) ln ln ( ) y g x f x = is in
0. form and ln
Lim
x a
y
may be calculated if conditions of LHospitals Rule apply. Once this is done,

Lim
x a
y
is known.
Example5 :
Find ( )
0
Lim x
x
y x x
= . This is in 0
0
form
Page 237 / 681
Page 27
We have ln ln y x x = , so that
0
0
0 0 0 0
0 2
0
1
ln
ln ln 0
1 1
Lim
Lim
x
Lim Lim Lim Lim x
x x x x
Lim
x Lim
x
x
x
y x x x
x x
= = = = =
. Dont stop
here. Now ( )
ln ln 0
0 0 ln 0
1
Lim Lim y Lim y
x x y
y x e e e

= = = = (verify whether conditions of LHopitals Rule apply
at each step)
Example6 :
Find ( )
tan
2
sin
Lim x
x
y x x
t
= . This is in 1
form.
We have ln tan lnsin y x x = , so that the last expression is in .0 form. Now
2 2
2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
1
lnsin .cos
sin
ln tan lnsin cos sin 0.1 0
cot cos
Lim Lim
x x
Lim Lim Lim Lim Lim
Lim Lim
x x x x x
x x
x x
x
y x x x x
x ec x
t t

t t t t t

t t

= = = = = =
So ( )
0
2
1
Lim
x
y x e
t
= =
Example7 :
Find
lim
1
1
x
x
x
| |
+
|
\ .
in the form 1
.
Previously we have calculated it to be e
x
. Now, let
1
( ) 1
x
y x
x
| |
= +
|
\ .
so that
1
ln 1
ln ( )
1
x
y x
x
| |
+
|
\ .
= is in
0
0
form. Then
1
lim lim
2
lim
lim lim
2
1 1 1
ln 1 1
ln ( ) 1
1 1
x x
x
x x
x x x
y x
x x

| | | | | |
+ +
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
= = =
| |
|
\ .
Hence ,
lim
1
1
x
x
x
| |
+
|
\ .
= e, confirmation of our derivation earlier.
Example7 :
Find
sin
0
limln sin 2
x
x
x
. Ans. Evidently the limit exists only when x >0.

sin
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 2
2cos2 cos2
lnsin2 cos2
sin2 sin2 sin2
limln sin2 lim lim lim lim lim 1.1 1
1
lnsin cos
cos cos
sin sin sin
x
x x x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x x x
x
x x
x x
x x
x x x

= = = = = =
Example8 :
Page 238 / 681
Page 28
Find
sin
0
lim
x
x
x
for x > 0. Ans.

( )
( )
2
0
0 0 0
1
sin 0
ln
lim 1
lim lim lim sin ln
sin ln sin 0 cos 1
cos cos cot
0 0
lim lim 1
x
x x x
x x
x
x
x x
x x x x x
ecx ecx x
x x
x e e e e e e e

| | | | | |

| | |
\ . \ . \ .

= = = = = = = =
23: The indeterminate form -
To find
( ) ( ) lim
x a
F x f x
(

when both
( ) ( ) lim lim
x a x a
F x f x

= =
we can calculate
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 1
lim
lim
1 1
lim
x a
x a
x a
f x F x
F x f x
f x F x
(

= (

which is in
0
0
form.
24: Indeterminate form using Taylors theorem;
Often it is convenient to use power series expansion to fix indeterminate forms.
Example 9:
Find
( )
( )
Lim
x a
f x
g x
, when ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1
, , ,........................... 0, 0,
n n
f x f x f x upto f x f x
= = ,
and ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1
, , ,........................... 0, 0,
n n
g x g x g x upto g x g x
= = and ( ) ( )
1 2
, f x f x denote
derivatives of f(x) of 1
st
, 2
nd
etc. order
By Taylors theorem in remainder form
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
1 2 3
1
.............
2! 3! !
n
n
h h h
f a h f a hf a f a f a f a h
n
+ = + + + + + +u and
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
1 3
2
.............
2! 3! !
n
n
h h h
g a h g a hg a a g a g a h
n
+ = + + + + + +u for some 0<
2
u <1.
So that,
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
1
2
2
!
!
n
n
n
n n
n
h
f a h
f a h f a h
n
h g a h g a h
g a h
n
+
+ +
= =
+ +
+
u
u
u
u
. Taking the limits 0 h both sides and
remembering x a h = + we have,
( )
( )
( )
( )
n
Lim
x a n
f x f a
g x g a
=
Example10
Analyze continuity and differentiability of
( )
2
1
1
sin 0
x
f x e for x
x
| |
= =
|
\ .
and
( ) 0 0 f =
Differentiating,
( )
2
1
3
1 1
' 2sin cos 0
x
e
f x x if x
x x x
| |
= =
|
\ .
and
( )
2
1
0
1
sin 0
' 0 lim
x
x
e
x
f
x
=
Page 239 / 681
Page 29
Since
2
1
2
1
x
e
x
>
, then
( )
2
1
2
1
sin 0
.1
' 0 0
x
e
x
x
x f
x x
< = =
When
0 x =
,
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
1 1
3 3
1 1
' ' 0 2sin cos 2
x x
e e
f x f x x
x x x x

| |
= s +
|
\ .
As
4
1
4
1
2
x
e
x
>
, we have,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0
' ' 0 2 2 lim ' ' 0 0
x
f x f x x f x f
s + =
so that
( ) ' f x
is
continuous at x = 0. So the function is continuous and derivable at every point.
Now, for
( )
2
2 1
x
n t
=
+
,
( ) ' f x
is positive or negative according as n is even or odd, it must vanish
at least once between
( )
2 1
,
2 1 n n t t
(
(
+

.i.e., it vanishes infinite times in any small interval around 0.
Example11
Show that
lim 0
m
x
x
x
e
o
=
for m > 0, > 0.
Take
( )
m
f x x =
,
( )
x
g x e
o
=
and [m] = n , the greatest positive integer not greater than m.
And see that
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) lim , lim ' , lim '' ,.......... , lim , lim ' , lim '' ,..........
x x x x x x
f x f x f x all g x g x g x all

And
( )
( )
1
1
lim 0
n
n
x
f x
g x
+
+

, so,
lim 0
m
x
x
x
e
o
=
Example12
Show that there is one and only one positive root of cos x = 0 between x = 0 and x = 2 and it is /2.
We know
cos 0 0
2
x for x
t
> s s
,
cos0 1 =
and
2 4 6 2 2 6 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1
cos 2 1 ............... 1 1 1 ......... 1 1
2! 4! 6! 2! 3.4 6! 7.8 2! 3.4 3
| | | | | |
= + = < =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
, So
there exists one number between 0 and 2 so that
cos 0 o =
evidently
2
t
o =
.
Page 240 / 681
Page 30
To prove uniqueness, let
cos 0, , 0 2 and | | o | = = < <
. Applying Rolles theorem for cos x
in [, ] , there is a point in the interval for which the derivative - sinx = 0. But this is impossible and
hence there is no other root of cos x = 0 other than
2
t
o =
in [0, 2].
Exercise48
Show that a)
( ) ln
lim 0
m
x
x
x
o
=
b)
( )
0
lim ln 0
m
x
x x
o
+

Exercise49
( )
2
1
x
f x e
=
possesses continuous derivatives of every order at x = 0, but still
cannot be expanded in Maclaurins series.
(hint . all derivatives are 0)
25: Value of n-th derivative at x = 0 without differentiating repeatedly
Exercise50
Find
( )
1
sin
0
n
m x
n
x
d
e
dx

=
.
Let
1
sin m x
y e

= . Then
( )
1
sin 2 2 2 2
1 1
2
1
1
m x
m
y e x y m y
x
= =
. On differentiation,
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 1 1 2 1
1 2 2 2 1 x y y xy m yy x y xy m y = =
Applying Leibnitzs theorem,
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 1 1
2 2 2
2 1
1 2 1
1 2 1 0
n n n n n n
n n n
x y nxy n n y xy ny m y
x y n xy m n y
+ + +
+ +
=
+ + =
At x = 0, ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2
0 0
n n
y n m y
+
= + . Also
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
1 2 3 1
0 1, 0 , 0 , 0 1 0 1 y y m y m y m y m m = = = = + = +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
2 2 2 2 2
4 2
2 2 2 2 2
5 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
6 4
0 2 0 2
0 3 0 1 3
0 4 0 2 4
y m y m m
y m y m m m
y m y m m m
= + = +
= + = + +
= + = + +
So, in general
( )
( )( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2 4 ....... 2
0
1 3 ............ 2
n
m m m n m for n even
y
m m m n m for n odd
(
+ + +

=

(
+ + +

Exercise51
Page 241 / 681
Page 31
Find the limits applying L Hopitals rule as many times as applicable and as necessary.
Hint. Take out of them
0
sin
lim 1
x
x
x
= of
0
tan
lim 1
x
x
x
= if necessary; it would sometimes save from

repeated differentiation.
a)
0
sinh
lim
cos sin
x
x x
x x x
b)
2
1
1 2
1
lim
2tan
x
x
e
x t
c)
( )
1
3
1
1 1 2
lim
2
x
x
x x
+ +
+ +
d)
( )
2
0
lim
ln 1
ax ax
x
e e
x
+
e)
( )
2
2
0
sin 3
lim
ln cos 2
x
x
x x

f)
2
1
1 ln
lim
1 2
x
x x
x x
+
+
( )
0
2ln 1
lim
sin
x x
x
e e x
x x
+
g)
0
2
lim
sin
x x
x
e e x
x x
h)
2
1
1 2
1
lim
2tan
x
x
e
x t
i)
( )
2
0
ln 1
lim
cos3
x
x
x
x e
j)
( )
2
0
ln 1
lim
x
x
xe x
x
+
k)
( )
2
0
ln 1
lim
lncos
x
x
x
l)
( )
0
lim
ln 1
ax ax
x
e e
bx
+
k)
2
2
1
2
cos
lim
2
x
x
x
e ex
t

l) ( )
2
0
1 1
lim ln 1
x
x
x x
(
+
(

m)
( )
2
2
0
sin
lim
ln 1
x
x
e x x x
x x x

+
n)
0
cosh cos
lim
sin
x
x x
x x
o)
2
2
0
2cos 2
lim
sin
x
x x
x x
+
p)
2 2
2 2
0
tan
lim
tan
x
x x
x x
q)
( )
0
sin ln cos
lim
sin
x
x
x e x
x x
r)
2
2
0
sin2 2sin 2sin
lim
cos cos
x
x x x
x x
s) ( )
0
limln 1 cot
x
x x t

t)
( )
2
0
1 sin cos ln 1
lim
tan
x
x x x
x x
+ +
u)
( )
2
1 1
lim
2 ln 1
x
x x
(

v)
2
0
1 1
lim
1
x
x x
| |
\ .
w) ( )
2
1
0
lim cos
x
x
x
x) ( ) lim
x a
x a
x a

y)
0
lim
x
x
x
z)
1
1
1
lim
x
x
x

A pitfall
Apply L Hospitals rule in the following to fall in a loop. Calculate the limits direct otherwise.
a)
2
sec
lim
tan
x
x
x
t
b)
2
sin
lim
1
sin
x
x
x
x
c)
2
0
1
sin
lim
sin
x
x
x
x
d)
2
tan
lim
sec
x
x
x
t
Exercise52
For what values of a and b the
( )
3
0
1 cos sin
lim 1
x
x a x b x
x

= ?
Page 242 / 681
Page 32
Exercise53
Find the following limits:
a)
ln
1
lim
ln
x
x
a x
x
b) ( )
sin2
0
lim cot
x
x
x
c)
tan
0
1
lim
x
x
x
| |
|
\ .
d)
1
0
2 1
lim
1
x
x
x
x
+ | |
|
+
\ .
e)
( )
2
2
2
ln 3
lim
3 10
x
x
x x
+
f) ( )
cot
0
lim 1 sin
x
x
x
+ g)
1
lim 1 , 0
x
x
a x a
| |
>
|
\ .
h) ( )
tan
2
lim sin
x
x
x
t
i)
1
1
lim
ln ln
x
x
x x
| |
|
\ .
j)
2
0
sinh
lim
x
x
x
x
| |
|
\ .
k)
2
0
lim cosh 1
x
a
x
x
| |
|
\ .
l)
2 1
1 ln
lim
1 2
x
x x
x x
+

m)
2
1
lim ln 1
x
x x
x
( | |
+
| (
\ .
n) lim 1 1
x x
x
a a
x
x x
(
| | | |
+
(
| |
\ . \ .
(

o)
2
2
0
1
lim cot
x
x
x
| |
|
\ .
p)
( )
( ) ( )
'
1
lim
x a
f x
f x f a x a
(

q) ( )
2
0
lim cos
n
x
x
mx
r)
1
1 2
0
............
lim
x x x
x
n
x
a a a
n
| | + +
|
\ .
s)
0
tan
lim
sin
x
x x
x x
t) ( )
tan
0
lim lncot
x
x
x
+
u)
( )
1
limsin cot
x a
x a
x a
a
v)
( )
1
0
1
lim
x
x
x e
x
+
Exercise54
Show that
( )
( ) 0 0
n
f for all n =
if
( )
( )
2
1
0
0 0
x
f x e for x
f

= =
Exercise55
Compare the order of largeness between the two functions ( )
n
f x x = and ( ) log
a
F x x = when they
tend to infinity.
Hint. Show that
log
lim 0
a
n
x
x
x
= , so that ( ) log
a
F x x = tends to infinity faster.
Exercise56
Prove the Taylors formula if ( ) f x is continuous and has continuous derivatives of order 1, 2,.upto
n -1, in the interval [a, b], then
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 n-1 n
n-1 n
x - a x - a x - a
f x =f a +f' a x - a +f'' a .......f a +f a +
x - a
2! n- 1 ! n!
where0 1 u < <
This is expansion of a function ( ) f x around a point a.
Page 243 / 681
Page 33
Hint. use Taylors theorem and put x a = h .
Exercise57
Applying Taylors formula as above in Lagranges form expand ( )
5 4 3 2
2 2 1 f x x x x x x = + + in
powers of 1 x .
Hint. Find ( ) ( ) ' , '' .......... . 1 f x f x etc for x = and use above formula to get
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 4 5
3 1 3 1 1 f x x x x = + + (other terms are 0 each)
26: Method of undetermined coefficients.
Apart from Taylors method of expansion, a quite simple and general method is the method of
undetermined coefficients. See the following example.
Example14
To expand
( ) ln 1 x +
, where
1 x <
Assume
( )
2
0 1 2
ln 1 .............. x a a x a x + = + + +
where we have to determine the coefficients.
By differentiation,
2
1 2 3
1
2 3 ...............
1
a a x a x
x
= + +
+
, i.e.,
( ) ( )
2
1 2 3
1 1 2 3 ............... x a a x a x = + + +
which is nothing but an identity and coefficients of similar
powers of x in both sides should be equal. Multiplying and equating the coefficients, we see that
1
1 a =
, being coefficients of
0
x
both sides. Since other terms on the left side are all 0,
By making the coefficient of x equal from both sides ,
1 2 2 2
1
2 0 1 2 0
2
a a a a + = + = =
. In this
process we can proceed step by step and find the series expansion of
( ) ln 1 x +
if
1 x <
.
Also we can arrive at a recurrence relation
( )
1
1 0
n n
na n a
+
+ + =
, putting coefficient of
n
x
equal to 0,
as each term except the 1st on the left side is 0, and successively solving the recurrence relation we
can construct the entire series as
( )
2 3
ln 1 1 ...................... x x x x + = + +
if
1 x <
.
Exercise58
Find expansion of
sin
tan
cos
x
x
x
=
Hint. let
2
0 1 2
tan ..... x a a x a x = + + + where we have to determine the coefficients.
We have
3 5
2
0 1 2 2 3
.........
sin
3! 5!
tan .....
cos
1 .........
2! 3!
x x
x
x
x a a x a x
x x x
+
= + + + = =
+ +
Or,
( )
2 3 3 5
2
0 1 2
..... 1 ......... .........
2! 3! 3! 5!
x x x x
a a x a x x
| |
+ + + + + = +
|
\ .
Now you could equate the coefficients of similar powers of x from both sides,
And get
3 5
2
tan ................
3 15
x x
x x = + +
Page 244 / 681
Page 34
Instead of method of undetermined coefficients, you can expand functions by algebraic method also,
e.g., using binomial theorem, simple division, partial fraction, reversal of series etc.
Exercise59
If
n
s is the sum of 1
st
n natural numbers, show that ( )
3
2
1 2 3
1 ................ 1 x s s x s x if x
= + + + <
Exercise60
Expand
2
2 4
1
3 9
x x

| |
+
|
\ .
, or otherwise find out coefficient of
8
x in the expansion of
the same and find on what condition the series so obtained is convergent.
Exercise61
Given that
( )
2 2
0 1 2
1 .......... ................
n
p np
np
x x x a a x a x a x + + + = + + +
Show that ( )
0 1 2
................ 1
n
np
a a a a p + + + = +
Show that
( )
1 2 3
1
2 3 ................ . 1
2
n
np
a a a np a np p + + + = +
Exercise62
Using Maclaurins series in remainder form, expand ( ) ln 1 x + upto 9
th
power of x and remainder
involving
10
x in the domain [0, 1]. Give an idea of the error if remainder is ignored.
Hint. Find the derivatives of ( ) ln 1 x + of orders 1, 2, 3,upto 10 at x = 0. Then as per
Maclaurins formula,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
10
2 3 9
10
10 10
ln 1 ......... , , 1
2 3 9 10!
f x x x
x x R x where R x x
+ = + + = <
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
10
10
10 10
10 10 10
9! 1
10! 10
10! 1 10 1
f
x
R x x x

= = = <
+ +
.
Exercise63
Expand the following functions in the ascending powers of x , and find the region of convergence.
a)
( )
2
1
sin x
, b) ( ) sin
x
e bx c)
x
a d) sinh x e) cosh x
f)
2
1
1 x +
g)
x
e in powers of 1 x , h)
2
1
1 x x +
Exercise64
Show that
2
1 1
1 1 1
2 2 8
x
x x x + > + > + , Hint. expand ( )
1
2
1 x + as
( )
2
1
1
2
x R x + + and
( )
2
3
1 1 1
1 1
2 2 2
x x R x
| |
+ + +
|
\ .
and compare.
Exercise65
Verify the following identities.
a)
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 1 1
ln 1 1 1 .............
2 3
x x x x = +
Page 245 / 681
Page 35
b)
2 4
1 5
sec 1 .....................
2 24
x x x = + +
c)
3
2
sin ................
3
x
x
e x x x = + + +
d) ( )
2 3
1
ln 1 ................
2 6
x x x
x x
+
+ = +
e)
( )
2 3 4
2
2
ln 1 ................
2 3 4
x x x
x x x + = + + +
f)
( )
3
2 3
3.4 3.4.5
1 1 3 ..............
1.2 1.2.3
x x x x
= + + +
Hint, Differentiate ( )
1
2 3
1 1 ........ x x x x
= + + + twice.
Exercise66
A power series of finite number of terms may represent
x
e approximately. Estimate how many terms
of the power series may be retained for
x
e so that it is accurate to three decimal places in the
interval [ 1, 1].
Hint. Calculate ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 , ' 0 , " 0 ........ f f f etc. all are 1 . now consider the remainder ( )
n
R x in
Maclaurins series
( )
3
0.001
! ! !
n
x
n
x e
R x e
n n n
u
= < < <
as per requirement of the problem , where
1, 1 x and u < < . Now
3
0.001
! n
< gives n > 7.
Exercise67
Show that :
a) ( )
1
2 3
1 11 7
1 1 .........
2 24 16
x
x e x x x
| |
+ = +
|
\ .
b)
3 5
2
1 1 3
ln 1 ........
2 3 2 4 5
x x
x x x
(
+ + = +

c)
2 4 6
2 16
lnsec ..........
2! 4! 6!
x x x
x = + + + d)
2 3
lnsin .....................
2 6
x x
x x = +
e) ( )
2
sin sin cos
2!
h
h h o o o + < hint. ( )
2
sin sin cos sin , 1
2!
h
h h o o o + = + <
Exercise68
Show that
3
tan 0
3 2
x
x x for x
t
+ < s s
Exercise69
Calculate approximately
a)
0
cos 5 up to 5 places of decimal.
Hint. Use ( ) ( )
2 4 2
cos 1 ..... 1
2! 4! 2 !
n
n
n
x x x
x R x
n
= + + . Now
0
cos5 cos
36
t
= ,
2
36
0.003808
2!
t | |
|
\ .
=
Page 246 / 681
Page 36
( )
2
4 2
6 1 36 36
2.4 10
4! 6 2!
t t
| |
| | | |
|
| |
\ . \ .
|
= =
|
|
\ .
. So
( ) ( )
4
6
4
4
cos
2.4 10
4! 4!
x x
R x x
u
= < <
So
0
cos 5 cos 1 0.00381 0.99619
36
t
= ~ =
b)
0
sin 20 upto 5 places of decimal
Exercise70
Find the range in which the approximate expansion
2 4
cos 1
2! 4!
x x
x = + would have an error less than
0.00005.
Hint.
( )
6
6
6
cos
0.00005 0.575
6! 6!
x x
R x x x
u
= < s s
Exercise71
Expand the functions and show that
a)
2 3
1 1 1
1 ...........
1 2 12 720
x
x
x x x
e
= +
b)
2 3
tan
1 .............
2 6
x
x x
e x = + +
c)
2 3
sin
1 .............
2 8
x
x x
e x = + +
d)
( )
2 4
5
sin 1 ........
2 24
x
x x
e x = +
Hint. Use the known series
2 3
1 ..........
2! 3!
x
x x
e x = + + + , so that , let 1
x
e y =
So
3 5
2 3 2 3
3 5 2 3
2 4
..... .....
2! 3! 2! 3!
sin ...... .......... ...........
3! 5! 2! 3! 3! 5!
5
..............................
2 24
x x x x
x x
y y x x
y y x
x x
x
| | | |
+ + + +
| |
| |
\ . \ .
= + = + + +
|
\ .
= +
e)
( )
2 2 3 5
1 1 1
1 cos ln 1 ..........
2 3 5
x x x x x x x + =
exercise72
Expand
lnsin x
in ascending powers of
3 x
Hint. ( ) ( )
lnsin lnsin 3 3 x x = +
Exercise73
Find the limits of the following by expanding the functions, or applying LHopitals rule or otherwise,
combining the methods and show that:
Page 247 / 681
Page 37
a)
cos
0
lim 3
sin
x x x
x
e e
x x
b)
sin
0
lim 1
sin
x x x
x
e e
x x
c)
2
0
2
lim
x x
x
e e
x
+
d)
2
4
0
1 1 cos
lim
tan
x
x x
x
+
e)
3
0
sin 1
lim
6
x
x x
x
= f)
( )
sin
3
0
1
lim
x x
x
e x x
x
+
g)
2
2
4
0
cos
lim
x
x
x e
x
h)
3
2
0
1 3 1 2
lim
x
x x
x
+ +
Exercise74
Show that
( )
2
ln 1 0
2
x
x x x if x > + > >
Hint. Use Maclaurins formula
( )
( )
2
2
ln 1
2 1
x
x x
+ =
+
and
( )
( )
2 3
2
ln 1
2
3 1
x x
x x
q
+ = +
+
for 2nd and
3rd term approximation.
Exercise75
Show that
( ) ( )
0
ln 5 ln 5 2
lim
5
x
x x
x
+
= . Hint expand the functions.
Exercise76
The polynomial
1
0 1 1
......................... 0
n n
n
a x a x a
+ + + = has a positive root. Show that

( )
1 2
0 1 1
1 ......................... 0
n n
n
na x n a x a

+ + + = has also a positive root less than

0
x
Exercise77
Find
( )
2
0
tan2 2 tan
lim
1 cos2
x
x x x x
x
.
Ans. : Expanding the functions,
( )
( )
2 3 5 5 3 5
2 2
2 0 0
2 2
2 2 ... 2 2 ...
3 5 3 5 tan2 2 tan
lim lim
1 cos2
2sin
x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x
x

| | | |
+ + + + + +
| |
\ . \ .
=
4 6 2
4
4 4
3 5 2 4 0 0
4
8 2 64 4 8 2 64 4
8 2
.... ....
1
3 3 15 15 3 3 15 15
3 3
lim lim
4 2
4 ...... 4 1 ......
3 5 3 5
x x
x x x
x
x x x x
x x

| | | | | | | |
+ + + +
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .
= = = =
| | | |
+ +
| |
\ . \ .
Exercise78
If
( )
2 3
2 3 4
0
sin 2
lim
2 ln 1 2
x
a x bx cx x
x x x x

+ +
is finite, find a,b, c, .
Page 248 / 681
Page 38
Hint :
( )
( )
3 5
2 3
2 3
2 3 4 2 3
0 0
2 3 4
5
2 3
0
5 6
... 2
3! 5! sin 2
lim lim
2 ln 1 2
2 .... 2
2 3
2 ....
3! 5!
lim
2 1
.....
3 2
x x
x
x x
a x bx cx x
a x bx cx x
x x x x x x
x x x x
a x
a b x cx x a
x x

| |
+
|

\ .
=
+ + | |
+ +
|
\ .
| |
+ +
|
\ .
=
+
.
If this is finite, then, taking
5
x common in the denominator, we have,
0, 0, 2 ,
3!
a
a b c = = + i.e., 12, 0 a b c = = = .
Exercise79
Show that
( )
0
lim cos 1
x
x
ecx
=
.Ans. Let
( )
0
lim cos
x
x
ecx K
=
,
then
( ) ( )
( )
0 0 0
2
0 0
2
cos
limln cos ln lim ln cos ln limln ln
1
1 cos cot
lim ln lim 0 ln 1
1
cos tan
x
x x x
x x
ecx
ecx K x ecx K K
x
ecx x x
K K K
ecx x
x

= = =
= = = =
Exercise80
Show that
( )
0
lim sin 1
x
x
x
=
.Ans. If
( )
0
lim sin
x
x
x K
=
,
then
( ) ( )
( )
2
0 0 0 0 0
2
1
cos
ln sin
sin
ln limln sin lim ln sin lim lim lim 0 1
1 1
tan
x
x x x x x
x
x x
x
K x x x K
x
x x

= = = = = = =
Exercise81
Find the derivative of the polynomial ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1 2 3 f x x x x x = + and show that it has three
real roots.
Ex82: Given that
( )
0
lim 1
x
f x
x
= and
( )
( ) ( )
3
0
1 cos sin
lim 1
x
x a x b x
f x
+
= , find a and b.
Page 249 / 681
Page 39
Ans.
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 4 6 3 5
3 3
0 0
3
1 1 ... .......
2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 1 cos sin
lim 1 lim
x x
x x x x x
x a b x
x a x b x
f x f x
x
x

| | | | | |
+ + + +
| | |
+
\ . \ . \ .
=
| |
|
\ .
using
( )
0
lim 1
x
f x
x
=
2 2
2
0
1 9
lim 1
2! 3! 4! 5!
x
a b a b b
x higher powers of x
x
| + | | | | | | |
= + + + + =
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .
( Given)
For the limit to exist , we must have 1 0 a b + = and 1
2! 3!
a b
+ = , comparing coefficients in LHS and
RHS.
Solving the equations, we get,
5 3
,
2 2
a b = = .
Exercise83
If ( ) ( ) f x and F x are two continuous functions equal to each other at all rational points, show
that they are equal to each other at all points.
Hint. between any two rational numbers there is an irrational number and vice versa.
Exercise84
If ( ) ( ) f x and F x are two continuous functions whose derivatives are equal to each other at all
rational points, show that they are equal to each other at all points.
Thought for you
A transcendental function such as cos x , sin x etc. is an infinite converging power series, as
visualized through Taylors series or from lessons of Trigonometry. Can a polynomial i.e., a finite
power series approximate it ? In other words can a given transcendental function and a polynomial
of degree n , agree at a number of points. The answer seems to be yes. Not only an yes, the
polynomial so found shall be unique, for a particular n; and the process is called interpolation.
Page 250 / 681
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES ANDVECTORS
Page 1
CHAPTER15: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
1: Coordinates of a point.
Rene Des Cartes , an ailing boy, developed Coordinate Geometry while lying confined to bed
and watching a spider moving about its cobweb to catch its trapped prey. Although , according to
some, Fermat had proved many results of Coordinate Geometry earlier , the time was that of a great
social turbulence known as the renaissance period in the History of France or the French revolution
and Des Cartes came to be known as the inventor of Coordinate Geometry. However, details of
History is not our point and we should have enough respect for either of them.
In the plane of the paper we fix a point for reference O, called the origin of coordinates and
two intersecting straight lines XOX and YOY intersecting at O at right angles. Such a system of
reference is called a rectangular
Cartesian system of coordinates. If a particular point P in this plane

is reached by going through a distance a from the origin towards X-direction (towards the right) from
the origin O and then going through a distance b in Y-direction (upwards from there), then the
coordinates of the point P with reference to the set axes and origin are denoted by the ordered pair
(a, b) and b are called x-coordinate (called the abscissa) and y-coordinate (called the ordinate) of
the point P. The point P is written as P(a, b).The point is unique if and b are given numbers. and b are
lengths of perpendiculars from the point on the x-axis and y-axis respectively.
2: Coordinate Geometry in three dimensions:
A point in three dimensional space can be represented by an ordered triplet (a, b, c) where a,
b and c are lengths of perpendiculars from the point on the yz plane, xz plane and xy plane

If the angle between them is not a right angle, the system is called oblique Cartesian coordinate system. Majority of results of rectangular
system also hold good in oblique coordinate system with suitable modifications.
Y
Q(c, d)
T
Y
Fig. 1.4.1a:rectangular coordinates
X
P(a, b)
O R S
X
Page 251 / 681
Page 2
respectively. The point can be reached by proceeding through a distance a (= OR) from the origin O
of reference system along the rectangular Cartesian coordinate x-axis in the direction of X, then
through a distance b (= RQ) in the direction of Y, parallel to Y-axis and then through a distance c (=
QP) in direction of Z parallel to Z axis where the three axes perpendicular to each other meeting at O.
The convention is that the axes are mutually perpendicular in the sense that, if fingers of right hand
point straight in the direction of X, then turned towards the direction of Y making a fist, then the thumb
pointing upwards from the fist should be in the direction of Z.
In contrast with two dimensional Coordinate Geometry, if perpendiculars are dropped from the point
on the axes of X, Y an Z their lengths are not the lengths of the coordinates ! (verify from the figure
1.5a that PT, the perpendicular from the point on z-axis = OQ = \(OR
2
+RQ
2
) = \(x
2
+y
2
) = z). Actually,
the perpendicular from the point on xy-plane, is the z-coordinate if this plane passes through the
origin. Similar statement may be made for x and y coordinates.
But the distance of the point from the origin OP = \(PQ
2
+OQ
2
) = \(PQ
2
+OR
2
+RQ
2
)
= \(x
2
+y
2
+z
2
), similar formula as in two dimensions.
3: Distance between two points: In two dimensions
In the figure above, in a typical rectangular Cartesian coordinate system two points P(a, b)
and Q(c, d) are shown joined to each other and to the Origin O.
a = OS, b = PS, c = OR , d = QR = TS. The moduli (plural of modulus) of P and Q are
OP = \( a
2
+b
2
), OQ = \( c
2
+d
2
),
the distance PQ =(( a c)
2
+(b d)
2
).
4: Distance between two points: In three dimensions:
Let P(x
1,
y
1
, z
1
) and Q(x
2,
y
2
, z
2
) are any two points with coordinates (x
1,
y
1
, z
1
) and
(x
2,
y
2
, z
2
) respectively as in fig. Fig.1.5b . Drop perpendiculars PT and QS on the
xy-plane and let PR be the perpendicular on QS. Drop perpendiculars TU and SV on the x-axis and
let UW be the perpendicular on SV.
We have RS =PT = z
1,
QR = QS SR = QS PT = z
2
z
1
and PR = TS
= \{(x
2
x
1
)
2
+(y
2
y
1
)
2
} as in two dimensions.
So PQ
2
= PR
2
+ RQ
2
= TS
2
+RQ
2
= [\{(x
2
x
1
)
2
+(y
2
y
1
)
2
}]
2
+ (z
2
z
1
)
2
Or , (x
2
x
1
)
2
+(y
2
y
1
)
2
+ (z
2
z
1
)
2
So the distance = {(x
2
x
1
)
2
+(y
2
y
1
)
2
+ (z
2
z
1
)
2
}.
Page 252 / 681
Page 3
5: Polar Coordinates :
In the same figure, instead of the X and Y axes of coordinates, if we keep the fixed point O
(called the pole) and the fixed line OX, called the initial line, we can reach the points P by advancing
through a distance r from O in X direction, and then turning through an angle u anticlockwise = angle
XOP. Thus the point P is uniquely determined here also with polar coordinates, (r , u) , the system of
coordinates being called polar coordinate system. In this system the line OX is called the initial line
and the angle is called the vectorial angle.
If (x , y) be the coordinates of some point in rectangular system and (r , u) be the coordinates
of the same point in polar system, we can easily change the system of coordinates from one to the
other easily.
You never need cramming the equations in the study of Calculus, nor the process which
generated it. It is just needed to understand that a curve is the locus or path of a point changing
according to a given equation and is completely described by the equation involving the coordinates x
and y, which is arrived by applying the criteria describing the curve..
6: Change of Coordinates from Cartesian to polar or vice versa:
There is nothing holy about Cartesian coordinates or polar coordinates or any particular system of
coordinates in particular. One can easily note the relations
r = \(x
2
+ y
2
) and tanu = y / x
or u = tan
-1
(y / x)
to replace (x, y) with (r,u) . Or the relations
x = r cos u, and y = r sin u as would be evident from the Fig.(1.4.2).
Y
Q(c, d)
T
Y
Fig. 1.4.1a:rectangular & polar coordinates
X
P(a, b)
O R S
X
Page 253 / 681

Page 4
Thus (r,u) can be replaced by (x, y)
(For any point P(x, y), x =OQ = r cos u, and y = PQ = r sin u where OP = r and angle POQ = u and
as such the above relations are evident .)
7: Distance between two points in polar coordinates:
Suppose the two points are ( )
1 1
, P x y and ( )
2 2
, Q x y respectively. By changing to polar coordinates,
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
cos , sin , cos , sin x r y r x r y r u u u u = = = = . Then,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2
2 1 1 2
2 2
2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2
cos cos sin sin
PQ x x y y
r r r r u u u u
= +
= +
On simplification this gives, ( )
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 2 1
2 cos PQ r r r r u u = +
Direct application of cosine formula from trigonometry also could have given this result. Join P, Q to
the origin O and apply cosine formula to OPQ to get PQ.
Example 1:
To understand how equations of curves are derived, consider the locus (path) of a point always at
same distances from two given points.
P
Fig.(1.4.2)
O
Q
X
Y
Page 254 / 681
Page 5
Denoting the point by P(x, y) which is equidistant from both fixed points A(a, b) and B(c ,d) we have
the distances of P from A and B ,
\(( x a)
2
+(y b)
2
), and \(( x c)
2
+(y d)
2
) respectively
which should be equal to each other as desired.
Hence, \(( x a)
2
+(y b)
2
) = \(( x c)
2
+(y d)
2
) , which, on simplification shall give us the desired
equation of the locus of the point equidistant from A and B.
2x(a c) + 2y(b d) = a
2
+ b
2
c
2
d
2
.Or,
2x(a c) + 2y(b d) = (a + c)(a - c) + (b + d)(b - d) .
Note the symmetry of expressions in both sides and correspondence of 2x to a + c and that of 2y to
b + d. Any one can see that this is a straight line bisecting the segment AB.
Example 2:
To find the locus of a moving point and equation to the corresponding curve, when the moving point
is at a fixed distance r from a fixed point (h, k). The distance between the moving point (x, y) and the
fixed point is ( ) ( ) r k y h x = +
2 2
or ( ) ( )
2 2 2
r k y h x = + The locus is a circle at (h, k) as we
understand and this is its equation. Any one can see that this is a circle with radius r and having its
centre at (h, k).
Example 3:
Consider two fixed points (a, b) and (h, k). To find the locus of a point whose distances from these
two points is always in a given ratio, /1. If the coordinates of the point be denoted by (x, y), we have,
\(( x a)
2
+(y b)
2
) = \(( x h)
2
+(y k)
2
)
B(c, d)
S
Y
Fig. (1.4.1b),deriving equation of a curve
P(x, y)
A(a, b)
X X
O
S
Y
Page 255 / 681
Page 6
or, ( x a)
2
+(y b)
2
=
2
(( x h)
2
+(y k)
2
) =
2
( x h)
2
+
2
(y k)
2
or, (1 +
2
)x
2
+ (1 +
2
)y
2
+ 2(
2
h a)x + 2(
2
k b)y + (a
2
+ b
2

2
h
2

2
k
2
) = 0
is the required equation which would be seen to be a circle later on.
8: Vector Algebra : Numbers were basically used for counting. Then we derived another major
utility of numbers measurement of quantities. In this process we had to define units of measurement
for all quantities we wanted to measure. In Physics, we defined only three fundamental units . They
are, units of length, mass and time in metric system (or length, weight and time in British system)
and expressed other units as multiplication or division of these fundamental units, although each
different unit has a different name. e.g., force has dimensions (mass) x ( length)x(time)
-2
and so on.
Thus the measurable quantities are expressed with a number and a unit combined.
Mathematics designs concepts and tools for different purposes, for Physicists, Economists and all
others. Some quantities in Physics required a direction to be mentioned along with a number and a
unit to express certain quantities. These quantities are called vectors. For example, force is one
such quantity , because, force in one direction is not equal to another force of equal magnitude
(number and unit) in another direction, as the two would have different effects when applied on a
body. Displacement is on such quantity. If one starts from a point A and straight moves up to another
point B, the line segment in that direction is displacement from A to B. If one proceeds the same
distance even, in another direction, one does not reach at point B. So displacement in one direction is
not same as an equal distance in another direction .
Explanation
Suppose you have to fly down from New Delhi to Chennai to attend a meeting at 2.00 p.m. Direct
morning flight is available at 7.00 a.m. and it takes 4 hours. But it is too early at Delhi to rise and
catch a flight at 7.00 a.m. Rather you decide to take a 2 hours flight to Kolkata at 8.30 a.m. and go
for the connecting flight from Kolkata to Chennai at 11.00 a.m. and reach Chennai by 1.00 p.m. , still
well in time for the meeting. This you have decided because
1) You were a late riser
2) You do not care for money and time
3) You had nothing to do from 11. a.m. to 2 p.m. at Chennai
4) The direct flight was cancelled
5) Combination of some of the causes above
6) For none on the above causes
Whatever may be the cause, you have reached Chennai in time and that has served your purpose.
You may take the decision out of compulsion or merely by choice, the purpose is served, i.e.
displacement from New Delhi to Chennai has been achieved. The two displacements , New Delhi
to Kolkata and from Kolkata to Chennai together is equivalent to displacement from New Delhi to
Chennai .And you dont care for the distance travelled extra. his is the story of vector quantities.
Page 256 / 681
Page 7
As another example, consider you reach your school when you travel straight miles in North-East
direction. Would you reach your school if you travel the same miles in any other direction, say in
the direction of East ? Evidently no. so the two displacements are different.
Boldface type letters like a, b, A , B (ref. fig. 1.9a, 1.9b)or arrow superscripted letters such as

B A b a , , , etc, or arrow headed line segments such as . , , etc CD AB

(ref. fig. 1.9c,1.9d etc) are used in this
book to indicate vector quantities at relevant places. Plane letters such as a, b, A, B etc. or Italics like
a, b, A, B etc. are used to denote magnitude of the vectors a, b, A, B etc. respectively. If PQ or PQ is
a line segment,

PQ denotes the vector and PQ denotes its magnitude. Symbols like a , b
etc. are
used for vectors of unit magnitude, called unit vectors in different directions. Bold faced letters could
not be handwritten, so in writing we use arrow headed letters or segments for vectors.
If an unit vector a
is in the direction of the vector
a
, the unit vector has magnitude 1 and the vector

a
has magnitude a. So
a aa
= , or
a
a
a
=
To know what is the nature of vector quantities and for what purpose they were designed
consider the following. Suppose a body of weight F is raised from a lower level to a higher level see
figure below.
We have to lift the body by applying a force equal and opposite to its weight in the upward direction
.We require to calculate the work done on the body while lifting if from the point the point O to the
point N through the path ON. If we lift the body straight from the point O to the point N through the
path ON, we have to multiply F with only the vertical part of the distance moved ON, which is the
difference of heights between the initial level and final level. For , this is the distance through which
A
B
Polygon method of addition : R=A+B+C; R is called
resultant of A, B, and C (From the tail of the first to
the head of the last when drawn from head to tail
manner). Then A, B, and C are called components of
R
P = Px+ Py
Px = P cosu, Py = P sinu,
x-component and y-components of P
u
C R
P
Px
Py
Px
P Py
O
L
M
N
M
L
O
N
Page 257 / 681
Page 8
the point of application of force has moved in the vertical direction, i.e., in the direction of the force.
The point of application of the force, i.e., the body has also simultaneously moved through the
distance NN while moving through the distance ON so that it has reached the point N. But no work is
done in moving though the distance NN, as work is done only when the point of application of the
force moves a distance in the direction of force. Now, if we suppose that the body, instead of
moving direct through the distance ON, has moved to the point N through three stages, first, from O
to L, then from L to M and finally from M to N. To calculate the work done, we have to multiply force F
with the vertical parts of the distances moved, namely, OL, LM and MN in turn and add them up.
They evidently add up to ON , exactly as in the previous case, and calculation of work is same in
both the cases, as we expected. Calculation of work done by moving a body between two points does
not depend upon the path through the body is moved. Now the point to ponder is, what symbols
should we adopt and what rules we have to design in order that we may add them so that their
vertical and horizontal parts are added up simultaneously (we are discarding the horizontal parts
here, that is a different thing) and what sort of multiplication process we have to design so that only
vertical parts of the distances moved are multiplied to the force and added up together and horizontal
parts are discarded. The answer is cutely provided by the concept of vectors, their addition and dot(.)
product perfectly fit for these requirements as to be seen in the lines below. We note that the sum of
the distances OL, LM and MN is equivalent to the distance ON for our purpose (of calculating the
work done) even if they are not equal arithmetically.
X O
Y
Q
P
R
X O
Y
Q
P
R

+ = = + PR OP OR OQ OP
Parallelogram method of addition.
OR
2
= OP
2
+ OQ
2
+ 2OP.OQ cos (|- o)
tan | =(OPsino+OQsin|)/(OPcoso+OQcos|)
from tail of 1st, OP to head of the last,PR (=OQ)

= QP OQ OP
Parallelogram method of subtraction.
OR
2
= OP
2
+ OQ
2
- 2OP.OQ cos (|- o)
tan| =(OPsino-OQsin|)/(OPcoso-OQcos|)
from head of 2nd,OQ to head of 1st ,OP
Page 258 / 681
Page 9
9: Addition , subtraction, and resolution of vectors: polygon method
As in figure above, if one moves from the point O to point L, from L to M and M to N
successively, one undergoes displacements A, B and C in succession. This is , in effect, same as if
one has direct reached the point N from O undergoing straight through displacement R. Here only
reaching the point N is concerned, and time, distance, cost or labour do not matter. This
consideration gives us the cue to vector addition. If two or more vectors are drawn successively in
tail-to-head order, the resultant would be represented by joining the tail of the first vector to the
head of the last, completing the vector polygon. This is in the same way as we add two real
numbers 7 and 2. (mark off a length of 7 units from origin of the real line, then proceed two units
further and finally measure the whole length from the origin (from the tail of the first segment) to the
farthest point (head of the last segment). Here R is called the resultant of A, B and C while A, B and
C are called the components of R. Similarly, if one subtracts 2 from 7, one marks off 7 units from
the origin, then marks off two units again from the origin and then measures length from this point to
the end of 7 units marked off earlier.. Same is the case for subtraction of vectors, ref. fig. above; the
difference of vectors O P
and
O Q
is the vector
Q P
from Q to P, from the head of the second to

the head of the first. Otherwise, to subtract,
O Q
from
O P
we can add the negative of

O Q
toO P
,
as in fig. where
P R O Q

=
. This is just like proceeding 7 units from the origin, then returning two
units backwards and measuring how far one is now from the origin, as in the case of subtracting 2
from 7.While adding or subtracting vectors, it must be remembered that they must be of
similar types; i.e., a displacement may be added to a displacement of the same body, a force may
be added to another force acting on the same body. There is no point in adding a displacement of
one body to that of another body or a force acting on one body to that acting on another body or
adding a displacement to a force.
Q
P
X O
Y
Q
P
o
|
R
O

= QP OQ OP
head of 2nd to head of 1st.

= + =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = OR PR OP OQ OP OQ OP
Page 259 / 681
Page 10
In short you can say AB BC CD DE AE + + + =

even without making any figure and in the
same way AB AC CB =

with your eyes closed. Just remember and verify drawing a figure that the
process obeys the polygon method of addition of vectors.
10: The Parallelogram law
With a view to further clarify vector addition let us see what is called parallelogram law of addition.
(see fig.) above. The vectors OP
and OQ
are drawn from a common origin O , the origin of a two

dimensional rectangular coordinate system ( Suppose they are forces on a boat going downstream in
a river, exerted through ropes by two persons, L and M, on each bank of the river both running
upstream, balancing the force of water on the boat OS
downstreem. Since the two forces are acting

upon the same point, the boat, we can draw a vector OP
and another PR OQ =

and OR
is the
resultant as per polygon law or triangle law. But we can complete the rectangle OPRQ so that OR is
the diagonal of this parallelogram. Thus the vector sum of OP
and OQ
, can be represented by OR
,
the diagonal of the parallelogram included between the two vectors, when they are drawn from a
common origin instead of head to tail manner. This is parallelogram law of addition of two vectors. For
more than two vectors , e.g. forces acting on the same mass point, the process may be repeated , but
it is cumbersome. A powerful method is the component method explained below.
A pitfall
Electric current is a quantity which has magnitude and direction also, as a current has the direction of
the conducting wire carrying it. But suppose three conducting wires , carrying different currents in
different directions are joined at a point from where a single output wire emerges. The resulting
current would be only algebraic sum of the component currents irrespective of whatever directions the
M
L
O
R
P
Q
S
Page 260 / 681
Page 11
wires have. Hence the quantities having magnitude and direction not obeying the polygon law
of vector addition are not vectors !
Exercise1
Find unit vectors in the directions of the vectors , 2 3 i j k i j k + + + +

and the sum of them2 3 4 i j k + +

.
Also the sum of the unit vectors in the directions , 2 3 i j k i j k + + + +

. Ans.
3
i j k + +

,
2 3
14
i j k + +

,
2 3 4
29
i j k + +

.
Sum of the 1
st
two unit vectors is
2 3
3 14
i j k i j k + + + +
+

. So the sum of unit vectors may not be the
unit vector of the sum of two vectors.
11: Vector difference
What about the other diagonal in the figure i.e. the vector QP
? Note that as per the triangle

law of vector addition OQ QP OP QP OP OQ + = =

. So it happens that the other diagonal,
joining the head of the second vector to the first is the vector difference between the two
vectors. This also can be visualized in yet another manner, the vector difference between
OP and OQ

is nothing but the addition of OP and OQ

, i.e. OP and QO

, as expected. To
give an example of vector difference imagine a boy running in the rain straight on the ground and the
rain drops just fall vertically downwards . But the boy sees or feels the direction of rain at a slanted
angle towards him and the front side is drenched more than the backside. What he sees of feels is
the relative velocity of the rain deducting his own velocity from that of the rain, for, what we
observe is relative velocity only, i.e., treating our own velocity as 0, i.e. deducting our own velocity
from what we observe. This is just the case similar to light post and trees moving backwards when
Page 261 / 681
Page 12
traveling in a train , or observing difference of velocities of the trains when both are running in
opposite directions and crossing each other. See the figure.
Before giving the component method of vector addition, it may be observed that the vector
addition is associative, i.e. A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C=A+B+C and commutative i.e.
A+B=OP PQ OQ + =

, B+A = OR RQ OQ + =

. It would be clear from the figures below.
Zero vector
A zero vector 0 is one of magnitude 0 and having any chosen direction. ( so that the difference of any
two equal vectors in any direction is a zero vector )
12: Rectangular Components and Addition and subtraction of vectors.
A
B
C
A+B
B+C
A+B+C
Associativity of vector addition
A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C=A+B+C
A
B
A
B
A+B
Commutativity of vector addition A+B=
OP PQ OQ + =

, B+A =
OR RQ OQ + =

Again,
P
Q R
O
A-B
P
O
Q
Rains strike at an angle
PQ OQ OP =

Page 262 / 681
Page 13
Any vector P as in fig. 1.9b can be thought of as resultant of its rectangular components (they add
up to give rise to original) P
x
and P
y,
the projections of

P along a chosen set of x-axis and y-axis , as,
the vector P joins the tail of P
x
to the head of P
y.
If u be the angle of inclination of P with x-axis, magnitudes of P
x
and P
y
are given by,
P
x
= P cosu , P
y
= P sinu ., P
x
/ P
y
= tanu .
X O
Y
P Q
S
(Left):Component method of addition (or

subtraction) of vectors .
P + Q + S = R,
Px = P cos o, Py = P sin o,
Qx = Q cos|, Qy = Q sin | ,
Sx = S cos , Sy = S sin .
R
Resolution into components of vectors
P
X O
Y
Q
P
R

= QP OQ OP

= + =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = OR PR OP OQ OP OQ OP
O
Q
O
X
Y
Z
P
(
A
B
C
B
Px
Py
Pz
Vector

x y z x y z
OP P P i P j P k P P P

= = + + = + +
Page 263 / 681

Page 14
In three dimensions, P = P
x
+ P
y
+ P
z
If i = i
, j =
j and k =
k be unit vectors in x-direction ,y-direction and z-direction respectively, we have,

x y z
OP P i P j P k = + + P =
.
Length or magnitude of the vector P is OP is given by
2 2 2
x y z
OP P P P = + +
Example4
The velocity of a boat on a very wide river is
2 3 i j +
relative to the stream and the velocity of the

stream is
3 2 i j
relative to the ground. What is the ground velocity of the boat ?

Ans.
5i j +
.
Exercise2
A cyclist races towards East at a speed of 10 kmph and observes the wind blowing from North to
South. On doubling his speed, he observes that the wind direction has changed and it is blowing
from North East. Find the ground speed of the wind.
Let the velocity of the cyclist be 10i
and the velocity of the wind be
ai b j +
, where i
and
j are unit
vectors due to East and due to North respectively.
The relative velocity of the wind is

10 ai b j i j + =

as it appears to flow from North to South.
Equating the coefficients of i
from both sides, 10 0 a = i.e. 10 a = .

An unit vector in the direction from NE to SW is
( ) ( )

2 2
2 2
1 1
i j i j
=
+

.
On doubling the speed the relative velocity of the wind becomes,

10 20
2 2
i j
i b j i
| |
+ =
|
|
\ .

.
Equating the coefficients of i
from both sides 10 2 = , so that 10 b = .

Page 264 / 681
Page 15
The velocity of the wind is
10 10 i j
, which is 10 2 units from NW (verify).

Exercise3
A airplane is travellint towards South at a ground speed of 15km per minute and experiences the wind
velocity appearing to come from the West. Changing the ground speed of the airplane to 25 km per
minute the pilot notes that the direction of the wind changes from West to South West. What is really
its direction ?
Ans: at an angle
1
3
tan
2
North of West.
13:
Components In two dimensions
Rectangular components may be taken advantage of, in case of addition of two or more vectors. We
can add two or more vectors by adding their x-components and y-components and the sums thus
arrived at, shall be x-component and y-component of their resultant. See fig.1.7g. If P,Q, and R are
drawn from a common origin, and P + Q + S = R, and o,|, respectively are their angles with chosen
x-axis,
P
x
= P cos o, P
y
= P sin o,
Q
x
= Q cos|, Q
y
= Q sin |,
S
x
= S cos , S
y
= S sin .
So R
x
= P
x
+ Q
x
+ S
x
, R
y
= P
y
+ Q
y
+ S
y
,
R
2
= R
x
2
+ R
y
2
, and tan | = (P
y
+ Q
y
+ S
y
) / (P
x
+ Q
x
+ S
x
)
If S is to be subtracted and P + Q - S = T, then no problem, simply add S instead of S.
In case of two vectors only P an Q, take the X axis and Y axis in the plane containing the two
vectors and get, for R = P + Q,
R
2
= (P cos o + Q cos |)
2
+ (P sin o + Q sin |)
2
= P
2
(cos
2
o + sin
2
o)+Q
2
(cos
2
o + sin
2
o)+2PQ(cos o cos |+sin o sin |))
R
2
= P
2
+Q
2
+2PQ Cos(-) which gives square of magnitude of resultant
and tan = (P sin + Q sin ) / (P cos + Q cos ), gives its direction.
Similarly, for S = P Q , we have,
Page 265 / 681
Page 16
S
2
= (P cos o - Q cos |)
2
+ (P sin o - Q sin |)
2
= P
2
(cos
2
o + sin
2
o)+Q
2
(cos
2
| + sin
2
|) -2PQ(cos o cos |+sin o sin |))
S
2
= P
2
+Q
2
-2PQ Cos(- ). which gives square of magnitude of difference.
and tan | = (P sin o - Q sin |) / (P cos o - Q cos |), gives its direction.
The magnitude and the direction of the resultant, or that of any vector for that matter, shall be same
whatever may be the axes, two dimensional or three dimensional in whatever direction you choose,
only the axes should be mutually perpendicular . If the axes chosen are changed, the
components are changed, but not the vectors.
For sake of simplicity, for sum and difference of two vectors P an Q, take a two dimensional
Cartesian coordinate axes , taking the direction of P as X axis. If the angle between the vectors is u
, putting 0 o = and | u = in the above formula, the magnitude of R = P + Q is
2 2
2 cos R P Q PQ u = + + , direction is given by
-1
cos
tan
sin
Q
P Q
u
u
=
+
if is the angle made by the
resultant with the first vector.
Similarly for S = P Q , the magnitude of vector difference S is given by
2 2
- 2 cos S P Q PQ u = + ,
direction is given by
-1
cos
tan
sin
Q
P Q
u
u
=
+
if is the angle made by the resultant with the first vector.
14: Explaining Position vectors, norm or magnitude of a vector and coordinates of a point.
Taking any fixed point O as the origin, we could specify the position of any other points A , B, C etc by
a, b, c etc. ( bold letters indicate vectors ) i.e. a OA =
, b OB =

, c OC =

, etc. They are called
position vectors of points A, B and C respectively. These are Clarendon symbols and the main
advantage of this convention is exhibited as AB OB OA = =

b a. We could straight write BC =
c
b, etc. Also we understand a a OA = =

etc. called magnitude of length or norm of the vector a i.e.,
OA
. Magnitude of the vector a is

2 2 2
x y z
a a a a = + + and it may be noted that , ,
x y z
a a a are
components of vector a , as well as coordinates
( )
, ,
x y z
a a a . We prefer usually writing( )
1 2 3
, , a a a
as components of a instead of
( )
, ,
x y z
a a a
.
An advantage with position vectors is , you can choose any origin O , O whatsoever, and the position
vectors of the points A, B and C change as a, b, c etc. change; but there is no difference in a b ,
b c, and c a as they represent vectors , , BA CB and AC

respectively.(verify) . The vectors a b
Page 266 / 681
Page 17
, b c, and c a are displacement vectors , , BA CB and AC

whereas a, b, c etc. position
vectors of points A, B, C. Even without figure it can be easily written and understood that
AB BC AC + =

the vector joining the tail of the first to the head of the last in addition process and
AB AC CB =

; the vector joining the head of the second vector to the head of the first.
Just as we understand P(x, y, z) as the point P in Cartesian coordinates having coordinates (x, y, z)
we could also write
( )
P a
for the point P whose position vector is ( )

, , a x y z xi y j zk = = + +
. Also a
is usually denoted by ( )

1 2 3 1 2 3
, , a a a a a i a j a k = = + +
.
In two dimensions, we could also write ( ) P z for the point z a ib = + in complex plane ( Argand plane)
Though the position vectors of two points may be added together vectorialy, it has no physical
meaning. But the difference of position vectors of two points is the displacement vector
between the two points.
15: Direction ratios of a line segment or straight line in three dimensions.
Transformation of coordinates from rectangular Cartesian coordinates is easy in two
dimensions. In three dimensions we have many types of polar coordinates like cylindrical polar
coordinates , i.e., polar coordinates in two dimensions, r and in place of x and y and z remaining as
it is. Many more systems of coordinates are used in three dimensions e.g. spherical polar coordinates
like you have seen in a globe, the radial distance from center, longitude and latitude angles. These
and some other coordinate systems shall be discussed later on. But we need a mechanism right now
to know the x, y and z coordinates of any point at a distance r from the center, or the origin of
coordinates in terms of r.
If P is any point P(x, y, z) draw PQ parallel to z axis and , QR parallel to y-axis meeting the x
axis at P and let OP make angles o, |, and with the axes respectively.(above figure). Note that the
O
X
Y
P(x, y, z)
Q
R

Direction cosines,
cos , cos , cos l m n o | = = =
Z
Page 267 / 681
Page 18
sum of any two of these angles is not t/2 as in case of two dimensions. But we do have a simple
relation among them which would prove useful as we proceed. We say
cos , cos , cos l m n o | = = = to be the direction cosines of the vector OP
. Taking OP r =

,
i.e., OP = r, we have
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
cos cos cos cos cos cos 1 r x y z r r r o | o | = + + = + + + + = ,
cancelling r
2
from both sides. i.e.,
2 2 2
l m n 1 + + =
Thus l, m an n determine direction of a line or line segment in a three dimensional space and as such
are called direction cosines. When the direction cosines of a line are given its angles with lines
parallel to the axes through any point on it are known hence its direction with respect to the axes of
reference are known. Any line parallel to it would have the same direction cosines; so a further
data, such as a fixed point on this line is needed to be known to completely determine the line. Along
with the direction, any line has also a sense i.e., forward or backward in its direction. Direction
cosines do uniquely determine the sense of the line, for if it makes an angle u with z-axis in forward
direction it makes an angle t - u with z-axis in backward direction and cos u = - cos (t - u).
In two dimensions, the same relations as above hold. There, if o and | are angles of a
straight line with the x-axis and y-axis respectively, so cos sin | o = ; so thatcos
2
o+ cos
2
| =1 for , in
this case, | = t/2 - o.
Any three numbers proportional to direction cosines of a line also are sufficient to determine the
direction of a line . let a, b and c be any three numbers proportional to l, m and n respectively, i.e.,
k
c
n and
k
b
m
k
a
l k
n
c
m
b
l
a
= = = = = = .. , ;and
1
c b a
n m l
c b a
k
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
=
so l, m and n are known.
So any three numbers proportional to the direction cosines are called direction ratios. A further
advantage with direction ratios is that they need not be each less than 1 with their squares adding up
to 1. But we face another caution while working with direction ratios. Suppose if both b and c are 0 for
a line, we have a/l = a or l = 1, which results in the fact that the line is parallel to x-axis. When one of
them say c = 0, we have, n = 0 /k = 0 which results in the fact that the straight line is parallel to z-axis.
All of them cannot be 0 at the same time for l
2
+m
2
+n
2
= 1 .
For any two lines to be parallel, they must make same angles with lines drawn parallel to the
axes drawn through any one point on the either line. Hence they must be having same direction
cosines for being parallel. In other words their direction ratios should be proportional as each set of
them are proportional to the same set of direction cosines.
Exercise5
Find the direction cosines of a st line making equal angles with the coordinate axes
Page 268 / 681
Page 19
Ans.
2 2 2
2 2 2
, 1
1
1 1 1 3
l m n and l m n
l m n
l m n
= = + + =
+ +
= = = =
+ =
Exercise6
For any line with direction cosines ( ) , , l m n show that
2 2 2
sin sin sin 2 o o o + + = .
Ans.
2 2 2 2 2 2
sin sin sin 1 cos 1 cos 1 cos 3 1 2 o o o o | o + + = + + = = .
Exercise7
If ( ) , , l m n are direction cosines of a line equally inclined to three mutually perpendicular st lines with
direction cosines ( ) , , , 1, 2, 3
i i i
l m n i = , then show that , ,
3 3 3
i i i
l m n
l m n
| |
= = =
|
|
\ .

.
Hint : Use
2 2 2
1
i i i
l m n + + = and 0
i j i j i j
l l mm n n + + = to deduce
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
3
i i i
l m n + + =

16: Projections of segments:
In the figure, PQ, QR and RS are line segments. Drop perpendiculars from P, Q, R and S being
respectively PP,QQ, RR and SS on the x-axis and drop perpendiculars PT, QU and RV on QQ,
RR and SS respectively from P, Q, and R. PT, QU and RV are respectively equal to PQ, QR and
RS and are called projections of the segments on x-axis. If o, |, and be the angles QPT, RQU and
SRV, and the lengths of the segments PQ, QR, and RS be respectively r
1
, r
2
, and r
3.
Let the
projections PQ, QR, and RS be denoted by p
1
, p
2
, and p
3
respectively,
Page 269 / 681
Page 20
We have
1
1
cos
r
p
= etc. or, , cos , , cos , , cos
3 3 2 2 1 1
r p and r p similarly r p = = =
If the projection of PS, i.e., PS and denoted by p, we immediately see that
PS = PQ+QR+RSp = p
1
+p
2
+p
3
or, projection of segment joining initial and final points of consecutive segments on x-axis is sum of
their projections on x-axis. Similar considerations for projections on y-axis and z-axis. Had OX not
been the x-axis but any other st. line, there would not have been any change in the situation; (verify;
proceed as in the above proof from the beginning by supposing OX being any line instead of x-axis
and follow the same steps exactly).
1) So in general, if there are a number of consecutive line segments starting from a point
P and ending at a point Q , the sum of their projections on any other line is equal to the
projection of PQ on that line
2) Further , if OX be another line || to OX, it can be proved easily that the
projection of PS on OX would be equal to its projection on OX. (Extend the
perpendiculars PP and SS upto P and S respectively on OX so that PP OX and
SS OX and hence PS = PS)
3) This immediately yields the result, Projection of PQ on RS (see
fig.1.5.4b) is projection of PQ on OS where PS || RS and is equal to RS cos u, where
u is angle between PQ and PS. Angle between PQ and RS is also defined as angle
between PQ and PS, a line drawn from P || RS. (This holds even if PQ and RS are
skew, i.e., they are on different planes parallel to each other and as such do not meet
to define an angle between them. )
4) If a straight line PQ makes an angle u with another st.line RS or PT, the
latter makes an angle - u with PQ. And since cos u = cos (-u),
5) Projection of PQ on RS = Projection of RS on PQ
O
Q
R
S
X
P Q R
S
P
T
U
V

Fig.1.5.4a: Projection of PQ = sum of
projections of PQ, QR and RS
O
X
P Q R
S
P
Q
R
S
S
T
Fig.1.5.4b: Projection of PQ on RS =
PT= RS cos projections of PQ, QR
and RS
Page 270 / 681
Page 21
17: Comparison with imaginary numbers:
Coordinate geometry is comparable to vector analysis on one hand and comparable to complex
analysis on the other. To obtain the full advantage of complex analysis , let us recapitulate some
formulae.
Complex numbers were devised with a view to solving
2 2
0, 0 a b a b + = = = , a, b being real
numbers. It was done by adopting the symbol 1 i = , so that
2 2
1 a b a b ib = = = . It is
acceptance of the fact that there is a number whose square is negative. In effect, it solved all
polynomial equations in one variable.
The reader is advised to work out the following to brush up memory and remember the same.
(Assume all non-zero numbers)
1) , a ib c id a c b d + = + = =
2) , z a ib z a ib z z = + = =
Note - if
a b c
z l m n
p q r
=
where all are complex numbers,
a b c
z l m n
p q r
=
.
3) ( ) ( ) cos sin , cos sin
i i
z a ib r i re z a ib r i re
u u
u u u u

= + = + = = = =
(Polar form)
4)
2 2 2 2
, , tan
b
z a ib z a ib a b r a ib a b r
a
u = + = + = + = + = + = =
Also ( )
2
2
, z a ib a ib r z z = = + = =
5) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 2
Re Im z a b a ib a ib zz z z = + = + = = + ( (

6) ( ) 2Re , 2Im z z z z z z + = =
,
arg arg z z =
7) , 0 , z z z purely real z z z purely imaginary = + =
8)
1 1
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2
2 2
, . . , , 0
z z
z z z z z z z z if z
z z
| |
= = = =
|
\ .
Page 271 / 681
Page 22
9) if ( )
( )
( ) , u f z u f z f z = = =
10) De Moivers theorem ( derived in differentiation chapter)
( ) ( ) ( )
1
1
cos sin cos sin , cos sin
cos sin
n
n
i in n n i i
e e i i e e i
i
u u u u
u u u u u u
u u

= = + = + = = =
+
17) Distance formula Distance between the points ( )
1
A z and ( )
2
B z is given by
( ) ( )
2 2
2 1 2 1 2 1
AB z z x x y y = = + .
11) ( )
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1
2 cos z z z z z z u u = +
, so that complex numbers are added or
subtracted just as vectors.
Note that
( )
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
2Re z z z z z z z z z z z z = + = + +
12) If
1 2 1 2
z z z z + =
then
( )
2 1 2 1
cos 0
2
t
u u u u = =
, the radius vectors of
1 2
z and z
are
perpendicular to each other.
On the other hand, if
1 2 1 2
z z z z + = +
then
( )
2 1 2 1
cos 1 u u u u = =
, the radius vectors of
1 2
z and z
are parallel to each other.
16) Triangle inequalities a)
1 2 1 2
z z z z + > +
,b)
1 2 1 2
z z z z + >
c)
1 2 1 2
z z z z >
.
The same old thing sum of two sides of a triangle is greater than the third and difference of two
sides is less than the third. ( the latter is a deduction of the former, got just by subtracting a side from
both sides !)
A(x
1
,y
1
)
B(x
2
,y
2
)
C(x
1
+x
2
,y
1
+y
2
)
O
X
Y
Page 272 / 681
Page 23
Exercise8
Show that
( )
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 z z z z z z + + = +
which is Appoloneous theorem.
Exercise9
If a abd b are real numbers,show that
( )( )
2 2
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
az bz bz az a b z z + + = + +
.
18: Product of imaginary numbers:
The complex numbers are expressed in the following manner in polar form.
Let
,
i i
a ib re c id se
u
+ = + = then( )( )
i i
a ib c id re se rse
u u +
+ + = =
.
Simply multiplying by a complex number
,
i i
c id
a ib re e
s
u
+
+ = =
results in just rotating the radius
vector by its argument
, for
( ) i i i
re e re
u u +
=
Division by a non-zero complex number yields a complex number whose magnitude is division of the
magnitudes of the two numbers and its argument is difference of the two. We have
( ) i i
i
a ib re re
c id se s
u u
+
= =
+
.In ordinary form
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
a ib c id ac bd i bc ad a ib
c id c id c id c d
+ + + +
= =
+ + +
So,
1 2 1 2
z z z z =
, and
1
1
2 2
z z
z z
=
,
1 2 1 2
arg arg arg z z z z = +
,
1
1 2
2
arg arg arg
z
z z
z
| |
=
|
\ .
.
To see clearly,let
1 2
1 1 2 2
,
i i
z re z r e
u u
= =
,then
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 1 1
1 2 1 2
2 2
i i
z r
z z r r e e
z r
u u u u +
= =
19:
Work out and remember
1) If
2 2 2
1 2 1 2
z z z z = +
then
1 2 1 2
0 z z z z + =
so that
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
0 0
z z z z
z z z z
| |
+ = + =
|
\ .
1
2
z
is imaginary
z
.
Page 273 / 681
Page 24
2) If
1 1 2 2
z r z r = = =
then
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 1 1
2 2
i i
z r
e e
z r
u u u u
= = . i.e.,
1
z is obtained by giving
2
z a rotation
through an angle
( )
1 2
u u . Similarly, if
3 1 2 1
z z z z r = =
and the line segments
3 1 2 1
, z z z z are
drawn from
1
z then
3 1
z z is obtained from
2 1
z z by rotating the latter through an angle u , the angle
between
3 1 2 1
, z z z z ,i.e., if
3 1
2 1
i
z z
e
z z
u
Explanation
If a + ib and c + id are two complex numbers, their sum and difference are
(a + c) + i(b + d) and (a - c) + i(b - d). This is just the way as if two vectors P and Q having their x-
components and y-components (a, b) and (c, d) respectively and we see that the complex numbers
are just added (or subtracted) in the same way as two vectors are added; x-component
with x- component and y-component with y-component. This component analogy (real and imaginary
parts) also leads parallelogram rule as in vector addition from head of the second to the head of the
first rule of vector subtraction. The only thing specially to note is that there were many different types
of vectors such as force , displacement etc. but only same type of vectors could be added or
subtracted; there is no meaning of addition or subtraction of two vectors if they are of different types.
But complex numbers are numbers only and as such any two complex numbers can be added to or
subtracted from each other. Fig. 1.7c and 1.7d can just be reproduced by assuming the line segments
OP and OQ to be representing the complex numbers a + ib and c + id ; The sum would be
represented by OR representing the complex number (a + c) + i(b + d) ;where (a + c) and (b + d)
are its real and imaginary parts and tan| = (b + d) / (a + c) is its angle of inclination with the x-
axis.
Also they could well be represented by Points P and Q with co-ordinates P(a, b) and Q(c, d)
as in Coordinate Geometry and there is no meaning of addition or subtraction of points in Coordinate
Geometry . Mathematics has seldom invented or discovered anything .It has designed different tools
of logic and developed different frameworks for different purposes and requirements in other fields
which Mathematics supports. All the three considerations as above, Complex Numbers, Vectors and
Coordinate Geometry are abstractly the same thing in essence. But the subjects are developed
differently because they were designed for different purposes. Complex numbers were developed for
Algebra, Theory of Equations , Analysis etc. whereas Coordinate Geometry was developed for
Geometry etc. Vectors were developed for both Geometry and Physics. Still in another manner, the
points P(a, b), Q(c, d) ;or the vectors P, Q ;or the complex numbers a + ib , c + id , can be
represented by just the ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) in a way very similar to matrices (they are array
of independent numbers arranged in rows and columns behaving as a single block . Some operations
can be done on them collectively; but they are not single numbers ). (These ordered pairs could have
been thought of as one row and two column matrices. But no. Rule of products do not allow.
Page 274 / 681
Page 25
Because when two matrices are multiplied, rows of the 1
st
are multiplied into columns of the 2
nd
and
then added. Had there been a complete correspondence, it would have been great indeed. For,
vectors would have been easily replaced with matrices and there would have been no more
necessity of any diagrams!) Let us see in detail as below how complex numbers are multiplied..
For two complex numbers a + ib, and c + id, their product is
(a + ib)(c + id) = ac + aid + ibc + i
2
bd = (ac bd) + i(ad + bc) as i
2
= -1.
If a + ib = r cos o + ir sino and c + id = s cos |+is sin |,
(a + ib)(c + id) = (ac bd) + i(ad + bc)
= (rs coso cos| - rs sinosin |) + irs ( cos o sin | + sin o cos|)
= rs ( cos (o+|) + i sin (o+|)) , which is in same form as a + ib or c + id .
So it is a complex number whose modulus rs, is the product of moduli ( plural of
modulus) of the two numbers a + ib and c + id , and whose argument (the angle of inclination with the
x-axis o+| is the sum of the arguments o and | of the two numbers.
Meaning of argument
A) The triangle ABC formed by the points ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 3
, , A z B z C z is congruent to OBC where the
origin ( )
1 1
O z z , ( )
2 1
' B z z , ( )
3 1
' C z z , because
2 1 2 1
, ' 0 AB z z OB z z AB = = = ,
3 1 3 1
, ' 0 AC z z OC z z AC = = = and ( )
3 2 3 1 2 1 3 2
, ' ' BC z z B C z z z z z z BC = = = = .The
A(z1)
B(z2)
O
X
Y
B(z2 z1)
C(z3 z1)
C(z
3
)
Page 275 / 681
Page 26
angle ' ' B OC Z is given by
3 1
2 1
'
arg arg
'
z z OC
OB z z
. But ' ' B OC BAC Z = Z ; so

3 1
2 1
arg
z z
BAC
z z
Z =
.Thus ( )
3 1
2 1
'
cos sin
'
iA iA
z z OC AC AC
e e A i A
z z OB AB AB
= = = +
remember.
Note - if the points A, B anc C are collinear, 0, cos 1, sin 0 A A A Z = = = , so
3 1
2 1
z z
z z
is real
number.
Note - if AB and AC are perpendicular to each other,, , cos 0, sin 1
2
A A A
t
Z = = = , so
3 1
2 1
z z
z z
is
imaginar number.
B) Using the above, it may be shown that the angle u , of the intersection of AB and CD where
their coordinates are ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 3 4
, , , A z B z C z D z is given by
1 2
3 4
arg
z z
z z
.
Hence the two st lines are parallel if
1 2
3 4
z z
z z
is a real number and perpendicular if

1 2
3 4
z z
z z
is
imaginary.
Exercise10
Show that the equation of perpendicular bisector of AB, is
1 2
z z z z = .
20: Multiplication/ division of a vector by a scalar.:
A scalar is a quantity meaning a number and with a measuring unit only without having any
directional properties; e.g., mass, speed, density etc. Let a be acceleration of a body or change of
its velocity with time , a vector quantity, which has components a
x
, a
y
along any chosen mutually
perpendicular x-axis and y-axis. Let m be mass of the body, a scalar, and let a force F, a vector be
A(z
1
)
B(z
2
)
O
X
Y
C(z
3
)
D(z
4
)
Page 276 / 681
Page 27
acting on the body producing the acceleration a, then as per Newtons 2nd law, F = ma, an example
of product of a vector with a scalar. If F is represented by (F
x,
F
y
) and a is represented by (a
x
, a
y
), or
ma is represented by (ma
x
, ma
y
), we see that F
x
= ma
x ,
and F
y
= ma
y.
So multiplication by a scalar,
multiplies all its components by the same scalar in effect, whatever components it might have. This is
the same situation when a complex number say a + ib , multiplied by a real number say t, which
gives ta +itb , another complex number as the product. But the difference is that the complex number
a + ib can also be multiplied with t when t is a complex number, and give the same result, ta + itb,
which is also a complex number; but two vectors cannot be multiplied in the same fashion even when
they are of same type. Two special multiplications are designed for vectors ,for two different
purposes. These are described as dot product and cross product as explained below. We multiply two
complex numbers with each other easily as they are numbers only. But vectors are not only numbers,
they are quantities. A quantity has a number and a unit associated with it. This is the distinction.
Again, a vector may be multiplied by a complex number exactly as it may be multiplied with a real
number or a scalar quantity, which is of rare use.
Note that multiplication by a scalar is distributive over addition/subtraction of vectors, i.e.
( )
m a b ma nb + = +

, which is evident from the figure,
, ' , , ' , ' ' ' ' OA a OA ma AB b AB mb ma mb OA AB OB mOB OB = = = = + = + = = =

as the triangles
OAB and OAB are similar. Similarly scalar multiplication is associative and commutative i.e.
( )
( )
( )
m na mn a n ma = =

. Prove this as an exercise by drawing an appropriate figure. This gives
much freedom in working with vectors.
21: Multiplication of a vector by a vector. Dot(.) product:
In this case, two vectors are multiplied to give a product which is a scalar. Let F be the force
(vector) ,equal to the weight of a body which is pulled up against gravity(vertically upwards) through a
displacement vector s which is at an angle u with the direction of force (at an angle u with the vertical)
.Work is done on a body only when the point of application of force moves in the direction of the force
and no work is done when the point of application does not move or when it moves in a perpendicular
O A
A
B
B
( )
m a b ma nb + = +

Page 277 / 681
Page 28
to the direction of force, Since the work done on the body W (say) is force times the distance moved
along the line of force, then work done
= F . ( component of s in the direction of F) = F . (s cos u) ,where s cos u is component of s in the
direction of F; we write W = F.s = F(s cosu) = (F cos u) s = s.F = magnitude of one vector
multiplied by magnitude of the component of the other in the direction of the former vector.
Suppose a body has undergone a number of successive displacements from a point at a
lower level to arrive finally at another point at a higher level. For calculating the work done, we need
add up only vertical components of all such displacements algebraically and discard the horizontal
components. This in turn is equal to the vertical component of the total displacement vector joining
straight the stating and the end points. It would have been cumbersome had we calculated work done
at each step . Vector notation, its concepts of components and its rule of addition has enabled us to
calculate the total work done in one step (when the successive distances are vectorially added, no
matter even if their Arithmetic sum happens to be much bigger than the vector sum) . Perhaps this is
one of the important reasons for which vector analysis was designed and developed .
This work done against the direction of gravity is supposed to be stored in the body when it is
raised to higher altitude so that it can fall automatically . While falling the gravitational field does the
work automatically spending the energy stored. So the convention is that work done against the field
is positive work, thus capable of being stored, and spent afterwards. Similarly work done on a body
by a field e.g. by gravity when it falls down , or say a charge is being repelled by another charge , the
field does the work , i.e., spends the work already stored by some external agent and this work is
negative. Work done is zero when no component of force is parallel to the displacement. e.g. a body
taken round the world without any work being done on it , if only gravity is considered.
Not only work, but if any two vectors are perpendicular to each other, no one of them has a
component along the other, and hence their dot product is zero.
More generally, if F = F
x
+ F
y
+ F
z
(sum of its components in x, y, z directions) and if
s = s
x
+ s
y
+ s
z
then F.s = (F
x
. s
x
) + (F
y
. s
y
) + (F
z
. s
z
) = (F
x
.s
x
)+(F
y
.s
y
)+(F
z
.s
z
) = F s cos u
since F
x
. s
y ,
F
x
. s
z
etc are all 0 as F
x
has no component in y or z direction . In short, if i, j and k
be unit vectors in x-direction ,y-direction and z-direction respectively, we have, 1 = I . i = j . j = k . k
and 0 = I . j = I . k = j . k as cos 0 1 =
We may take products of vectors of different types; like displacement and force etc. but sum and
difference of dissimilar types of vectors has no meaning.
22: Commutative, associative and distributive properties
Page 278 / 681
Page 29
Prove the following by breaking up into components in

, , i j k
and remember.1)

( )

( )
. .
x y z x y z x x y y z z
AB A i A j A k B i B j B k A B A B A B == + + + + = + +

3)
( )
. . . C A B C A C A distributive law of scalar product + = +

as
1 = I . i = j . j = k . k and 0 = I . j = I . k = j .k
4)
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
2 . a b a b a b ab + = + = + +

If a and b

are perpendicular to each other,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 2
. . . . . a b a b a b a a a b b a b b a b a b + = + + = + + + = + = +

,as . . 0 a b b a = =

.
But
( )
a b +

is the diagonal of the right angled triangle with sides a and b

. So this is another
proof of Pythagoras theorem .
5)
( ) ( )
2 2
. a b a b a b + =

6) The cosine law or the generalized Pythagorean theorem for any triangle which is also
known as generalized Pythagorean theorem, which was used to derive magnitude of sum or
difference of two vectors can be an interesting consequence of dot product. See how it is.
If we denote
, , BC a CA b AB c = = =

, since
0 BC CA AB + + =

completing the polygon, or
0 a b c + + =

,or, a b c + =

.Squaring both sides, . . 2 . . a a bb ab c c + + =

, or
( )
2 2 2
2 cos a b ab C c t + + =
( since the angles of inclination are measured counterclockwise) .or,
2 2 2
2 cos a b ab C c + =
which is precisely the cosine law.
We can have cross product of two vectors 0 even if neither of them is a 0 vector, obviously if they are
parallel and dot product of two non-zero vectors may be 0 if they are perpendicular to each other.
2) . . A B B A commutative law of scalar product =

Page 279 / 681
Page 30
7) If a b a b + =

, then prove that they are mutually perpendicular; i.e. the diagonals of the
parallelogram with sides , a b

are equal in magnitude.
We have
( ) ( )
2 2
a b a b + =

gives ( )
2 2 2 2
2 cos 2 cos a b ab C a b ab C t + + = + + which shows
2
2
C C C C
t
t t = = = .
8) If , , a b c

are any three non-zero non-coplanar vectors, any vector p
can be expressed in
terms of them in a unique way.
First let us see that any vector q
in the plane of vectors , a b

can be expressed as a unique linear
combination of , a b

, if , a b

are not parallel to each other, since we can draw a parallelogram whose
sides are scalar multiples of , a b

say a b +

respectively and q
is the diagonal. So q a b = +

.
Now, c
is not in the plane of , a b

. So any vector p
can be expressed as a unique linear combination

of c
and q
. So we may have a unique resolution of p
as
( )
p q c a b c a b c v v o | = + = + + = + +

in a definite way.
9) The result has the following consequence if . . . 0 p a p b p c = = =

for any vector p
, when
, , a b c

are any three non-zero non-coplanar vectors, then prove that 0 p =
.
Hint. by the above result, . . . 0 0 0 0 p aa p bb p cc p + + = = + + =

.
10) If 0, , , , a b c p a b c p o | o o | o + + + = + + +

are coplanar
Another difference between product of complex numbers and vectors is that if
a ib +
is a complex
number, its modulus is given by
( ) ( )
2
a ib a ib a ib + = +
, product of the number with its conjugate;
but in case of scalar product of two vectors, but square of a vector is its product with itself.
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2

. . . . .
x y z x y z x y z x y z
p p p p i p j p k p i p j p k p i i p j j p k k p p p p = = + + + + = + + = + + =

23: Some examples of scalar and vector quantities: mechanics.
To distinguish displacement vis--vis distance take the example of a runner who has just taken a
complete round of the field of 300 m. The displacement is a clean 0 whereas the distance travelled is
a good 300 m.
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Page 31
Then velocity is time rate of change in displacement, again a vector quantity. We must distinguish it
from speed which is time rate of distance travelled. The word has accompanied from good old
childhood. It seems speed may be the magnitude of velocity. The statement sometimes true and
sometimes false. Understandably the two are same , nay, equal in magnitude if the motion has been
all through in a straight line. But take the example of running around the field, there is no
displacement, hence no average velocity, which is total displacement upon total time taken. The
average speed is however, 300m upon the real time taken.
In Physics we are more concerned with instantaneous velocity and instantaneous speed.
A freely falling body travels distances 10m, 40m, 90m, 160m, at the end of 1
st
, 2
nd
, 3
rd
, 4
th
,
seconds respectively. Certainly it does not travels in uniform or constant velocity. How do we
determine velocity at the 3.5
th
instant ? this instantaneous velocity is found by measuring the distance
travelled between the instants of 3
rd
and 4
th
seconds and dividing by 1 sec. but this is not correct. If
we take a smaller time interval of 0.05 sec. both sides of 3.5 sec and measure the distance travelled
during that small time interval, we would have better approximation. Actually we require excellent
approximations when a rocket dashes up @ 18000 miles per hour to escape the earths gravitational
field. Literally we have to take instantaneous speed
0
lim
t
s ds
v
t dt
A
= =
A
and instantaneous velocity
0
lim
t
d
t dt
A
= =
A
s s
v . Where s is the displacement, s is the distance travelled and t , the time taken.
Though both the equations are different from case to case, they are written side by side for
comparison and as we are discussing motion is a st line only, s is magnitude of s, and hence there
should be no confusion.
Magnitude of instantaneous velocity is now instantaneous speed .and there can b no difference
between the two , except that the direction of instantaneous velocity should be specified. But
magnitude of average velocity is never magnitude of average speed. For example, let a point move at
constant speed in a circle. By the time it reaches the starting point again, the average velocity is 0, for
there has been no displacement. But the average speed is same as the constant speed. Thus it is a
case where the distance travelled is a perimeter of a circle, but displacement is 0.
Acceleration (instantaneous) is time rate of velocity
0
lim
t
d
t dt
A
= =
A
v v
a . We generally meet constant
acceleration ( e.g., acceleration due to gravity g = app. 10m/s
2
within small distances from the surface
of the earth) or constant in magnitude ( uniform circular motion) so that we do not have to distinguish
instantaneous and average acceleration at the elementary level and can safely use the word
acceleration for both vector acceleration and magnitude of it.
If velocity is uniformly increasing or decreasing from v
0
to v
1
over a time interval t, we can write
Page 281 / 681
Page 32
1 0
1 0
t
t
= = +
v v
a v v a , also
1 0
1 0
v v
a v v at
t
= = + in scalar terms. Such motions are

necessarily in a st line as a is constant the direction too, must be constant) and are called uniformly
accelerated motion.
Another term we use in uniformly accelerated motion is average speed
0 1
2
v v
v
+
= or in vector terms
0 1
2
+
=
v v
v . Remember in an AP series, average term is the average of only the first and the last
term. The distance travelled is product of average speed and time , so s vt = . This is also true in
vector form since distance is magnitude of displacement in motion along a st line.
So t s = v is the corresponding vector equation.
Taking product of
0 1
2
v v
v
+
= and
1 0
v v
a
t
= we have
2 2
1 0
2 2 avt v v as = =
In vector form, we take the dot product of
0 1
2
+
=
v v
v and
1 0
t
=
v v
a and we have
2 2 t
2 2
1 0
a .v = v - v = a. s using the fact 2 2as a . s = , as s, v and a are in the same direction (
in the same st line) and ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
. . . . . v v + = + = = v v v v v v v v v v v v v v as we
have , from rule of dot product,
1 1 0 1
. . = v v v v and
2 2
0 0 0 0
. v = = v v v . The complete equation is
2 2
1 0
2 2 v v as = =
2 2
1 0
v - v = a . s . If v
1
= 0, a is negative acceleration , s gives stopping distance
of a vehicle on road which varies as square of initial velocity.
The last equation in the row is
2 0 1 0 0
0
1
2 2 2
v v v v at
s vt t t v t at
+ + +
= = = = + .in vector form
2
1
2 2 2
t
t t t t t
0 1 0 0
0
v + v v + v + a
s = v = = = v + a . Make an one stop shop for equations
for uniformly accelerated motion i.e. motion with constant acceleration
Page 282 / 681
Page 33
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
2 2
1 0
2 2
0
2 2
.................................(1 )
2 2
1 1
2 2
s vt t
v v
v
v v
a
t t
v v as
s v t at t t
+ +
= =

`

= =

= +
)
For Distance For Displacement
2 2
1 0
0
s = v
v v
v
v v
a
v - v = a. s
s = v + a
Note here that we could convert the scalar equations to vector equations immediately because the
displacement, the velocity and the acceleration are on the same st line.
Acceleration of a body does not take place without an net external Force and this is Newtons
first law, i.e. ,inertia of rest or inertia of motion. There is no change in velocity either in magnitude
or in direction without any net external force. The requirement of force to change the velocity is
because of inertia.
Then acceleration produced by applied the force is proportional to the force and inversely proportional
to mass of the body. This is Newtons 2
nd
law. In symbols,
and k km m
m m
= = =
1 F
a F a a F a a , units of length, mass and time are designed to
make 1 k = .Evidently force cannot be applied on something having no mass. This fact is used in
problems, e.g., net force on a pulley of negligible mass is 0, as F must be 0 when m = 0. So the
mass is the cause which requires an external force to change motion; the more the mass, the more is
requirement of force to produce a given acceleration. So mass is the measure of inertia.
Thus the Newtons 1
st
law gives the definition of force and the second law gives the measurement of
it. We can use
d
dt m
= =
v F
a in problems. which is also
1 0
t
=
v v
a
The force on the body may be whatever force, force of collision, gravitational, electromagnetic,
strong nuclear or weak nuclear, etc.
If two interacting bodies exert some kind of force on each other and if we consider both of them
together as one system of bodies, then there is evidently no external forces . Then the mutual forces
are only internal forces. Evidently they must balance each other so that there should be no external
force. This is Newtons 3
rd
law , two interacting bodies exert only equal and opposite forces on
each other.
1

1
There are exceptions to Newtons third law, or so called exceptions, one is in the case of mutual forces of
currents on each other, though they are equal and opposite, they are not along the same lines. No doubt the
Vector sum of the action and the reaction is 0 in this case. Another apparent case is when a door is pushed or
pulled with a force perpendicular to itself. The equal reaction is given by the hinge in the opposite direction and
the vector sum is also 0 here. Further both the forces are on the same body, i.e., the door which does not move
Page 283 / 681
Page 34
We have the law of conservation of mass of any body .i.e., mass cannot be created or destroyed.
In a chemical reaction , such as burning, the matter changes form, but total mass of the reactants is
same as that of the products. In chemical reactions, the equations are balanced, for this reason, for,
the total number of atoms of an element in the reactant, must be same as that in the final product.
Suppose two bodies of masses
1 2
m and m with velocities
1 2
u and u in
opposite directions collide and rebound with
1 2
v and v respectively. They are in contact
for a very short while and exert large forces ( equal and opposite as per Newtons third law ) on each
other. The force on the first body is
1 1
1
v u
m
t

A
and that on the second body is
2 2
2
v u
m
t
+
A
Since the two
should be equal and opposite,
( ) ( )
2 2 1 1
2 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2
v u v u
m m m v m v mu m u
t t
+ +
= + = +
A A
. The
inference is that the algebraic sum of products of masses of the bodies with their velocities is a
constant or invariant , i.e., same as before the collision and after the collision. The same thing could
be proved for the vector sum instead of algebraic sum, just considering the velocity components
separately. This led to a concept momentum p = mv, a vector quantity. This is known as law of
conservation of momentum.
The Newtons 2
nd
law could now be redesigned as
1 0 1 0
m m
m
t t

= = = =
v v p p
F a time rate of
change of momentum .or
dm d
m
dt dt
= = =
v p
F a instantaneously. Net external force 0 means
0
d
dt
=
p
p is a constant. Which is called the principle of conservation of momentum.
The concept of momentum also enables us to write the same Newtons 2
nd
law when the mass is
variable, as in Einsteins special theory of relativity. ( for, mass is bundled into it). Mass was
observed to be destroyed and converted to energy as per Einsteins formula E = mc
2
( c being
velocity of light in empty space) in nuclear chain reactions and mass was observed to be created
when cosmic rays (energy) were destroyed when they strike the Earths atmosphere ( an electron
and a positron are created). In case the law of conservation of mass broke down, in case of nuclear
reactions, for example, still we have a conservation law at a higher level law of conservation of
mass and energy in the system. For, the lost mass has appeared as energy or vice versa.
Conservation laws are concepts like invariants or identities.
We have seen the dot product of force and displacement , two vectors is work a scalar quantity and
need not repeat the discussion. One of the purposes of designing vector concept . Mechanical work is

out of its place; only it experiences a rotation. Therefore this case is not strictly taken as an exception of
Newtons law. The case of electromagnetic forces should also not be considered as exception . Rather
Newtons third law should be formulated so as to include this case; such as, the third law could have been just
stated as the vector sum of any force and its reaction is 0.
Page 284 / 681
Page 35
converted to other forms of energies like electromagnetic energy, e.g., rotating a coil inside a magnet
produces electric current, electrical energy is converted to light energy in a bulb and so on. So it is
like a currency of exchange . Energy, a scalar quantity may be termed as capacity for doing work
and may be regarded as work itself. Principle of conservation of energy is an important concept
that ruled Physics until the advent of special theory of relativity of Einstein which renewed the concept
with the concept that mass is also a form of energy.
Let us calculate kinetic energy , KE say, of a body being uniformly accelerated from rest to final
velocity v , e.g. take a freely falling body from a height H.
( )
2
1 1
2 2
KE m m mv = = = =
2
F.s a.s v - 0 , a
scalar quantity. Similarly potential energy at a height h from the ground is mg.h = mgh, positive if
raised by somebody because it would fall automatically consuming this energy. Therefore the
convention is - work done by the field is negative and that by some external agency is positive. The
principle of conservation of energy can be demonstrated by saying that at any height h, if the body
has velocity v or speed v, the total energy is
2
1
2
mv mgh + , which is a constant equal to mgH just
before falling or
2
1
2
mV where V is the velocity when it strikes the ground.
The principle of conservation of momentum give a differential equation and so also the principle of
conservation of energy. Solving these two differential equations we solve general problems in
mechanics , fluid dynamics, acoustics, etc. Solving the differential equation means getting the
equations of motion.
24: Free vectors and Localised vectors
Unless any vector is localized, i.e., not bound to a point , we assume that any vector parallel
to it and of same length is equal , at least for sake of vector addition or subtraction. Such vectors are
called free vectors. Localised vectors (bound to a point )are also no problem. See the
figure.
O P
Q
R
S
A localized vector OP
at O can be replaced by an equal vector QR
at
another localized vector QR
and a couple of 0 vector sum OP QS +

Page 285 / 681
Page 36
Suppose a vector OP
is localized at O. There is no harm adding two vectors

QR OP and QS QR = =

at any other point Q. Now we can think the vector OP
, in all its effects, is

equal to QR
and a moment due to OP and QS

, whose vector sum is 0. A zero vector is of
magnitude 0 and may be taken to be in any direction that does not matter. If the vector is a force, the
moment has a rotating effect or torque as we would discuss later on. But here at least, it may be
noted that a bound vector can be shifted to another point if a moment is also taken into account. The
moment is proportional to product of the vector and the perpendicular distance between the original
and shifted vectors as we would see later.
Do not confuse - a position vector of a point is not a localized vector, since it is different for different
origins chosen.
The following is a good example of localised vector.
196: Angular speed and angular velocity
A particle moving around a circle of radius a in constant speed
lim
0 t
ds s da d
v a a
dt t dt dt
o
o u u
e
o
= = = = = where s = a is the arc travelled during time t , and is

angular speed
d
dt
u
. Since the particle faces every direction in the plane of the circle, if we make
angular velocity a vector quantity, it cannot be represented by any vector in the plane of the circle. So
the direction of the angular velocity vector is taken perpendicular to the plane and conventionally, in
the direction of advancement of a right handed screw. Similarly if a rigid body rotates about an axis,
every point of the body moves around a circle of radius equal to its distance from the axis of rotation
and every point is moving with the same angular velocity, the direction of which is along the axis of
rotation per right hand rule. It is represented by a vector in the direction of the axis of rotation and
magnitude equal to angular speed . For rotational motion we have
0
s s r u = and speed
0
s s
v r r
t t
u
e
= = = and
0 0
v v r r
a r
t t
e e
o

= = = may always be used only if
0
s s r u = is
considered arc length travelled. For rotation around a fixed axis, we can safely use
0
,
, ....................................................(2 )
,
s s r
v r
a r
u
e
o
=
=
=
With these the equations of motion can be developed similar to the equation of linear motion from first
principles and they would be as follows.
Page 286 / 681
Page 37
A pitfall - Do not try to derive these equations from the corresponding equations for linear motion.
Derive them in the process just given above, i.e., from 1
st
principles, just as it is done for linear
motion.
0
0 1
1 0
2 2
1 0
2
0 0
,
,
2
, ................................................................( 3 )
2 ,
1
2
t
t
t t
u u e
e e
e
e e o
e e ou
u u e o
=
+
=
= +
=
= +
the vector notations are avoided as all the vectors involved , , u e o are along a st line.
Note that the similarity with the equations of unifomely accelerated motion is because, the angle
travelled, the angular velocity and the angular acceleration are all in the same direction.
25: Multiplication of a vector by a vector. Cross (X) product:
When a rigid body is being acted upon by a force with a fixed straight line inside it or outside it
but rigidly connected to it, called the axis., there is no net force on the body . Because according to
Newtons third law, the axis gives an equal and opposite reaction on the same body as it is rigidly
fixed and the vector sum of the forces is 0, as the body is not displaced due to the rigid axis. But the
two equal and opposite forces are along parallel lines and the applied force turns the body into
rotation. For example when a door is opened or closed note that a force is applied on it having a
perpendicular to the plane of the door at a distance from the hinge. More the force the easier it is to
turn the door, or more the distance of application of force from the hinge the easier it is to turn the
door. The effect is proportional to magnitude of the force and also the distance of the point of
application of the force from the hinge (axis).
When two equal and opposite forces F and - F act on a body with displacement s between them
(from F to F acting at different points on the body), the arrangement gives the body a rotational
acceleration due to
a torque or moment of force or couple L = s x F
Thus if L = s x F, - L = F x s . If F and s happen to be in the same direction, there is no rotating of s
in the direction of F and hence s x F = 0 in that case. For example, when the door is straight pulled
away from the hinge, there is no rotation and no displacement also since both applied force and the
reaction by the hinge are along one straight-line
If s has two components s cos | in a direction parallel to F and s sin |
Page 287 / 681
Page 38
in a direction perpendicular to F, then magnitude of s x F is Fs sin | . No work is done by a torque
and as such, Fs cos | does not contribute anything to it. In short, if i, j and k be unit vectors in x-
direction ,y-direction and z-direction respectively, we have,
i x j = k, j x k = i, k x i = j, j x i = -k, k x j = - I, i x k = - j, 0 = i x i =j x j =k x k
26: Moment of any vector about a point Moment of any vector about a line.
Moment of any vector F about a point O is r x F where r is the displacement vector joining
the point of application of the vector Z from O. It is a vector perpendicular to both r and F and is in the
direction of the tip of a right handed screw perpendicular to both r and F and rotated in the circle of
radius r turning towards F. It may still be better understood by right hand rule; Align the fingers of
your right hand in the direction of r and curl them in the direction of F the thumb pointing upwards.
The pointing thumb gives the direction of r x F. If the vector F represents a perpendicular force
on a swing door to open or close it ( changing its rotational speed from 0 to something) and r
represents the distance of point of application of this force from the hinge, r x F is in the direction of
the hinge, giving the door a rotation and is called torque on the door.
Moment of any vector F about a line l is component of r x F along the line l where r is the
displacement vector joining the point of application of the vector F from O, O being any point on the
line l. Thus it is ( ) . a r x F

, where a
is a unit vector along the line l. Thus the moment of a vector

along a line l is a scalar quantity.
In the figure,
( ) ( )

( )

( )

. . . rxF OQ QP F OQ F QP F r F a OQ F a QP F a = + = + = +

where
a is a unit vector in the direction of OQ
. Now

( )

. . OQ F a a F a =

,where
OQ a =
as they
are in the same direction. But
( )

. 0 a F a =
,since
a F
is perpendicular to
a , as the cross product

is perpendicular to both of the vectors

a and F
. This renders
( )

. r F QP F a =

, the component of
O
Q
P
r
Angular velocity vector
F
Page 288 / 681
Page 39
QP F

along the line OQ
, or along
a . So moment of force F
along a line l is the component of

cross product QP F

along the line , where PQ is perpendicular from the point of application
of force on the line.
27: Angular velocity vector;
Suppose a rigid body rotates anticlockwise in the direction represented by the circle in the figure
above. The angular velocity vector is represented by .If O be any point on the axis of rotation OQ
,is taken as the origin and
r
is the position vector of a point P on the rotating body, drop a
perpendicular PQ from P onto OQ. Velocity of the point P is a vector perpendicular to the plane of the
paper and its magnitude is given by PQ = r sin . Then evidently v = x
r
.( 4 )
This is the vector form angular velocity.
With a slight modification, v = -
r
x ...( 5 )
just the negative of moment of angular velocity.
Consider a point P on a rigid body with position vector r
relative to origin O. If the angular velocity of

the body relative to O is A
and the velocity of the origin O is v
, the velocity of P is
.........................( ) V v A r a = +

.
Consider another point O having s
position vector relative to O then its velocity is given by

' v v A s = +

. Now ' r s r = +

( see the figure) and so
( )
' ' ' ' V v A r s v A s A r v A r = + + = + + = +

.If ' A
is angular velocity of P with respect to O about a parallel axis, then ' ' ' V v A r = +

. Comparing
the two, we have, ' A A =

.
The angular velocity of any point is same about any point around parallel axes. (6)
Because of this fact a body can have simultaneous angular velocities added up as vector addition.
o
o
P
r
r
s
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Page 40
29: Vector addition of rotations
Suppose a body has two angular velocities
1 1
Ae and
2 2
A e at the same time about two parallel axes,
through two points with position vectors
1
s
and
2
s
respectively. The vector sum of velocities produced

by the two angular motions for the point with position vector r
is,
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2 1 2
1 2
s s
A r s A r s A A r
e e
e e
| | +
+ = +
|
+
\ .

(proceed from right to left if not understood)
This tells that the resultant motion is a angular velocity
1 2
A A +

in the same plane through a parallel
axis at
1 1 2 2
1 2
s s e e
e e
+
+
between the two axes. Evidently this divides the distance between them in the
ratio
1 2
: e e .
However, when the angular velocities are equal and opposite, their sum is found from the left side (ab
initio) to be
( ) 1 2 1
A s s

for all particles in the body and it is a translational velocity perpendicular to
the plane containing both axes.
30: Uniform circular motion versus motion along a st line.
If 0
dr
r
dt
=
the radius vector and the velocity vector are parallel to each other and the motion
takes place in a st line.
If . 0
dr
r
dt
=
the radius vector and the velocity vector are perpendicular to each other and the motion
takes place in a circle (to be proved later).
31: Relation between L and , Moment Of Inertia:
Using
d
=
r
v
dt
and r =
v
e , ( r =
v
)
L = r xF
,
and taking

L, r, F, v
as unit vectors in respective directions, and noting that
rxv =L,
and
e
L =
,for
a rotating body about a fixed axis, (being unit vectors in the same direction),we have,
Page 290 / 681
Page 41
( ) ( ) ( )

, ;
m
m m m m
m m m m say
e e
e
e o o o
= = = = =
= + =
v v v
v v
L = r x F r x r x r x r x r x
v
r x v r x
d v d d
d d
dt dt dt dt dt
d d
L +0 = L =I L
dt dt
2
2 2 2 2
r
r r
r r r r
as
dv
dt
is parallel to
-r
, and , .
e
o =
d
dt
angular acceleration
Thus
o L = I L...........................................(6)
This is the relation between L and we were looking for, to compare it with F = ma.
In parlance, m
2
r =I
....( 7)
I is called rotational mass or moment of inertia or rotational inertia.
Since it is a scalar quantity, for rigidly connected mass points we can take summations and write16(a)
as m
2
r =I
..(8 ).
Integrals would replace summations for continuous distribution of matter in a rigid body rotating
around a fixed axis. Thus, m
}
2
r d =I
.....( 9 )
Drawing the analogy with translational motion further,
d
I I I
dt
e
o o =

L = L =
may be written as
dH
dt
where H Ie =

may be called angular momentum of the system, evidently a vector quantity.
Now,
d H d
dt dt
= =
L
H
combined with =
L r xF
gives
d d d d d d
m
dt dt dt dt dt dt
= = = = = =
r x r r x r x r x
L r x F r x x v x v x v
p p p p p
p p as m
v x v =0
being
cross product of the same vectors.
So that =
r x
H p...( 10 )
In words, angular momentum is moment of momentum.
32: Newtons laws for rotational motion.
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The meaning of inertia is clear from Newtons laws for rotation, a rigid body shall continue to rotate
with a constant angular velocity around a fixed axis until acted upon by a net torque. The axis would
not also be disturbed without a net torque. This is the reason when the trainer tells a bicycle rider to
pedal hard when the bicycle is tilting; to maintain the angular velocity eroded by friction, so that the
axis of rotation is not disturbed by gravity.
What about Newtons second law? This is
o
L = I L
for fixed axis. We can also include small
rotations of the axis also in this equation. Large rotations are beyond the scope of this book as they
cannot be exactly vector quantities. Angular displacements and velocities for that matter cannot
be regarded strictly as vectors even if they are assigned magnitude and direction. In fact they do
not obey the rule of vector addition. For example, take a parallelepiped , give it two 90
0
rotations, first
, about a horizontal axis, then about a vertical axis; the resultant position would not be same if the two
rotations are given first about the vertical axis and then about the horizontal axis,(verify). Thus the
commutative law of vector addition does not apply! But for small rotations, they can be regarded as
vectors. As far as the rotations take place along one axis, they can be algebraically added and we
can use the formulae developed so far just as we treated uniformly accelerated motion in a st line, the
velocity and acceleration being also in the same line.
33: Conservation of angular momentum
Center of mass is a suitable mathematical tool to facilitate use of the principle of conservation of
linear momentum in mechanics .It brings a system of bodies in the framework of Newtons laws.(
details given below towards the last of the chapter). Similar is the role of moment of inertia in
connection with the principle of conservation of angular momentum. A circus girl rotating on a disc
stretches her arms to decrease speed of rotation. A diver jumping from a dash board traces a
parabolic path into the waters; somersaults if any , do not affect the path. When there is no external
torque on a rotating body 0 constant
d
dt
= = =
L
H
H , in words, angular momentum is conserved
in absence of net external torque.
34: Equilibrium
When the vector sum of all forces acting upon a small body is zero, we say the body is in
equilibrium, as no acceleration is produced. This is ideally true of point masses. But practically all
bodies are of some size and even when the sum of all forces acting upon it is zero, it may not be in
equilibrium if all the forces acting upon it do not pass through a single point in it. For example, two
equal and opposite forces acting upon a body the couple of forces has some rotational effect on the
body even if there is no linear acceleration in any direction. The couple or torque is measured by
r F

, where r
is the radius vector of the point of application of one of the two equal forces in the
couple with respect to an origin taken on the other vector. The radius vector need not be of
magnitude of minimum distance between the two vectors in the couple. , for, if not so, it could have
two components, one parallel to the forces and one perpendicular to the two forces. The component
Page 292 / 681
Page 43
which is parallel to the two forces contributes nothing to the couple, as cross product of two parallel
vectors is 0. (verify). It is not also necessary that the origin must be located on a particular vector.
Verify after drawing two figures that the cross product r F

is same and is in the same direction in
both cases when the origin is taken on the line of action of the first force or on that of the second
one.(The couple is in the direction into the paper in both cases). In fact we use the term couple to
mean two equal and opposite forces acting on different points of a single body . Also couple means
the torque due to the couple. This torque of the couple or moment of the couple , in other words the
couple itself remains same if the two forces act on a different pair of points on the same body
not changing the distance between them (verify). This is also in viee of the fact that angular
velocity of a point remains same with respect to any origin. If a different origin is chosen , not on any
one of the lines of actions of the two forces, the couple calculated is the difference of torques
produced by the two forces with respect to the origin chosen and thus remains same as before.
(verify).
If not clearly understood, look at the following figure.
O
r
1
r
2
- F
F
r
2
-r
1
=r
( ) ( ) 2 1 2 1
2 1
r F r F r r F r F
where r r r
+ = =
=

rsin
F
-F
r
2
p
p
-F
F
r
1
Page 293 / 681
Page 44
It is clearly understood that the couple does not depend on the origin since it depends upon only
2 1
r r

which remains the same if origin is changed or
2 1
, r r

are changed. This is the difference
between a torque and couple.
Localised force
Any localized force F (say) acting upon a body at the point P can be replaced with an equal
force at another point Q on the body along with a couple consisting of the original force and
one force equal and opposite to the second force. (See the figure below.) . This is because the
two equal and opposite forces F and F at Q make no material alteration to the body, but together
the three forces constitute one force Q at the point together with a couple consisting of two forces F
and F at P and Q respectively.
For the body to be in equilibrium, total torques or couples acting on the body should also be zero.
This is second condition of equilibrium.
35: Stability of equilibrium
In the figure below, if the top of the body is turned a little and left, it would again come back to its
original position. This is stable equilibrium condition. The same body at B , if turned a little at the
top, would eventually fall to the ground and take the position shown. This is unstable equilibrium
condition. If the body in the position C is turned , it would roll and cannot fall further. This is neutral
equilibrium. The classification of the cases is according as a little torque applied to the body results in
restoring the centre of mass, bringing the centre of mass down and making no change in the level of
centre of mass as in the third case.
P
Q
F
F
-F
Page 294 / 681
Page 45
At the lowest position of centre of mass, the potential energy is minimum. If ( ) V h
is potential
energy above a height
h
, it is the function of only the variable
h
and we have the force
( ) dV h
F
dh
=
.
For
( ) V h
to be minimum,
( ) dV h
dh
should be 0, i.e., the net force on it should be 0. But the sufficient
condition is, that
( )
2
2
0
d V h
dh
> , i.e., 0
dF
dh
< .
Exercise11 remember
Show that cross product of any vector with itself is 0, and so is cross product of two parallel vectors.
Conversely when cross product of two vectors is 0, the vectors are parallel.
36: Work out and remember
Just breakup the vectors into components in

, , i j k
Prove
( )
1)
2)
C A B C A C A
A B B A
+ = +
=

Hint. Take

x y z
A A i A j A k = + +
and

x y z
B B i B j B k = + +

( )

( )
( ) ( )
( )

3)
x y z x y z
y z z y z x x z x y y x
x y z
x y z
A B A i A j A k B i B j B k
A B A B i A B A B j A B A B z
i j k
A A A
B B B
= + + + +
= + +
=

As

, , , 0 i j k j k i k i j i i j j k k = = = = = =

A
B C
Page 295 / 681
Page 46
Exercise12
A force

i j k + +
is acting on a body at the point

2 3 i j k + +
. Find its moment about

2 3 i j k + +
.
Hint :

F i j k = + +
,

( )

2 3 2 3 2 r i j k i j k i j k = + + + + = +

. Then

( )

( )

( )
2 3 r F i j k i j k i j = + + + =

.
Exercise13
A 30kg force is acting at a point

4 2 5 i j k + +
in the direction of a vector

12 4 3 i j k
. Find its
moment about a st line through the origin in the direction of the vector

2 2 i j k +
.
Hint:

( )
12 4 3 12 4 3 30
30 30 12 4 3
13 144 16 9
12 4 3
i j k i j k
F i j k
i j k

= = =
+ +

. Then

4 2 5 0 4 2 5 r i j k i j k = + + = + +

and

( )

( )

( )
30 30
4 2 5 12 4 3 14 48 8
13 13
r F i j k i j k i j k = + + = +

.This is moment of the force about the
origin. The line through the origin is parallel to the unit vector

( )
2 2 2 2 1
2 2
3 4 4 1
2 2
i j k i j k
i j k
i j k
+ +
= = +
+ +
+

. Moment about this line is component of the moment (about

the origin)in this direction i.e.,

( )

( )
( )
30 1 10 760
14 48 8 . 2 2 14 2 48 2 8 1
13 3 13 13
i j k i j k + + = =

.
Exercise14 Remember
Forces
( ) ( )
1 2
2,3 , 4,1 F F = =

( you could also write ( ) ( )
1 2
2,3 , 4,1 F F

)act upon a rigid body at the
points ( ) ( ) 1,1 , 2,4 A B = . How much is the resultant and at what point of the rigid body it is supposed
to act upon ? Also find the equation of the st line along the resultant force.
Hint: Adding the forces componentwise, the Resultant force ( ) 6,4 F =
; yes, it is that simple to add

vectors. Let ( ) , P x y = be any point on the resultant force. The force
1
F
at ( ) 1,1 A may be replaced by

Page 296 / 681
Page 47
an equal force though the point ( ) , P x y = on the resultant plus a couple
1
PA F

, since it is a
localised force, not a free one. Similarly the force
2
F
at ( ) 2,4 B may be replaced by an equal force

though the point ( ) , P x y = on the resultant plus a couple
2
PB F

, since it is a localised force. These
couples are perpendicular to the plane containing the vectors
1 2
, , F F and F

and their algebraic
sum must be 0, for otherwise, the two forces cannot completely be replaced by the resultant .
Now
( ) ( )
{ }

( )
( ) ( )
{ }

( )
( ) ( )
{ }
( ) ( )
{ }
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
0 1 1 2 3 2 4 4 0
3 1 2 1 2 4 4 0 ,
3 1 2 1 2 4 4 4 6 13 0
MA F MB F x i y j i j x i y j i j
x k y k x k y k as i j k j i k
x y x y x y
+ = + + + + + =
+ = = =
+ + =

Since this is true for any point on the st line of the resultant force, this is the equation of the line of
action of the resultant.
It remains to find out a point between
( ) ( ) 1,1 , 2,4 A B =
on the line
4 6 13 0 x y + =
. A point between
( ) ( ) 1,1 , 2,4 A B =
may be taken as
1 2 1 4
,
1 1
r r
r r
+ +
| |
|
+ +
\ .
. Since this is on the line
4 6 13 0 x y + =
, then
1 2 1 4 11 1 2 1 4 25 47
4 6 13 0 4 8 6 24 13 13 0 , ,
1 1 3 1 1 11 11
r r r r
r r r r
r r r r
+ + + +
| | | | | | | |
+ = + + + = = =
| | | |
+ + + +
\ . \ . \ . \ .
37: An interesting Example of using cross product : To derive compound angle formulae in
Trigonometry.
An equation in vectors is same as two independent equations in 2- dimensions geometry and three
independent equations in 3d geometry and yet is is far easier to work with. For example, a vector
addition like R P Q = +

contains the relation
2 2 2
2 cos R P Q PQ u = + + and tan
Q
P
u = inside it
implicitly. Just writing the vector equation makes analyzing the hidden relations redundant. You can
develop topics in mechanics, geometry etc. plainly with vectors and complicated relationships are
automatically taken care of , in the background. When the background is explored, small details come
out as a surprise; just as we have derived Pythagoras theorem and generalized cosine law above.
One such example the Trigonometric formulas for compound angles reveal themselves when dot
and cross products of unit vectors are taken.
Let sin j
cos i
a + = and sin j
cos i
+ = be two unit vectors with directions or angles o and | with x-

axis . Their dot product is
) cos( ) cos( 1 . 1 b
. a = = .(11)
Page 297 / 681
Page 48
taking the product from left hand side. Taking the product from the right hand side,
sin sin j
. j
cos sin i
. j
sin cos j
. i
cos cos i
. i
. a + + + =
sin sin cos cos + = . .(12)
since j
. j
1 i
. i
= = , and i
. j
0 j
. i
= = .
Equating both results.
cos (o - |) = cos o cos | + sin o sin |....(13)
Taking - | in place of | and remembering that sin ( - |) = sin | and cos (- |) = cos |,
cos (o + |) = cos o cos | - sin o sin |....(14)
Again, taking cross product of the unit vectors
sin j
cos i
a + = and sin j
cos i
+ = we get,
) sin( c ) sin( 1 . 1 c b
x a = = ..(15)
c is a unit vector perpendicular to a and b
But since a and b
are in xy-plane, and c is perpendicular to both, k
c = , a unit vector along ( -)z-

direction( if we assume o > | there is no loss of generality and k
x a = ). Then taking cross product of

right sides of a and b
sin sin j
x j
cos sin i
x j
sin cos j
x i
cos cos i
x i
x a + + + =
or,

sin( ) cos sin sin cos k k k o | o | o | =
or sin cos cos sin ) sin( = (16)
equating coefficients of k
from both sides.

Taking - | in place of | and remembering that sin ( - |) = sin | and cos (- |) = cos |,
sin cos cos sin ) sin( + = + (17)
We shall encounter numerous applications of vector concepts to Mechanics, Electricity, Magnetism,
Electromagnetic waves, Theory of Relativity, Geometry, Analytical Geometry of two or three
dimensions etc.
Page 298 / 681
Page 49
38: Magnitudes of dot and cross products, components along any two directions:
remember
If e and f are two mutually perpendicular unit vectors, then it is easy to see that
Component of vector B along a unit vector e is cos B u = e e Be .
Component of vector B along a vector c is
2
cos B
c c c c
u
= =
c c c c
B Bc . .
, i.e. projection of
B on c .
Component of vector B a vector c is
2
c
c
B Bc . , as the two components of B make the vector
B.
Component of vector B to a unit vector e or parallel to f is sin B u = f f B e
, if
f is
to both
B
and
e.
Exercise15
Show that for any real numbers a,b,c,p,q,r,
( )( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
a b c p q r ap bq cr + + + + > + +
Hint.:Take , s ai bj ck t pi qj rk = + + = + +

. Now . . cos . . s t s t s t s t u = s =

Expanding both sides
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
. ,
,
ai bj ck pi qj rk ap bq cr
ai bj ck a b c pi qj rk p q r
+ + + + = + +
+ + = + + + + = + +

B
e
f
Component of vector B along a unit vector e is cos B u = e e Be .
Component of vector B to a unit vector e is sin B u = f f B e
Page 299 / 681
Page 50
39: Direction cosines and dot and cross products, angle between two lines
Let OT and PS be two st. lines and draw a st. line OS || PS from O. Angle between st. lines OT
and PS is defined to be the angle between OT and OS. Let it be u. Let OT be equal to r and let it
have direction cosines l
1
, m
1
and n
1
. . If

1 1 1
, OT r then OT r l ri m r j n rk o = = = + +

if
o is a unit
vector in the direction of OT.
Now, the unit vector is given by

1 1 1
l i m j n k o = + +
.. Similarly if
| is a unit vector in the direction of

OS or PS, then

2 2 2
l i m j n k | = + +
where its direction cosines are

2 2 2
, , l m n respectively and

, , i j k
are
unit vectors in x , y and z directions.
Just take their dot product

. cos 1.1cos cos o | o | u u u = = =
Taking their expansions,

( )

( ) 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
. l i m j n k l i m j n k l l m m n n + + + + = + +

Thus
1 2 1 2 1 2
cos =l l +mm +n n (a)
Another important thing about direction cosines would be revealed if we take

. 1.1cos 0 1 o o = = .
Taking the expansions,

( )

( )
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 . . l i m j n k l i m j n k l m n o o = = + + + + = + +

i.e.,
2 2 2
l +m +n =1(b)
for any vector or st line whose direction cosines are , , l m n
If direction ratios , , g h k are taken instead of direction cosines, the direction cosines are
2 2 2
g
g +h +k
etc, instead of direction ratios.
O
Q
S
R
Fig.1.5.4b: Projection of PQ on PS = PR =PQ cos u

P
S
T
Z
Y
X
Page 300 / 681
Page 51
In two dimensions, for a st line inclined to x axis at an angle , the direction cosines are coso and
sino and sum of their squares are identically equal to 1.
Sin and tan
If

1 1 1 2 2 2
l i m j n k and l i m j n k o | = + + = + +

are two unit vectors including an angle u between
them , taking the cross product is given by

( )

( )
( )
( ) ( )
1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 1
2
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
1.1sin
, sin
l i m j n k l i m j n k i m n m n
or i m n m n m n m n
u o |
u
= = + + + + =
= =
Also without use of vectors,

( )( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
2 2 2 2
1 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 3 1 1 3 1 2 2 1
2
1 2 2 1
sin 1 cos
,sin
,sin -
l m n l m n l l mm n n
or l m l m l m l m l m l m l m l m
or l m l m
u u
u
u
= = + + + + + +
= + + =
=

(verify)
And
( )
2
1 2 2 1
1 2
sin
tan
cos
l m l m
l l
u
u
u

= =

If direction ratios are used, first direction cosines may be found out before using the formula by
dividing the direction ratios by modulus of the corresponding vector.
Note -Value of
. a b

is positive implies angle between them is acute and otherwise it is obtuse.
Exercise16
A line segment has its projections 3, 4, 5 on the axes respectively. Find its direction cosines.
Hint: The line segment
( ) ( )
( )

2 1 2 1 2 1
3 4 12 PQ x x i y y j z z k i j k = + + = + +

.Then
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 4 12 5 12 13 PQ = + + = + = . So

3 4 12 3 4 5
, ,
13 13 13 13
PQ i j k
PQ
PQ
+ + | |
= = =
|
\ .
Exercise17
Page 301 / 681
Page 52
A vector makes an angle
0
60
with

j k
and
0
45 with

2 2 i j k +
. Find an unit vector in the direction of

this vector. Can the answer be unique? How ?
Hint: Take the unit vector

li mj nk + +
. Its dot product with unit vectors

2
j k
is
0
1
cos60
2
= and that
with

2 2
3
i j k +
is
0
1
cos45
2
= . This gives two equations in , , l m n . The third equation is
2 2 2
1 l m n + + = .
In fact two vectors
1 1
,0,
2 2
| |
|
\ .
and
1 4 1
, ,
3 2 3 2 3 2
| |
|
\ .
satisfy the conditions,, one in each side of
the plane defined by the given vectors.
Exercise18
Determine the range of a if the angle between two vectors

6 3 axi j k +
and

2 2 xi j cxk + +
is obtuse.
Hint :
cos 0 u <
if
u
is obtuse. Ans.
4
0
3
a < s .
40: Straight lines perpendicular or parallel to each other.
Even before derivation of equation of a straight line, the above formulae are sufficient to find criteria
for two straight lines of two vectors for that matter may be parallel or perpendicular to each other.
Easily enough, when two st lines are parallel, the angle between the st lines is 0 i.e.,
sin = 0 , or cos = 1. The former condition gives
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 3 1 1 3
1 1 1
2 2 2
0 0 l m l m l m l m l m l m l m l m
l m n
l m n
= = = =
= =
It could also be derived from the other condition

1 2 1 2 1 2
cos 1 l l m m n n u = + + = , just in the manner sin
is derived from cos as above. Do it as an exercise.
This is the angle between two st lines tacitly assumed to be intersecting each other.
If two non-parallel straight lines do not intersect each other we call them skew to each other And the
angle between them is given by the angle between two st lines drawn parallel to them from any point.
Page 302 / 681
Page 53
If the st lines are perpendicular to each other then
1 2 1 2 1 2
cos 0 cos 0 l l m m n n u u = = + + =
41: In two dimensions
If the vectors or st lines are on the xy plane,
( )
0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1
cos , cos 90 sin tan
l
l m
m
u u u u = = = =
which is called slope of OT. Similarly if
2
u be the slope angle of PS or OS, then
2
2
2
tan
l
m
u = . The
condition for the two st lines being parallel reduces to
1 2
1 2
1 2
tan tan
l l
m m
u u = = .
We need not even refer to the formula in three dimension, simply two st lines or vectors would be
parallel only if their slope angles are equal.
The condition of perpendicularity is that their slope angles differ by 90
0
. Hence if
( )
0 0
2 1 2 1 1 2 2
90 , tan tan 90 cot tan tan -1 then u u u u u u u = + = + = =
i.e., the slopes are negative reciprocals of each other. In terms of direction cosines it becomes
1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2
0 tan cot
l m
l l m m
m l
u u + = = = which is the same thing as above.
In most books of coordinate geometry for two dimensions, the letter m symbolizes slope. Do not
confuse this m with direction cosine.
42: Direction cosines and projections
To find projection of a line segment AB on another line segment CD whose direction cosines are
(l, m n).
In terms of vectors
We can write AB =
b a and ( )
1 1 1
, , l m n = e , a unit vector. The projection shall be just ( ). b a e.
If coordinates of the point A is ( )
1 1 1
, , A x y z and that of B is ( )
2 2 2
, , B x y z ,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1
. , , . , , x x y y z z l m n l x x m y y n z z = = + + b a e (remember)
Without use of vectors
Page 303 / 681
Page 54
The projections of AB on the axes are
2 1 2 1 2 1
, , x x y y z z respectively which are precisely
direction ratios of AB. Hence the direction cosines are
2 1 2 1 2 1
2 2 2
, ,
x x y y z z
l m n
AB AB AB

= = = ,say,
respectively.
Since angle between tow lines is
2 1 2 1 2 1
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1
cos
x x y y z z
l l m m n n l m n
AB AB AB
u

= + + = + +
Hence the projection is
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1
cos - - - AB l x x m y y n z z u = + + (remember)
(bold letters for emphasis)
Example5
If , , a b c

are equal in magnitude and mutually perpendicular, show that
a b c + +

is equally incline to
each of them.
Since they are equal in magnitude,
2 2 2
a b c = =

.
Since they are mutually perpendicular,
. . . 0 a b b c c a = = =

.
Now
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
. . . . 2 . . . 3 0 3 3 a b c a b c a b c a a b b c c a b b c c a a b c + + = + + + + = + + + + + = + = =

Then
( )
2 2
. . . . 0 0 cos a b c a a a a b a c a a b c a a o + + = + + = + + + + =

if o is angle betweena b c + +

anda
an that
2
1
3 cos cos
3
a a a o o = =

Similarly it may be shown that
1
cos cos
3
| = =
43: Shift of axes of coordinates or frame of reference (linear shift);
O
P O
p
p
a
Translation of coordinate axes
Page 304 / 681
Page 55
What happens to the position vectors of points when the origin O is shifted to another point O , say,
when the position vector of O is a with reference to the old origin O, or having coordinates ( ) , , h k l ?
The point P which has position vector p or coordinates ( ) , , x y z in the old coordinate system or with
respect to the origin O, will evidently now change to p or coordinates ( ) ', ', ' x y z and the two are
related by or, p = p' +a p' = p- a .
In terms of coordinates, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ', ', ' , , , , , , , . . x y z x y z h k l x h y k z l i e = =
' , ' , ' x x h y y k z z l = = = , or ' , ' , ' x x h y y k z z l = + = + = + .
This is the formula to change into new coordinates from old or old coordinates from new coordinates
respectively. The ease with which these formula have been derived for linear transformations of
coordinates is far more in comparison to traditional methods of coordinate geometry of two and three
dimensions reiterated below.
Equation of any plane curve is a relation between x and y coordinates in two dimensions.
This relation would not be preserved if the system of coordinates are changed. But what would be the
new equation , it may be found out by taking
' , ' , ' x x h y y k z z l = + = + = +
in general. As an
example, what would be the equation of a circle
2 2
25 x y + = if the system of coordinates are
changed to , X x h Y y k = + = + ? We have , x X h y Y k = = . The same equation shall not
hold in X and Y. But we can put , x X h y Y k = = in
2 2
25 x y + = , i.e., ( ) ( )
2 2
25 X h Y k + =
would be the new equation.
Without the use of vectors
From this point onwards perhaps in every treatment you would find such an alternative derivation
without involving vectors. This is because we are simultaneously studying vectors and analytical
geometry which were taught for a long time as two separate subjects. Though theory is integrated to
a large extent there are a few problems left which are easily solved in traditional methods. It would be
apparent by and by.
In the figure, let the axes and the origin be shifted to OX and OY, coordinates of O being (h, k) in
the original axes, OR =h, OR=k and origin, so that the coordinates of P change from (x, y) to (x, y).
Page 305 / 681
Page 56
In the figure, x = OQ = OQ OR = x h. Similarly y = y k. So that x = x + h and
y = y + k, i.e., when the coordinate system is changed by changing the axes by distances, h and k
respectively, x and y should be replaced by x +h and y +k respectively.
If the new coordinate system XOY , instead of being fixed, moves in the X-direction with a
speed say v, we have, x = x vt at any time t , as
h = vt and y = y as k = 0. (suppose OX be the ground and an observer is sitting in a train with speed
v in X-direction and XOY is his new coordinate system inside the train).Such moving frames of
reference find frequent use in Mechanics.
44: Rotation of axes and invariants;
In two dimensions, if the position vector
p xi y j = +
of a point P(x, y) is dot multiplied with an unit

vector

a li m j = +
where cos sin l is and m is u u ,where is the angle made by the vector

a
with the x axis, we have,

( )

( )
. . cos sin p a xi y j li m j lx my x y u u = + + = + = +

. Naturally this is the component of
p in the direction of a
. If
| is a unit vector perpendicular to
a , it makes an angle 90
0
+
with the x axis , so that

sin cos i j im jl | u u = + = +

, as
( ) ( )
0 0
cos 90 sin sin 90 cos and u u u u + = + = .
Now, the component of
p in the direction of |
is

( )

( )
. . sin cos sin cos p xi y j i j x y | u u u u = + + = +

So that the vector

p xi y j = +
becomes
( )

( )

( )

( )
( )
( )
. . . . cos sin sin cos p p p p p x y x y o o | | o o | | u u o u u | = + = + = + + +

.
X
O
Y
Y P(x, y) or P(x, y)
X
O(h, k) Q
Q
R
S
Page 306 / 681
Page 57
If x and y are the new coordinates,

and o | are unit vectors along their directions, and hence

' ' p x y o | = +
. Thus, ' cos sin , ' - sin cos x x y y x y u u u u = + = +

And obvious deduction is ' cos - sin , ' sin ' cos x x y y x y u u u u = = + .
Note that the old x axis is making an angle with the new axis and
( ) ( ) sin sin , cos cos and u u u u = =
. The old coordinates in terms of the new are necessary
when we transform an equation to new coordinates. For example,
2 x y + =
may be transformed to
the new coordinates using
' cos - sin , ' sin ' cos x x y y x y u u u u = = +
. The equation
2 x y + =
becomes
( ) ( ) ' cos - sin ' sin ' cos 2 ' cos sin ' cos sin 2 x y x y x y u u u u u u u u + + = + + =
in the new
coordinate system, preserving the relation between x and y in the old system.
Without vectors
When the origin is not shifted but the axes go through a rotation of angle u , (see figure 1.4.4) , let any
point P with coordinates, OQ and OP i.e., (x , y) in the old system be assigned new coordinates OT
and TP, i.e. (x , y ) in the new system. Produce PT to meet OX at R and drop a perpendicular TS on
PQ, and drop a perpendicular TV on OX. If u is the angle TOR, angle ORT is t/2 - u and since angle
PQR is t/2 , angle QPR = u. Now x = OQ = OV VQ = OV ST = (OV/OT)OT (ST/PT)PT
Or, x = OT cos u - PT sin u = x cos u - y sin u
Or, x = x cos u - y sin u
Similarly, y = PQ = PS + SQ = PS + TV
= (PS/PT)PT + (TV/OT)OT
O X
X
Y
Y
P
Q
T
R
S
transformation of coordinates
Under rotation
V
Page 307 / 681
Page 58
Or, y = (PS/PT)y + (TV/OT)x
Or, y = x sinu + y cos u
Hence coordinates x and y should be replaced by
x cos u - y sin u
And x sinu + y cos u respectively.
As an example, try the expression ax
2
+2hxy + by
2
. Putting x = x cos u - y sin u and
y = x sinu + y cos u we get,
a (x cos u - y sin u)
2
+2h (x cos u - y sin u)(x sinu + y cos u)+b(x sinu + y cos u)
2
or, (x)
2
(acos
2
u +2hcos u sin u +b sin
2
u) + 2xy{h (cos
2
u - sin
2
u )+(b a)cos u sin u}
+ (y)
2
(asin
2
u -2hcos u sin u +b cos
2
u)
= ax
2
+2hxy + by
2
, where
a = acos
2
u +2hcos u sin u +b sin
2
u.(a)
b = asin
2
u -2hcos u sin u +b cos
2
u (b)
h = h (cos
2
u - sin
2
u)+(b a)cos u sinu }...(c)
We at once see that the degree of the expression remains unchanged in the procedure. We
proceed a little further to explore what else remains unchanged about the expression of look for
invariants.
Writing a = {(a + b) + (a b)}, b = {(a + b) - (a b)},
cos 2u = cos
2
u - sin
2
u, sin 2u = 2 sin u cos u, we have ,
a = {(a + b) + (a b)}cos
2
u +2hcos u sin u + {(a + b) - (a b)} sin
2
u
= {(a + b)( cos
2
u + sin
2
u) + (a b)(cos
2
u - sin
2
u) + 2hcos u sin u}
= {(a + b) + (a b)cos 2u + 2h sin 2u}.(1),
Similarly, b = {(a + b) - (a b)cos 2u - 2h sin 2u}..(2),
And h = { 2h cos 2u - (a - b) sin 2u }...(3)
Adding (1) and (2) a + b = a + b ,
Page 308 / 681
Page 59
or sum of coefficients of x
2
and y
2
remain unchanged under any rotation of axes in a
homogeneous equation of second degree in x and y. (By homogeneous we in mean each term
sum of powers of x and y remains the same).
Multiplying (1) and (2) we get,
4ab = {(a + b) + (a b)cos 2u + 2h sin 2u}{(a + b) - (a b)cos 2u - 2h sin 2u}
= (a + b)
2
{(a b)cos 2u + 2h sin 2u}
2
= (a + b)
2
(a b)
2
cos
2
2u - 4h
2
sin
2
2u - 4h(a b)sin 2u cos 2u
= (a + b)
2
(a b)
2
(1 sin
2
2u) 4h
2
(1 cos
2
2u) - 4h(a b)sin 2u cos 2u
= (a + b)
2
(a b)
2
+ (a b)
2
sin
2
2u 4h
2
+ 4h
2
cos
2
2u
- 4h(a b)sin 2u cos 2u
= 4ab 4h
2
+ (a b)
2
sin
2
2u + 4h
2
cos
2
2u - 4h(a b)sin 2u cos 2u
= 4ab 4h
2
+4(h)
2
by (3)
or, 4ab 4h
2
= 4ab 4h
2
or ab h
2
= ab h
2
So ab h
2
is another invariant.
In fact, if a
0
s
n
+ a
1
s
n 1
+ a
2
s
n 2
.a
n
= 0 .
be any power series in a variable s, putting s = x/y we get,a
0
x
n
+ a
1
x
n 1
y + a
2
x
n 2
y
2
.a
n
y
n
= 0,
a homogeneous equation in n-degree in x and y. It can be easily seen that a linear
transformation like x = u + h or y = v + k where h, k are constants reduces the equation to non-
homogeneous , but does not affect degree of the equation. An angular transformation like x = x cos
u - y sin u and y = x sinu + y cos u also does not reduce or change the degree of the equation.
Whether the equation is homogeneous or not, transformation shall not alter the degree of the
eqn.
But we can always get rid of a particular term, especially 2hxy, i.e., the xy term . That term in
expression ax
2
+2hxy + by
2
+ 2gx +2fy +c, can be removed under a transformation of coordinates x =
x cos u - y sin u and y = x sinu + y cos u and the expression can be put to a form like AX
2
+BY
2
+
2GX +2FY +C, by a suitable rotation of axes through an angle u and to prove that tan 2 = 2h/(a b).
This is left as an exercise.( Hint . put h = 0 in c) above).
Page 309 / 681
Page 60
Observe that the expression ax
2
+2hxy + by
2
is changed to ax
2
+2hxy + by
2
, same in form and
unchanged in values a + b and h
2
ab. Therefore the latter are called invariants for the expression.
Matrix Method ( Matrices are introduced in the last chapter of this section)
The formula ' cos sin , ' sin cos x x y y x y u u u u = + = +
could be got by matrix multiplicationsuch as
' cos sin
' cos sin , ' sin cos
' sin cos
x x
x x y y x y
y y
u u
u u u u
u u
( ( (
= + = + =
( ( (

, where the marrix
cos sin
sin cos
T
u u
u u
(
=
(

is called the transformation matrix.
Similarly the formula
cos sin '
' cos sin , ' sin ' cos
sin cos '
x x
x x y y x y
y y
u u
u u u u
u u
( ( (
= = + =
( ( (

Where the transformation matrix
cos sin
'
sin cos
T
u u
u u
(
=
(

is easily seen to be transpose of the
transformation matrix T ; for
cos sin cos sin 1 1
' '
sin cos sin cos 1 1
TT T T
u u u u
u u u u
( ( (
= = =
( ( (

, the identity matrix.
The method is explained in more detail in case of three dimensions below.
Complex Number Method
We may take , ' ' ' z x iy z x iy = + = +
. Since
' z is obtained by rotating the axes by u , we may take
' z as rotating z by angle u in the same old axes. (Imagine when the axes are rotared, the radius
vector of z is left behind by an angleu
relative to the new axes
.) Since a rotation of angle u
is same
as multiplication by
i
e
u
, then
( )( ) ( ) ( ) ' cos sin cos sin sin cos ' '
i
z ze x iy i x y i x y x iy
u
u u u u u u
= = + = + + + = + .
So ' cos sin , ' sin cos x x y y x y u u u u = + = + . It is left to the reader as an exercise to show
' cos sin , ' sin ' cos x x y y x y u u u u = = + in similar process.
Note : more about coordinate transformations and tansformation of graphsis given in
chapters for conic sections. In fact the conic sections are nothing but transformation of a unit
circle.
45: Explaining Invariants :
Page 310 / 681
Page 61
Like 0, like identities, invariants seem to be trivial and of no importance. No. They are
precisely what we look for in every branch of mathematics and Physics. After all what is in a formula
or in a rule ? Take for example the rule of demand and supply in Economics; the product of demand
and supply of a commodity in a given market situation is a constant or invariant. Simply this statement
gives a lot of information encoded in it. Take any typical problem in Mechanics. The procedure is
simply set up the equations and solve them through standard methods in routine manner. But to set
up the equations is no routine affair. Some mind is to be applied of course. Here the invariants come
to help. The most familiar invariants are : a) the principle of conservation of momentum; expressed as
an invariant momentum of the system before collision = momentum after the collision and b) the
principle of conservation of energy total energy before collision = total energy after collision. Just
close your eyes and invoke the two invariants and the equations of the problem are set up ! One such
invariant in Quantum Mechanics is Heisenbergs uncertainty principle the minimum product of
errors in simultaneous measurements of position and momentum is equal to Planks constant.
According to Schrdinger, a founding authority in Quantum Mechanics, invariants encode internal or
intrinsic beauty in them. It goes without saying that beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder and a
thing of beauty is a joy for ever.
46: Rotation of axes in 3-dimensions
Suppose a point P is having coordinates ( ) , , P x y z ; its position vector p or

OP xi y j zk = + +
, is the
vector sum of vectors

, xi y j and zk
which are components of

OP
along the axes. If the axes are rotated to x, y and z axes but origin is not changed, suppose the
x axis has turned though an angle cosines of which with x, y and z axes are respectively
1 2 3
, l l and l , so
1 2 3
' ' ' x l x l y l z = + +
Similarly if the direction cosines of y axis in the new system are
1 2 3
, m m and m
then
1 2 3
' ' ' y m x m y m z = + + .
In the same manner if the direction cosines of z axis in the new system are
1 2 3
, n n and n then
1 2 3
' ' ' z n x n y n z = + + .
So we have
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
' ' '
' ' '
' ' '
x l x l y l z
y m x m y m z
z n x n y n z
= + +
= + +
= + +
If is the angle that x axis makes with x axis, the is the angle x axis makes with the
x axis, but ( ) cos cos u u = . This reduces the direction cosines of x to
Page 311 / 681
Page 62
1 1 1
, l m and n respectively. And six similar results ( verify). So we deduce
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
'
'
'
x l x m y n z
y l x m y n z
z l x m y n z
= + +
= + +
= + +
This finishes the job of transformation.
Only components or projections were considered for facilitating understanding.
The structural symmetry in these two sets of expressions can be remembered as in the table below.
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
'
'
'
T x y z
x l m n
y l m n
z l m n
, or the transformation matrix
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
l m n
l m n
l m n
.
The symmetry also reveals that the direction cosines are not independent of each other and derive
the following relationships by first transforming the Cartesian orthogonal coordinates ( ) , , x y z to
( ) ', ', ' x y z and again back to ( ) , , x y z ; and making the corresponding coefficients of both sides of
identities equal.
47: Do it as an Exercise and remember
Show that for rotation of orthogonal Cartesian coordinates,
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
3 3 3
1
1.....................................( )
1
l m n
l m n a
l m n
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 3 2 3 2 3
3 1 3 1 3 1
0
0 .................................( )
0
l l mm n n
l l m m n n b
l l m m n n
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
2 2 2
1 2 3
2 2 2
1 2 3
2 2 2
1 2 3
1
1......................................( )
1
l l l
m m m c
n n n
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
Page 312 / 681
Page 63
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 1 2 2 3 3
0
0 .................................( )
0
l m l m l m
mn m n m n d
n l n l n l
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
Hint. If the coordinates of a point (x, y, z) in the old system is transferred to the new system (x, y,
z), then we have,
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
'
'
'
x l x m y n z
y l x m y n z
z l x m y n z
= + +
= + +
= + +
If we transfer back to the old system , we have
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
' ' '
' ' '
' ' '
x l x l y l z
y m x m y m z
x n x n y n z
= + +
= + +
= + +
Expanding x, y and z using the above formula,
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
x l l x m y n z l l x m y n z l l x m y n z
y m l x m y n z m l x m y n z m l x m y n z
x n l x m y n z n l x m y n z n l x m y n z
= + + + + + + + +
= + + + + + + + +
= + + + + + + + +
Examining one of them , say ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
x l l x m y n z l l x m y n z l l x m y n z = + + + + + + + + ,
Or,
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
1 2 3 1 1 2 2 3 3 1 1 2 2 3 3
x l l l x l m l m l m y l n l n l n z = + + + + + + + +
Since x, y and z are independent, we derive from this,
2 2 2
1 2 3
1 l l l + + = and
1 1 2 2 3 3
0 l m l m l m + + = and
1 1 2 2 3 3
0 n l n l n l + + = .
Similarly find the other relations. Also transfer (x, y, z) into (x, y, z) and back into
(x, y, z) and derive the rest of the relations.
Also verify that the relations (c) and (d) are not independent of (a) and (b) and can be deduced
algebraically from them. Once try or see the next article for vector methods.
48: Vector method Do it as an Exercise and remember
If you try vector method, take a unit vector , put
Page 313 / 681
Page 64

1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
'
'
'
i l i m j n k
j l i m j n k
k l i m j n k
= + +
= + +
= + +
Since angle of any unit vector
j say , with any other unit vector
' k , the angle of
' k with
j is ,
and ( ) cos cos u u = ,we have,

1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
' ' '
' ' '
' ' '
i l i l j l k
j m i m j m k
k n i n j n k
= + +
= + +
= + +
Since they are unit vectors,

( )

( )
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 '. ' . i i l i m j n k l i m j n k l m n = = + + + + = + +

Similarly,

( )

( ) 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 '. ' . i j l i m j n k l i m j n k l l m m n n = = + + + + = + +

Complete the exercise and mark the edge over traditional method.
Example6
A vector has a fixed magnitude and direction in space. Only the components change as the axes of
coordinates change. Suppose a vector a
has components
( ) 2 ,1,0 p
in a rectangular Cartesian
coordinate system. The axes of coordinates have turned though an angle
u
about the z axis, so that
the new components become
( ) 1,1,0 p +
.Find all the values of
p
.
We have
2 a pi j = +
.This becomes ( )

1 ' a p i j = + +
in the new rotated coordinate system . Since the

magnitude remains the same,
( )

( )
2
2
2 1 ' 4 1 1 1 1, 1/ 3 a pi j p i j p p p = + = + + + = + + =
.
Note here that we have not used here any formula for coordinate transformation, but only
elementary knowledge of vectors. Most of the vector analysis problems can be solved just
applying elementary knowledge of vectors without using intricate formulae. Even you can
solve the problems of st lines and planes using the concepts of this chapter only without
using the techniques developed in the chapters for st lines and planes hereafter.
Exercise19
Page 314 / 681
Page 65
If ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
, , , , , , , , l m n l m n l m n are three mutually perpendicular unit vectors (direction cosines of
three mutually perpendicular st lines,) then show that so are ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
, , , , , , , , l l l m m m n n n .
Exercise20 remember
Show that if two st lines are perpendicular to each other, the relation between their directional cosines
is
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 3 3 2 1 2 3 3 2 1 2 3 3 2
1 l m n m n m n l n l n l m l m + + = .
Invariants of this transformation
There are invariants of this transformation analogous to the two dimensional transformation
(rotation) such as the following.
If the expression
2 2 2
2 2 2 ax by cz hxy fyz gzx + + + + + becomes
2 2 2
' ' ' ' ' ' 2 ' ' ' 2 ' ' ' 2 ' ' ' a x b y c z h x y f y z g z x + + + + + under an rotation of axes without change of origin
and if both the sets of axes are rectangular Cartesian then
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
) ' ' '
) - - - ' ' ' ' ' '- ' - ' - '
) 2 - - - ' ' ' 2 ' ' ' - ' ' - ' ' - ' '
a a b c a b c
b ab bc ca f g h a b b c c a f g h
c abc fgh af bg ch a b c f g h a f b g c h
+ + = + +
+ + = + +
+ + = + +
Let us prove the results step by step.
Step I
Let us find out on what condition the homogeneous expression
2 2 2
2 2 2 ax by cz hxy fyz gzx + + + + +
can be factorised into two linear factors. So let
( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 2 2 ' ' ' ax by cz hxy fyz gzx lx my nz l x m y n z + + + + + = + + + + .
Expanding and picking up coefficients of corresponding terms,
' , ' , ' , ' ' 2 , ' ' 2 , ' ' 2 ll a mm b nn c lm l m h mn n m f nl n l g = = = + = + = + =
Eliminating l, l, m, m , n, n etc. from these six equations, the relation among the coefficients a, b, c
etc is found to be
2 2 2
2 0 abc fgh af bg ch + + = .(do it as an exercise - Hint. Put
' , ' , '
a b c
l m n
l m n
= = = and eliminate l, m, n from the rest three equations. Then solve the rest
three equations for l and m, in terms of n and put these values in one of the last three equation which
Page 315 / 681
Page 66
is not twice used for elimination. Easier process would be using determinants.). This is the condition
for the homogeneous expression
2 2 2
2 2 2 ax by cz hxy fyz gzx + + + + + may be expressed as product
of two linear factors.
Step II
Next we see that
2 2 2 2 2 2
' ' ' x y z x y z + + = + + , being the modulus
2
or r
2
of any particular point (x, y, z)
Combining this with the data
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 ' ' ' ' ' ' 2 ' ' ' 2 ' ' ' 2 ' ' ' ax by cz hxy fyz gzx a x b y c z h x y f y z g z x + + + + + = + + + + + , we get
( )
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
' ' ' ' ' ' 2 ' ' ' 2 ' ' ' 2 ' ' ' ' ' '
ax by cz hxy fyz gzx k x y z
a x b y c z h x y f y z g z x k x y z
+ + + + + + + +
= + + + + + + + +
for all values of k.
The expression on the left or right does not resolve into two linear factors
2
for all values of k. But by
symmetry of structure, if the left side can be product of two linear factors for a particular value of k, so
also the right side would be, for same value of k.
The last expression may be written in the form
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
' ' ' ' ' ' 2 ' ' ' 2 ' ' ' 2 ' ' '
a k x b k y c k z hxy fyz gzx
a k x b k y c k z h x y f y z g z x
+ + + + + + + +
= + + + + + + + +
.
By step I, each side can be resolved into two linear factors if
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 0 a k b k c k fgh a k f b k g c k h + + + + + + + + =
And ( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
' ' ' 2 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 0 a k b k c k f g h a k f b k g c k h + + + + + + + + = .
On simplification the two turn into
( ) ( ) ( )
3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 0 k k a b c k bc ca ab f g h abc gfh af bg ch + + + + + + + + =
And
( ) ( )
( )
3 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
' ' ' 2 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 0
k k a b c k b c c a a b f g h
a b c g f h a f b g c h
+ + + + + +
+ + =

2
If it is resolved into two real linear factors, either factor set to 0 gives you a st line; then it is the joint equation
of two st lines. Otherwise it is a curve, because complex factors do not give st lines.
Page 316 / 681
Page 67
As the last two equations have the same roots, they have the same factors, except, maybe, for a
numerical factor. But the numerical factor is 1 only since both the coefficients of the leading terms is 1
each. the Thus the two expressions must be identical .and hence the coefficients of corresponding
terms must be equal as the . This gives,
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2
1
1 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 2 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
a b c bc ca ab f g h abc gfh af bg ch
a b c b c c a a b f g h a b c g f h a f b g c h
+ + + + +
= = = =
+ + + + +
This at once gives the invariants all at the same time.
By the way, remember that if two equations of any degree in one variable have the same roots,
the corresponding coefficients of terms of similar degree shall be proportional.
Exercise21
Two mutually perpendicular st lines have direction cosines
1 1 1
, , l m n
and
2 2 2
, , l m n . Find the direction
cosines of a line perpendicular to both of them.
Ans.: Let , , l m n are direction cosines of the line. As it is perpendicular to both the given lines, it is
parallel to their cross product,

( )

( )

( )
( ) ( )
( )
1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
li mj nk s l i m j n k l i m j n k s mn n m i n l l n j l m ml k
(
+ + = + + + + = + +

Since it is a unit vector also,
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 s mn n m n l l n l m ml
(
+ + =

.
But ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
sin 1 mn n m n l l n l m ml u + + = = where u is the angle between the given
vectors and / 2 u t = . So
2
1 1 s s = = .Hence ( ) ( )
( )
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
mn n m i n l l n j l m ml k
(
+ +

is
the answer; both answers refer to the same line, its forward and backward directions.
Exercise22
Find the value of for which ( ) ( ) ( ) 5,2,4 , 8, 7, , 6, 1,2 are collinear.
Hint: The direction ratios of the lines joining the pairs of points must be proportional. Ans. 2 = .
49: Section formula in vectors and in coordinate geometry of two and three dimensions
Page 317 / 681
Page 68
A straight line segment AB is divided in a ratio m/n internally at a point R . We can get the coordinates
of the point R perhaps most easily in vector method. Take any point O as the origin of coordinates
and join the points A, B and R to O. Now, the vectors
RA=
a- r
and BR =
r - b
, though cannot be divided one by the other, as there is no vector division
as such, still we could take ( ) ( ) n m =
a - r r - b
since they are in the same direction. Transposing,
( )
n m
n m m n
m n
+
+ = + =
+
b
b
a
a r r
.
Thus the coordinates of R is given by r , with respect to any set of Cartesian axes with origin at O. We
can separate the coordinates easily by writing the coordinates of the points ( ) , , x y z = r ,
( ) ( )
, , , ,
x y z x y z
a a a b b b a = b = , so that
x x
na mb
x
m n
+
=
+
,
y y
na mb
y
m n
+
=
+
,
z z
na mb
z
m n
+
=
+
.in three dimensions and
x x
na mb
x
m n
+
=
+
,
y y
na mb
y
m n
+
=
+
only in two dimensions, x and y. Derivation of this formula in two or three dimensions in Coordinate
Geometry is also easy, but certainly not as easy as this as you could see below for yourself.
Similarly if the point R divides the st line AB in ratio m/n externally, or equivalently in the ratio 0 m/n
, we could just modify the above formulas by putting m in place of m.
Midpoint : Midpoint of a line segment joining two points whose position vector are a and b
respectively is given by
2
+
=
b
a
r
as m = 1 = n.
In terms of coordinates,
2
x x
a b
x
+
= ,
2
y y
a b
y
+
= ,
2
z z
a b
z
+
= .
50: Collinear points and collinear vectors
O
b
B
r
R
a
A
Section formula
Page 318 / 681
Page 69
In view of
n m
m n
+
=
+
b
a
r
,or, ( ) 0 m n n m + = b
r a
an useful criteria for collinear points is obtained.
Set , m n u n v and m w + = = = , so that 0 u v w + + = and ( ) 0 m n n m + = b
r a
becomes
0 u v w + + = b
r a
. It is clear that the vector r divides the st line connecting the tips of vectors a and b
in some ratio; i.e., the vectors r, a and b are collinear if u, v and w can be found such that
0 u v w + + = b
r a
if 0 u v w + + = .
Conversely if the vectors r, a and b are collinear, then the vector r divides the st line connecting the
tips of vectors a and b in some ratio , say m/n, so that
n m
m n
+
=
+
b
a
r
, i.e., there are u, v and w , not all
0, and 0 u v w + + = for which 0 u v w + + = b
r a
.
Two non-zero vectors a
and b
are collinear if they are parallel i.e. a b =

for some scalar ,i.e.
a
b
=
Workout and remember

i) For any two non-zero collinear vectors a
and b
there are non-zero scalars andv

such that 0 a b v + =

ii) For any two non-collinear vectors a
and b
if there are non-zero scalars andv

such that 0 a b v + =

, then either 0 a b = =

or 0 v = = .
Exercise23
If
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 2 3
, , P r Q r R r

are three collinear points with position vectors
1 2 3
, , r r r

respectively ( we can
denote the point P as
( )
P r
just as ( ) , P x y ) and
3 1 2
r lr mr = +

, show that 1 l m + = .
Hint : Since
1 2 3
, , r r r

are position vectors of three collinear points, we may have
( ) 3 2 2 1
r r r r =

.
i.e. ( )
3 1 2 1 2
1 r r r lr mr = + + = +

. Equate the coefficients of
1 2
, r r

and get 1 l m + = .
Exercise24
Page 319 / 681
Page 70
What is the value of o for which ( ) ( ) 2 , 2 3 2 a b and a b o o + +

are collinear, if
a and b

are non-collinear vector.
Hint : take ( ) ( ) 2 2 3 2 a b a b o o
(
+ = +

and equate the coefficients of a and b

both
sides, which gives ( ) 2 3 2 0 1 2 0 x x and + = + = , whence 1/ 2 1/ 4 and x = =
Exercise25
Three non-zero vectors , , a b c

are such that each pair of them are mutually non-collinear. If a
is
collinear with 3 b c +

and c
is collinear with 2 a b +

then find the relation among , , a b c

.
Hint: take 3 b c a + =

and 2 a b c + =

, so that
( ) ( )
3 2 3 a b c a b + = =

. Equate the coefficients
of a and b

from both sides and get the values of , and derive from these equation
putting these values 2 6 0 a b c + + =

.
Example7
Two forces on a body represented by nOA
and mOB
, m and n being positive. Show that their

resultant is given by ( ) m n OR +

where R divides the st line AB internally in the ratio m:n.
We have
nOA mOB
OR
m n
+
=
+

, when R divides AB in the ratio m:n. Hence ( ) nOA mOB m n OR + = +

and the resultant of the forces is nOA mOB +

.
Exercise26
In the following figure prove that
PR PQ PS
PC PA PB
= +
P Q
R
S
A
B
C
Page 320 / 681
Page 71
Hint : Convert PQ, PS and PR into vectors from origin P. Then PR PQ PS = +

. Since , PQ PA

are co-
linear, PQ xPA =

. Similarly PS yPB =

and
0
PR zPC PQ PS xPA yPQ zPC xPA yPB
PC PA PB
zPC xPA yPB PR PQ PS
PC PA PB
PQ PS PR
PA PB PC
PA PB PC
= = + = + = +
= + = +
+ =

Since the points A, B, and C are collinear, then for some , , v such that 0 v + + = we can have
0 PA PB PC v + + =

. Now since 0
PQ PS PR
PA PB PC
PA PB PC
+ =

, and 0 PA PB PC + =

,we have
, ,
PQ PS PR
PA PB PC
v = = = and 0 v + + = gives 0
PQ PS PR
PA PB PC
+ = .
51: Internal and external division of a line segment:
Let us see how the above result is also derived without recourse to vectors. Let P be the point (x
1,
y
1
)
and Q be the point (x
2,
y
2
) and the point R (h, k) divide the line segment PQ in the ratio m : n.(see
fig.1.4.5a). In other words PR / RQ = m /n. Drop perpendiculars PS, RT and QV from points P, R and
Q onto the x-axis and drop PL perpendicular to RT and RM perpendicular to QV (QV produced in
fig.1,4.5.b)
PL = ST = h x
1
and RM = VT = x
2
h .
From the fact that RL || QM and PL || RM , the two triangles QRM and RPL are similar and their
sides are proportional.(ZRPL = ZQRM and ZPRL = ZRQM).
O
O
X T S
Y
P
R
Q
L
M
X
Y
S
P
Q
M
L
V T
V
R
Fig.1.4.5a:dividing PQ
internally
Fig.1.4.5b:dividing PQ
externally
Page 321 / 681
Page 72
So, PL / RM = PR / RQ (h x
1
) / (h x
2
) = m / n .(in fig.1.4.5.a) This gives,
n m
nx mx
h
+
+
=
1 2
and similarly,
n m
ny my
k
+
+
=
1 2
But, PL / RM = PR / RQ (h x
1
) / ( x
2
h) = m / n .(in fig.1.4.5.b) This gives,
n m
nx mx
h
=
1 2
and similarly,
n m
ny my
k
=
1 2
if R divides PQ internally in the ratio m/n (meaning that it externally divides PQ in the ratio m/n. (If m
> n, R is on PQ produced, if m < n, R is on QP produced).
In particular, the middle point divides the segment in the ration 1:1, so its coordinates are
(x
1
+ x
2
)/2 and (y
1
+ y
2
)/2.
This is a beautiful feature in coordinate geometry, a particular case and the general case have the
same calculations though they have different diagrams apparently.
In three dimensions , find the z coordinate from the following figure and similarly find out the other two
coordinates.
In case of difficulty, look at the following.
Exercise27
If E and F are midpoints of diagonals AC and BD of a quadrilateral ABCD, show that
4 AB AD CB CD EF + + + =

Section formula in 3 dimensions
O
X
Y
Z
P
Q
R
H
K
L N M
Page 322 / 681
Page 73
Hint: We have,
, , , AB b a AD d a CB b c CD d c = = = =

2
a c
e
+
=

and 2
b d
f
+
=

,
2 2 2
b d a c b a d c
EF f e
+ + +
= = =

.Then
( )
2 AB AD CB CD b a d c + + + = +

52: Division formula or section formula in 3 dimensions without vectors:
Let P and Q be any two points with coordinates, (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) and (x
2
,y
2
,z
2
) respectively and let
the point R(x, y, z) divide the segment PQ in the positive ratio m/n. Drop perpendiculars PP, QQ,
and RR on xy-plane, coordinates of P, Q and R become (x
1
, y
1
, 0), (x
2
, y
2
, 0) and (x, y, 0)
respectively. Drop perpendiculars PN and RL on QQ and the coordinates of N and L become
(x
2
,y
2
,z
1
) and (x
2
,y
2
,z) respectively.
The triangles PMR and RLQ are similar as angles PMR and RLQ are right angles and angle
MPR = angle QRL as the lines PM and RL are parallel lines cut by the same transversal line PRQ.
Hence their sides become proportional and we have
m/n = PR/RQ = MR/LQ =
2
1
z z
z z
,or, m(z z
2
) = n(z
1
z), which gives,
n m
mz nz
z
+
+
=
2 1
, similarly,
n m
my ny
y
+
+
=
2 1
and
n m
mx nx
x
+
+
=
2 1
the formulae are same as in case of two dimensions. Similar consideration for external division of the
segment PQ gives us
n m
mz nz
z
=
2 1
, ,
n m
my ny
y
=
2 1
and
n m
mx nx
x
=
2 1
if R divides PQ externally in the ratio m/n , meaning that it divides PQ internally in the ratio m/n. (If m
> n, R is on PQ produced, if m < n, R is on QP produced).
Use of complex number
Section formula if ( ) P z is a point between the points ( )
1
A z and ( )
2
B z dividing AB in the ratio m :
n, then
2 1
mz nz
z
m n
+
=
+
, just combining
2 1
mx nx
x
m n
+
=
+
and
2 1
my ny
y
m n
+
=
+
through z x iy = + etc.
Note that the midpoint of ( )
1
A z and ( )
2
B z is given by
1 2
2
z z
z
+
= .
Page 323 / 681
Page 74
Example 8:
In the figure, let LM be a straight line represented by
the eqn. AX+ BY+ C = 0(1) and R be a fixed point
(a, b). Join any point Q(X, Y) on LM with R and let
mid point of the line QR be P(x, y). We have,
2
a X
x
+
= ,
2
b Y
y
+
= (2)
To find the locus of the point P as Q moves along the
lime LM, we need a relationship between x and y,
which may be got from (1) and (2) by eliminating X and Y and this relation shall be the eqn. to the
curve described by the point P as it moves. We have from (2),
X = 2x a , Y = 2y b
And substituting this in (1) we have,
A(2x a )+ B(2y b )+ C = 0..(3)
2Ax + 2By + C Aa Bb =0 which would be a st.line again.
Note that - C/A and C/B are intercepts of line (1) on the coordinate axes whereas
(Aa + Bb C) / 2A and (Aa + Bb C) / 2A are intercepts of the required line on the coordinate axes.
Example 9:
In the figure, let the eqn to the circle be
X
2
+ Y
2
= r
2
(1)
where r is its radius and Q(X, Y) is any point on it. It R(a, b) be a fixed point outside it and P(x, y) be
the middle point of QR, we have,
2
a X
x
+
= ,
2
b Y
y
+
= ..(2)
To find a relation between x and y, we have to eliminate X and Y from (1) and (2) and this relation
shall be the eqn. to the locus of the point P. From (2) we have,
Q(X, Y)
P(x, y)
R(a, b)
X
O
X
Y
Y
P(x, y)
R(a, b)
L
M
Q(X, Y)
Page 324 / 681
Page 75
X = 2x a , Y = 2y b
Substituting these values in (1),
(2x a)
2
+ (2y b)
2
= r
2
..(3)
which is again seen to be a circle. (reference to chapter on circles)
To find its centre and radius, convert it to
2 2 2

2 2 2
a b r
x y
| | | | | |
+ =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
which is , in words,
distance of any point (x, y) from ,
2 2
a b | |
|
\ .
is
2
r
. Hence ,
2 2
a b | |
|
\ .
is the center and
2
r
is the radius.
Exercise28
Show that if two sides of a quadrilateral are parallel and equal, the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
Hint. In the quadrilateral ABCD let AB = CD. Then b a d c =

. But this implies
a c b d AC BD = =

.
Exercise29
In a parallelogram show that the diagonals bisect each other.
Hint. We have
( ) ( )
1 1
2 2
b a d c a d b c = + = +

Exercise30
Show that the converse of the above result is also true
Use of complex numbers
Exercise31
The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other. Using the fact , show that if
1 3 2 4
z z z z + = + ,
where
1 2 3 4
, , , z z z z are vertices of a quadrilateral in order, it is a parallelogram.
Hint. Since the diagonals bisect each other at their midpoints,
1 3 2 4
2 2
z z z z + +
=
Exercise32
If
1 3 2 4
z z z z = , where
1 2 3 4
, , , z z z z are vertices of a quadrilateral in order, it is a rectangle.
Page 325 / 681
Page 76
Hint : The diagonals are equal
Exercise33 remember
The st line segment AB is divided in the ratio m nat P and in the ratio m n at Q. P and Q are called
harmonic conjugates of A and B . Show that the points A and B divide the line segment PQ in the
ratio
n m
n m
+
. In other words, A and B are harmonic conjugates of P and Q.
Hint. Given p
andq
in terms of a
and b
; i.e.
na mb
p
m n
+
=
+

,
na mb
q
m n
, Solve for a
andb
in terms
of p
andq
.
Exercise34 remember
Show that
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
. p q p q p q =

.
Hint.:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
sin , . cos p q p q p q p q u u = =

. Hence the result.
Exercise34 remember
Any two vectors
p
and
q
and their cross product

p q

are non-coplanar as
p q

is perpendicular to
the plane of
p
and
q
. Any third vector

r
can be expressed as a linear combination of the three

vectors
( )
r p q p q o | = + +

. Find
, , o |
.
Ans. :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
. . . . 0 0 r p q p p q q p q p q p q p q o | = + + = + +

,so
( )
( )
2
. r p q
p q

.
Now
( )
p p q

is perpendicular both to
( )
p and p q

.
So
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2
. . . . 0 . 0
. . . . . . .
r p p q p p p q q p p q p q p p q q p p q
q p q p p p q p q p p q q p q p q p q
o | |
| | | |
= + + = + +
( (
(
= = = =
( (

Page 326 / 681
Page 77
i.e.
( )
2
. r p p q
p q
|

=

. Similarly
( )
2
. r q q p
p q
o

=

53: The Section formula promises an equation for a st line; also one for plane.
The section formula
n m
mz nz
z
+
+
=
2 1
,
n m
my ny
y
+
+
=
2 1
and
n m
mx nx
x
+
+
=
2 1
dividing the line segment between
the points
( ) ( )
1 1 1 2 2 2
, , , , Q x y z and R x y z
itself is an equation of a straight line if we wildly vary
m and n; for , any point
( ) , , P x y z
on the st line QR must divide the segment in some ratio m : n.,
positive or negative . if we put
:1
in place of m: new have, the coordinates of any point P on the st
line as
1 2 1 2 1 2
, ,
1 1 1
x x y y z z
x y z

+ + +
= = =
+ + + which may be taken as a parametric equation of any st line
with two given points with a variable parameter . Introduction of reveals additional freedom; it can
be any real number, not only a rational number as m : n wrongly indicates. Because we have not set
any criteria for m and n to be integers, so they can be real numbers too. Of course
0 n =
is tacitly
understood.
54: Parametric equation of a plane
The section formula not only gives us an equation of a st line, it also gives us equation of a plane.
As the set of points on a line between two points ( ) ( )
1 1 1 2 2 2
, , , , , x y z x y z is given by
1 2 1 2 1 2
, ,
1 1 1
kx x ky y kz z
k k k
+ + +
| |
|
+ + +
\ .
,dividing the st line segment in some ratio, similarly show that a plane
passing through three points
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
, , , , , , , , x y z x y z x y z is given by
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
, , , 0
lx my nz lx my nz lx my nz
l m n
l m n l m n l m n
+ + + + + +
| |
+ + =
|
+ + + + + +
\ .
.
proof
Any point D, on the line joining
( ) ( )
1 1 1 2 2 2
, , , , , A x y z B x y z
is given by a point D, dividing AB in the
ratiom:l i.e.,
1 2 1 2 1 2
, ,
lx mx ly my lz mz
D
m l m l m l
+ + + | |
|
+ + +
\ .
. Any point
( ) , , P x y z
in the plane also divides the line
joining
( )
3 3 3
, , C x y z
and
1 2 1 2 1 2
, ,
lx mx ly my lz mz
D
m l m l m l
+ + + | |
|
+ + +
\ .
in some ratio
: k n
Now take
k l m = +
, i.e.
Page 327 / 681
Page 78
( ) : : k n l m n = +
. Since
, l m
are arbitrary, so is k and hence no loss of generalization. So the
coordinates of P are
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 1 2
3 3 3
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
, ,
, ,
lx mx ly my lz mz
m l nx m l ny m l nz
m l m l m l
l m n l m n l m n
lx mx nx ly my ny lz mz nz
l m n l m n l m n
+ + +
| |
+ + + + + +
|
+ + +
|
+ + + + + +
|
\ .
+ + + + + + | |
=
|
+ + + + + +
\ .
Of course division by 0 must be excluded and it is tacitly understood that any three points are in a
plane.
55: More about Linear combinations of vectors in 2-D and 3-D, Components or resolutes
a) Any vector c in a plane can be expressed as a unique linear combination of two non-
parallel given vectors. Otherwise said, any three coplanar vectors are linearly
dependent. Still in another way, any two non-zero and non-co-linear vectors are linearly
independent.
Let a and b be two given non-parallel vectors in a plane and let c be any
other vector , all drawn from a common origin O. The vectors a, b, and c are position vectors of the
points A, B and C respectively. Draw lines parallel to OA and OB from C and let them meet OB and
OA at B and A respectively. Prove that OACB is a parallelogram and thus c = ma + nb, a linear
combination of a and b .
If this resolution of c is not unique, let c = pa + qb be another resolution. Now subtracting the two, we
have (p m)a = (n q)b . This is impossible since a and b are not parallel.
b) Any vector c in 3-D can be expressed as a unique linear combination of three non-
coplanar given vectors. Otherwise said, any four non-coplanar vectors are linearly
dependent. Still in another way, any three non-zero and non-coplanar vectors are
linearly dependent.
Prove it as an exercise
a
b
c
O
A
B
C
c = ma + nb
A
B
Page 328 / 681
Page 79
Hint . Complete the parallelepiped as completed the parallelogram in a) to prove the resolution
unique, use the fact that no linear combination of three non-coplanar vectors can be 0, i.e., in
other words, sum of two vectors can not be a third one in a different plane.
corollary
As a corollary, it follows that three points ( always necessarily in a plane) are collinear if position
vector of one of them are non-zero and can be expressed as linear combination of the other two in
two different ways.
Do not confuse Any vector has a different set of components in different axes of coordinates.
The fact is entirely different from the above, which states that the vector cannot be resolved into
components in different ways in any particular set of coordinates.
56: When linear relations are independent of origin
Let a, b, c, d . be position vectors of points A, B, C and D . and
Let r = a + b + c + d+ . be a linear combination of the vectors. It would be proved that this
relation also holds when a, b, c, d . are changed as a result of change of origin (shift of axes) if
+ + + + .= 1 and vice versa.
It is presumed to be well understood that a shift of origin from O to O effects in shift of coordinate
axes and vice versa. Any position vector a of the point A may be written as sum of vectors p + a
where p is position vector of O and a is position vector of A with respect to the new axes or wrt the
origin O. Now the linear relationship transforms to
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
.
' ' ' ' .
' ' ' ' . . 1 ..........( ) a
v
v
v v
= + + + + ..
= + + + + + + + + ..
+ + + + .. = + + + + ..
r a b c d
a
a b c d
r' + p p b p c p d p
r' p
It follows that ' ' ' ' . 1 v v = + + + + .. + + + + .. = a b c d r'
if and only if each side is 0 , for the expressions on the left and right of the equation (a) above are
different vectors in general. They are equal only in case each side is 0.
An equivalent formulation of the above statement is :
O O
A
Shift of origin (axes)
Page 329 / 681
Page 80
' ' ' ' . 0 v v = + + + + .. + + + + .. = a b c d 0
As an exercise deduce each one from the other.
If we take only two terms in (a), i.e. write = + r a b , the point r is the internal divider of AB if
1 = + . , i.e., r, a, and b are collinear. Obviously the point of division of a line segment in a
particular ratio does not change if the origin is changed or axes, for that matter.
It would be shown below that center of mass of a body whether it is inside the body or outside it ( e.g.
a ring shaped body or an L shaped body) does not change as the coordinate system changes, as it is
expected. Not only so, but if we consider a system of moving particles is having a dynamic center of
mass moving with a constant speed in a particular direction, there is no net external force on the
system of particles as a whole.
57: Work out and remember the following
a) Any two non-zero non-collinear vectors must be linearly independent.
Hint: If not, let 0 + = a b
where
0, 0 = =
, and
and a b
are not linearly
dependent ( not parallel to each other) then
= a b and a b
are parallel and
linearly dependent, a contradiction.
b) Any three non-zero non-co-planar vectors must be linearly independent.
Hint : If not, 0 v + + = a b c
where
0, 0, 0 v = = =
, and
, , a b c
are not linearly dependent
( not in the same plane); then
v

= a b c
, which says
a
lies in the plane of
, b c
.
c) Any three non-zero co-planar vectors must be linearly dependent.
Hint : this follows easily from a) above.
d) Any four non-zero non-co-planar vectors must be linearly dependent.
Hint : this follows easily from b) above.
e) There is one and only one linear relationship among any four non-coplanar vectors.
Hint : any vector in 3D space can be expressed uniquely in terms of three non-linear non-
coplanar vectors.
Exercise36
If , , a b c

are non-coplanar vectors, then position vectors of the points
1 1 1
l a n b n c + +

,
2 2 2
l a n b n c + +

,
3 3 3
l a n b n c + +

and
4 4 4
l a n b n c + +

are coplanar, if
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
0
l l l l
m m m m
n n n n
=
.
Page 330 / 681
Page 81
Hint; The four vectors are coplanar if there are , , , o | o such that 0 o | o + + + = and
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4
0 l a n b n c l a n b n c l a n b n c l a n b n c o | o + + + + + + + + + + + =

such that.
Equating the coefficients of , , a b c

each to 0 in the above equation , ( as the four vectors are linearly
independent) , we have
1 2 3 4
0 l l l l o | o + + + = ,
1 2 3 4
0 m m m m o | o + + + = ,
1 2 3 4
0 n n n n o | o + + + =
And of course 0 o | o + + + = .The eliminant of these equations is
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
0
l l l l
m m m m
n n n n
= . So this is
the required condition.
58: Linear dependence and base
We know that , in a plane, any non-zero vector r can be expressed as a unique linear combination of
any two constant non-co-linear vectors a and b, i.e., r = a + b. Similarly in three dimensions, if a,
b and c are any three non-c-linear, non-coplanar constant vectors, any non-zero vector r can be
expressed as a unique linear combination of a, b and c . This fact is expressed by saying that a, b
and c for a basis or base for the family of vectors r = a + b, and the family of vectors represented
by r = a + b for any scalars and , is called a v Exercise
If a, b and c is a basis, show that a, a b and a +c is also a basis.
Hint. Just show that a, a b and a +c are linearly independent. If otherwise, a + (a b) + (a +c)
=0
for non-zero constants, , , . Then a + (a b) + (a +c) = ( + + )a + ( - )b +( )c =0 i.e.,
a, b and c are linearly dependent, which is a contradiction.
59: Centroid, Moments of mass, centre of mass
Let us begin with an example. In a triangle ABC the points A, B and C have position vectors a, b and
c respectively. If the position vectors of the midpoints of BC, CA and AB
Page 331 / 681
Page 82
are D, E and F respectively, then their position vectors are given by
2 2 2
b + c c + a a + b
d = , e = , f =
respectively. Now the position vector of the point
which divides AD in the ratio 2 : 1 is given by
2
2
2 1 3
+
=
+
a
b +c
a+b+c
.
The result would be same had we made the calculation for the point dividing BE or CF in the ratio
2:1. Any vertex joined to the mid point of the opposite side is called a median of the triangle and the
point dividing any median in the ratio 2:1 is the same point i.e.,
3
a +b +c
. In other words, medians
of a triangle are concurrent and this point is called the centroid of the triangle.
In this manner we can extend the concept of mid point of a line segment to centroid of a triangle to
centroid of n points not necessarily in a plane. What we do is, if A, B, C, D. are n points, we join
the point A to B and take the middle point as
2
a + b
, then join this point to C divide the st line in a
ratio 1:2 to get the point C , obviously given by
3
a + b + c
. Now join this point to D and divide this
line segment in the ratio 1:3 to get
4
a + b + c + d
. And in this manner the process can be
extended to n points not necessarily all lying in a plane. This point is called the centroid or mean
center of the system of points. If we consider four points and one of them is not in the plane of the
other three ( any three points lie on a plane) joining the four points give us a solid what is called a
tetrahedron. Some examples and exercises on tetrahedrons follow.
A
B C
D
E F
Centroid of a triangle
Page 332 / 681
Page 83
We have a concept of weighted mean or weighted average something like
pa qb rc sd
p q r s
+ + +
+ + +
when a,
b, c and d are repeated p, q, r and s times respectively. This is no different from the ordinary average
as you may see to it. Even if p, q, r and s are not positive integers, we retain the concept, evidently p,
q, r, s become weightage of a, b, c, and d respectively in that case. In this parlance we call a vector
pa qb rc sd
OP
p q r s
+ + +
=
+ + +

as centroid of these vectors with associated numbers p, q, r, s etc.

Evidently the centroid of two vectors a and b

is
pa qb
OP
p q
+
=
+

which is nothing but divides the st

line AB in the ratio q : p.
It is apparent that the centroid of a number of points or centroid associated with some numbers
depends upon relative positions of the points and therefore it should be independent of the choice of
origin. Yes it is.
60: Centroid of some position vectors is independent of choice of origin
Let P be the centroid of a, b, c and d etc. with associated numbers p, q, r, s etc. where the origin is at
the point O and let the centroid be
pa qb rc sd
OP
p q r s
+ + +
=
+ + +

. If O is another point and ' OO =
t
, then
we have the position vectors ( of A, B, C , D etc) i.e., , , a b c and d

etc. changed to
, , a t b t c t and d t

etc. so that if P is new centroid, we have.
O
O A
a
t
a t
Page 333 / 681
Page 84
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
' '
p a t q b t r c t s d t
O P
p q r s
pa qb rc sd p q r s
t OP t OP
p q r s p q r s
+ + +
=
+ + +
+ + + + + +
= = =
+ + + + + +

So P is the same point as P.
61: Centroid of two clusters of points is the centroid of all points taken together
This is also apparent as, centroids are vector averages and average of averages of two groups is the
real average of all. Let us see.
Let P be centroid of a cluster of points a, b, c, d etc. associated with numbers p, q, r, s i.e.,
pa qb rc sd
OP
p q r s
+ + +
=
+ + +

and P be centroid of another cluster of points a, b, c, d etc. associated with

numbers p, q, r, s i.e.,
' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
'
' ' ' '
p a q b r c s d
OP
p q r s
+ + +
=
+ + +

.
Now, The centroid of the two clusters is
( ) ( ) ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
OP p q r s O P p q r s pa qb rc sd p a q b r c s d
p q r s p q r s p q r s p q r s
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
=
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +

which is nothing but the centroid of all of the points.
These discussions indicate that the sum of some position vectors repeated p, q, r etc. times or
weighted by those factors are together equivalent to one position vector repeated or weighted p + q +
r etc. times which is the centroid . This leads to center of mass concept for a system of different
masses or a continuous distribution of masses, the point at which the entire mass seems to be
concentrated.
62: Important examples to work out yourself and remember
a) Mean center or centroid or midpoint of two points whose position vectors are a and b is their
mid point
2
+ a b
.
b) Mean center or centroid of a triangle ABC is is the point of concurrence of its medians
3
+ + a b c
.( Proved just in the earlier article)
c) Instead of medians, if we take st lines joining vertices to points on the opposite sides ,dividing
the sides in a constant ratio, the three st lines so got also form a triangle and the centroid of
this triangle is the centroid of of the triangle ABC. For, A point P on BC dividing it in the ratio
Page 334 / 681
Page 85
m:n is given by
n m
m n
+
+
b c
, a point Q on CA dividing it in the ratio m:n is given by
n m
m n
+
+
c a
and
such a point R on AB is given by
n m
m n
+
+
a b
. The mean center of these three points is
3 3
n m n m n m
m n m n m n
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
=
b c c a a b
a b c
.this is the point where medians meet, for , the point
remains same even if we started with any alternative pair of sides.
d) The mean center of a tetrahedron ABCD or skew quadrilateral is given by
4
a +b +c +d
(proved above). Note that this point bisects the lines joining any two opposite sides, i.e.
2 2 2 2 2 2
4 2 2 2
+ + + + + +
+ + +
+ + +
= = =
a b c d a c b d a d c c
a b c d
. Also it shows that the three st
lines joining midpoints of opposite sides are concurrent.
e) If G
1
is the centroid of A
1
, A
2
,A
3
.A
n
with associated numbers
p
1
, p
2
,p
3
.p
n
, and G
2
is the centroid of B
1
, B
2
,B
3
.B
n
with the same
associated numbers, then
1
1 2
1
n
i i
i
n
i
i
AB
GG
p
=
=
=
. ( Hint
i i i i
AB =
b a )
f) If mOA
and nOB
act on a particle and their resultant is ( ) m n OR +

according to parallelogram
law, then the point R divides the st line AB in the ratio m:n, as
mOA nOB
OR
m n
+
=
+

.
g) Let the vectors P, Q , and their resultant R be drawn from a common origin. If any st line cuts
the st lines representing these vectors at A, B and C respectively, Then show that
P Q R
OA OB OC
+ a b c = 0 . Hint. , ,
OA OB OC
a b c
are unit vectors in the directions of OA, OB
and OC. So
P Q R
OA OB OC
= = = P a, Q b,R c and + = P Q R .
h) Different force points at A, B, C etc. (such as point charges, mass points etc.) impress
forces , , ,..................
A B C
PA PB PC

respectively on a point mass at P simultaneously .
Show that The resultant is given by
( ) .................. ..................
A B C A B C
PA PB PC PG + + + = + + +

, where G is centroid of
points A, B, C etc. and in fact it is independent of position of P.
Since the centroid is independent of origin, in general, then G is independent of P, P being
taken as origin. And by definition of centroid of associated numbers,
Page 335 / 681
Page 86
..................
..................
A B C
A B C
PA PB PC
PG

+ + +
=
+ + +

.
i) With the help of the above prove the following. A particle at P is acted upon by a number of
forces , , ,.................. PA PB PC

where the points A, B, C etc. are equally dividing a circle into
n parts, ( the point P not necessarily on the circle), then show that the resultant is , nPG
,G
being center of the circle.
Exercise37
Vertices of a tetrahedron are joined to the centroids of the opposite faces. Show that these st lines
are concurrent.
Hint : If ABCD be the tetrahedron the centroid P of BCD is
3
b c d + +

. The point dividing AP in the ratio
3:1 is
3
3
1 3 4
b c d
a
a b c d
+ +
+
+ + +
=
+

.The same point would be obtained dividing BQ , CR and DS in
the same ratio if B is joined to centroid of CDA etc.
Exercise38
In the tetrahedron OABC, opposite edges BO AC, and AO BC. Show that AB CO.
Hint : take D as the origin of coordinates,
( )
BO AC . 0 . . b c a b c a b = =

Similarly,
( )
OA C . 0 . . B a b c a b a c = =

So we get
. . . b c a b c a = =

.From the last
equation,
( )
. . . 0 b c c a c a b CO AB = =

.
Exercise39
In the above tetrahedron, show that
2 2 2 2 2 2
BO AC AO BC O AB C + = + = + .
Hint:
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
BO AC 2 . 2 . b c a b c a c a a b c b c + = + = + + = + +

,as . . . b c a b c a = =

.
A
B C
O
Page 336 / 681
Page 87
So
( )
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
BO AC 2 . AO BC a b c b c a b c + = + + = + = +

. And similarly the other one.
Exercise40 remember
Show that the coordinates of median of a triangle ABC with
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
, , , , , , , , A x y z B x y z C x y z are given by
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
, ,
3 3 3
x x x y y y z z z + + + + + +
| |
|
\ .
.
Ans. Just separate the x, y and z components of 3
+ + a b c
.
Exercise41 remember
Show that the coordinates of centroid of a tetrahedron ABCD with
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4
, , , , , , , , , , , A x y z B x y z C x y z D x y z are given by
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
, ,
4 4 4
x x x x y y y y z z z z + + + + + + + + +
| |
|
\ .
.
Ans. Just separate the x, y and z components of 4
+ + + a b c d
.
63: Center of mass
If masses
1 2 3
, , ........... m m m are places at points whose position vectors are r
1
, r
2
, r
3
,then center of
mass of the system of particles, where the total mass seems to be concentrated is given by
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
1 2 3 4
........ ........
........
m r m r m r m r m r m r m r m r
r
m m m m M
+ + + + + +
= =
+ + +

where M is the total mass

1 2 3 4
........ m m m m + + +
It can easily be proved that the center of mass is independent of choice of origin or coordinates
for that matter. ( as it is the centroid associated with masses).
64: More explanation on Moments of mass, Moment of Force
In vector analysis we have a concept called moment of mass, moment of force etc. if we choose
the center of mass as the origin, the body would not turn down to fall if supported only at the one
point, i.e., the center of mass. For we have
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
........ 0 m r m r m r m r + + + =

, as we have chosen the
origin O at the center of mass..The vectors
1 1 2 2
, m r m r

etc. are turning effects on the mass points
(rigidly connected to one another) about the pivotal point as more the distance r or the more the mass
Page 337 / 681
Page 88
m, more is the turning effect and sum of all the turning points about the center of mass is 0. This
statement implies that the entire mass of a rigid body is equivalent to a point of equal mass at the
center of mass. The center of mass is the point in a rigid body where the entire mass is supposed to
be concentrated for consideration of any net external force. If a planet explodes into pieces, there is
no net external force on it and the center of mass becomes the dynamic center of mass, unaffected
by the explosion. So the quantities
1 1 2 2
, m r m r

etc. are called moments masses
1 2
, m m , meaning
thereby product of masses with corresponding radius vectors.
Note: 1) Mass is otherwise called inertia, but moment of inertia is different from moment of
mass as we would study later on.
2) Moment of force F
or that of any other vector is different, moment of force around a

point O is defined as rX F

, where r
is vector OA
, where A is the point of application of force F
.
Details later on.
Exercise42
Masses
1 2 3
, , ........... m m m
are placed at points A, B, C, etc. respectively having the point G as the
center of mass. For any point P show that
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2
1 2
........... m AP AG m BP BG MPG + + =
where
1 2
........... m m M + + =
.
Hint: Taking the C.M. as origin, and position vectors of A, B, C, P etc.as
, , .............. a b c p

respectively,
We have
( )
2
2
2 2 2
2 . AP AP p a p a p a = = = +

.
So that
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
........... ..... 2 . .....
i
m AP m BP m p m a m b p m a m b + + = + + + + +

.
as
1 2
...... 0 m a m b + + =

, being sum of moments of masses about C.M., and total mass
i
M m =
, we
have,
( )
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
........... ..... m AP m BP MPG m AG m BG + + = + + +
65: Vector triple product, scalar triple product.
Consider
( )
P a b c =

, vector product of a
andb c

; it must be a vector obviously as it is a cross
product of two vectors. Then it must be perpendicular to both a
andb c

. Now b c

is a vector
perpendicular both to b
and c
, so P
must lie in the plane of b
and c
. Then let us assume

P b c o | = +

. There is no loss of generality if we take the y axis along b
and z axis in the plane of

Page 338 / 681
Page 89
b
and c
. So we can take
b bj =
,

c j k o = +
, and

a i j k q = + +
. Then
( )

0 b c bj j k b i o o = + = +

and
( ) ( )

0 P a b c i j k b i b k b j q o o q o = = + + = +

( )
( ) ( ) ( )

. . bj b j k a c b a b c qo o = + + =

. Alternatively, taking dot product of
( )
a b c b c o | = +

, we have 0 . . a b a c o | = +

, as
( )
P a b c =

is
perpendicular to a
. Putting
0 . . a b a c o | = +

or . . , ,
. .
u u
a c a b u
a c a b
| o | o = = = =

in
( )
a b c b c o | = +

, we have,
( )
( )( )
( ) ( ) { }
. .
. . . .
u u u
a b c b c b c a b c a c b
a b a c a b a c
o | = + = + =

.
Now taking

b bj =
,

c j k o = +
, and

a i j k q = + +
and putting the values in

( )
( )( )
( ) ( ) { }
. .
. .
u
a b c a b c a c b
a b a c
=

, we get,
( )( )
1
. .
u
a b a c
=
Finally
( ) ( ) ( )
. - . a b c a c b a b c =

.
To remember,
( ) ( ) ( )
. - . a b c b c a c a b =

, note the cylic order.
1)
Note that
( )
a b c

is a linear combination of
b
and
c
and perpendicular to
a
and
b c

2) Note here that
a
,
b
and
c
need not be similar types of vectors, for example we could have

( ) ( ) ( )
. - . a r F a F r a r F =

, where
F
is a force,
r
is radius vector of the point of application

of this force and
a
is some displacement vector along some line.

3) Note that in a vector triple product not only the order of the vectors , but the bracket is also
important.
a)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
. . a b c c a b c a b c b a = =

,so that in general
( ) ( )
a b c a b c =

.
b)
( ) ( ) ( )
. - . 0 a a c a c a a a c = =

in general.
67: Scalar triple product
Page 339 / 681
Page 90
Similarly we may study scalar triple product
( )
. a r F

, their product evidently being a scalar.
The
vector r F

is a vector perpendicular to both of them numerically equal to the area rF, and its dot
product with the vector a
is the volume arF, i.e., the volume of a parallelepiped whose sides are a,
r, and F respectively.
Since the volume of the parallelepiped may also be written as rFa or Far, we expect that
( ) ( ) ( )
. . . a r F r F a F a r = =

. Yes, it is (of course if the cyclic order is maintained). For the volume
of a parallelepiped must be unique. Note that if the cyclic order is broken, a negative sign would
result, as F a a F =

(prove as an exercise).
For this reason,
( ) ( ) ( )
. . . a b c b c a c a b = =

is denoted by
,
(

abc

.
a)
1) If
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
, , , , , , , , , a a a a b b b b c c c c = = =

then
b)
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 2 3 3 2 3 1 1 3 1 2 2 1
1 2 3 1 1 1
1 2 3 3 2 2 3 1 1 3 3 1 2 2 1 1 2 3 2 2 2
1 2 3 3 3 3
. , , . , , , , , , . , , abc a b c a a a b b b c c c a a a b c b c b c b c b c b c
a a a a b c
a b c b c a b c b c a b c b c b b b a b c
c c c a b c
(
= = = (

= + + = =

1) Verify abc cab bca a cb cba
( ( ( ( (
= = = =

using components.
2) If the three vectors ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
, , , , , , , , , a a a a b b b b c c c c = = =

are coplanar, then
1 2 3 1 1 1
1 2 3 2 2 2
1 2 3 3 3 3
0
a a a a b c
abc b b b a b c a
c c c a b c
(
= = =

and vice versa.

3) For any scalar k, kabc k abc akbc abkc abck
( ( ( ( (
= = = =

4)
( )
a b cd acd bcd
(
( (
+ = +

.
5) so that the dot and cross can be interchanged in scalar triple product without changing the
order of the vectors.
69: Reciprocal vectors
Page 340 / 681
Page 91
There is no concept of division by vectors as such. But if
'
b c
a
abc
=
(

and
0 abc
(
=

, note that
( )
.
. ' 1 '.
a b c
a a a a
abc
= = =
(

. The vectorsa
and ' a
are called reciprocal vector of each other and due to

this property, a system of vectors ', ', ' a b c

are called a reciprocal system of vectors for noncoplanar
vectors , , a b c

such that . . . 0 a b b c c a = = =

.
a) If

, , i j k
are unit vectors in x, y and z directions respectively, show that they are self-
reciprocal, i.e.

'
j k
i
i jk
=
(

etc. and . ' 1 '. i i i i = =

etc.
Hint:

. ' . 1
j k
i i i
i jk
= =
(

since

1
j k
i jk
=
(

.
b) For a reciprocal system of vectors ', ', ' a b c

of , , a b c

, show that
'. ' '. ' '. ' 0 '. ' '. ' '. ' a b b c c a b a c b a c = = = = = =

and ' ' ' abc a b c
( (
=

Hint: Takeb c d =

so that
( )

( )

2
2 2
.
.
'. ' . 0
bc b c ca c a
b c c a bc aa b
a b
abc bca
abc abc

= = = =
( (
( (

as
. 0 a b =
c) For a reciprocal system of vectors ', ', ' a b c

of , , a b c

, show that ' ' ' 1 abc a b c
( (
=

.
Hint:
( )( )( )
2
3 3
1
' ' '
b c c a a b abc
b c c a a b
a b c
abc bca cab abc
abc abc
( ( (

( (
= = = =

( ( ( ( (
( (

Example10
Find vectors reciprocal to , , a b a b

.
Ans. Denoting a b c =

, we have
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
. . abc a b c a b a b a b
(
= = =

and let the reciprocal
system of vectors be denoted by ', ', ' a b c

so that ' , ' , '
b c c a a b
a b c
abc abc abc

= = =
( ( (

.
Page 341 / 681
Page 92
Tehn we have
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 2 2
' , ' , '
b a b a b a
a b
a b c
a b a b a b

= = =

as the set of vectors
reciprocal to , , a b a b

Page 342 / 681
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
Page 1
CHAPTER 19_ TIPS, TRICKS AND PROBLEMS ON VECTORS AND PHYSICS
1: Observation
While doing Physics problems, it is often advised as under.
Draw a rough figure for the problem.
Choose one set of axes and one origin .
Select a single body and draw all the forces acting upon it ; make a vector figure and explore
what Geometrical facts may be derived from it to help in the problem.
The draw a vector figure to find the resultant or resolve all vectors into Cartesian components
to find the components of the resultant.
For example, there is one problem asking when two arrows , one shot from the top of a building
and the other shot from the ground should meet and at what height above the ground. Here we
chose one origin, the ground . If the formula
2
0
1
2
s v t at = + is applied crudely to both the arrows
simultaneously, one makes unwanted mistakes, mistake of choosing multiple origins and two y
axes , once vertically upwards and once vertically downwards and creating confusion. If only
one set of axes and only one origin is chosen, there is no confusion, just we have to apply the
formulas in proper context.
For another example, there is problem asking what equal horizontal forces are necessary on
the two adjacent pipes when another pipe is loaded on them. See the figure.
Here the typical mistake made is not choosing only one body and the confusion enters. When
one body is chosen , and vector figure is drawn, the problem is easily solved.
In vector analytic methods as shown in the examples above, the idea of choosing one origin and
one set of axes is automatically followed. This is because of a fact we have proved in the earlier
chapter that linear relations among vectors, if any, is preserved if origin is changed and the new
axes are parallel to the old.
Page 343 / 681
Page 2
Exercise1
If the resultant of forces PA and PB on a body drawn from a variable point P pass through a
fixed point C, then show that the locus of P is the st line passing through C and midpoint of AB.
Ans : Take another point Q, apart from P such that the sum of the vectors QA and QB is the
vector QC. As the resultant of these two vectors pass through the fixed point C QBCA is also a
parallelogram. But QA must be parallel to BC and QB must be parallel to AC, as A, B and C are
fixed points. From similar triangles BPC and BQC , the point Q must be on the st line PC, i.e., it
itself must be a st line. Apart from a fixed point C, another fixed point is necessary to identify the
st line . This fixed point may be taken as the midpoint of AB, through which the diagonal QC
passes.
Exercise2
In the figure, if P is a variable point on BC of the triangle ABC, and if PQ AP PB PC = + +

Then show that Q is a fixed point, ABQC forming a parallelogram.
Ans.: In the triangle ABC, and if PQ AP PB PC = + +

, then we have
AP PQ AP PB AP PC AB AC AQ + = + + + = + =

. Then AB AC AQ + =

shows that Q is a fixed
point, ABQC forming a parallelogram.
Exercise3
Laws of reflection and refraction in vectors :
Let

, , n a b
be unit vectors in the direction of normal to the surface of reflection or interface for
refraction, in the direction of incident ray and in the direction of the reflected / refracted ray as
the case may be.
The law of reflection can be stated as

a n b n =
stating that the three rays are coplanar and

sin sin i r = i.e. i r = , being the angles of incidence and reflection respectively.
i
r
n
b
a
i
r
n
b
a
b

. a n

. a n
P
A
B
C
Q
P
A
B
C
Page 344 / 681
Page 3
The law of refraction can be stated as

a n b n =
stating that the three rays are coplanar

and sin sin i r = i.e.
sin
sin
i
r

= refractive index of the 2

nd
medium wrt the 1
st
,and , i r , being
the angles of incidence and refraction respectively.

a n b n =
shows that

( )

0 a b n =

a b

and
n
are parallel to each other.
From the figure between that for reflection and for refraction,

( )
2 . b a a n n =
.
From the same figure show that

. . a n b n =
.
From above,
( )

. 0 a b n + =
, i.e.,
a b +

and
n
are normal to each other.
2: Vector Differentiation and Components of Position vector, Velocity and Acceleration
(Vectors are written in bold face type of letters or ordinary letters with arrow mark on the top.
Unit vectors whose magnitudes are unity are denoted by bold face letters or ordinary letters with
a cap.)
Position vector r of a moving mass point may be resolved into x and y components in Cartesian
coordinates as r cos u and r sin u respectively. We write
r = x + y = r cos u i + r sin u j .(1)
where i and j are unit vectors in x and y directions respectively.
On differentiation, we get,

d d d
dt dt dt
= +
r x y
v = or , v = v
x
+ v
y
.(2)
where v
x
and v
y
as
d d
dt dt
x y
and respectively and velocity is vector differentiation of
position vector.
X
O
Y
P
Q
R
r
r+r
T
x
y
X
Y
r
ou
os
u
s
r
u
Fig 1:Resolution of radius vector into components
u
t/2+u
Page 345 / 681
Page 4
Eqn.(2) makes an important statement that the components of velocity in Cartesian
coordinates are time derivatives of the components of position vectors. This result
appears too obvious, but as we would see later, it may not hold in other system of
coordinates .
A second differentiation gives
2 2 2
2 2 2

d d d d
dt dt dt dt
= = +
r v x y
a = or , a = a
x
+ a
y
.(3)
where a
x
and a
y
as
d
d
dt dt
x
v
v
y
and respectively or
2 2
2 2

d d
dt dt
x y
and respectively and
acceleration is vector differentiation of velocity vector.
Eqn.(3)similarly states that the components of acceleration in Cartesian coordinates are
time derivatives of the components of velocity vectors. Again it may not hold in other
system of coordinates.
3: Do these as exercises and remember
Show that
4)
( )
d u v
du dv
dt dt dt
+
= +

5)
( ) d t u du d
u
dt dt dt

= +
6)
dr dr ds
dt ds dt
=

7)
( )
.
. .
d u v
du dv
v u
dt dt dt
= +

8)
( )
.
. . 2 .
d u u
du du du
u u u
dt dt dt dt
= + =

9)
2
2
. 2 .
d du du du d u
dt dt dt dt dt
| |
=
|
\ .

10)
( )
d u v
du dv
v u
dt dt dt
= +

11) If a
is a constant vector,
( )
0,
d dr da dr
a r a r a
dt dt dt dt
= + = +

Page 346 / 681
Page 5
12) Evenif 0, r r =

0
dr
r
dt
=
may be false, for it has nothing to do with

( )
0,
d r r
dr dr dr dr
r r r r
dt dt dt dt dt
= + = =

13) .
dr dr
r r
dt dt
=
, for
2 2
. r r r r = =

, so 2 . 2
dr dr
r r
dt dt
=
14) In view of the above, if r r a = =
, a constant, 0
dr da
dt dt
= = , so . 0
dr
r
dt
=
which implies
dr
r and
dt
are perpendicular to each other. For example motion in a circle.

This is also true if
. 0
dr
r
ds
=
if
s
is any other independent variable, e.g., arc length.
15)
d d r d r d r d r d r
r r r
dt dt dt dt dt dt
| |
= + =
|
\ .

, since
0
dr dr
dt dt
=

.
16) In view of the above, if 0
dr
r
dt
=
, then ,
dr
r
dt
are in the same direction, for example

motion in a st line. This is also true if 0
dr
r
ds
=
if
s
is any other independent variable.
17)
2
1 d r dr r dr
dt r r dt r dt
| |
=
|
\ .

18)
d d p dq dr
pqr qr p r pq
dt dt dt dt
( ( (
(
= + +
( ( (

19)
( )
d d p dq dr
p q r q r p r p q
dt dt dt dt
= + +

Exercise20
A, B and C are three points on an expanding balloon with position vectors
1 2 3
, , r r r

are moving
with velocities
1 2 3
, , v v v

respectively. Show that the rate of expansion (increase) of the vector
area of the triangle ABC is
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2
1
2
r v v r v v r v v + + (

.
Exercise21
Page 347 / 681
Page 6
If a particle moves around the circumference of a circle with constant angular speed , i.e.
constant rate of turning of radius vector then
cos sin r i t j t = +
(uniform circular
motion) show that
a)
2
2
2
d r
r
dt
=
, acceleration is centripetal, along the radius vector, towards the center.

b) . 0
dr
r
dt
=
, so the velocity vector is perpendicular to the radius vector. ( Naturally, since it

is a vector along the tangent to the circle)
c)

dr
r i j k
dt
= =
, angular velocity vector is cross product

dr
r v r
dt
= =

2. Vector
area swept by radius vector.
d)
2 2 2
v r =
For motion in a circle of radius r
3:Inertial Frames of Reference and the Principle of Equaivalence:
Coordinate systems moving at constant velocity to one another are called inertial frames of
reference. For example, a man sitting inside a railway carriage which moves in uniform
velocity, throws a ball vertically upwards. Due to inertia of motion the ball has also the same
horizontal velocity as that of the man or as that of the train and as a result, it returns into the
hand of the man. The man sees it straight going up and coming down, for the vertical motion is
controlled by force of gravity, it is independent of the horizontal motion. A man on the ground
sees the ball travel in a parabolic path and return to the hand of the man in the railway carriage,
as he could see both the horizontal and vertical motion of the ball, whereas the man in the
carriage cannot observe the horizontal velocity of the ball , there being no relative velocities
between them. However there is no change in acceleration due to gravity either on the ground
or inside the train; it is left as an exercise for the reader to show that. . The two frames of
reference , the ground and the train moving at constant velocity are called inertial frames of
reference and since the acceleration does not change in either of them it is said that The laws
of mechanics do not change if an inertial frame of reference is changed; it is called the
principle of equivalence. This was established from the days of Newton. Only Einstein
changed the existing world view by generalizing it as the laws of Physics do not change if an
inertial frame of reference is replaced by another, while propounding his Theory Of
Relativity. Do you think the ball would return to the thrower if the train accelerated or stopped ?
Why?
4: Radial and tangential components of velocity and acceleration in polar coordinates:
Centripetal force
Page 348 / 681
Page 7
Remember that is the angle covered during the time interval t; for a circular path of radius r,
the arc travelled is r, as per definition of radian measure of angle.
If we set out to represent an angle by a vector, then the length of this vector shall obviously
equal to the radian measure of the angle. As to the direction of this vector, we cannot take any
direction in the plane, for the moving point faces all directions in the plane while turning a full 2
radians. So, a direction perpendicular to the plane should be taken as the direction of angular
displacement vector, which also may be taken as the direction of the plane. Now, which
direction perpendicular to the plane we choose, is a matter of convention and we abide by the
convention of right hand rule, i.e., if you make a fist of your right hand with thumb pointing out,
then the curled fingers give the direction of the angle and the thumb gives the direction of the
vector. Similar consideration is done for direction of angular velocity vector. Similar
consideration is also done when we need area to be a vector quantity, as sometimes we do, as
would be evident later on. Then we take the measure of the area as the length of the area
vector and the direction of the perpendicular to the plane of the vector as the direction of the
area vector. The side of the plane is determined again with right hand rule; if the curled fingers
indicate the direction in which, the boundary of the area is described, the pointing thumb gives
the direction of the vector area.
Differentiating both sides of eqn.(1) with respect to time t,
cos sin sin cos
dr dr d dr d
r i r j
dt dt dt dt dt

| | | |
= + +
| |
\ . \ .
since i and j are constant vectors;
or, cos sin sin cos
dr dr
v r i r j
dt dt

| | | |
= + +
| |
\ . \ .
.(4)
where velocity
d r
v
dt
= and e is angular speed (magnitude of angular velocity)
d
dt
= .
So that the x and y components of velocity and acceleration are
cos sin
dr
r
dt
=
x
v
and sin cos
d r
r
dt
= +
y
v
respectively.
Similarly another differentiation of v would yield the expression for acceleration
2
2
d v d r
a
dt dt

= = .
But the process would involve long expressions and two new variables may be introduced to
further shortcut the process. Further why should we need resolutes of r in X and Y directions at
Page 349 / 681
Page 8
all? Rather we need the components of velocity and acceleration, one in the radial direction
and the other in the direction perpendicular to radius vector in the plane containing r and r or v.
(Since
d r
v
dt
= , r or v have the same direction) .

Let r
.
be a unit vector in the direction of the position vector r (see in the second figure to the
right above), and
.
be a unit vector perpendicular to r
.
in the direction of increasing u.We have,
r
.
= cos u i + sin u j and
.
= - sin u i + cos u j .(5)
as the unit vector r
.
makes an angle u with the x axis and the unit vector
.
makes an angle
t/2+u with the x axis and both the unit vectors have obviously magnitudes unity. Mind it that r
.
and
.
are unit vectors continuously changing in direction and are not constant vectors as such;
whereas i and j are constant vectors.
Differentiating the unit vectors with respect to time t, we have,(from (5) above)
sin cos
d r d d
i j
dt dt dt

.
= +
and

cos sin
d d d
i j
dt dt dt

.
=
respectively
or,

( )
sin cos
d r d d
i j
dt dt dt

.
.
= + =
and
( )
cos sin
d d d
i j r
dt dt dt

.
.
= =
respectively,
or
d r
dt

.
.
= and
d
r
dt

.
.
= respectively...(6)
where
dt
du
= e , the magnitude of angular velocity of the moving particle around the point O, or
the time rate of turning of u .
It is important to see here that
d r
dt
.
is parallel to
.
, i.e., perpendicular to r
.
, i.e., in a direction
Page 350 / 681
Page 9
tangent to the unit circle. Also
d
dt
.
is parallel to r
.
, i.e., along the radius and towards the
center, and thus it is perpendicular to
.
. Thus
2
2
d r
dt
.
is parallel to
d
dt
.
, i.e., parallel to r
.
.
his would be clear from the following figure.
A unit vector r
.
describes a circle APQA changing in direction from point to point , at P let it be
r
.
and at point Q let it be r
.
+ r
.
making angles and + respectively with the x axis , as
shown in the right side of the circle. The perpendicular unit vector
.
also changes from point P
to
.
+
.
at the point Q, as shown in the extreme right. Magnitudes of be r
.
and r
.
+ r
.
and
.
and
.
+
.
all are equal to unity as they are unit vectors . the angle between
.
and
.
+
.
is same as the angle between r
.
and r
.
+ r
.
as the former pair are respectively perpendicular
to the latter pair. And for small ,
.
becomes perpendicular to both
.
and
.
+
.
in the
direction from tip of
.
to the tip of
.
+
.
and thus towards the center of the unit circle in the
direction of r
.
in the limiting case. Thus the derivative
.
is in the direction of r
.
or
centripetal.
P
O
A A O
Q
.
u u
u

.
+
.
.
r=1
.
P

.
P
S
x
Fig 2 : differentiation of unit vectors
Q
r
.
+ r
.
r
.
r
.
+ r
.
.
+
.

.
+
.
S
T
Page 351 / 681
Page 10
Further, let us denote a time derivative of a variable just by putting a dot on the variable, like u
.
=
dt
du
,
.
r =
d r
dt
,
..
r =
.
d r
dt
etc. With these notations, and observing that r = r r
.
and =u
.
and
velocity v =
d r
dt
and acceleration a =
2
2
d v d r
dt dt

= , we proceed to differentiate r. Using (6)
.
d r dr r dr d r
v r r r r r
dt dt dt dt

. .
. . .
= = = + = + ..(7)
so that the radial and tangential components of velocity are
.
r and re respectively. One may try
to differentiate r direct and arrive at long expressions ( at the stage of second derivation the
expressions are too long to manage or to simplify). Physics books go a step further to arrive at
(7) in simplified manner. They take an element of length or along r and an element of length rou
in the direction perpendicular to r or in the direction of so that the components of velocity v
r
=
.
r and v
u
=
dt
rdu
or re respectively. (see figure 2) above. The reader should try to correlate the
two approaches.
Proceeding to separate the radial and tangential components of acceleration,
a =
.
2
. .. . . .
2
d v d r d d r d
r r r r r r r r r
dt dt dt dt dt

. .
. . . . .
| |
|
= = + = + + + +
|
\ .
,
=
.. . . .
2
r r r r r r r
. . . . .
+ + +
or,
a =
2
2
d v d r
dt dt

= =
.. . .
2
2 r r r r r
. .
| | | |
+ +
| |
\ . \ .
(8)
hence the radial and transverse components of acceleration are
2
..
r r e and
. .
r r 2 e + e
respectively, as we have taken the unit vectors one along the radius and the other along the
tangent.
These expressions for velocity and accelerations are quite general and applicable in all
cases of motion .
Page 352 / 681
Page 11
5: For uniform circular motion,
We put e a constant as angular velocity is constant, and r also a constant a, say, as the point
mass moves in a circle with constant speed, then eqn. (7) becomes

d r dr r dr d r
v r r r a
dt dt dt dt
. .
. . .
= = = + = e u = e u ..(7a)
Thus differentiation of a vector of constant magnitude is perpendicular to itself. Then
eqn. (8) becomes,
a =
2
2
d v d r
dt dt

= =
2 2
r r a r
. .
e = e ..(8a)
just the equations earlier derived from elementary vector methods.
6: Elementary method to derive centripetal acceleration in uniform circular motion,
In the second figure of Fig. 2 above, if we assume the speed v or the magnitude of velocity
v v
= is constant we have and if r a
= , a constant, the body goes round a circle with constant

speed. The direction of the velocity and that of the radius vector a a
= always changes. Instead

of unit vectors r
and r
+ r
we take r
and r
+ r
where | r
| = | r
+ r
| = a , and instead of
unit velocity vectors
.
u and
.
u +
.
u we take the velocity vectors v
and v v

+ . Corresponding
to it , v
and v v

+ are velocity vectors at P and Q respectively along the tangent to the circle,
and v v v v

= + = . The direction is always tangent to the circle because , if at any point
the force breaks down, e.g. if the body is whirled around by a piece of string OP fixed at the
center and the string suddenly breaks, the body would fly away in a st line which is a small part
of the circle, i.e., in a direction tangent to the circle, because of inertia of motion and the
tangent is perpendicular to the radius at any point of the circle. Thus the angle between the
two position vectors r
and r
+ r
is same as the angle between the two velocity vectors v
and v v

+ . Now arc PQ = a, by radian measure of angle, and the corresponding arc
between the two velocity vectors v
and v v

+ is approximately the chord ST = v the
magnitude of the difference between the two velocity vectors v
and v v

+ or and

PS PT
Page 353 / 681
Page 12
being the vector from the head of th second vector to the head of the first. And evidently it is
towards the center, along r
.
or centripetal. Now
lim
t
a d
v v v v a a
t dt

= + = = = = and |acceleration| =
lim 2
0 t
dv v d
a a
dt t dt
= = = ..(9)
Its direction is negative of that of r
and the direction of v a = is that of

.
This is quite consistent with (7a) and (8a).
7: Central Forces
A force on a particle which acts always in a direction towards a fixed point is called a
central force. The origin of coordinates is generally taken as this point or centre. The tangential
components of acceleration is 0 as required. Examples of central forces are
1) Gravitational attraction, if one of the two attracting bodies is taken as origin of
reference, the force on the other body is towards this origin along the radius vector
always. This is the motion of planets around stars and satellites around planets, artificial
satellites around the earth.
2) Electrostatic and magnetostatic attraction also is a central force as long as we
consider static charges for, a negative charge moving around another positive charge
radiates energy and shall fall into it eventually in no time and the atoms and the entire
world for that matter would not have been stable if this would have been the model
inside the miniature universe inside the atom. Therefore quantum theory was born.
3) A force producing uniform acceleration or deceleration in a straight line in which the
force is constant and may be considered to be always towards a fixed point.
4) A force producing non-uniform acceleration or deceleration in a straight line in which
the force is varying and may be considered to be always towards a fixed point.
5) A force producing non-uniform acceleration or deceleration in a straight line in which
the force is varying and may be considered to be always towards a fixed point and
proportional to displacement from a fixed point, called simple harmonic motion.
6) Projectile motion when a body without moving power of its own has been shot into the
air and describes a parabolic path. Etc.
The purpose for treating central forces is, to include uniform acceleration, projectile
motion, uniform circular motion, planetary motion and simple harmonic motion
Page 354 / 681
Page 13
within the broad category of central forces, with a view to show that these are merely
special cases of central forces , and to relive the burden on the student to study the
topics separately. If the particle is always acted upon by a force directed towards a fixed
point O, the moment of the force
+
about the point O is zero, since the perpendicular
from O on the line of action force is zero. If H is the moment of momentum of the
particle about O, i.e . r x mv , we have,
( ) 0
d H d d v
r m v v m v r m r F r F
dt dt dt

= = + = + = =0..(10)
since r sin u is the perpendicular from O onto the line of action force, where u is the
angle between r and F. Since v x mv is always 0, being cross product of a vector with
itself; we have r x mv or H is thus a constant vector. But H is also the angular
momentum of the particle about O. In analogy with linear motion where time rate of
change of momentum is called force, in case of rotational motion,
the time rate of change of angular momentum is the torque.
L =
d H
dt
which is r x F(11)
But the latter is the time rate of change of H. Hence H is the angular momentum. Thus
the angular momentum is same as moment of momentum. Now, if its time rate of
change is 0 as in (a) above, H is constant in this case, i.e., r x v is a constant vector as
m is constant. Also this constant vector is perpendicular to the plane of r and v. In other
words, the plane of r and v is fixed. When the plane of the position vector and velocity
vector of the particle lie on a fixed plane, the entire motion of the particle takes place in
this plane and as such, all motions under central forces are motions in a plane only.
This is a great advantage and simplification in solving differential equations (eqn 8;
adapted into different forms different for uniform circular motion, simple harmonic
motion, planetary motion, projectile motion etc.)to obtain equations of motion in case of
central forces. The reverse is not necessarily true. All motions of a particle in a fixed
plane, have the feature that angular momentum is 0 in all these cases.; but not all
of them are motions under central forces. The central forces include the motion in a
circle with constant speed (uniform circular motion), motion in orbits under force of
universal gravitation, and in fact, under any force which varies inversely as square of
distance , such as Coulombs forces in Electrostatics and Magneto statics . Of course,
SHM. where the particle is subjected to a restoring force towards the center proportional
to the displacement at any moment is also a central force.

+
Moment of any vector P is r x P. It may be observed that moment of velocity is 2 x areal
velocity, moment of force is torque, moment of momentum is angular momentum etc. refer to
appropriate definitions in this chapter.
Page 355 / 681
Page 14
A further useful fact to note here is, that
1
( ) ( ) ( ) 2 ( ) 2 ( )
2
d H d d d d r d d r d d A
r m v m r v m r m r m
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt

= = = = =
...(12)
where
1
, 2
2
d r d A d A
r or r v
dt dt dt

= = , the rate of area swept by the radius vector and
as such r x v is twice the area swept per unit time by the radius vector which is called areal
velocity. So the moment of velocity is the 2x areal velocity and momentum is twice the
mass times 2 x the areal velocity. Do not confuse with dot product or scalar product of
d r
r and
dt
.
Now
2 2
2 2
1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2
1 1
2 2
d r r
d A d r dr d r d r d r
r r r r r r r r r r
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
d
r r r r
dt
.
. . .
. . . .
. . . .
| |
| | |
\ .
|
= = = + = =
|
\ .
u
| |
= u e= u
|
\ .
,
(adding 0 r r
. .
= to it),
i.e.,
2
d d
A r r
dt dt
. .
u
| |
= u
|
\ .
1
2
.(13)
The areal velocity
d
A
dt

is in the direction of product of r
.
and
.
u , i.e. in the direction of r
.
x
.
u .
Now
2
2
d d
m A mr r I r
dt dt
. . . .
u
| |
= u = o u
|
\ .
...(14)
The vector area and areal velocity mentioned above need a little explanation.
Though area is a scalar quantity, we sometimes need it to be a vector quantity. Take a
plane area bounded by a curve and the boundary curve assigned a direction, say
anticlockwise. Then we take a vector of magnitude equal to this area and perpendicular
to this plane upward in direction as the equivalent vector area. The convention is the
right hand rule or the cork screw rule if the boundary is taken in the direction of the curl
Page 356 / 681
Page 15
of the fingers of the right hand fist, the vector is in the direction of the thumb pointing out.
It is same as the direction in which the right handed screw advances when screwed.
Two vector areas can be vectorially added or subtracted. Apart from the need in
mechanics, vector areas are also used in electricity and magnetism, optics etc. Suppose
The Suns rays pass through a curved surface . if the rays are quantified by assigning
some unit to it, we need the effective area perpendicular to the rays, not the total area of
the surface to measure the effect of the rays. For this, we may take a small elementary
area anywhere on the surface, the dot product of its vector area with the vector quantity
representing the rays passing though it may be summed up or integrated over the entire
surface for measuring the product of the effective rays and areas of the total surface or
flux of the rays through the surface. It is interesting to note that the total flux through any
closed surface is zero if the area does not enclose any light source and it may easily be
proved geometrically that the total flux through a closed surface is the total lamination
emanated from all the sources of light enclosed inside. The total flux enclosing electric
charges , magnetic poles or masses equal total charges, poles or masses respectively in
appropriate units. This would be explained later.
Since 0
d H
dt
=
for central forces as derived above and
2 0
d H d d A
m
dt dt dt

= =
,
we have,
constant
d A
dt
= , i.e. equal areas are swept out by the radius vector at equal
times, which is Kepplers 2
nd
law for planetary motion; we see here that it is true for
any central force.
8: Motion of a rigid body reduces to a rotational motion, when one point is fixed.
This is a result similar to the fact we have earlier shown that motion under central
forces reduces to motion in a plane.
Page 357 / 681
Page 16
Consider there is a fixed point O in a rigid body ( not shown in the figure) and
construct a sphere of unit radius taking O as center. Join any point A, B on the surface
of the rigid body to the fixed point to this fixed point O . Let the connectors shall cut the
surface of the unit sphere at A and B respectively . In this way, we get a unique point on the
surface of the sphere for any point on the surface of the rigid body and vice versa. Only
consider the points on the surface of the rigid body may be included in this consideration.
(once we have established the desired result for points on the surface of the rigid body and can
generalize for other points.) After a little while, let the points A and B move to positions C and D
respectively when the points A and B on the rigid body have moved to C and D respectively.
Two great circles on the unit sphere may be suitably chosen bisecting the arcs AB and CD
perpendicularly in turn and obviously the two great circles meet at some point P on the surface
of the unit sphere. Since the body is rigid there is no relative motion between any two parts, so
AB = CD i.e., AB = CD and since PE and PF are perpendicular bisectors of AB and CD, then
PA = PB and PC = PD. Again , since the body is rigid, so also the unit sphere, and the area
PAB is moved to the area PCD and the two areas are equal. Two isosceles spherical triangles
PAB and PCD have equal base arcs and equal areas, then the spherical triangle can be cut and
pasted on the spherical triangle PCD for that matter. Discover that the point P has not moved
while AB has moved to CD ! This implies the straight line OP has not moved so that the sphere
is rotating about the st line OP as axis, and the rigid body is rotating about OP as axis of rotation
for that matter. The result is not far from being visualised now. Once the surface of the rigid
body rotates , around a fixed axis, all other points do so, as they are rigidly connected to the
surface.
Motion of a rigid body with one point fixed reduces to a rotation
P
A
B C
D
E
F
Page 358 / 681
Page 17
In fact, planetary motion, Keplers laws, simple harmonic motion, projectile and other two
dimensional motions etc. are dealt under central forces and are particular cases of central
forces. The orbits of these motions are conic sections or sections of a cone like, parabola,
ellipse, circle, hyperbola etc. though study of conic sections is not strictly necessary for study of
these motions ( they can in fact be studied to some extent in elementary methods), we keep the
same pending until then, after some lessons on integration and differential equation is taught.
9: Coriolis Acceleration , Rotating Frame of Reference and Pseudo Force.
Rivers flowing north - south in northern hemisphere deviate in a direction opposite to the
direction of rotation of earth and vice versa in southern hemisphere. Similar deviation is marked
in atmospheric air flow rocket propulsion and projectile aviation. This is due to the fact that the
Earth is a rotating frame of reference, not an inertial frame. So Newtons laws for inertial frame
of reference must be adapted accordingly. We take the simple case of a particle moving radially
outwards from the center of
a rotating disk, If b be a unit vector in this direction the position vector ( ) r t
r(t) of the particle is

given by
( )

.............................................( ) r t tb a =
let the disk rotate counterclockwise with angular speed 1 = and be a unit vector rotating with
the disk. Since 1 = ,

b can be written as

cos sin .................................( ) b ti tj b = +
where

, , i j k are unit vectors in x, y and z directions respectively. Differentiating (a) wrt time t,
( ) ( )

'.............................( )
d tb d b
dr
v b t b tb c
dt dt dt
= = = + = +
where

' b is a unit vector perpendicular to
b , since 1 = taken for simplicity.

x
y
i
j
b
b
Page 359 / 681
Page 18
Had
b been a constant vector, the velocity would have been

b itself, as
dr
v
dt
=

; thus
' tb is the
additional velocity component due to rotation. Differentiating again,
( ) ( )

' '
' '

' ' 2 ' 2 '..................( )
d b tb d tb
dv db db db
a b t b t b tb b d
dt dt dt dt dt dt
+
= = = + = + + = + = +
since
'

db
tb
dt
= , centripetal acceleration since 1 =
Now
2 ' b is the extraneous force per unit mass in tangential direction opposite to direction of
rotation. This is called Coriolis acceleration and the corresponding force accordingly and hence
the north south motion in northern hemisphere and vice versa in southern hemisphere ( since
the motion is clockwise from the bottom, i.e. 1 = . The particle on the disk describes a spiral
as shown in the side figure. Since the tangential acceleration is the component of acceleration is
perpendicular to the direction of r
and also
dr
v
dt
=

is perpendicular to r
, then
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
tan
2 2

2 ' . '

. ' '
1
'
b tb b tb
v v t
a a b tb b tb
t
v v
b tb
| |
+
|
= = + = +
| +
+
\ .

since
b and
' b are to each other.

Now the normal component of acceleration is
( ) ( ) ( )
2
tan
2 2 2
2

' 2 ' ' '
1 1 1
nor
t t t
a a a a b tb tb b b tb b tb
t t t
+
= = + = + + =
+ + +

and the dot product of the two may be seen to be
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2

' . ' ' . ' 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
t t t t
t t
b tb b tb b tb b tb t t
t t t t
+ +
+
+ = + = + =
+ + + +
as expected
since
b and
' b are to each other.

This is a pseudo force due to rotating frame of reference. It is not to be found in inertial frames
of references , which move at constant velocities to one another. Einsteins general theory of
relativity reduces force of universal gravitation also to a pseudo force, due to curvature of space
time continuum.
Exercises21
Find the pseudo force due to motion of a particle constrained in the following paths.
Page 360 / 681
Page 19
a) ( )

cos sin r t b t i b t j c k = + +
(helix) Ans. tan 0 a =
,

cos sin nor a b t i b t j =
(centripetal)
b) ( )

3 3 2 r t ti tj tk = +
Ans. 0
c) ( )

cos 2 sin r t t i t j = +
(ellipse) Ans.
( )
2
2

cos 2sin
d r t
ti tj
dt
=
Find normal and tangential components.

Exercise22
Try deriving Coriolis force not assuming 1 = as above.
10: Coriolis effect on projectiles and atmospheric air flows
As a simple case, suppose a body moving in the air parallel to the surface of the Earth in North
South direction along a meridian. If the angular speed is along a meridian at the center of
the Earth the angle travelled being t with respect to the equator, The position vector is given
by
( )

cos sin ...................................( ) r t R t b R t k a = +
where 0 t > for the northern hemisphere and vice versa for southern. And unit vector
b is
rotating with the Earth in the equatorial plane with , angular speed of the Earth, i.e.,
( )

cos sin .......................................( ) b t t i t j b = +

, i j being fixed unit vectors in the equatorial plane and
k perpendicular to both of them.

We have
( )

cos ' sin cos ...................( )
d r t
v R t b R t b R t k c
dt
= = +
where

' b is a unit vector perpendicular to
b and

sin cos '
db
t i t i b
dt
= + =
Differentiating again,
( )
2
2 2
2

cos '' 2 sin ' cos sin ..............( )
d r t d v
a R t b R tb R t b R t k d
dt dt
= = =

Page 361 / 681

Page 20
The term
cos '' R t b is centripetal acceleration due to rotation of the earth,

2 sin ' R tb is
Coriolis acceleration, and
2

cos R t b is centripetal acceleration due to motion of the
particle.
From (d),
( )
( )
2
2 2 2
2

2 sin ' cos sin ............( )
d r t d v
a R t b R t b R t k e
dt dt
= = = +

for,
2
2 2 2
2

cos sin
d b
ti t i b
dt
= = .
11: Moving frames of reference with rotation
Let us examine the rates of change of a vector r PQ =

with reference to two frames of
references
1
S and
2
S . The origin O fixed in
2
S is moving at a velocity 0 v
with respect to
1
S . Let
2
S have an angular velocity A
relative to the fixed point O in it. If the point P has a velocity 1 u
wrt
1
S and 2 u
wrt
2
S and the point Q has a velocity 1 v
wrt
1
S and 2 v
wrt
2
S , the rates of change of
r PQ =

wrt
1
S and
2
S may be respectively given by
1 1 2 2
1 2
, ...............................( )
dr dr
v u v u a
dt dt
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .

the symbols
1 2
dr dr
and
dt dt
| | | |
| |
\ . \ .

denote
dr
dt
in frames of references
1
S and
2
S .
The velocity
1
u of the point P wrt
1
S may be viewed in another manner. If P is a point fixed in
2
S which coincided with P say at time t = 0, and then the frame of reference
2
S moved away,
then 1 u
is the vector sum of the velocity 2 u
of P wrt
2
S ( i.e.
' PP
t
)and the velocity of the of the

fixed point P wrt origin in
2
S , which is nothing but angular velocity of the frame of reference
2
S
times (cross product) the radius vector p OP =

of P in
2
S and of course the velocity 0 v
of
2
S wrt
1
S . In symbols,
( )
1 2 0 ................................( ) u u v A p b = + +

Page 362 / 681
Page 21
Looking at the velocity of the point Q in similar manner, where the radius vector q OQ =

of Q in
2
S ,
( )
1 2 0 ................................( ) v v v A q c = + +

From (b) and (c),
( )
1 1 2 2 0 0 v u v u v v A q p = + +

i.e. 1 1 2 2 ................................( ) v u v u A r d = +

as r q p =

Applying (a) in (d) , it becomes
1 2
................................( )
dr dr
A r e
dt dt
| | | |
= +
| |
\ . \ .

This is the rule which governs any vector differences with respect to the frames of reference
1
S
and
2
S .
Now, let 1 a
and 2 a
be accelerations of the point Q wrt the frames

1
S and
2
S . Putting 0 p =
we
have r q p q = =

and (c) becomes
1 2 0 1 0 2 ....................( ) v v v A q or v v v A r f = + + = + +

Note that we interchanged the terms to keep consistency with (e) and (d) as a generalization.
Now from (f),
0 1
1 2
1
1 1
............................( )
dv dv d
a v A r g
dt dt dt
| | | |
| |
(
= = + +
| |
|

\ .
\ . \ .

Since (e) is the rule for differentiation of any vector is frames
1
S and
2
S , applying the same rule
to (g)
0 0
1 2 2 2
1 2
1 1
..............( )
dv dv d d
a v A r v A r A v A r h
dt dt dt dt
| | | |
| | | |
( ( (
= + + = + + + +
| |
| |

\ . \ .
\ . \ .

If
0
0
1
dv
a
dt
| |
=
|
\ .
,the acceleration of O, then from (h), we may write,

Page 363 / 681
Page 22
2
1 0 2
2 2 2
.............( )
dv d A dr
a a r A A v A A r i
dt dt dt
| | | | | |
= + + + + +
| | |
\ . \ . \ .

But
1 2 2
0
d A d A d A d A
A A
dt dt dt dt
| | | | | |
= + = + =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .

, say, ( applying (e) to
1
d A
dt
| |
|
\ .
), and let
2
2
2
dv
a
dt
| |
=
|
\ .
and 2
2
dr
v
dt
| |
=
|
\ .
then (i) can be written as

1 0 2 2 2 .............( )
d A
a a a r A v A A r j
dt
= + + + +

The 4
th
term is Coriolis acceleration , 2
nd
and 3
rd
terms are acceleration of Q in
2
S (linear
acceleration and acceleration due to angular velocity) and the 5
th
term is the acceleration due to
(constant rotation A
of a rigid body about O) if all other accelerations are absent.

12: Equation from theory of special relativity
In formulation of special theory of relativity, there was a classic experiment by Michelson and
Morley to measure absolute motion of earth wrt to some stationery medium, ether, then it was
called and was believed to be medium of transportation of electromagnetic waves. The
experiment was a confirmed failure , giving rise to new era of modern science and formulation of
special theory of relativity by Einstein. There were volumes of controversies on the theory of
ether and after the experiment, the concept of ether was discarded. The fundamental units of
measurement , the units of length, mass and time which were assumed to be independent
variables, had to be redefined to accommodate for constancy of velocity of light in empty space,
i.e., it independence from the velocity of its source; a result of the Michelson and Morley
experiment. This is evidence of the most vivid glory of failure, its grandeur and galore. Speed ,
rather than the other three fundamental variables of physical equations was believed to
influence them in the following manner.
2 2
2 2
1 .
' . , ' ,
v r c
r r v r t v t t
v c
c v

| |
| |
= + = =
|
|
\ .
\ .

Where c is speed of light in empty space, and the asterisks denote a change in inertial
coordinate system from , r t
to ', ' r t
moving at constant velocity v
relative to it.
Just transpose the equations and simplify to derive
Page 364 / 681
Page 23
2 2
2 2
1 . '
' . ' ' , ' ,
v r c
r r v r t v t t
v c
c v

| |
| |
= + = =
|
|
\ .
\ .

Which shows that the formula remain same for transforming coordinate systems back again to
the original system as expected, as all motions are learnt to be relative .
Page 365 / 681
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Page 1
CHAPTER 21: GEOMETRY OF STRAIGHT LINES
1: Equation of a St line from a point in a given direction in vector form:
As we have discussed in earlier chapter, vectors do oversimplify things. You would like to see derivation of
equation to a st line and planes are almost axiomatic. To find the equation of a st line, suppose a st line
passes through a given point A (with position vector ( )
1 2 3
, , a a a = a , being the coordinates of the point) and
it is in the direction of unit vector

li m j nk o = + +
(in terms of its direction cosines). Any point R on the st

line would be given by its position vector ( ) , , OR r x y z

= = which would be r a AR

= +
and

AR o =
as the
last two vectors are in the same direction, where is any variable real number ( length of the vector AR
) .
So the equation of the st line is

r = a +...................................................(a)
Note : when we write some letter in bold, either it may be a vector or it is just to emphasize , depends
upon context. When writing vectors in bold, no arrow mark is needed over it.
The equation of a st line is got with almost no effort. And this is the equation in two and three dimensions .
This is just translating a plain statement into the language of vectors. To find the equations in two and three
dimensions as read in traditional coordinate geometry, call it Cartesian form, for convenience, we just
separate the coordinates and we are done. See below: Putting ( )
1 1 1
, , x y z = a
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 2 3
1 1 1
1 1 1
, , , , , , , ,
, , ,
- - -
, ....................................( )
x y z x y z l m n x l x m x n
or x x l y y m z z n
x x y y z z
or b
l m n

= + = + + +
= + = + = +
= = =
This is the same equation as above read in traditional analytical solid geometry, only this is in bold just to
highlight the formula and no vectors are there. Remember that o
is the vector AR
, is the length AR
(distance between( ) , , x y z and( )
1 1 1
, , x y z ) and
, , l m n
are its projections on the axes respectively.
(In three dimensions
1
x x l = + ,
1
y y m = + and
1
z z n = + )
These are called parametric equations of st line, being parameter, or any real number.
O
P
Q
R
A
a
r
Equation of a st line through A || to
Page 366 / 681

Page 2
Note that the direction cosines may be replaced by direction ratios since they are proportional to them
so this equation is not affected as is any real number. But if l, m, n are not direction cosines, , is not the
length AR (distance between( ) , , x y z and( )
1 1 1
, , x y z )
Note that a st line is completely determined by any two parameters, such as , a point on it and a
direction, two points on it, passing through a point and perpendicular to a given line , etc.
2: Intersecting st lines
Let this be explained with an example. To show that the st line
-1 - 2 - 3
2 3 4
x y z
= = meets the st line
- 4 -1
5 2
x y
z = = .This is easy to test. Take any point on the first st line as 1 2 , 2 3 , 3 4 x y z = + = + = + .
If some point on this is also a point on the second line, then 4 5 , 1 2 , x y z = + = + = . If so, then
4 5 1 2 , 1 2 2 3 , 3 4 + = + + = + = + ; or, ( ) ( ) 4 5 3 4 1 2 , 1 2 3 4 2 3 , + + = + + + = +
Solving the equations, 1 = = . So the two st lines intersect at 1 2 , 2 3 , 3 4 x y z = + = + = + ,
1 = = , i.e. at the point ( ) 1, 1, 1 .
If the equations are inconsistent the st lines do not meet and are called skew lines.
Exercise1
Given that the lines
-1 1 -1
2 3 4
x y z +
= = and
- 3
1 2
x y
z

= = intersect, find the value of .
Ans.
9
2
=
Exercise2
Show that the points ( ) ( ) ( ) 3, 2, 4 , 5, 4, 6 , 9,8, 10 are collinear . Find the ratio in which the point ( ) 5, 4, 6
divides the line joining the other two.
Ans. .
Exercise3
Find the st line passing through ( ) 3, 4, 2 parallel to the vector ( ) 9, 6, 2
Ans.
3 4 2
9 6 2
x y z + +
= = ( Distinguish clearly between position vector ( ) 3, 4, 2 and free vector ( ) 9, 6, 2 .
Do the problem again in 3D coordinate geometry without vectors as derived below.
3: In two dimensions, it may be written as
1 1 1
1
,
x x y y y y m
or M
l m x x l

= =
slope of the st line. Do

not confuse m with M, we are using the symbol m in connection with direction cosine, and M in connection
with slope whereas m is the standard symbol for slope in the traditional books of coordinate or analytical
geometry. We reiterate the traditional methods below not just only to show the vector methods are so easier
vis a vis traditional methods, but to get a different view and also to have substantial help in problems.
In a better way,
1 1
x x y y
l m

= can be written as
1 1
- -
.........( )
cos sin
x x y y
r b
u u
= =
putting ( )
1 1 1
, , a x y z
=
.
Page 367 / 681
Page 3
Look at the accompanying figure ( )
1 1
, A x y is a fixed point on the st line LL and ( ) , P x y is any point on it . If
length of AP = r and is the angle it makes with the x axis , we put ( )
1 1
, x y for
( )
,
x y
a a . Naturally the
direction cosine with Y axis
( )
0
cos 90 sin m u u = = then
1 1
cos , sin x x r y y r u u = = and the
above equation follows. The formula gives us a further useful information
1
cos x x r u = +
and
1
sin y y r u = + ; coordinates of any point on the st line can be stated in terms of the angle and
distance from a fixed point.
Results for two dimensions deduced from three dimensional considerations are consistent with those results
derived independently for two dimensions as given hereafter.
4: St line through a given point parallel to a given direction in vector form:
Suppose R with position vector r is any point of a st line passing through a particular point A with position
vector a and parallel to a given vector e . The origin may be chosen anywhere. For any point R on the line
passing through A and parallel to e the vector r a is parallel to e so that their cross product is 0. Then
the equation to the st line is
- 0 r a e

| |
=
|
\ .

....................................................(d )
S
A
T
e
R
p
O
X
Y
L
A

P
L
N
M
Page 368 / 681
Page 4
( also
r a t
- = ........................(d )
as
- r a and e

are parallel to each other)

Which is equivalent to saying that e is in the direction of r a , i.e., r a is a numerical (scalar) multiple of e.
or, r a e

=

, which we have already derived in the previous article. You can mark here how easy these
derivations are and just separating the coordinates gives the corresponding formula in three or two
dimensions.
There is no need of a figure as such we have made below.
5: Length of perpendicular and foot of it on this line from an outside point P
But the figure is to illustrate another point or another aspect in the equation. Cross products are called upon
generally we have two vectors are perpendicular or one has a perpendicular component on the other. ( else
the cross product is 0). So this form of equation to a st line may be called to be in perpendicular form.
To find the length of perpendicular ST from a point S from outside of this st line, we note that it is
numerically equal to the perpendicular component of the vector AS =
s a. So we have,
................................................................( ) p s a e e

| |
=
|
\ .

since the perpendicular component is magnitude of its cross product with a unit vector.
The position vector n foot of the perpendicular N is given by
. - ...............................................( ) a AT a e s a f

| |
+ = +
|
\ .
since the parallel component is magnitude of its dot product with a unit vector.
Aliter
If the st line AB is given by the equation
r a b = +

, this is the point for some value of
. We have
PL a b o = +

and a unit vector in the direction is
b
. Perpendicularity condition gives

( ) ( )
( )
2
.
. 0 . . 0
a b
a b b a b b b
b
o
o o

+ = + = =

so that the position vector of the point L is given

by
( ) ( )
2 2
. .
, . .,
a b a b
a b i e a b
b b
o o
| |

|

|
|
\ .

.The length of the perpendicular is
( )
2
. a b
b
b
o
o
| |
|
|
\ .

B
Aa
P
( )
o
L
( )
a b +

Page 369 / 681
Page 5
Aliter
Let the st line through A be
1 1 1
x x y y z z
a b c

= =
.If PL is perpendicular from
( ) , , P o |
,then the
coordinates of L may be taken as( )
1 1 1
, , x a y b z c + + +
as it is on AB,
so that the direction ratios of PL is
given by ( )
1 1 1
, , x a y b z c o | + + +
. Since the PL and AB are perpendicular to each other,
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1
1 1 1 2 2 2
0
x a y b z c
x a a y b b z c c
a b c
o |
o |
+ +
+ + + + + = =
+ +
.The foot of the
perpendicular would be given by putting this value of
in( )
1 1 1
, , x a y b z c + + +
and the length of the
perpendicular would be given by distance between the points P and L. As an exercise, show that it is given
by
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 2
2 2 2
b x a y c y b z a z c x
PL
a b c
o | | o + + ( ( (

=
+ +
Or ,
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
2 2 2
x y y z z a x
a b b c c a
PL
a b c
o | |
+ +
=
+ +
Though the formula is not convenient or useful to remember, the process can be remembered and the
process is very useful in numerical problems to find out foot of the perpendicular or length of the
perpendicular.
6: Without vectors
Let the coordinates of S be ( ) , , S o | and that of A be ( )
1 1 1
, , A x y z and direction cosines of the line AT be
( ) , , l m n whose equation is
1 2 3
x x y x z x
l m n

= = .
S
A
T
e
R
p
B
L
P( ) , , o |
( )
1 1 1
, , A x y z
Page 370 / 681
Page 6
We have ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
- - - - - - - - p ST AS AT x y z l x m y n z o | o | = = = + + + + (

since AT is the projection of AS on the st line.
7: Parallel or perpendicular St lines; angle between two lines.
Take two st lines as
r a o = +

and
r b | = +

1
. They are in the directions of unit vectors and o |

respectively.
If they are not unit vectors, make them unit vectors by dividing the equations throughout by respective norms
of these
vectors.
The angle between them is given by

2
cos . . , , sin 1 cos
sin
tan
cos
or also
or
u o | o | u o | u
u
u
u
= = = =
=
So the lines are parallel if cos 1, , sin 0 tan or u u u = = =
And are perpendicular if cos 0 cot , , sin 1 or u u u = = =
This is true in both cases when the st lines intersect or not, for, the angle between two lines is defined as
angle between two vectors drawn from a point, each one of which is parallel to one of the given lines.
So from angle only we can not determine whether the lines intersect or are skew. If solution exists, then they
intersect otherwise they are skew.
8: Vector Equation of straight line between two given points in 2-D and 3-D:
To find the equation of a st line between two given points A and B with position vectors a and b respectively
as an example, take the position vector of any point on the st line R with position vector r ( with respect to
whatever origin O chosen), we observe , AR r a =

and the vector AB b a =

are in the same direction wherever R may be on the st line, and they must be scalar multiples of each other.
So we have the vector equation of the st line AB as
r a b a

| |
= +
|
\ .
for some real number
, i.e., r a b a

| |
= +
|
\ .
Or , equivalently, ( ) 1 r a b a r a b r a b

| |
= + = + = +
|
\ .
where 1 + = , where is any
real number.

1
Do not confuse same r
in both cases. They are different equations just as x+3y =4 and 2x-y =3.
O
b
B
r
R
a
A
Equation of a st line between the points A and B
Page 371 / 681
Page 7
A standard technique to translate the vector results into coordinate geometry, especially in the area of st
lines and planes is just separating the rectangular components.
As an example, putting ( ) ( )
1 1 1 2 2 2
, , , , , a x y z b x y z

= = rewrite r a b a

| |
= +
|
\ .
in terms of its components as
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1
1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1
1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1
1 1 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , ,
, , ,
- - -
, .................................................
- - -
x y z x y z x y z x y z
or x y z x x x y y y z z z
or x x x x y y y y z z z z
x x y y z z
or
x x y y z z
= + (

= + + + (

= + = + = +
= = = ( ) a
In two dimensions, simply z may be omitted so that
1 1
2 1 2 1
- -
- -
x x y y
x x y y
= is the st line through
( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
, , , x y x y
.
In complex numbers in 2D
If z is taken for a variable complex number in a plane, and a, b and r , are complex numbers, the same
equation ( )
1 2 1
z z z z = +
holds for equation of a st line passing through points
( ) ( )
1 2
A z and B z
where
is a real number
, for, this is the equation got by joining
( )
1 2 1
x x x x = +
and
( )
1 2 1
iy iy iy iy = +
Alternatively,
( )
1 2 1 2
z=z 1 +z z= z +z
where
+=1
and
is a real number
.
The statement is easy to prove and has been left to the reader as an exercise. This is in parametric form.
Do not confuse z with z coordinate, it is a complex number in the context here
In another way, you may show that if
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
, P z A z and B z
are on the st line, then
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
' , ' ' P z A z and B z
are also collinear on another line, which is mirror image of the line about x
axis.( see figure below) and
also
1 1
2 1 2 1
' ' - -
' ' - -
AP A P z z z z
AB A B z z z z
= =

A(z
1
)
B(z
2
) P(z)
( )
1
' A z
( )
' P z
( )
2
' B z
O
X
Y
Page 372 / 681
Page 8
which may be taken as the equation of the st line devoid of parameter. In other words
( )
( )
1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1
0 z z z z z z z z z z + =
.
Equivalently, the st line between ( ) ( )
1 2
A z and B z
may be taken as
1 1
2 2
1
1 0
1
z z
z z
z z
=
which is got on simplification of the above.
9: Length of a perpendicular from a point to a st line joining two points.
If ( ) , , R o | be any given point with position vector ( ) , , r o |
= and AB a given line between the points

( )
1 1 1
, , A x y z = and ( )
2 2 2
, , B x y z = with position vectors ( )
1 1 1
, , a x y z
= and ( )
2 2 2
, , b x y z
= respectively, we
have to find RL, the length of perpendicular from R on AB; we have
( ) ( )
( )
1 1 1
AR r a x i y j z k o |

= = + +
,and
( ) ( )
( )
2 1 2 1 2 1
AB b a x x i y y j z z k

= = + +
.A unit vector in the direction of AB is

b a
b a

and the
component of AR
in this direction is .
b a b a
r a
b a b a

(
(

| |
( |
\ .
(

(

2
. r a b a
b a
b a

| | | |

| |
| | \ . \ .
=
|
\ .
. So
2
.
...........................()
r a b a
RL r a b a
b a

| | | |

| |
| | | | \ . \ .
=
| |
\ . \ .
.
An alternative approach .
Find the perpendicular distance from a point R on a st line PQ.
A(x
1
,y
1,
z
1
)
R (, , )
L
B(x
2
,y
2,
z
2
)
Length of a perpendicular from a point
Page 373 / 681
Page 9
Hint : The vector area of the triangle PQR is
1
2
q r r p p q + +

which is base . height .The base of the
triangle is q p

. So height is
q r r p p q
q p
+ +

, as the vector
PQ q p =

.
10: In Cartesian form
If ( ) , , l m n are direction cosines of AB. AS AL is the projection of AR on AB it is given by
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1
AL l x m y n z o | = + + and as
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
RL AR AL x y z l x m y n z o | o |
(
= = + + + + (

And this can be calculated in numerical problems.
Exercise4
Find the equation of the st line through the points ( ) 2, 3, 1 and( ) 8, 1, 2
Ans.
2 3 1
6 2 3
x y z + +
= = .
Exercise5
Find the point on the line
1 2 3
2 3 6
x y z +
= =
which is at a distance 3 units from the point
( ) 1, 2,3
.
Ans. It is observed that the point
( ) 1, 2,3
is on the st line itself (each member 0 putting the values).
A(x
1
,y
1,
z
1
)
R( , , )
L
B(x
2
,y
2,
z
2
)
Length of a perpendicular from a point
R
Q P
S
Page 374 / 681
Page 10
Let the desired point be
( ) 1 , 2 ,3 lr mr nr + + +
on the line where
3 r = . But ( ) , , l m n must be the direction
cosines of the line, . The direction cosines must be
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
6 2 3 6 2 3
, , , , , ,
7 7 7
6 2 3 6 2 3 6 2 3
l m n
| |
| |
= =
| |
\ .
+ + + + + + \ .
Putting th values the point is
1 5 39 13 23 3
, , , , , ,
7 7 7 7 7 7
or
| | | |

| |
\ . \ .
.
11: The Straight Line in two Dimensions; Linear function in one independent variable
(Without vectors):
A function f(x) is called linear function if it is of one degree in x, such as y = Mx + C or f(x) = Mx + C.
12: Equation of Straight line : y = mx + c form : (slope and intercept form)
The angle made by any st line with the positive direction of the X axis is called its slope angle
generally denoted by the symbol and tan
PR
OR
= is called its slope or gradient and denoted by the
symbol M in this book . Verify that this slope is a constant for any st line, for, you may choose two points P
and Q anywhere on the st line e.g., at Q and S and by similar triangles PQR and QSO slope is observed to
be a constant for the st line. In fact a st line may be fixed if the slope is given and a point on it is given. If q is
the given point with coordinates (0, C) i.e., OQ = C, called intercept on Y axis or Y intercept. If a straight
line has slope M and its intercept on the Y-axis is C, we can find its equation. Let P(x, y) be any point on it,
draw the abscissa OT and the ordinate PT and draw perpendicular QR on the ordinate PT from the point of
intersection Q of the straight line with the Y-axis. We have, y = PR + RT =(PR/QR) x QR + QC = (PT/ST) x
OT + OQ = Mx + C . Thus the equation of the straight line is ( ) . y Mx C or f x Mx C = + = +

To find the
intercept on the X=axis, put y = 0 in the equation , so that 0 = Mx + C which gives, x = - C/M
Alternatively,
Since Slope of the st line is
( )
0
cos 90
sin
tan
cos cos
m

= = =
, and
( )
0
cos 90
is its direction cosine with
y axis and
cos
is its direction cosine with x axis, an unit vector in the direction of the st line may be
O
P(x, y)
T
Q
X
R
S
X
Y
Y
Straight line : slope and intercept form

Page 375 / 681
Page 11
taken as
( ) ( )
0
cos ,cos 90
. A point on the st line is (0, c) and its equation is
( )
0
0
cos cos 90
x y c

=
,
which simplifies to
tan y x c = +
.
Conversely,
A function of the type y = Mx +C or f(x) = Mx + C , equation of first degree in one variable is called a
linear function as its graph is a straight line as shown below.
It can be verified that the intercept of the graph on the Y-axis is C ( Put x = 0 in the equation, which gives f(0)
= C, so that (0,C) is a point on the graph, the point Q on the graph; see fig. 2.12a). m is the tangent of the
angle the straight line makes with the X-axis ,say, or tan . (For any point P(x, y) on the graph, drop a
perpendicular QR on the ordinate PT ; angle PQR = angle PST where the line intersects the X-axis at S, so
tan =PR/QC = (PT- RT)/OT = (f(x) C)/x = M, which is a given constant no matter whatever point (x, y) we
may choose).
It immediately follows that two straight lines y = Mx + C and y = Nx + D, (lines L
1
M
1
and L
2
M
2
in fig.
2.12.d) , are parallel to each other if their slopes are equal, i.e. , if tan
1
= m and tan
2
= n, then
M = N is the condition that the st. lines are parallel.
If the two straight lines are perpendicular to each other, ,(lines L
2
M
2
and L
3
M
3
in fig. 2.10.d) ,
1
-
3
=
t/2 , so, cot (
1
-
3
) = cot t/2 =0 = 0
cot cot
cot cot 1
3 1
3 1
=

+
,or
1 + cot
1
cot
3
= 0 , or cot
1
cot
3
= - 1 , or tan
1
tan
3
= - 1 or
M
1
M
2
= -1, which is the condition for the two st. lines to be perpendicular.
13: General equation of 1st degree in x and y is a straight line:
Given any equation of 1
st
degree in one variable , Ax + By + C = 0, we may manipulate it to the form
y = (-A/B)x + (-C/B) so that the slope is (-A/B) and the intercept on Y-axis is (-C/B). Hence the graph of the
equation is a straight line. Again do not confuse C as y intercept here but the intercept is C/B here with
reference to the contest.
Note This is in two dimension only; i.e., in a plane. In three dimensions, 0 Ax By Cz D + + + = is not a st
line, but a plane as we would see later.
Parametric form
Any point on the st line
0 Ax By C + + =
may be written as
,
Ax C
x
B
+
| |
|
\ .
or
,
At C
t
B
+
| |
|
\ .
, where t is a
parameter.
This fact is sometimes useful in simplifying problems. As an example, you may be asked to solve the
equations 5 x y + = and 2 3 13 x y + = .The real importance would appear in complicated problems.
Let us write 0 ax by c + + = , the equation of a st line as2 2 2 0 ax by c + + =
O X
Y
P(z)
O X
Y
P(z)
Q(z0)
Page 376 / 681
Page 12
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) 2 0 2 0
0 , , 2
ax iay ibx by ax ibx iay by c a ib x iy a ib x iy c
Az Az C where a ib A x iy z C c
+ + + + + + = + + + + =
+ + = + = + = =
So the general equation of a st line in complex numbers can be written as

0 Az Az C + + =
Misc Exercises remember
6) Show that eqn of a line passing through origin is ( ) arg z o =
7) Show that eqn of a line passing through the point
0
z is ( )
0
arg z z o =
8) Show that
1
2
arg 0,
z z
z z
t
| |
=
|
\ .
represents
a st line passing through
1 2
, z z but excluding the segment
between them.
9) Show that
1 2 1 2
z z z z z z = represents a st line passing through
1 2
, z z but excluding the
segment between them.
Exercise10
Find the equation of a st line cutting off intercept 2 from the y axis and making an angle 120
0
with the x-axis.
Ans.
0
tan120 2 3 2 y x y x = + = +
Exercise11
Find a unit vector in the direction of the st line 3 2 y x = + .
Hint. Take any two points on it, e.g. ( ) 0, 2 and
2
, 0
3
| |
|
\ .
on it, by assigning arbitrary values to x and finding
y from the equation. The vector joining the points shall be
2 2
0, 0 2 , 2
3 3
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
. Find it modulus
( )
2
2 2 4
2
3 3
| |
+ =
|
\ .
and divide the vector
2
, 2
3
| |
|
\ .
by the modulus
4
3
to get a unit vector
2 4 4 1 3
/ , 2 / ,
2 2 3 3 3
| |
| |
=
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
. You may verify whether it is a unit vector or not, by finding out its modulus.
14: Results from parametric form of st line
A) Distance of a st line from a fixed point in a given direction in 2D
As a corollary to this , we get a formula for distance of a st line from a fixed point in a given direction .
Let ( ) , A h k be a fixed point and we have to find how far is the st line 0 Ax By C + + = from it if we proceed
from it in the direction at an angle with the
x axis. Let a st line AP in this direction drawn from A meets 0 Ax By C + + = at P, at a distance r from A.
Page 377 / 681
Page 13
By the previous result, the coordinates of P are ( ) cos , sin h r k r u u + + . This also satisfies 0 Ax By C + + = .
So,
( ) ( ) cos sin 0
................................................( )
cos sin
A h r B k r C
Ah Bk C
AP r c
A B
u u
u u
+ + + + =
+ +
= =
+
B) sin and cos
Slope of a st line AB whose coordinates are ( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
, , , x y x y
is
2 1
2 1
tan
y y
x x
whereas the distance AB

between them is ( ) ( )
2 2
2 1 2 1
d x x y y = + . So
2 1 2 1
- -
sin ,cos
y y x x
d d
= =
Exercise12
Find the st line which passes through (1, 2) and meets the st line 4 x y + = at a distance
2
3
. Hint. Find
the slope angle from the above formula, and then use
1 1
- -
cos sin
x x y y
u u
=
Exercise13
A st line passes through the point ( ) 3,1, 4 and is parallel to the vector ( ) 6, 2, 3 . Find the length of the
perpendicular upon it let fall from the point ( ) 4, 2, 3 . Ans. 6.058
15:
Foot of the perpendicular in two dimensions
Let
0 Ax By C + + =
be the st line and we have to find the foot of the perpendicular from ( )
1 1
, P x y and let the
foot of the perpendicular be
( ) , M a b
. Since M is a point on the line, 0 Aa Bb C + + = . Slope of the line PM is
1
1
y b
x a
and that of
0 Ax By C + + =
is
A
B
. So
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
1
y b B x a y b Ax By Aa Bb Ax By C
x a A A B A B A B
+ + +
= = = =
+ +
.
So
1 1 1 1
1 1 2 2 2 2
- , -
Ax By C Ax By C
a x A b y B
A B A B
+ + + +
= =
+ +
Note This can be remembered as a formula to be employed in problems.
Note:
1 1
2 2
Ax By C
A B
+ +
+
is the length of the perpendicular.
Exercise14
Join the two points ( ) 8, 6, 8 and ( ) 2, 3, 4 and drop a perpendicular on this st line from ( ) 1, 2, 6 . Find the
length of the perpendicular, foot of the perpendicular and its equation.
Let A be the point ( ) 8, 6, 8 and B be the point ( ) 2, 3, 4 so that
( ) ( ) ( ) 2,3, 4 8, 6, 8 6, 3, 4 AB b a = = =

. A unit vector in the direction of AB
would be
Page 378 / 681
Page 14
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
2
6, 3, 4 6, 3, 4
61
6 3 4
e

= =
+ +
. If P be the point ( ) 1, 2, 6 , then

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) 26, 48, 3
6 3 4
1, 2, 6 8, 6, 8 , ,
61 61 61 61
p a e

| |
= =
|
\ .

The length of the perpendicular is
( ) 26, 48, 3
7
61
=
The foot of the perpendicular is
( )
( )
( ) 26, 48, 3
26 48 3
. - 8, 6, 8 8 , 6 , 8
61 61 61 61
a e p a

| |
+ = + = + +
|
\ .

The equation of the perpendicular is that joining the points( ) 1, 2, 6 and
26 48 3
8 , 6 , 8
61 61 61
| |
+ +
|
\ .
i.e.
1 2 6
26 48 3
8 1 6 2 8 6
61 61 61
x y z +
= =
+ + +
i.e.
1 2 6
26 48 3
9 4 14
61 61 61
x y z +
= =
+ +
16: Length of the perpendicular from A(h, k) on 0 Ax By C + + =
By the previous result, first we have to find out for which the line joining A to the st line
0 Ax By C + + = is perpendicular to the latter st line. In that case, if is the angle of 0 Ax By C + + = with the
x axis, then
0
90 u = and we knows the slope tan
A
B
= . Eliminating from these two equations, we
have, tan
B
A
u = , so that
2 2
cos sin 1
A B
A B
u u
= =
+
and hence
2 2
2 2
2 2
cos sin
A B
A B A B
A B
u u
+
+ = = +
+
with this value, we get the length of the perpendicular
2 2
cos sin
Ah Bk C Ah Bk C
AP r
A B
A B
u u
+ + + +
= = =
+
+
Remember to find the length of perpendicular from (h, k) on
0 Ax By C + + =
just replace (x, y) with (h, k)
in its normal form
2 2
Ax By C
A B
+ +
+
, of course taking the absolute value. ( for normal form see below, that is
simpler and easier to understand).
In the same line of deduction perpendicular from (h, k) on
cos sin 0 x y p o o + =
is
cos sin h k p o o +
The point (h, k) may be written as h ik o = + in complex numbers . To find the perpendicular from this point
h ik o = + onto the st line 0 Az Az B + + = is
2
2 2
A A B A A B
A
A A
o o o o + + + +
=
+
.
Page 379 / 681
Page 15
Actually ( )( ) ( )( ) 0 0 2 2 0 Az Az B a ib x iy a ib x iy B ax by B + + = + + + + = + + = which has
perpendicular from (h, k) as
2 2
2 2
2
4 4
ah bk B A A B
A
a b
o o + + + +
=
+
.
17: Angle between two straight lines :
Let two straight lines be y = m
1
x + c
1
and y = m
2
x + c
2
. We know, slopes are given by tan
1
= m
1
and tan
2
= m
2
. Angle between the straight lines is now
1
-
2
, which is given by
1 2 1 2
1 2
1 2 1 2
tan - tan -
tan ( - )
1 tan tan 1
m m
mm

= =
+ +
In particular, if the lines (L
1
M
1
and L
2
M
2
) are parallel, tan (
1
-
2
) should be 0
which gives, m
1
m
2
= 0 or m
1
= m
2
, (see fig. 2.12d).
If the lines (L
1
M
1
and L
3
M
3
) are perpendicular to each other, tan (
1
-
2
) should be which gives 1 +
m
1
m
2
= 0 or m
1
m
2
= -1. (see fig. 2.12d).
18: When the st.lines Ax + By + C = 0 and Px + Qy + R = 0 coincide completely:
Algebraically, the two st.lines would not be different if one of them is got by multiplying the other with
a constant, k say.
i.e. Ax + By + C k(Px + Qy + R) for whatever values of x and y.(An identity)
A = kP, B = kQ and C = kR equating coefficients of corresponding terms.
R
C
Q
B
P
A
= = . i.e., the coefficients of two eqns be proportional.
We have already proved it for equations of any degree beforehand.
Conversely, if the coefficients of the two eqn.s are proportional, one of them would be got merely by
multiplying the other throughout by a constant factor which means the equations are not independent and
hence not different.
19: When Ax + By + C = 0 and Px + Qy + R = 0 are parallel or perpendicular
Since the slopes of the two st lines are
A
B
and
P
Q
respectively, the two st lines shall be parallel when
A
B
=
P
Q
, i.e.
A B
P Q
= .
The two st lines would be perpendicular to each other when the slopes are negative reciprocals of each
other, i.e., when 0
A P
AQ BP
B Q
= + = .
Exercise15
Show that the conditions may be spelt out in other words like :
0 0 Ax By C and Ax By D + + = + + = are parallel st lines and
0 - 0 Ax By C and Bx Ay D + + = + = are perpendicular st lines.
Or still in other words 0 Ax By D + + = may be taken any line || to 0 Ax By C + + =
And 0 Bx Ay D + = may be taken as any st line perpendicular to 0 Ax By C + + = .
D may be chosen so as to fulfill some other condition.
Similarly y Mx C and y Mx D = = are two parallel st lines and
Page 380 / 681
Page 16
y Mx C and My x D = + = are two perpendicular st lines.
Exercise 16 remember
Find the equation of a st line passing through (h, k) and perpendicular to ( ) 2 yk a x h = +
Ans. ( ) ( ) 2 0 a y k k x h + =
20: Equation of a st line whose intercepts with axes are given :intercepts form:
We can find the graph of the straight line if its intercepts on X-axis is given to be a and that on the Y-axis is
given to be b. (see fig. above) . For any point on the line P, draw its abscissa OQ and ordinate PQ. The
triangles TSO and TPQ are similar and as such, their sides are proportional. OS / PQ = OT / QT
( ) b / y a / a x = which gives
x/a + y/b = 1 ,
which is in a symmetrical form.
By manipulating this equation , we get 0 / y bx a b = + so that slope / M b a = and y intercept C
= b.
If the st.line is in y = Mx +C form , its intercept with x-axis is given by putting y = 0 , which gives x =
0 C/M . Intercept with y-axis is C. It can be verified that 1
x y
C
C
M
+ =
is the same equation as x/a + y/b = 1,

thus there is nothing special in one particular form or other and we can change the equation to the form we
like. Thus we can compare the forms and get the intercepts if the slope is given or get the slope if intercepts
are given.
The equation 0 Ax By C + + = has the slope
A
B
as it can be written in the form
A C
y x
B B
= and has
intercepts
C
A
and
C
B
on the on X axis and on Y axis respectively as the equation can be rewritten as
1
x y
C C
A B
+ =

and the intercepts may be found by putting y = 0 and x = 0 respectively.
The equation could otherwise been derived by equating the area of the triangle OST with the sum of the
areas of OSP and OPT ; i.e., OT.OS = OS.RP + OT.PQ . Since RP = OQ = x, and PQ = y, also
OT = a and OS = b, we have
1 1 1
1
2 2 2
x y
ab ay bx
a b
= + + =
Equation of st line in intercepts form
O
P
Q
T
S
R
X
Y
Page 381 / 681
Page 17
Alternatively,
The st line passes through two points S(0, b) and T(a, 0) and if P(x, y) be any point on it, the equation is
given by
0
0 0
x a y
a b

=

as ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
, ,0 , , 0, x y a x y b = = , which gives 1
x y
a b
+ = .
Alternatively,
Position vector
x y x y
p xi y j OT OS a b
OT OS a b
= + = + = +

.
But
( )
( ) 1 p a t b a a t tb = + = +

for some t. Comparing the coefficients, 1 ,
x y
a a
a b
= = . So for any
point 1
x y
a b
+ =
Example17
Find the equation of a st line passing through the point (3, -4) and cutting off equal and opposite intercepts
from both the axes .
Let the st line be 1
x y
a a
= as the intercepts are equal. As it passes through (3, 4) then
3 4
1 7 a
a a
| |
= =
|
\ .
, which gives the equation of the st line 7 x y = .
Exercise18
The intercept of a st line between the axes is divided in the ratio 1:2 at the point (-5,4). Find its equation.
Hint. Let the intercepts on axes be a and b respectively. Find the coordinates of the point which divides the
segment between (a, 0) and (0, b) in the ratio 1:2.
Ans. 5 8 60 y x = .
Exercise19
Derive the equation 1
x y
a b
+ = from the fact that sum of the areas of the triangle POT and the triangle POS is
the area of the triangle SOT.
21: Equation of a straight line if perpendicular on it from origin is given: Normal Form
Let the straight line be ML as in fig. .above, where perpendicular drawn onto it, OR = p, and the
angle made my the perpendicular with the X-axis be o = angle ROL. Let P(x, y) be any point on it, draw its
abscissa OQ and its ordinate PQ.
Equation of st line in perpendicular form
O
P
Q L
M
R
p
X
Y
Page 382 / 681
Page 18
Now the x intercept OL of the st line ML is (OL / p) . p = p sec , and its y intercept OM is p sec (90
0
)=
p cosec . Hence the equation is 1 cos sin
sec cos
x y
x y p
p p ec
o o
o o
+ = + =
Note that o = - t/2 as angle MLX = angle ROL + angle ORL.
Equation in this form immediately yields the following useful results, although the results may be derived
otherwise.
Aliter
The points
( ) ( ) ( ) sec ,0 , , , 0, cos L p P x y M p ec o o
are collinear. So
sec 0 1
1 0
0 cos 1
p
x y
p ec
o
o
=
which simplifies into the formula
cos sin x y p o o + =
.
Misc. Exercises
Find the equation of the st line in the following conditions.
20) X intercept 3 and slope angle
1
3
tan
5
Ans. 3 5 15 x y =
21) Slope angle 30
0
and y intercept 2 . Ans. 3 2 3 x y =
22) Intercepts 5 and 6 from the x and y axes respectively. 5 6 30 y = +
23) Equally inclined to the axes and y intercept - 5 . Ans. 5 x y =
24) Passes through (h, k) and the intercepted portion between the axes is bisected there.
Ans. 2 xk yh hk + =
25) Passes through (g, h) and the intercepted portion between the axes is divided in the ratio k:1 there.
Hint. Let the st line be 1
x y
a b
+ = . The point which divides the segment (a, 0) and (0, b) in the ratio
k:1 is
1 0 1 0
, ,
1 1 1 1
a k k b a bk
k k k k
+ + | | | |
=
| |
+ + + +
\ . \ .
. Then a nd b can be found from the condition that
this is the point (g, h). So
( ) ( ) , 1 , 1 1/
1 1
a bk
g h a g k b h k
k k
= = = + = +
+ +
.
26) The st line bisects the distance between st line joining ( ) ( ) , , , a b A B and also the line joining
( ) ( ) , , , a b A B . Ans. 2 2 ay Bx ab AB =
27) The st line passes through the origin and divides the portion of 3 12 x y + = between the axes in the
ratio 1:2 or 2:1. Ans. 6 2 3 y x or y x = =
28) The st line passes through (4, - 5) and parallel to 3 4 5 0 x y + + = .Ans. 3 4 8 0 x y + + =
29) Find the angle of the line with x axis, which is having slope
1
3
. Ans.
0
1
tan 30
3
= =
30) Show that the line joining the points( ) ( ) 7, 1 , 0, 3 is parallel to the line joining the points
( ) ( ) 5,1 , 2,3
Page 383 / 681
Page 19
31) Find the value of k if the slope of the line joining ( ) ( ) , 3 , 2, 5 k is 2. Ans.
3 5
2 1
2
k
k
= =
.
32) Find the slope of the line joining ( ) ( ) , , , a b c d . Ans.
d c
a b
.
33) Test if the points ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
, , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 a b s a s b t a t b + + + are collinear.
Ans.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 1
1 1
s b b t b b
b
s a a a t a a
+
= =
+
; the slopes of the lines joining 1
st
, 2
nd
and 1
st
, 3
rd
are
equal. So they are parallel st lines meeting at ( ) , a b , i.e., coincident st lines.
34) Find , for which ( ) ( ) ( ) 1, 2 , , 2 2 , 4 , 6 2 + are collinear. Ans. 1 = (equate two
slopes).
22: Length of the perpendicular from origin
If the straight line Ax + By + C = 0 is written in the form x cos o + y sin o - p = 0, the two lines are coincident,
then
2 2
2 2
2 2
1 ) sin (cos
B
sin
A
cos
B A
B A
C
p
+
=
+
+
= = =
(by a result from ratio and proportions) which gives
length of the perpendicular from origin
2 2
B A
C
p
+
=
Note here that the perpendicular should be positive, so that C has to be negative. The equation Ax + By + C
= 0 must be modified to make the constant term negative . Alternatively, it is safe always to have
2 2
C
p
A B
=
+
.
23: Distance between two parallel lines:
If the parallel lines are Ax + By + C = 0 and Px + Qy + R = 0 the distance between them is the difference of
lengths of perpendiculars on them from the origin, i.e.,
2 2 2 2
C R
A B P Q

+ +
.
When the two lines are parallel, . ,
1
say
k Q
B
P
A
= = Then the line Px + Qy + R = 0 becomes, k(Ax + By) + R = 0 ,
or, Ax + By + R/k = 0 or, Ax + By + C = 0 .
As such, two parallel lines can be represented as Ax + By + C = 0 and Ax + By + C = 0.
The distance between them is
2 2
- ' C C
A B +
when both the st lines are on the same side of the origin; and
2 2
' C C
A B
+
+
if they are on opposite sides.
Note : In numerical problems, the distance between two parallel lines may be easily calculated by taking
distance of one line from a particular point on the other line, preferably putting x = 0 or y = 0 to get a
particular point.
24: Length of perpendicular from a point to a line
Let the point be (h, k) and the line be Ax + By + C = 0. A parallel line Ax + By + D = 0 could be drawn through
(h, k) ,
Page 384 / 681
Page 20
parallel to it, and the length of the perpendicular from the point (h, k) onto Ax + By + C = 0 would be the
distance between the two lines.
Since the line Ax + By + D = 0 passes through (h, k), Ah + Bk + D = 0 and subtracting this from the
former gives, A(x h) + B(y k) = 0, or, Ax + By Ah Bk = 0. The distance between this line and Ax + By +
C = 0 is given by difference of perpendiculars from origin onto them, which is obtained by just converting the
equations to perpendicular forms.
1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
( ) C Ah Bk Ah Bk C
p p p
A B A B A B
+ +
= = =
+ + +
Aliter
Let the perpendicular from P(h, k) meet the st line Ax + By + C = 0 at M at a distance r from P. If PM makes
an angle
u
with x axis, the coordinates of the point M are
( ) cos , sin h r k r u u + +
and since this is a point on
the st line, ( ) ( ) cos sin 0
cos sin
Ah Bk C
A h r B k r C PM r p
A B
u u
u u
+ +
+ + + + = = = =
+
.
Now, the slope of PM is tan
B
A
u = since it is perpendicular to the given st line whose slope is
A
B
. So
2 2 2 2
sin , cos
B A
A B A B
u u = =
+ +
.
Now
2 2
2 2 2 2
cos sin
Ah Bk C Ah Bk C Ah Bk C
p
A A
A B
A B
A B
A B A B
u u
+ + + + + +
= = =
+
+
+
+ +
. Of course the positive value, i.e.
the absolute value should be taken.
Corollary
Length of perpendicular from P(h, k) on to the st line
cos sin 0 x y p o o + = is
2 2
cos sin
cos sin
cos sin
h k p
h k p
o o
o o
o o
+
= +
+
.
25: Points for working out exercises
In this section of straight lines in a plane of two dimensions x, and y where the z coordinate is absent, you
can work out in any form, slope and intercept form, intercepts form, pedal form etc. but some problems are
certainly easier to solve in one form rather than in any other form. So before solving a problem bring it to a
convenient form. Even merely changing the form of the equation may be the entire solution of the problem.
The examples would illustrate. Also sometimes vector methods are easier than traditional methods and vice
versa. The examples may look oversimplified but important at the same time.
Example34
Find the slope of 1
x y
a b
+ =
Ans. By transforming it to slope and intercept form 1
x y b
y x b
a b a
+ = = + , so that the slope is
b
a
.
Example35
Find the intercepts of y Mx C = + on the axes.
Page 385 / 681
Page 21
Ans. You can put y = 0 for getting intercept on x axis and x = 0 to get intercept on y axis. In other
words find solution of the pair of equations y Mx C = + and x = 0, or the pair y Mx C = + and y = 0.
By merely transforming the equation to intercepts form would also solve the problem.
1 1
Mx y x y
y Mx C Mx y C
C
C C C
M
= + = + = + =

So the intercepts are
C
M
and Crespectively. The earlier method is certainly easier.
Example36
Find the length of perpendicular from the origin onto y Mx C = + .
Ans. Transforming the equation to cos sin x y p o o + = , or pedal form,. we have,
2 2 2
1
1 1 1
M C
Mx y C x y
M M M

= + =
+ + +
we see that absolute values of
2
1
M
M +
and
2
1
1 M
+
are certainly less than 1, and sum of their squares is 1, so they can be taken as
cos sin and o o respectively and hence
2
1
C
p
M
=
+
Note that , since p must be positive always, it is OK if C is negative. Otherwise make C negative by
writing y Mx C = + as y Mx C = .
Similarly length of perpendicular in 0 Ax By C + + = is
2 2
C
p
A B
=
+
and must be positive always.
Example37
Find the intercepts of cos sin x y p o o + = on the axes.
Ans. Transforming it into intercepts form, 1
cos sin
x y
p p
o o
+ = so the intercepts are
cos
p
o
and
sin
p
o
respectively.
Example38
Find the length of perpendicular from the origin onto 1
x y
a b
+ = .
Ans. Instead of transforming it into cos sin x y p o o + = form, just transfer it into
form, 0 Ax By C + + = linear equation of 1
st
degree in two dimensions, i.e. 1 0
x y
bx ay ab
a b
+ = + = .Now,
with the formula
2 2
C
p
A B
=
+
from above, we have
2 2
ab
p
b a
=
+
.
Note still it must be seen that ab is negative if the problem is numerical. Otherwise the equation must be
written as 0 bx ay ab + =
To avoid confusion, take
2 2
C
p
A B
=
+
always.
Page 386 / 681
Page 22
Exercise39 remember
In the figure, AB is a st line cutting oblique coordinates with angle at C(0, c). If the angle it makes with the
x axis is , Show that its equation is given by y nx c = + where
( )
sin
sin
n
o
e o
=
. Hint. From law of sines,

( )
sin
sin
PR y c
CR x
o
e o

= =
. mark the difference from

rectangular coordinates.
Exercise40 remember
In the above oblique coordinates, show that the equation of a st line passing through ( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
, , , x y x y is given
by
2 1 2
2 1 2
y y y y
x x x x

=

, in the same form as in rectangular case.
Exercise41 remember
Show that the equation of the st line in intercept form 1
x y
a b
+ = would still be valid in oblique coordinates, i.e. if
angle between the axes in not a right angle.
Hint. Derive the equation in oblique coordinates from use of similar triangles.
26: Position of a point with respect to a line.
A point (h, k) may lie on the same side of line Ax + By + C = 0 in which the origin lies or shall lie on
the opposite side. A line drawn through (h, k) parallel to
Ax + By + C = 0 is given by Ax + By Ah Bk = 0 . if the length of perpendicular from origin onto this line is
less than that onto Ax + By + C = 0, the origin and (h, k) lie on the same side of Ax + By + C = 0 , otherwise
they lie in opposite sides of it.
So, if
2 2
B A
Bk Ah
+
+
<
2 2
B A
C
+
or Ah + Bk < C or Ah + Bk + C < 0, the point (h, k) lies on the same side of

the st.line in which the origin lies. Similarly , if Ah + Bk + C > 0 the origin and (h, k) lie in opposite sides of
Ax + By + C = 0. It is trivial to observe that if
O
X
Y
P
Q
R
C
A
B
oblique coordinates
-
Page 387 / 681
Page 23
Ah + Bk + C = 0, (h, k) lie on the st.line. All the points represented by(h, k)such that Ah + Bk + C > 0 lie on
one side of the st.line and all the points represented by (s, t) such that As + Bt + C < 0 lie on the opposite
side.
27: Position of two points with respect to a line.
If
1 1
2 2
0
ax by c
ax by c
+ +
<
+ +
then the points
( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
, , , P x y Q x y
lie on the opposite sides of
0 ax by c + + =
Proof : let the line divide PQ in the ratio :1 at a point R on the line. Then coordinates of R is given by
1 2 1 2
,
1 1
x x y y

+ +
| |
|
+ +
\ .
.This is also a point on the st line. So
1 2 1 2 1 1
2 2
0
1 1
x x y y ax by c
a b c
ax by c

+ + + +
| | | |
+ + = =
| |
+ + + +
\ . \ .
. Then if
is positive division is internal and the two

points lie on the opposite sides of the st line. And vice versa otherwise.
28: Straight line passing through a point or through two points:
If a straight line y = Mx + C passes though a point (h, k) its coordinates must satisfy the equation, i.e., k =
Mh + C so that the equation becomes,
y k = M(x h)
on subtraction. (Putting x = h in the above yields y = k; so the straight line passes through (h, k) for whatever
real value M might have. We can also choose M to satisfy some other given condition for the straight line
along with the condition that it passes through (h, k). Note that out of the two parameters m and c of the
straight lines, one parameter is eliminated. A line in the form Ax + By + C = 0 or in any other form has two
parameters only even if it seems having three parameters. Actually these three parameters are not
independent since we can divide the equation throughout by one of them.
If the straight line passes through another point (f, g) also then,
g k = M( f h) which eliminates the second parameter or gives the value of M , or,
-
-
g k
M
f h
= , so that the
equation becomes,
) ( h x
h f
k g
k y
= .or,
- -
- -
y k g k
x h f h
=
We could also have taken the equation of st line 1
x y
a b
+ = .As (h, k) is a point on it, so
- -
1 0
h k x h y k
a b a b
+ = + = is any st line passing through any point (h, k). Here there are not two
parameters a and b to be determined to completely specify the equation, only a/b would suffice as we could
multiply the equation throughout by a.
If the st line passes though another point (f, g) then
- -
0
f h g k
a b
+ = . Taking a /b from the last equation and
putting the value in
- -
0
x h y k
a b
+ = also gives the equation
- -
- -
y k g k
x h f h
= as before.
Page 388 / 681
Page 24
Note :We could also have taken the equation of st line cos sin x y p o o + = . As (h, k) is a point on it, so
( ) ( ) cos sin - cos - sin 0 h k p x h y k o o o o + = + =
May be taken as the equation passing though (h, k). Then may be found if the st line is made to pass
though another point or made to satisfy another condition .
Note :If a family of st lines 0 Ax By C + + = pass through a fixed point ( ) , a b , then 0 Aa Bb C + + = . By
subtraction, Ax By Aa Bb + = + .This equation passes through ( ) , a b whatever real number A and B may
be.
For example, ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
2cos 3sin 3cos 5sin 2cos 3sin 2 1 3cos 5sin 2 1 x y u u u u u u u u + + = + + is
a family of st lines passing through
( )
2 1, 2 1 . In other words , if
( ) ( ) 2cos 3sin 3cos 5sin x y u u u u + + = is assumed to be a family of st lines passing through a point,
then ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) 2cos 3sin 2 1 3cos 5sin 2 1 2 1 5cos 2sin u u u u u u = + + = .
Exercise42
If the family of st lines( ) ( ) 2cos 3sin 3cos 5sin 5cos 2sin x y u u u u u u + + = pass through a fixed point, find
it.
Ans. By simplification, ( ) ( ) 2 3 5 cos 3 5 2 sin 0 x y x y u u + + + = . Since this is true for any value of u , by
putting cos 0 u = we get, 3 5 2 0 x y + = and by putting sin 0 u = we get 2 3 5 0 x y + = . By solving these two
equations, we get, ( ) ( ) , 1,1 x y = . This is the fixed point ( verify).
Exercise43
Show that the family of st lines( ) ( ) 2cos 3sin 3cos 5sin 5cos 2sin x y u u u u u u + + = pass through a fixed
point, ( ) ( ) , 1,1 x y = .
Ans. The equation can be rewritten as
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2cos 3sin 3cos 5sin 2cos 3sin .1 3cos 5sin .1 x y u u u u u u u u + + = + + .
By comparing it with Ax By Aa Bb + = + so we find 1, 1 a b = = .
Exercise44 Remember
Show that the equation of a st line joining two points
( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
, , , A x y B x y
is
1 1
2 2
1
1 0
1
x y
x y
x y
= .
Exercise45 Remember
Show that the equation of a st line joining two points
( ) ( ) cos , sin , cos , sin A B o o | | is
cos sin cos
2 2 2
x y a
o | o | o | + +
+ = .
Hint : simplify ( )
sin sin
sin cos
cos cos
a a
y a x x
a a
| o
o o
| o
also remember in this form.

Exercise46 Remember
Page 389 / 681
Page 25
Find the st line joining the mid point of line joining the points
( ) ( ) cos , sin , cos , sin A B o o | | to the origin and
show that the two lines are perpendicular to each other.
Ans. The line joining
( ) ( ) cos , sin , cos , sin A B o o | | is cos sin cos
2 2 2
x y a
o | o | o | + +
+ = and its slope is
cos
2
sin
2
o |
o |
+
+
. So the slope of a line perpendicular to it is
sin
2
cos
2
o |
o |
+
+
and the eqn of st line passing through the
origin and perpendicular to the given line is
sin
2
sin cos 0
2 2
cos
2
y x x y
o |
o | o |
o |
+
+ +
= =
+
. Now find out the
intersection of the two lines and show it to be
cos cos sin sin
,
2 2
o | o | + +
. Hence the line from the origin is
perpendicular bisector of the line joining A and B.
29: Point of intersection of two straight lines in 2D:
If the two straight lines are Ax + By + C = 0 and Px + Qy + R = 0 and their point of intersection be (h, k) , the
values of h and k may be got by solving the two equations. For, both the st lines pass through this point and
these are the values of x and y which satisfy both the equations and hence this is the point that lies on both
the straight lines. Solving the two equations we have ,
BP AQ
CP RA
y .. AND ,
BP AQ
QC BR
x ,... OR ,..
BP AQ
1
CP RA
y
QC BR
x
Earlier the lines are shown to be parallel when AQ BP =0 . But then both x and y both and as such,
parallel lines are said to be meeting at .
Exercise47
Find the equation of the st line through the following points
a) ( ) ( ) 0, , , 0 a b Ans. ax by ab =
b)
( ) ( )
2 2
, 2 , , 2 at at as st Ans. ( ) 2 2 s t y x ast + =
c) ( ) ( ) cos , sin , cos , sin a a a a u u
Ans. cos sin cos
2 2 2
x y a
u u u + + | | | | | |
+ =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
remember
d) ( ) ( ) , , , a b a b a b + Ans. ( )
2 2
2 2 a b x by a ab b =
Exercise48
Find the equation of the st line if it is diagonal of the rectangle formed by , , , x a x A y b y B = = = =
Ans. ( ) ( ) y A a x B b Ab aB ,and ( ) ( ) x B b y A a AB ab + =
Page 390 / 681
Page 26
Exercise49
Find the equation of the sides of the triangle whose vertices are
a) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0,1 , 0, 2 , 1, 2 Ans. 2 2, x y + = 3 1 y x = , 2 3 4 x y =
b) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1, 2 , 1, 4 , 2, 3 Ans. 3 1, 2 2, 2 3 4 y x x y x y = + = =
Exercise50 REMEMBER
Find the eqn of st line which is passing though (h, k) and parallel to ax by c 0. + + =
Hint. A st line parallel to
ax by c 0. + + =
may be taken as 0. ax by d + + =

as the slopes are to be
equal. If this passes through (h, k) then ah bk 0. d + + = Subtracting the two, ( ) ( ) - - 0. a x h b y k + =

is the
equation so note that it is not necessary to find out d. In fact d is eliminated in the process.
Exercise51 REMEMBER
Find the eqn of st line which is passing though (h, k) and perpendicular to ax by c 0. + + =
Hint. A st line perpendicular to
ax by c 0. + + =
may be taken as - 0. bx ay d + =

as the slopes are to be
negative reciprocals of each other.
If this passes through (h, k) then 0. bh ak d + = Subtracting the two,
( ) ( ) - - b x h a y k =

is the equation so note that it is not necessary to find out d.
Exercise52 REMEMBER
Find the equation of a st line passing through (h, k) and making an angle with the st line
ax by c 0. + + =
Hint. Let 0 Ax By C + + = be the equation. If it passes through (h, k) then 0 Ah Bk C + + = .
Subtracting the two we have ( ) ( ) y 0 A x h B k + = The angle between this and the original st line
should be . So tan
1
A a
B b
A a
B b
o
+
=
+
From which
A
B
could be found out; we need not find A and B separately.
In fact
tan
tan 1 tan tan
tan
1
A a
A a a A a b
B b
A a
B b b B b a
B b
o
o o o
o
+
| |
= + = =
|
+
\ .
+
So
tan
0 0
tan cos sin cos sin
y k a b y k x h
x h b a a b b a
o
o o o o o

+ = + =
+ +
Exercise53
Find the perpendicular bisector of the st line passing through (a, b) and (c, d).
Hint. The st line must have slope as negative reciprocal of
b d
a c
and shall pass through ,

2 2
a c b d + + | |
|
\ .
.
Exercise54
Find the st line perpendicular to sec cos x y ec a o o + = and passing through
( )
2 2
cos , sin a a o o .
Ans. cos sin cos 2 x y a o o o = .
Exercise55
Page 391 / 681
Page 27
Find the pair of st lines at right angles to each other and such that the st line 2 x y = makes equal angles
with each of them. Find the area of the triangle formed by them.
Hint. The st lines make 45
0
angle each with 2 x y = . Ans. x = 3, y = 4. Area 4.5
Exercise56
The following st lines
2
' ' xx yy a + = ,
2 2
' '
1
xx yy
a b
+ = and
2
' ' x y xy a + = are tangents to a circle
2 2 2
2 x y a + = ,the
ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = and hyperbola
2
xy a = at the point (x, y) on the curve. Find the normals to the curves
(perpendicular to the tangents) at the point.
Ans. ' ' 0 xy yx = ,
( )
2 2 2 2
' ' ' ' a xy b x y a b x y = , and
2 2
' ' ' ' xx yy x y = respectively.
Exercise57
Find the equation of st line joining ( ) cos , sin a a o o and ( ) cos , sin a a | | and the length of the perpendicular
from the origin upon it.
Ans. , cos sin cos cos
2 2 2 2
or x y a a
o | o | | o o | + + | | | |
+ = =
| |
\ . \ .
The perpendicular from the origin is cos
2
a
o | | |
|
\ .
since it is already in the form cos sin x y p o o + =
.
Exercise58
In the above problem show that the perpendicular from the origin on the st line joining
( ) cos , sin a a o o
and
( ) cos , sin a a | |
bisects the segment between them.
Hint. The perpendicular from the origin makes an angle
2
o | +
and has the equation
tan sin cos 0
2 2 2
y x x y
o | o | o | + + +
= =
.
Find its intersection with
cos sin cos
2 2 2
x y a
o | o | o | + + | |
+ =
|
\ .
and show that it is
cos cos sin sin
,
2 2
a a
o | o | + + | |
|
\ .
.
Exercise59
Find the length of perpendicular from ( ) , b a onto the st line 1
x y
a b
+ = . Ans.
2 2
2 2
a ab b
a b

+
.
Exercise60
Find the equation of st line passing through (1, 2) and perpendicular to 3 4 0 x y + = .Then find the length
of perpendicular from the origin onto that line.
Hint. Take the line as 3 0 x y k + + = . Pass it through (1, 2) to find k and then find its distance from origin.
Ans.
( )
1
2
2 3 + .
Page 392 / 681
Page 28
Exercise61 remember
Show that the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.
Ans. Let the coordinates of vertices of the triangle ABC be ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 2 3 3
, , , , , A x y B x y C x y
.The st line AD
passes through A and is perpendicular to BC. So its slope must be
3 2
3 2
1
slope of BC
x x
y y
and it equation
must be ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
1 1 2 3 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
3 2
0
x x
y y x x x x x y y y x x x y y y
y y
= + =
.
Similarly the equations of the other two altitudes are, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 1 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1
0 x x x y y y x x x y y y + =
and ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2
0 x x x y y y x x x y y y + = .Adding up the three equations so got we get the
identity 0 =0. Thus the third equation is not linearly independent of the other two, and as such, the st line
representing it passes through the intersection of the other two.
Exercise62 remember
Find the perpendicular bisector of the line segment between (a, b) and (c, d).
Hint. The st line through the points is ( )
b d
y d x c
a c
. We have to find a st line passing through

,
2 2
a c b d + + | |
|
\ .
, and having slope
a c
b d
;
so it is ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
b d a c a c
y x a c x b d y a b c d
b d
+ + | |
= + = + +
|
\ .
.
Exercise63 remember
Show that the perpendicular bisectors of sides of any triangle are concurrent.
Ans. The perpendicular bisector of BC must have slope
3 2
3 2
1
slope of BC
x x
y y
, and, as it passes through

midpoint of BC
2 3 2 3
,
2 2
x x y y + +
| |
|
\ .
its equation must be
2 3 3 2 2 3
3 2
2 2
y y x x x x
y x
y y
+ +
| |
=
|
\ .
, which may be
simplified as ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
2 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 3 3 2 3
0 y y y y y y y y x x x x x x x x + + + = . And two similar
expressions for other two perpendicular bisectors. Adding up the equations makes the result an identity 0 =
0, so the third equation is not independent of the other two, hence passes through their intersection.
30: Image of a point or a line about a st line in 2D
Image of a point P about a st line AB is a point Q on its other side such that AB is perpendicular bisector of
PQ. The point Q may be found out in various ways. A sl line may be found passing through P and
perpendicular to AB as its slope is known and the slope of the line to be found out is its negative reciprocal.
One may find the foot of the perpendicular M otherwise and use the fact that M is midpoint of PQ. Still in
another way, one may first find the slope of PQ, negative reciprocal of that of AB and find the distance of the
line AB from P in this direction and double it. The methods are illustrated below by examples.
Page 393 / 681
Page 29
Exercise64 remember
Find the foot of the perpendicular from the point ( ) 2,3 P on the st line 2 3 9 0 x y + = and its image about the
line.
Hint.
If
( ) , M a b
be the foot of the perpendicular in the figure, and M is a point on the line the slope of PM is
3
2
b
a
which would be negative reciprocal of slope of the line ,

2
3
, i.e.
3
2
. So
2 3
2 3
a b
=
Also since M is a point

on AB,
2 3 9 0 a b + =
. From the three equations,
( ) ( ) 2 2 3 3 2 3 2 3 5 9 5 4
2 3 2.2 3.3 5 5 5
a b a b a b + +
= = = = =

using
2 3 9 0 a b + =
.
So,
18 3
,
5 5
a b = = . Now
2 1
x a a x = and
2 1
y b b y = as M is midpoint, ( )
2 2
, x y may be found out.
Exercise65 remember
O
P(a, b)
Q(a,- b)
R(a,2 - b)
y =
x =
S( - a, b)
T(2 -a, b)
X
Y
P(a, b)
U(b, a)
X
O
Y
y = x
y = - x
V( -b, -a)
A
B
P(x
1
, y
1
)
Q(x
2
,y
2
)
M
Page 394 / 681
Page 30
Show that the image of a point ( ) , P a b about x axis is ( ) , Q a b ; about y axis is ( ) , S a b ; about a line
y | = is ( ) , 2 R a b | and about a line x o = is ( ) 2 , T a b o . Show that the image of ( ) , P a b about st line
y = x is ( ) , U b a and image about y = - x is ( ) , V b a .
Hint : Let us show that the image of ( ) , P a b about st line y = x is ( ) , U b a
.
Supposing ( ) , Q h k
is image of
( ) , P a b
about y = x. Then slope of PQ is negative reciprocal of that of y = x
and the midpoint of PQ lies on y = x. These two facts give,
1
k b
h a
and
2 2
h a k b + +
=
.So we get,
, h b k a = = . Likewise prove the others.
Note1: we can say, reflection of a point
( ) , a b
about the origin is
( ) , a b
and reflection of a st line
0 Ax By C + + =
about the origin is
0 Ax By C + =
.
Note 2:Suppose a point
( ) , a b
undergoes a reflection about x axis , so it becomes( ) , a b when it again
goes through another reflection about y axis , it becomes
( ) , a b
. So a reflection about both the
coordinate axes amounts to a reflection about the origin.
Note 3:Similar statements can be made for curves also; i.e., any equation such as
2
3 y xy x = + etc.
Exercise66 remember
Show that reflection of a st line 0 Ax By C + + = about x axis is 0 Ax By C + =
.
Ans. If
( )
1 1
' ', ' P x y
is image of
( )
1 1
, P x y
about x axis, then
1 1 1 1
' , ' x x y y = =
. Now, if
( )
1 1
, P x y
satisfies
0 Ax By C + + =
,
1 1 1 1
' , ' x x y y = =
would satisfy
0 Ax By C + =
Exercise67 remember
Show that reflection of a st line 0 Ax By C + + = about y axis is 0 Ax By C + + =
.
Exercise68 remember
Show that reflection of a st line 0 Ax By C + + = about x axis is 0 Ax By C + =
.
Exercise69 remember
Show that reflection of a st line 0 Ax By C + + = about the line y = x is 0 Bx Ay C + + =
.
Ans.: If
( )
1 1
' ', ' P x y
is image of
( )
1 1
, P x y
about
y = x
, then
1 1 1 1
' , ' x y y x = =
. Now, if
( )
1 1
, P x y
satisfies
0 Ax By C + + =
,
1 1 1 1
' , ' x x y y = =
would satisfy
0 Ay Bx C + + =
.
Exercise70 remember
Find out the image of the point ( )
1 1
, P x y about the st line tan y x u =
Ans. If
( ) , Q h k
be reflection of
( )
1 1
, P x y
then its slopemust be
1
1
1
tan
k y
h x u

=
.the midpoint of PQ lies on the

line
tan y x u =
. So
1 1
tan
2 2
y k x h
u
+ +
=
. Solving the two equations we get,
1 1 1 1
cos2 sin2 , sin2 cos2 h x y k x y u u u u = + =
Page 395 / 681
Page 31
Exercise71 remember
Find out the image of the point ( )
1 1
, P x y about the st line 0 Ax By C + + =
Ans. The foot of the perpendicular ( ) , M a b from the point ( )
1 1
, P x y on the st line 0 Ax By C + + = is given by
1 1 1 1
1 1 2 2 2 2
,
Ax By C Ax By C
a x A b y B
A B A B
+ + + +
= =
+ +
and the length of the perpendicular is given by
1 1
2 2
Ax By C
A B
+ +
+
. If the image of ( )
1 1
, P x y about the line 0 Ax By C + + = be ( )
1 1
' ', ' P x y , then, M is the
midpoint of PP. So,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 2 2 2 2
' '
,
2 2
x x Ax By C y y Ax By C
x A y B
A B A B
+ + + + + +
= =
+ +
.
Or,
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
' 2 , ' 2
Ax By C Ax By C
x x A y y B
A B A B
+ + + +
= =
+ +
Then
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2
' '
2
x x y y Ax By C
A B A B
+ +
= =
+
Note1: This can be remembered as a formula for finding images.
Note2: It is now evident that a reflection is a coordinate transformation of some kind. For, instead of the
point moving to its image, one could imagine the coordinate axes are transformed suitably. This is evident
from the last equations where the new coordinates (of image) i.e. ( )
1 1
' ', ' P x y are functions of the old
coordinate of the point under consideration ( )
1 1
, P x y
.
Exercise72
Find the image of the point
( )
1 1
, P x y
about the line
2 x y + =
.
Ans.
1 1
1 1 2 2
' 1 ' 1 1.1 1.1 2
2 ' 2 1, ' 2 1
1 1 1 1
x y
x y
+
= = = =
+
Exercise73
Find the coordinates of the point
( ) 3,4 P
under a transformation when the radius vector is rotated through an
angle
4
t
anticlockwise about the x axis .
Ans. Let
( )
1
3,4 z =
, i.e.,
1
3 4 z i = + . Now ( )
4
2 1
3 4 cos sin
4 4
i
z z e i i
t
t t
| |
= = + +
|
\ .
( )
1 1 1 7
3 4
2 2 2 2
i i i
| | | |
= + + = +
| |
\ . \ .
. So the coordinates of the image are
1 7
,
2 2
| |
|
\ .
.
31: Line at infinity:
If A = 0 in the eqn. Ax + By + C = 0 , y = -C/B; the line is parallel to the x-axis. Then it meets the x-axis at ,
i.e., its intercept with the x-axis is . Similarly if B = 0, the line is parallel to the y-axis or its intercept with y-
axis is . If both A and B are 0, the line is totally at infinity and its equation is given by C = 0. Thus C = 0 is
called the line at .
Since parallel st. lines meet at , they meet on the line at .
Page 396 / 681
Page 32
32: A straight line passing through intersection of two straight lines:
If the two straight lines are Ax + By + C = 0 and Px + Qy + R = 0 and their point of intersection be (h, k) , the
values of h and k may be got by solving the two equations . Then the straight line y k = M(x h) shall pass
through the point (h, k) for any value of M. The parameter M can be made to meet another given condition
also, such as, being perpendicular to another given line or intersecting a given circle etc.
Alternatively, any point which lies on both Ax + By + C = 0 and Px + Qy + R = 0, shall lie on Ax + By + C +
(Px + Qy + R) = 0 for any value of .
+
But this represents a straight line, being an equation of 1
st
degree in x
and y. So this is the straight line for any particular value of , passing through intersection of lines, Ax + By +
C = 0 and
Px + Qy + R = 0. This may be chosen to meet some other criteria like, being at a certain angle to another
line etc. (fixing its value thereby).
v
Do not confuse
Ax + By + C + (Px + Qy + R) = 0 is not an identity, though it might appear so, as it is true for all values of .
Because we consider only one value of at one time; not all values at the same time.
The interpretation of the equation Ax + By + C + (Px + Qy + R) = 0 is that it always passes through
a fixed point, independent of . And the fixed point is ,
BR QC RA CP
x and y
AQ BP AQ BP

= =

, the
solution of the equations 0 Ax By C + + = and 0 Px Qy R + + = . ( the point may be given by two other
equations also, i.e. two st lines passing through the point.) This is actually used as a technique used in
problems where it is required to prove that a variable st line always passes through a fixed point.
Exercise74 remember
If a linear relationship exists among a, b, c, show that
b 0 ax y c + + =
passes though a fixed point.
Ans. Let
b 0 al m cn + + =
. We can write it as
b 0
l m
a c
n n
+ + =
. This equation shows that whatever may
be a, b, c, the equation
b 0 ax y c + + =
always passes through the point
,
l m
n n
| |
|
\ .
.
33: Parallel st. lines may be actually shown to be meeting on the line at .
If Ax + By + C = 0 and Ax + By + C = 0 are two parallel straight lines, the second can be written as
0 ) . 0 . 0 (
C
C'-C
C By Ax = + + + + + C y x
which shows that the line Ax + By + C = 0 passes through the intersection of
Ax + By + C = 0 and the line at . But line Ax + By + C = 0 passes through
Ax + By + C = 0 only at as they are parallel. So the two lines meet on the line at .
34: Condition that three st. lines meet at a point:

+
Instead of taking m(Ax + By + C) + n(Px + Qy + R) = 0, for arbitrary m and n, we can divide by m throughout and put n/m = with no loss of
generality.
v
Ax + By + C + (Px + Qy + R) = 0 is not true identically. Had it been so, we would have, A + P = 0, B + Q =
0, and C + R = 0, which gives A/P = B/Q = C/R , rendering the two straight lines coincident. But we have taken two
different st. lines in general and hence this is a contradiction.
Page 397 / 681
Page 33
Let three st. lines be
Ax + By + C = 0(a)
Px + Qy + R = 0(b)
Lx + My + N = 0(c)
Point of intersection (h, k) of (a) and (b) are given by,
BP AQ
CP RA
k
BP AQ
QC BR
h
= ,..
If the three lines are concurrent, this also satisfy eqn.(c), so,
0 = +
N
BP AQ
CP RA
M
BP AQ
QC BR
L
or, L(BR QC) + M(RA CP) + N(AQ BP) = 0.
This is the condition for meeting the three st. lines at a point.
Alternatively,
Let straight lines passing through common point of both (a) and (b) be
Ax + By + C + _(Px + Qy + R) = 0 for any value of _. One of these lines shall be parallel to (c) , for some
value of _, say , i.e.,
Lx + My + N = 0 is parallel to Ax + By + C + (Px + Qy + R) = 0;
If these two lines completely coincide, then (a), (b) and (c) shall be concurrent. Thus the required condition
shall be ,
. , ,

say which
N
R C
M
Q B
L
P A
=
+
=
+
=
+
By a result in ratio and proportions,
N My Lx
R
+ +
+ + + + +
=
) Qy (Px C By Ax
, for whatever values of x and y.
or, Ax + By + C + (Px + Qy + R) +(Lx + My + N) = 0 for all x and y.(d)
Hence we conclude that, if two numbers and can be found such that
Ax + By + C + (Px + Qy + R) +(Lx + My + N) = 0 for all x and y for some and , the st. lines (a),
(b) and (c) shall be concurrent.
Alternatively,
If two numbers and can be found such that
Ax + By + C = - (Px + Qy + R) - (Lx + My + N)..(e)
for all values of x and y, the relation (e) would be also true for common point of (b)and (c). But the right side
of (e) is 0 for the common point of (b)and (c). At this point,
Ax + By + C = 0
is automatically true (from (e)).So eqn.(a) also satisfies the solution of (b)and (c) or passes through the
common point of (b)and (c) . Hence the three lines are concurrent, if at all two such numbers can be found
out to make (e) true for all x and y.
Example8
The sum of perpendiculars upon a st line from a number of points is 0. Show that the st line passes though a
fixed point.
Page 398 / 681
Page 34
First let us take only two points to see what the question means really. Let the st line be cos sin x y p o o + =
and perpendiculars
1 2
, p p on it from (a, b) and from (h, k) respectively are cos sin a b p o o + and
cos sin h k p o o + . If their sum is 0, we have ( ) ( ) cos sin 2 0 a h b k p o o + + + = . Eliminating p, we have
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 cos 2 sin 2 cos sin
2 cos 2 sin 0
x y p a h b k
x a h y b k
o o o o
o o
+ = = + + +
+ =
. Evidently,
The st line always passes through ,
2 2
a h b k + + | |
|
\ .
.
Now take the general case. Let the st line be
0 Ax By C + + =
and
( ) ,
i i
x y
,
1, 2, 3.... i n =
be n points and the
sum of the perpendiculars from them is 0 i.e.,
1 1 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
................... 0
n n
Ax By C Ax By C Ax By C
A B A B A B
+ + + + + +
+ + =
+ + +
i.e.
2 2
1
0
n
i i
i
Ax By C
A B =
+ +
=
+
.
Thus we may have
( )
2 2
2 2
1
0
n
i i
i
Ax By C
n Ax By C A B
A B =
+ +
+ + + =
+
, i.e.
1 1 1 1
0 0
n n n n
i i i i
i i i i
B
A nx x B ny y nx x ny y
A
= = = =
| | | | | | | |
+ = + =
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .

. Thus it is a st line passing through
intersection of st lines
1
0
n
i
i
nx x
=
=
and
1
0
n
i
i
ny y
=
=
, i.e. it passes through the fixed point

1 1
,
n n
i i
i i
x y
n n
= =
| |
|
|
|
|
\ .

.
Example9
A variable triangle with a right angle and the sum of the reciprocals of the sides containing it is a constant.
Show that it passes through a fixed point.
Let the sides containing the right angle be a and b respectively . Taking these as coordinate axes, the other
side would have the equation 1
x y
a b
+ = and as per the question
1 1 1
a b c
+ = , a constant. Eliminating b, we
have 0
x y y c
a c

+ = . This st line passes through the intersection of x y = and y c = , which is a fixed point
( ) , c c
Example10
In the triangle ABC AB AC l = = , A Z is a right angle, and the sides AB and AC are produced upto E and F
respectively such that
AB CF
BE AC
= . Show that the st line EF always passes thought a fixed point, at a distant l
from both AB and AC.
Page 399 / 681
Page 35
Take the st lines AB and AC as the x axis and the y-axis respectively . If AE h = and AF k = , the equation to
EF shall be 1
x y
h k
+ = . Now BE h l = , CF k l = . The condition
AB CF
BE AC
= translates into
( )
2 2
l k l
l hk l h k l
h l l
= = + +
( ) 0 1
l l
hk l h k
h k
+ = + = ; i.e., the point ( ) , l l always satisfies 1
x y
h k
+ = ( of course with constraints
on ha and k). Thus the st line 1
x y
h k
+ = always passes through ( ) , l l .
Note : The above two examples also hold in oblique coordinates and the equation 1
x y
h k
+ = does not change
in oblique coordinates.
Example11
In the above figure, a variable st line AB, passing through a fixed point, cuts two fixed st lines OX and OR at
A and B respectively. If AP and BQ are perpendiculars from A onto OR and from B onto OX respectively,
show that PQ also passes through a fixed point.
Take OX as x axis, and equation of OR as y mx = . The variable points A and B may be taken as ( ) , 0 a and
( ) , b bm respectively where OQ b = . If the fixed point in AB be ( ) , C h k , since A, B and C are on the same st
line , AC and CB have the same slope so that
0 k k bm
h a h b

=

i.e., ( ) 0 b mh k ak abm + = . (a)
Since AP passes through ( ) , 0 a and is perpendicular to y mx = , its equation is
x my a = .(b)
Solving it with y mx = , we get the coordinates of P as
2 2
,
1 1
a am
P
m m
| |
|
+ +
\ .
. The coordinates of Q is obviously
( ) 0, Q b .
Now the equation of PQ is
O
X
Y
A
B
P
Q
R
A quadrilateral has, as we know, two diagonals;
a diagonal is joining two points of intersection
of adjacent sides. The intersection of opposite
sides when joined may also be called a
diagonal and such a quadrilateral with three
diagonals is called a complete quadrilateral.
(see the section after circle chapter)
Page 400 / 681
Page 36
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2
0
1
0 0
1
am
m
y x b b y ym a mx y abm
a
b
m
+
= + + =
+
(c)
Subtracting (a) from this,
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
0 0
a
b y ym mh k a mx y k y ym mh k mx y k
b
+ + + = + + + = .So
it always passes through the intersection of
( )
2
1 0 y m mh k + + = , and 0 mx y k = , i.e., a fixed point.
Exercise75 remember
Find the area of the triangle formed by
1
1
a
y m x
m
= + ,
2
2
a
y m x
m
= + and
3
3
a
y m x
m
= + .
Hint. The coordinate of the vertices are got by solving the equations in pairs, i.e.
1 2 1 2 2 3 2 3 3 1 3 1
, , , , ,
a a a a a a a a a
m m m m m m m m m m m m
| | | | | |
+ + +
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
. The area of the triangle is
1
2
1 2 2 3 3 1 2 3 3 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 2 3
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m
( | | | | | |
+ + + + +
( | | |
\ . \ . \ .
which can be
simplified into
2
1 2 2 3 3 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
a
m m m m m m
| || | | |

| | |
\ .\ .\ .
.
Exercise76 remember
Find the area of the triangle if the sides are
1 1
y m x c = + ,
2 2
y m x c = + ,
3 3
y m x c = + .
Ans.
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
1 2 2 3 3 1
1
2
1 2 2 3 3 1
c c c c c c
m m m m m m
(

+ + (

(

Exercise77 remember
Find the area of the triangle if the sides are
1 1 1
0 a x b y c + + = ,
2 2 2
0 a x b y c + + = and
3 3 3
0 a x b y c + + = .
Hint. The equations may be solved in pairs, to get the vertices ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 2 3 3
, , , , , x y x y x y given by
( )
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
1 1
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
, ,
b b c c
c c a a
x y
a a a a
b b b b
| |
|
|
=
|
|
|
\ .
etc. in cyclic order.
The area is
( )( )( )
2
1 1 1
1
2 2 2 2
1 1
3 3 3
1
2 2 2
1 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 3 1 1 3
3 3
1
1
1
a b c
a b c
x y
a b c
x y
a b a b a b a b a b a b
x y
=

Page 401 / 681
Page 37
The area of triangle is absolute value of
1 1
1
2 2 4
3 2
1
1
1
z z
z z
z z
Proof:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4
3 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 2
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
x iy x iy x x iy iy x iy
+
+ = +
+
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4
3 3 3 2 2 2 2 3
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
x x x iy iy iy iy x
x x x iy iy iy iy x
x x x iy iy iy iy x

= + +

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4
3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3
1 1 1 1
1
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 2 3 2
1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
i i
i
x iy iy x x y y x
x iy iy x x y y x
x iy iy x x y y x
x y x y
x y x y
x y x y
= + + + = +
= =
Exercise78 remember
Find the area of the triangle if the sides are cos sin x y p o o + = , cos sin x y q | | + = and
cos sin x y r + = .
Ans.
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
2
sin sin sin
sin sin sin
p q p o | | o
o | | o
+ + (

Note that the result is always positive since o | t + + = .
Example12 remember
Find the area of the parallelogram formed by
1 1 1
0 a x b y c + + = ,
1 1 1
0 a x b y d + + = ( parallel sides) ,
2 2 2
0 a x b y c + + = ,
2 2 2
0 a x b y d + + = ( parallel sides).
Page 402 / 681
Page 38
Let the equations represent the sides in the order
1 1 1
0 AB a x b y c + + = ,
1 1 1
0 CD a x b y d + + = ,
2 2 2
0 BC a x b y c + + = ,
2 2 2
0 AD a x b y d + + = . we have
2 2
1
2 2
2 2
d c
AP p
a b
= =
+
and
1 1
2
2 2
1 1
d c
AQ p
a b
= =
+
both the differences assumed positive . The area of the parallelogram is
( )( )
1 1 2 2
2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
cos
cos
d c d c ec
AD AP AQ ec AP
a b a b
u
u

= =
+ +
.
Now
1 2 2 1
1 2 2 1
tan
a b a b
a b a b
u

=
+
from the formula
1 2
1 2
1
m m
mm
+
,
1 2
1 2
1 2
,
a a
m m
b b
| |
= =
|
\ .
so
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
2
1 2 2 1
1 tan
cos
tan
a b a b
ec
a b a b
u
u
u
+ + +
= =
.
Now the area is
( )( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
2 2 2 2
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
1 1 2 2
d c d c d c d c a b a b
a b a b a b a b
a b a b
+ +
=

+ +
.
Note the differences must be so chosen so as to make area positive.
Note : The area also is given by
( )( )
1 1 2 2 1 2
2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
.
sin sin
sin
d c d c AQ AP p p
a b a b
u u
u

= =
+ +
and
1 2 2 1
2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
sin
a b a b
a b a b
u

=
+ +
Note: For a rhombus,
2 2 1 1
2 1
2 2 2 2
2 2 1 1
d c d c
p p
a b a b

= = =
+ +
, so the area is
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
2 2
2 2
1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
1 1
sin
d c a b a b d c a b p
a b a b a b a b a b
a b
u
+ + +
= =
+
+
Exercise79
Find the equation to a st line perpendicular to 6 7 8 0 x y + = which also passes through the intersection of
3 4 5 x y + = and 1.5 2 0 x y + = .
Hint. Take 7 6 0 x y k + + = as the equation . Pass this st line through the intersection point of the two given
st lines found by solving them. Ans. 119 102 125 x y + =
Exercise80
Solve the equations to find the intersection of the pairs of st lines.
a) 1
x y
a b
+ = and 1
x y
b a
+ = Ans.
1 1 1 1
1 1
,
a b a b
| |
|
+ +
\ .
b) cos sin x y p o o + = and cos sin x y p | | + =
A
B
C
D
P
Q
Page 403 / 681

Page 39
Ans.
cos sin
2 2
,
cos cos
2 2
a a
o | o |
o | o |
+ + | |
|
|

|
\ .
c)
a
y mx
m
= + ,
a
y nx
n
= + Ans. ,
a a a
mn m n
| |
+
|
\ .
Exercise81
Find the locus of the midpoint of the portion of the st line 1
x y
a b
+ = intercepted between the axes if the st line
passes through a fixed point.
If the st line passes through a fixed point ( ) , , h k then 1
h k
a b
+ = . the st line intercepts the axes at ( ) , 0 a and
( ) 0, b respectively and the midpoint is ,
2 2
a b | |
|
\ .
. If the midpoint is denoted by ( ) , X Y then
2
a
X = ,
2
b
Y = .
Eliminating , a b we have 1
2 2
h k
X Y
+ = which is the locus of the midpoint.
Exercise82
A variable point B on the X axis is joined to a fixed point A on the X axis . Find the locus of the vertex of
equilateral triangle standing on the segment AB on the opposite side of the origin.
Let OA a = .and ( ) , P x y be the vertex of the equilateral triangle, ABO u Z = . Then
0
120 PBQ u Z = . Now
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
0 0
0 0 3 3 1 1
2 2 2 2
cos cos 120 cos cos 120
cos cos cos120 cos sin120 sin cot cot cot
x OB BQ AB BP AB
a ec a a a a a
u u u u
u u u u u u u
= + = + = +
= + + = =
Similarly
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0 0 0
3 1
2 2
sin 120 sin120 cos cos120 sin
cos cos sin 3 cot 1
2
y PQ PB AB
a
a ec
u u u
u u u u
= = =
= + = +
Eliminating u between the two, 3x y a = , which is the locus of P
Exercise83
A st line drawn through a fixed point A cuts two parallel st lines at points P and Q from which two st lines are
drawn in given directions to meet at a point R. Show that R describes a st line.
X
Y
P(x, y)
O
A
B
60
0
Q
Page 404 / 681
Page 40
Hint. Let A be the origin and the parallel st lines be x a = and x b = and let the moving point R be
( ) , x y . Since A, P Q are in a line, inclined to x axis at an angle , say, the coordinates of P and Q are
respectively ( ) , tan a a o and ( ) , tan b b o respectively. The equations of PR and QR would be
( ) tan tan y a x a o = , ( ) tan tan y b x b o = , where and are slopes of PR and QR respectively.
Eliminating tano betwe In the cube shown find the perpendicular GH from a corner G on the diagonal OE if
all its sides are of length a.
Hint: the vector equation of AE is

( )
r i j k = + +
since all sides are equal.

The coordinates of G are ( )

0, 0, a ak = where a is each side of the cube. If a unit vector in the direction of GH
is
p , then the projection of
OG ak =
on OE
is dot product of
ak and a unit vector along OE
i.e.,

1 1 1 3
i j k i j k + + + +
=
+ +

.It is

.
3 3
i j k a
ak
+ +
=
. Now
( )
2
2 2
2
2
2
3
3
a
GH OG OH a a = = =

.
Exercise84
A st line cuts the four diagonal of a unit cube at angles , , , o | o respectively. Show that
2 2 2 2
4
cos cos cos cos
3
o | o + + + = .
Hint: it is easily seen that the direction cosines of OE
are
1 1 1
, ,
3 3 3
| |
|
\ .
. Those of

AD d a j k i = = +

are
1 1 1
, ,
3 3 3
| |
|
\ .
.Those of

BG g b k i j = =

is
1 1 1
, ,
3 3 3
| |

|
\ .
and those of

CF f c i k j = = +

is
1 1 1
, ,
3 3 3
| |
|
\ .
.
If ( ) , , l m n are direction cosines of the transversal, making angles , , , o | o respectively with the diagonals
OE
, AD
, BG
andCF
respectively, then

( )

1 1 1
cos .
3 3 3 3
l m n
li m j nk i j
k
o
| | + +
= + + + + =
|
\ .

;or
2
1
cos
3
o = ;
as

( )

1 1 1
3 3 3
li m j nk and i j
k
| |
+ + + +
|
\ .

are unit vectors in their directions respectively.
Similarly others.
Now
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
cos cos cos cos
3
l m n l m n l m n l m n
o | o
+ + + + + + + + +
+ + + =
( )
2 2 2
1 4
4 4 4
3 3
l m n = + + =
Page 405 / 681
Page 41
Exercise85 remember
Two st lines have equations
1 1 1 2 2 2
,
x y z x y z
and
l m n l m n
= = = = .Find the equation of a st line which is
perpendicular to both of these lines and passes through ( )
1 1 1
, , x y z .
Hint. : the line may be taken as
1 1 1
x x y y z z
l m n

= = . Since this is perpendicular to both the st lines as
above,
1 1 1 2 2 2
0, 0 ll mm nn and ll mm nn + + = + + = . So that on cross multiplication,
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1
l m n
m n n m n l l n l m l m
= =

. The direction ratios are
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1
, , m n n m n l l n l m l m .Since the st
line passes though ( )
1 1 1
, , x y z , its equation may be written as
1 1 1
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1
x x y y z z
m n n m n l l n l m l m

= =

.
35: Vector formulation of any st line passing through intersection of two st lines
(In their plane)
Take two st lines
1
r a t b

= + and
2
r a s c

= + .Evidently both pass through a fixed point a so that they intersect
at the point whose position vector is a, i.e., where
1 2 1
r r a

= = . Any vector passing through a and in the
direction of the vector d shall be r a d

= + (remember)
But this formula shall not be of much use if d does not lie in the plane of b and c. If d lies in the plane of b
and c, then it must be a linear combination of them, i.e., d M b N c

= + , for some scalars M and N and this
resolution is unique. So we can take any other st line passing through the intersection point a must be of the
form r a mb n c

= + + if it lies in the plane of b and c, where
M N
m n
= = . We can treat m and n as arbitrary
as is arbitrary.
36: Equation of a st. line in polar coordinates
In the above figure, let P (r, ) be the polar coordinates of any point on the st. line AB and L (p, ) be the
polar coordinates of the foot of perpendicular on it from the pole O. In the right angled triangle
cos p r POL = Z , or, ( ) ( ) cos - cos - p r r o u u o = = .
This is a relation between r and of any point on AB and hence its equation.
O
A
B
X
L(p, )
p
P(r, )
Eqn of a st.line in polar coordinates

Page 406 / 681
Page 42
Alternatively, ( ) ( )
1 1
cos - cos cos sin sin cos sin p r a b
r p
u o u o u o u u = = + = +
where
2 2
2
cos sin 1
. a b a b
p p p
o o
= = + =
. remember the form for problems.
Exercise86
Find the polar equation of the st line 0 Ax By C + + =
Rewrite The equation as
2 2 2 2 2 2
A B C
x y
A B A B A B
+ =
+ + +
where
2 2
C
p
A B
=
+
,
2 2
cos
A
A B
o =
+
and
2 2
sin
B
A B
o =
+
.Now take
cos A
a
p C
o
= =
and
sin B
b
p C
o
= =
, so that the equation becomes
1
cos sin a b
r
u u + =
, i.e.,
1
cos sin
A B
r C C
u u =
, which could have also got by putting
cos , sin x r y r u u = =
direct.
Exercise87
A st line cuts n fixed st lines concurrent at O and R is a point on a variable st line cutting these st lines at
1 2
, ............
n
R R R such that
1 2
1 1 1
..........
n
n
OR OR OR OR
+ + + = . Show that the st line always passes through a
fixed point.
Take the equations of the lines be
1
cos sin , 1, 2....
i i
i
a b i n
r
u u = + = so that we have
1 1 1
1
cos sin
n n n
i i
i i i
i
n
a b
r r
u u
= = =
| | | |
= = +
| |
\ . \ .

for the equation of the line cutting them at
1 2
, ............
n
R R R . But this is
a fixed st line
1 1
cos sin
n n
i i
i i
n a r b r Ax By u u
= =
| | | |
= + = +
| |
\ . \ .

, a fixed st line.
Exercise88
A st line cuts n fixed st lines concurrent at O at
1 2
, ............
n
R R R . A point R on this st line is such that
1 2
1 1 1
..........
n
n
OR OR OR OR
+ + + = . Show that the point R moves in a st line.
If
1 1 2 2
, ............
n n
OR r OR r OR r and OR r = = = = making angles
1 2
, ........
n
and u u u u with the initial line, then
1 2
1 1 1
..........
n
k
r r r
+ + + = i.e.,
Page 407 / 681
Page 43
1 1 2 2
1 1
cos sin cos sin .......... cos sin cos sin
n n
n n i i
i i
a b a b a b k a b u u u u u u u u
= =
+ + + + + + = = +

Now, a fixed point
1 1
cos sin
,
n n
i i
i i
k k
u u
= =
| |
|
|
|
|
\ .

is on the st line, for
1 1
cos sin
1
n n
i i
i i
ar br
k k r
u u
= =
+ =

gives 1 r = .
Exercise89
A st line through the origin intersects two intersecting fixed st lines at R and S. Find the locus of a point on
this st line whose radius vector is arithmetic mean of that of R and S.
Hint. Take the two fixed st lines
1
cos sin , 1, 2
i i
i
a b i
r
u u = + =
i.e.
, 1, 2
i i i
a x b y c i + = =
Ans. A st line
1 2
1 1 2 2
2
cos sin cos sin
c c
r
a b a b u u u u
= +
+ +
Exercise90
A st line through the origin intersects two intersecting fixed st lines at R and S. Find the locus of a point on
this st line whose radius vector is geometric mean of that of R and S.
Hint. Take the two fixed st lines
1
cos sin , 1, 2
i i
i
a b i
r
u u = + =
i.e.
, 1, 2
i i i
a x b y c i + = =
Ans. A st line,
2 1 2
1 2
1 1 2 2
.
cos sin cos sin
c c
r r r
a b a b u u u u
== =
+ +
37: One parameter family of st lines in two dimensions
In the classical equation y mx c = + if we fix m and leave c to be a parameter, evidently they are a one
parameter of st lines parallel to each other. Instead of x and y, we may put AX BY C + + and PX QY R + +
as well and the transformed equation ( ) PX QY R m AX BY C d + + = + + + shall represent a family of parallel
st lines, parallel to a st line ( ) PX QY R m AX BY C + + = + + which passes through intersection of the two st
lines 0 AX BY C + + = and 0 PX QY R + + = .
The equation ( ) PX QY R m AX BY C + + = + + itself represents a family of st lines all passing through
intersection of the two st lines 0 AX BY C + + = and 0 PX QY R + + = .
38: Two parameter family of st lines in two dimensions
A st line in two dimensions can at most have two variable parameters, e.g., m and c in y mx c = +
, or
,
A B
C C
in
0 Ax By C + + =
.
If a family of st lines
0 Ax By C + + =
pass through a fixed point say
( ) , h k
it would be only a one parameter
family. For, as such , there are only two parameters in the family , let us assume for the time being. As all the
Page 408 / 681
Page 44
st lines in the family pass through the point
( ) , h k
, then evidently
1 0
A B
h k
C C
+ + =
and this shows that the
parameters
,
A B
C C
are not independent, but are related to or dependent on each other via h, k .
Exercise91
A family of st lines represented by
( ) ( ) ( ) 4 4 5 a b x a b y a b + + + = +
passes through a fixed point. Find the
point.
Ans. : The family of st lines can be written as
( ) ( ) 4 5 4 5 0 a x y b x y + + + =
. But this is a family of st lines
passing through the intersection of
4 5 0, 4 5 0 x y x y + = + =
, i.e.
( ) 1,1
39: Bisectors of angle between two intersecting st lines.
Let QB and QB be two st lines intersecting at Q and with equations
e
r q t
e
= +

and
f
r q s
f
= +

where
e
e
and
f
f
are unit vectors in their directions respectively.(the same r
would do in both the

equations, just as we solve two simultaneous equations with the same x and y). From any point P draw a st
line || to AQ to meet QB at M.
Now, AQP PQM QPM MQ MP Z = Z = Z = . Then both of them are same multiples of unit vectors in their
directions, i.e.,
e
e
and
f
f
respectively and QP QM MP = +

.If r
denotes the position vector of P, the equation

of the angle bisector is
e f
r q
e f

| |
|
= + +
|
\ .
............................................( )
Similarly the equation of the bisector of the external angle AQB has the equation
..
e f
r q
e f

| |
|
= +
|
\ .
..........................................( )
Prove it as an exercise by drawing st lines from P parallel to QA and QB and completing the parallelogram
whose diagonal through Q is the vector difference.
40: Bisectors of angle between to st. lines in 2D (without vector concept)
Q
P
P
B
B
A
e
f
M
Bisectors of angle between two intersecting st lines
Page 409 / 681
Page 45
Suppose the lines LL
1
and MM
1
have an angle ZLOM = 2u between them when they intersect each other at
O and let a line PP
1
passing through O bisect the angle, so that its angle with LL
1
is ZLOP = u and the angle
MM
1
makes with it, i.e., Z POM = u also. Both the angles we have taken in anticlockwise sense. We mean
that we have to write ZMOP = - u if we write ZPOM = u. Further, let a line QQ
1
bisect the angle
ZMOL
1
= 2. We have 2u + 2 = ZLOM + Z MOL
1
= 2t so that u + = ZPOM + ZMOQ = t/2. The line QQ
1
is called external bisector of the angle between LL
1
and MM
1
, bisecting the external angle between them and
is thus seen to be perpendicular to the internal bisector.
Given that the eqn. of lines LL
1
and MM
1
are respectively
Ax + By + C = 0.(1)
And Dx + Ey + F = 0.....(2)
To find the equation of the line PP
1
, it can be regarded as a line passing through the intersection of
the two given lines so that its eqn. may be taken in the form
Ax + By + C + ( Dx + Ey + F) = 0..(3)
for some value of , to be determined.
Or, (A + D)x +(B + E)y +(C + F) = 0.(4)
The equation to the other line QQ
1
may also by the same eqn. (3) for a different value of , say , so that it
can be written as
Ax + By + C + ( Dx + Ey + F) = 0..(5)
Or, (A + D)x +(B + E)y +(C +F) = 0..(6)
The lines given by (4) and (6) must be perpendicular tot each other, so that, product of their slopes is 1 , or,
+
+
+
+
E B
) D A (
x
E B
) D A (
= -1 ,The slopes should be negative reciprocals of each other
or, 0 ) E B )( E B ( ) D A )( D A ( = + + + + +
or, 0 E ) ( BE B D ) ( AD A
2 2 2 2
= + + + + + + +
or, 0 ) E D ( ) )( BE AD ( ) B A (
2 2 2 2
= + + + + + + .(7)
Ax + By + C = 0
Dx + Ey + F = 0
O
L
1
L
M
M
1
P
P
1
Q
Q
1
u
u

Ax + By + C +
( Dx + E y + F) = 0
L
R
R
Y
Y
Y
X
O
Bisectors of angle between to st. lines
Page 410 / 681
Page 46
Beauty considerations demand that the perpendicularity should automatically follow from geometrical
considerations that the bisector of angle and the bisector of its supplementary or external angle should be at
right angles automatically, or whatever pair of straight lines are chosen. In other words , if the role of the two
bisectors are interchanged, they should behave as if antisymmetric to each other. Thus the eqn. (7) is
automatically satisfied if we assume = - , antisymmetric to each other , which casts a value of =
2 2
2 2
2
E D
B A
+
+
= . This takes us direct to the final result.
This relation between and arrived here is because the two st.lines PP
1
and QQ
1
are perpendicular
to each other and it has nothing to do with the fact that they are bisectors of angles between a pair of st.lines.
To use the fact, look at the angles made by the st.lines with the x-axis.
Let
1
and
2
and be the angles made by the lines LL
1
and MM
1
and PP
1
with the x-axis. We have =
1
+ (
2
-
1
) as PP
1
bisects the angle between the former two lines. This gives = (
2
+
1
) or, 2 = (
2

+
1
) , or,
2
- = -
1
,
Or, tan (
2
- ) = tan ( -
1
), or
1
1
2
2
tan . tan 1
tan tan
tan . tan 1
tan tan
+

=
+

Or,
B
A
.
E B
) D A (
1
B
A
E B
) D A (
E B
) D A (
.
E
D
1
E B
) D A (
E
D
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
+
+
+
+
+
+
A ) D A ( ) E B ( B
) E B ( A ) D A ( B
) D A ( D ) E B ( E
) D A ( E ) E B ( D
+ + +
+ + +
=
+ + +
+ + +
Or,
AD A BE B
AE AB BD BA
) E D ( DA EB
DE EA ED DB
2 2 2 2
+ + +
+ +
=
+ + +
+ +
Or ,
) AD BE ( B A
) BD AE (
) E D ( DA EB
DB EA
2 2 2 2
+ + + +

=
+ + +

, canceling out (AE BD)
Or, ) E D ( ) DA EB ( ) AD BE ( B A
2 2 2 2 2
+ + + = + + + +
Or,
2 2
2 2
2
E D
B A
+
+
= , Or,
2 2
2 2
E D
B A
+
+
= ..(8)
If one of the signs is taken for , say + sign, the other sign shall be taken for . So the eqn.s (3) and (5)
reduce to,
2 2 2 2
E D
F Ey Dx
B A
C By Ax
+
+ +
=
+
+ +
..(9)
Now one can easily verify that = - or + = 0 and
2 2
2 2
2 2
E D
B A
+
+
= = =
So that eqn.(7) is automatically satisfied with this value of or ; as expected.
41: Alternative method 1:
To get good command on the subject, one should not read mathematics books like a novel pen and
paper must be at the side and of course, a good dictionary at hand. Mere concepts do not lead us to result
automatically because there is every chance to be misguided on the way. For example in the preceding
article one may have tendency to put
1
- =
2
- instead of
1
- = -
2
and proceed through
complicated expressions to reach a dead end. Evidently we must take
1
- = -
2
and not the other
Page 411 / 681
Page 47
way round ,as, all angles should be measured anticlockwise or clockwise; at least must be in a consistent
manner if we do not know whether they are anticlockwise measured or not.
This does not mean that the derivations must be got by heart and different methods not allowed
never so. In fact there are many paths from a concept to derivation of some result and though the path is not
important , there is no logic why one path should be preferred to another. Rather it brings about confidence
and good command if alternatives are tried and pitfalls are recognized well before the exams. The labour put
in must not go in vein.
Again, by trying alternative methods only one is convinced of the view that coordinate geometry is taking
geometry into the realm of algebra, just as word problems in arithmetic are reduced to routine algebra by
adopting symbols for unknowns.
There is no reason why one should not solve the equations of the two given straight lines,
Ax + By + C = 0...(1)
And Dx + Ey + F= 0.....(2)
To get
BD AE
1
AF CD
y
CE BF
x
, or
BD AE
AF CD
y .. and ..
BD AE
CE BF
x
= ..(3)
And try an eqn. Px + Qy + R = 0, passing through the point
|
.
|
\
|
BD AE
AF CD
,
BD AE
CE BF
, or equivalently consider
the eqn. 0
BD AE
AF CD
y Q
BD AE
CE BF
x P = |
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
, .(4)
as the eqn. of bisector of angle between the two st. lines (1) and (2). Now we need find out P/Q of this eqn.
to completely specify it , using the fact that this st. line is equally inclined to both (1) and (2). We need not
find out P and Q separately. Considering slopes of lines (1), (2) and (4),
Q
P
and .
E
D
,
B
A
respectively,
condition of bisecting angle gives,
BQ
AP
1
Q
P
B
A
+
+
=
EQ
DP
1
E
D
Q
P
+
+
EQ DP
EP DQ
BQ AP
AQ BP
+
=
+
BEPQ BDQ AEP ADPQ AEQ ADPQ BEPQ BDP

2 2 2 2
+ = +
0 Q ) BD AE ( PQ ) AD BE ( 2 P ) BD AE (
2 2
= + + +
0 1
Q
P
BD AE
AD _ BE
2
Q
P
2
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
..(5)
which is a quadratic eqn. in P/Q and the product of its two roots is seen to be 1 .
This means that the two bisectors are at right angles to each other.
Now
BD AE
) BD AE ( ) AD BE ( BE AD
2
4
BD AE
AD BE
4
BD AE
AD BE
2
Q
P
2 2
2
+
+ +
=
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
=
BD AE
ABDE 2 D B E A ABDE 2 D A E B BE AD
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
+
+ + + +
Page 412 / 681
Page 48
=
BD AE
) E D )( B A ( BE AD
2 2 2 2
+
+ +
.(6)
Now (4) becomes 0
BD AE
AF CD
y
BD AE
CE BF
x
Q
P
= |
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
The formula may not be useful but the process must be useful in numerical problems, with simplification in
each step.
42: Alternative II :
Resorting to a little geometric consideration in the beginning greatly simplifies the problem. Drop
perpendiculars PR and PR from any point P on the bisector onto LL
1
and MM
1
and consider the triangles
POR and POR. The two triangles have two equal angles ZPOR and ZPOR , two right angles ZPRO and
ZPRO and a side PO in common. Thus the two triangles are congruent and this gives the two
perpendiculars PR and PR equal. If (h, k) be the coordinates of point P then the lengths of perpendiculars
on the st.lines are given by
2 2
B A
C Bk Ah
+
+ +
and
2 2
Q P
R Qk Ph
+
+ +
, and these tow perpendiculars are equal. So
2 2
B A
C Bk Ah
+
+ +
=
2 2
Q P
R Qk Ph
+
+ +
(1)
should be the equation of the bisector. But we are not habituated to write h, k as variable coordinates. They
may be written as X and Y , to distinguish them from x and y denoting coordinates on the original st.lines,
only not to confuse that each of the expressions may not be put = 0 as h, k are not coordinates of LL
1
or
MM
1
. We can use x and y in place of X and Y if we remember to avoid this point of confusion. So one of the
equations of the bisectors shall be
2 2
B A
C By Ax
+
+ +
=
2 2
Q P
R Qy Px
+
+ +
(2)
lengths of the two perpendiculars are given by (1) in case both of the perpendiculars are either on the same
side of the bisector in which the origin lies or in case both are on the side of the bisector opposite to the side
where the origin lies. If this be true for LL
1
, this cannot be true for MM
1
at the same time. For MM
1
one of the
perpendiculars would be on the side where the origin lies and the other , on the opposite side. As such, the
lengths of the perpendiculars shall be negative of each other and the eqn. of the bisector shall be given by
2 2
B A
C By Ax
+
+ +
= -
2 2
Q P
R Qy Px
+
+ +
(3)
instead of (2) . It is easily seen that product slopes of the pair of st.lines (2) and (3) is
-1 or, they are perpendicular to each other.
Exercise92
Show that 6 66 11 0 x y + = bisects the angle between 12 10 3 0 x y + = and15 18 1 0 x y + =
Example12
A perpendicular is dropped from a point (h, k) onto a st line 0 Ax By C + + = Find the equation of a st line
passing through foot of this perpendicular and making equal angles with the mutually perpendicular lines.
Page 413 / 681
Page 49
A st line perpendicular to 0 Ax By C + + = may be taken as 0 Bx Ay D + = .if it passes through (h, k), then
0 Bh Ak D + = . Subtracting the two, ( ) ( ) B x h A y k = , or, 0 Bx Ay Bh Ak + = . The angle bisectors
are
2 2 2 2
Ax By C Bx Ay Bh Ak
Ax By C Bx Ay Bh Ak
A B B A
+ + +
= + + = +
+ +
Exercise93
Find the bisectors of angle between
a) 3 6 2 3 x y + = + and 3 6 2 3 x y = Ans. 6, 2 x y = =
b) 4 3 7 x y + = and7 24 31 y x + = Ans. 2 3, 2 1 0 x y x y + = + =
c)
12 5 4 x y + =
and
3 4 7 0 x y + + =
Ans.
7 9 37 0 x y =
,
99 77 71 0 x y + + =
.
d)
2
2
1
y b m
x a m
=

,
2
2
1
y b n
x a n
=

Ans.
1
y b m n
x a mn
+
=

,
1
0
y b mn
x a m n

+ =
+
Exercise94 remember
The direction cosines of two intersecting st lines are given by( )
1 1 1
, , l m n and ( )
2 2 2
, , l m n respectively. Show
that the direction ratios of any st line passing through them is ( )
1 2 1 2 1 2
, , l kl m km n kn + + + for some real
number k .
Hint. A vector passing through the intersection of two vectors ( )
1 1 1
, , l m n and ( )
2 2 2
, , l m n is given by
( )
1 2 1 2 1 2
, , l kl m km n kn + + +
Exercise95 remember
The direction cosines of two intersecting st lines are given by( )
1 1 1
, , l m n and ( )
2 2 2
, , l m n respectively. Show
that the direction ratios of the st line bisecting the angle between them is
1 2 1 2 1 2
, ,
2cos 2cos 2cos
2 2 2
l l m m n n
u u u
| |
|
+ + +
|
|
\ .
where
u is the angle between them.
Exercise96
The direction cosines of three intersecting st lines are given by( )
1 1 1
, , l m n
,
( )
2 2 2
, , l m n
and
( )
3 3 3
, , l m n
respectively.
Show that the direction ratios of the st line and making equal angles with all of them has direction cosines
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
, ,
3 3 3
l l l m m m n n n + + + + + + | |
|
\ .
.
Exercise97
Page 414 / 681
Page 50
A st line through the origin crosses two fixed st lines at A and B. If P is a point on AB satisfying
m n m n
OP OA OB
+
= +
, then show that the locus of P is a st line through the intersection of the given st lines.
43: Equation of a straight line in three dimensional Coordinate Geometry without vectors:
Although it is easy to deal st lines with the help of vectors, some insight is gained in studying plainly without
the use of vectors in the traditional way. One benefit is long problems are analyzed easily. Also the link from
traditional method to vector methods is understood.
A) : Two point form:(st.line passing through two fixed points).
The division formula gives us the equation of a straight line passing through two fixed points
P(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) and Q(x
2,
y
2
, z
2
) . If R(x, y, z) be any point on the straight line PQ, it divides PQ in some ratio m/n
or /1 say, internally or externally. Hence the coordinates of any point R on this straight line are given by
n m
mz nz
z
+
+
=
2 1
,
n m
my ny
y
+
+
=
2 1
and
n m
mx nx
x
+
+
=
2 1
or,
1
2 1
+
+
=
z z
z ,
1
2 1
+
+
=
y y
y and
1
2 1
+
+
=
x x
x ,putting m/n = .
From which we get,
z+z = z
1
+z
2
or, z z
1
= (z
2
z) and similar formulae for x and y.
or,
1
1 2
1
2 1
1
2
2
1
1
,
1
1 , ,
1
, ,
z z
z z
or
z z
z z z z
or
z z
z z
or
z z
z z
+
=
=
and similar formulae for x and y.
or,
1 2
1
1 2
1
1 2
1
z z
z z
y y
y y
x x
x x
which is true for any point on the straight line joining the two given points and as
such, is a formula for eqn. of straight line.
It is evident that the formula could well have been derived for two dimensions similarly.
B) : Symmetric form,
st.line passing through a fixed point and with given direction cosines:
Let P(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) is a fixed point on the straight line and l, m and n are given. If Q(x, y, z) be any other point on
the st.line, the segment PQ has projections x x
1
, y y
1
, and z z
1
on lines parallel to the axes drawn
through P. If length of the segment be r, we have,
r
z z
n , and ,
r
y y
m ,
r
x - x
l
1 1 1

=
= =
or, the equation of the st.line becomes,
n
z z
m
y y
1 1 1
l
x - x
=
=
as it is true for any point on the line and it is the relationship among the variables.
Instead, if the direction ratios are given to be a, b and c, they are proportional to the direction cosines so
that k
c
n
b
m
a
l
= = = ,or, l = ak, m=bk, and n = ck for some k, and we get
c
z z
b
y y
1 1 1
a
x - x
=
= ,which is called
symmetrical form of equation.
Page 415 / 681
Page 51
These two above forms of eqns of st.lines are similar to the slope and intercept form in two dimensions, but
they are simultaneous equations in three variables or essentially two independent equations in three
variables latter ,in the section for planes given below, we would see that st.lines are intersection of two
planes.
Another point to note is that any two independent ratios out of l, m and n ,or, a, b and c are to be given for a
st.line to be completely determined (along with a fixed point on it, of course, or along with some other
condition) . In case of two dimensions only one ratio, the slope or m was to be necessarily given along with a
point or an intercept on x-axis or y-axis to completely determine the st.line.
C) Conditions for two lines to be parallel or perpendicular to each other:
From the previous chapter, angle between two straight lines, L
1
and L
2
is given by cos u = l
1
l
2
+ m
1
m
2
+ n
1
n
2
where < l
1
+ m
1
+ n
1
> and <l
2
+ m
2
+ n
2
> are their direction cosines respectively. ( This is modern
writing style for writing direction cosines).
Condition for perpendicularity:
It immediately follows that if u is t/2, cos u = 0
Or, l
1
l
2
+ m
1
m
2
+ n
1
n
2
= 0(a)
D) Condition to be parallel:
If the two lines are parallel to each other,u = 0 cos u = 1
Or, l
1
l
2
+ m
1
m
2
+ n
1
n
2
= 1..(b)
(The two lines may be called anti-parallel when angle between them is t
or l
1
l
2
+ m
1
m
2
+ n
1
n
2
= -1.)
But we had anticipated that, as in case of two dimensions, the two lines would be parallel to each
other if they make the same angles with coordinate axes ,i.e.,
Or, l
1 =
l
2
, m
1 =
m
2
,and n
1 =
n
2
...(c)
Since both of (b) and (c) stand to reason and do not violate common sense. So we want to accept
both of them. Of course we must have another consideration, which one gives some benefits for the problem
at hand in a particular situation.
[Confusion should not be made in comparing the result (b) with condition of perpendicularity in case of two
dimensions, m
1
m
2
= -1 . There the ms stand for slopes whereas here they stand for cosines only. The point
shall be further clear following the example : let L
1
and L
2
be two lines in xy-plane in two dimensions with
slopes
1
and
2
respectively where
1
+
2
= t/2 . The direction cosines shall be cos
1
,

sin
1
and cos
2
, sin
2
respectively. For the two lines to be parallel, we have, cos
1
= cos
2
and sin
1
= sin
2
or tan
1
=
tan
2
, or, m
1 =
m
2
as before, if ms stand for slopes.
For the lines to be perpendicular, sin
1
. sin
2
+ cos
1
. cos
2
= 0 ,
or, sin
1
. sin
2
= - cos
1
. cos
2
, or, tan
1
. tan
2
= - 1 ,or, m
1
m
2
= -1 as before.]
Consider the identity (l
1
2
+ m
1
2
+ n
1
2
) +(l
2
2
+ m
2
2
+ n
2
2
) - 2( l
1
l
2
+ m
1
m
2
+ n
1
n
2
)
= (l
1
l
2
)
2
+ (m
1
m
2
)
2
+ (n
1
n
2
)
2
If two lines are parallel, from (b) l
1
l
2
+ m
1
m
2
+ n
1
n
2
= 1 , and we have l
1
2
+ m
1
2
+ n
1
2
=1 l
2
2
+ m
2
2
+ n
2
2
for
any st.lines. This makes our above identity,
1 + 1 2 = (l
1
l
2
)
2
+ (m
1
m
2
)
2
+ (n
1
n
2
)
2
= 0
l
1 =
l
2
, m
1 =
m
2
,and n
1 =
n
2
as sum of positive numbers cannot be 0 unless each of them is 0. This
establishes equivalence of (b) and (c).
Actually three conditions l
1 =
l
2
, m
1 =
m
2
,and n
1 =
n
2
are not required for the two st.lines to be parallel.
Only two will suffice, since the third condition automatically follows from them from the relation l
1
2
+ m
1
2
+ n
1
2
=1= l
2
2
+ m
2
2
+ n
2
2
.This gives,
For two st.lines to be parallel,
Page 416 / 681
Page 52
2
1
2
1
2
1
nl
n
m
m
l
l
= = .(d)
i.e., only two conditions.
Instead of direction cosines l, m and n, if direction ratios a, b and c are used, we can put
2 2 2
c b a
a
+ +
,
2 2 2
c b a
b
+ +
and
2 2 2
c b a
c
+ +
in place of a, b and c.
THE PROBLEMS INVOLVING PAIRS OF ST LINES , TRIANGLES,
PARALLELOGRAMS,CONCURRENCE OF THREE ST LINES AND COLINEARITY OF THREE POINTS
ETC ARE GIVEN IN A SEPARATE CHAPTER IN CONIC SECTIONS AFTER THE CHAPTER ON
CIRCLES.
Page 417 / 681
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3DSection 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
Page 1
CHAPTER 25: LINEAR EQUATIONS AND MATRICES
1: MATRICES :
Introduction
So far we have discussed about a symbol for eliminant of a system of linear equations, its Grammar
and Arithmetic and studied how it was helpful in guarantying existence of solutions of a system of linear
equations and writing the solution if it existed (rather than finding the solutions; the task of finding solutions is
reduced to writing of solutions). Then we called the eliminants as determinants and the behavior of these
determinants, as we fondly call it Arithmetic or Grammar or Algebra of determinants enabled it to be used in
other areas in Mathematics other than systems of equations. Why not adopt a symbol for the equations
themselves since the set of eqns is always referred to while discussing its determinant. To this end, perhaps
Mathematicians got the cue from product of determinants , of course, centuries ago. Let us rediscover it.
Let us take a system of equations like
ax + by + cz = d .(1)
px + qy + rz = e..(2)
lx + my + nz = f..(3)
1) Briefly write it as A x X = D ..(4)
(Remember)
where A stands for
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
, called a square matrix with 3 rows and 3 columns, X stands for
(
(
z
y
x
called a column
matrix with 3 rows and one column, and D stands for a column matrix
(
(
f
e
d
,the symbol x stands for some sort of
operation called matrix multiplication and we proceed to find out what process it may stand for so that we can write
the system of eqn.s in this brief manner. We may fancy that a mere matrix multiplication of inverse matrix of A or A
-1
shall reduce the eqn.(4) to X = A
-1
x D, immediately yielding x, y and z at once and all of them together , if at all a
solution exists and if A
-1
exists . So we have only to spell out the grammar or arithmetic of the symbol which we call as
a matrix so that , when we assign a proper meaning to A
-1
we can write the solution of the equations also in this brief
manner. We call A as the matrix of coefficients of the system of equation or the matrix of the system of equation to be
brief.
Eqn.(4) can thus be written as
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
x
(
(
z
y
x
=
(
(
f
e
d
....(4a)
If equivalence of (4)or (4a) with the set of equations(1), (2) and (3) is to be designed, then
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
x
(
(
z
y
x
=
(
(
+ +
+ +
+ +
nz my lx
rz qy px
cz by ax
..(5)
This relation tacitly carries two meanings, two things we have to assume in order that the relation (5) may be logical;
2) If two matrices are equal, each member of i-th row and j-th column of the first
one must be equal to the corresponding member of the second, so that the right
side of (5) may be equal to the right side of (4a) and as such the set of original
system of equations are obtained back.
AND
3) The member of i-th row and j-th column in the product shall be sum of products
of members of i-th row of the first with the corresponding members of j-th
column of the second;( just like determinants are multiplied in the manner explained in (70) in the previous article).
Otherwise how shall we arrive at the original set of equations? (Such sum of products of members of a row with
corresponding members of a column of the second matrix is called inner product). It follows that a matrix can be
Page 418 / 681
Page 2
matrix-multiplied with another only if the number of columns of the first one equals to number rows of the second.
(Otherwise , inner products as described above shall not be complete). Then the matrices are said to be conformable
for multiplication. If M is a matrix with r number of rows and s number of columns, and N is a matrix with s number of
rows ant t number of columns, then their product M x N should have r number of rows and t number of columns. Thus
the definition of matrix includes the rule of multiplication of matrices.
What would
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
x
x
x
y y
z
z
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
=
d
d
e e
f
f
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
mean when
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
x
(
(
z
y
x
=
(
(
f
e
d
means the set of equations (1), (2) and (3) ? Why,
clearly it would mean two different sets of equations written at the same time; namely,
ax + by + cz = d ....(1)
px + qy + rz = e.....(2)
lx + my + nz = f..(3)
and ax + by + cz = d .(1)
px + qy + rz = e..(2)
lx + my + nz = f..(3)
in two different sets of variables x, y, z and x, y, z respectively. Thus we could handle not only a set of equation, but
sets of them at the same time.
Matrices thus defined, were designed for handling sets of equations. But it found many alternative uses in
different fields so it is necessary also to study them independently without any association with sets of equations. A
matrix stands for representing its members in rows and columns simultaneously and without any necessary relationship
among them , just as a vector is represented by an ordered pair or triad of its independent components; e.g. the x, y
and z components of a force F
1
acting on one particle may be represented by (F
1x
, F
1y,
F
1z
) , a row matrix , a force F
2
acting on another particle may be represented by (F
2x
, F
2y,
F
2z
) , and a force F
3
acting on one more particle may be
represented by (F
3x
, F
3y,
F
3z
) , three vectors in three dimensions. The three particles move quite independently of each
other so that we can imagine a system of three particles as three different points in three dimensional space or one
point in a coordinate system of 9 coordinates and the forces can be represented by a single force F in 9 components as
(
(
(
z 3 y 3 x 3
z 2 y 2 x 2
z 1 y 1 x 1
F F F
F F F
F F F
and the position of the system of particles by a single point P in 9 dimensional space can be represented
by a matrix
(
(
(
z 3 y 3 x 3
z 2 y 2 x 2
z 1 y 1 x 1
P P P
P P P
P P P
. We have used bold letters without any ambiguity since the alternative name of a matrix is
vector and its members are very much the components of the vector. The process of matrix multiplication as illustrated
above, is a separate process different from scalar or vector multiplication of vectors different from multiplication of
complex numbers. Actually all these processes are different processes in which two numbers or vectors or matrices
are connected to give some result, a matrix, a vector or number as the case may be; the processes are different from
arithmetic multiplication and they are only called so, by the broad name of multiplication. Let us continue exploring it
until the point of finding inverse of matrices so that the mission of solution of simultaneous equations is achieved.
The process of multiplication of matrices as symbolized above is seen to be carrying associative property,
tacitly with itself in particular. Let us verify that they are associative, i.e.,
A x ( B x C) = (A x B) x C. For these matrices to be conformable for multiplication, the number of columns in B must
be equal to the number of rows in C and the number of columns in A must be equal to the number of number of rows in
B x C. Again, in the right side, the number of columns in A must be equal to the number of rows in B and the number of
columns in A x B must be equal to the number of rows in C. All these conditions are met if the number of columns in A
is equal to the number of rows in B and the number of columns in B is equal to the number of rows in C. Let A, B and
Page 419 / 681
Page 3
C be represented by A = [a
ij
], B = [b
ij
],and C = [c
ij
], where a
ij
stands for the member of A at i-th row and j-th column and
so on , and let A have m rows and n columns, B have n rows and p columns, and C have p rows and q columns( we
say, A is an m x n matrix, etc.). Then,
A x B = [ a
ri
] x [ b
ij
] =
(
=
=
n i
1 i
ij ri
b a (remember)
(Verify the same with any examples of A and B taking 3 x 3 elements in each)
Thus (A x B) x C =
(
=
=
n i
1 i
ij ri
b a x [c
js
] =
(
|
.
|
\
|

=
=
=
=
p j
1 j
js
n i
1 i
ij ri
c b a
=
(

=
=
=
=
n i
1 i
js
p j
1 j
ij ri
c b a
B x C = [ b
ij
] x [ c
js
] =
(
=
=
p j
1 j
js ij
c b , and
A x ( B x C) = [ a
ri
] x
(
=
=
p i
1 i
js ij
c b =
(
|
.
|
\
|

=
=
=
=
n i
1 i
p j
1 j
js ij ri
c b a
=
(

=
=
=
=
n i
1 i
p j
1 j
js ij ri
c b a
hence (A x B) x C = A x ( B x C) (6)
so that we can remove the brackets only if we remember not to disturb the order in which the matrices are written.
Three different 3 x 3 matrices may be taken to illustrate the point in concrete terms. Let A =
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
a b c
p q r
l m n
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
, B =
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
a b c
p q r
l m n
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
, and C =
3 3 3
3 3 3
3 3 3
a b c
p q r
l m n
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
Whether the process of multiplication of matrices as we call it shall be distributive over addition or subtraction ;
i.e., whether A x ( B C ) = A x B A x C ? Before that we have to see some sort of process such as addition or
subtraction of matrices and call those processes in the same names addition and subtraction of matrices in analogy
with the addition and subtraction process of ordinary numbers. in fact, if we regard matrices as vectors,
addition or subtraction of matrices is just like addition of subtraction of vectors component wise and similar is
the case of multiplication of a matrix with a number.
(remember)
This is the most natural way in which we could set the rules of addition. For addition or subtraction to have any
meaning, the number of rows and columns in the matrices to be added or subtracted should be equal. Then they are
called confirmable for addition. These processes bear no similarity with corresponding processes for determinants ,
for determinants represent single numbers or numerical values of expressions whereas a matrix represents all its
members at a time ,separately, not necessarily there being any relationship among one another. If an element of the
matrix changes its position then the whole matrix is changed into a different matrix. So a matrix should never be
confused with its determinant. Well, then what do the matrix addition or subtraction represent ? They represent
Algebraic compounding of two or more sets of simultaneous equations. Right now the matter is of least importance to
us as we do not want any modification in the set of equations and proceed to write their solution direct. Multiplication by
a number k,( a scalar, called otherwise) shall mean, multiplication of each of the components of the matrix ; just as in
case of vectors. This is further consistent with the rule of addition; for suppose, k is a positive integer, for sake of
simplicity. Then multiplying a matrix by k means adding up k number of identical determinants and that does not affect
the solution of the underlying set of simultaneous eqn.s in any way. If k is another number other than a positive integer,
Page 420 / 681
Page 4
the rule simply means a multiplication of the underlying set of simultaneous eqn.s by k and again that does not affect
their solution in any way. Evidently,
(
(
=
(
(
=
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
k
kn km kl
kr kq kp
kc kb ka
k
n m l
r q p
c b a
..(7)
in particular,
(
(
=
(
(

=
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
) 1 (
n m l
r q p
c b a
) 1 (
n m l
r q p
c b a
..(7a)
and addition or subtraction of two matrices would be like
(
(

' n n ' m m ' l l
' r r ' q q ' p p
' c c ' b b ' a a
=
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
(
(
' n ' m ' l

' r ' q ' p
' c ' b ' a
..(8)
similar to component method of addition of vectors.
Addition of course shall be commutative, i.e., if A and B are any two matrices conformable for addition, then A + B =
B + A which, may be evidently verified from (8). (A + B = [a
ij
] + [b
ij
] = [a
ij
+ b
ij
] =[b
ij
+ a
ij
] = B + A). Addition is also
associative, i.e., if A, B and C be any three matrices confirmable for addition, then
A + ( B+ C) = (A + B)+ C, which may be easily verified and as such, the order in which matrices are added makes no
difference. A matrix A should serve as additive inverse and subtraction of a matrix B from A may be written as A +(
B) or A B . In symbols, [a
ij
] [b
ij
] = [a
ij
b
ij
] (corresponding members, i.e. members of i-th row and j-th column in
the two matrices are added or subtracted) and k[a
ij
] = [ka
ij
] ;i.e., all the members of the matrix are to be multiplied with
the same number k if the matrix itself has to be multiplied with k, where k is any ordinary number. What effect it leaves
on the original system of equations ? When all the equations in the set are multiplied throughout by k, there is no
change in the equations or no change in their solutions, but we see that the corresponding matrix is multiplied with k;
i.e., it has been changed ! Thus the same system of equations can relate to different matrices. It may be noted
that addition, subtraction or multiplication by a constant are not similar processes as in the case of
determinants; rather they are analogous to the corresponding processes in case of vectors.
A null matrix would be like
(
0 0
0 0
or
(
(
(
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
can serve as additive identity, no matter it be a square matrix or not.
We can add an m x n null matrix to an m x n matrix to leave it unchanged.
A scalar matrix may be of the type
2 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 2
(
(
(
(

, a matrix all the elements of its leading diagonal are equal an others
all 0s so that it may be written as
2 0 0 1 0 0
0 2 0 2 0 1 0
0 0 2 0 0 1
( (
( (
=
( (
( (

, a scalar multiple of a unit matrix.
A matrix of the type
1 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 4
(
(
(
(

is called a diagonal matrix . A matrix of the type
2 1 3
0 1 4
0 0 2
(
(
(
(

is called a triangular
matrix also an upper triangular matrix and one like
2 0 0
1 1 0
3 4 2
(
(
(
(

is called a lower triangular one.
Page 421 / 681
Page 5
Now we can revert to distributive property of matrix multiplication. To prove this, let,
A =
n j , m i
1 j , 1 i ij
] a [
= =
= =
, B =
p k , n j
1 k , 1 j jk
] b [
= =
= =
and C =
p k , n j
1 k , 1 j jk
] c [
= =
= =
be three matrices such that A has m rows and n columns, B and C
each have n rows and p columns as each should be conformable for multiplication with A and conformable for addition
with each other..
Now A x ( B C ) =
n j , m i
1 j , 1 i ij
] a [
= =
= =
x (
p k , n j
1 k , 1 j jk
] b [
= =
= =

p k , n j
1 k , 1 j jk
] c [
= =
= =
)
=
n j , m i
1 j , 1 i ij
] a [
= =
= =
x (
p k , n j
1 k , 1 j jk jk
] c b [
= =
= =
)
= ( )
p k , m i
1 k , 1 i
n j
1 j
jk jk ij
c b a
= =
= =
=
=
(
=
p k , m i
1 k , 1 i
n j
1 j
jk ij
b a
= =
= =
=
=
(
p k , m i
1 k , 1 i
n j
1 j
jk ij
c a
= =
= =
=
=
(
= A x B A x C ..(9)
Again the example A =
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
a b c
p q r
l m n
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
, B =
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
a b c
p q r
l m n
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
, and C =
3 3 3
3 3 3
3 3 3
a b c
p q r
l m n
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
may be used to visualize in concrete
terms. It takes a little while before one is familiar with the scheme of subscripts.
When we talk of an inverse matrix, it must be found from the relation that product of the matrix and the
inverse must be multiplicative identity analogous to mm
- 1
= 1 in Arithmetic. Further, the multiplicative identity matrix
or simply called the identity matrix or unit matrix should be such, that when it is multiplied with any matrix, the result
should be the same matrix. Let us examine the matrix
(
(
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
and see whether it would serve our purpose. Multiplying it with
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
we get
(
(
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
n r c m q b l p a
n r c m q b l p a
n r c m q b l p a
, which
is different from
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
. So it wont be an identity matrix. Nor shall a matrix of type
(
(
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 1 1
or
(
(
0 0 1
0 0 1
0 0 1
be unit matrices
(verify). But clearly
(
(
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
shall be identity matrix, for
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
x
(
(
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
=
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
=
(
(
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
x
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
.
many peculiarities we observe in this identity matrix. First, let us see that it should be a square matrix. For, let us take a
4 x 3 matrix and multiply it with a 3 x 3 identity matrix as given below
(
(
(
v t s
n m l
r q p
c b a
x
(
(
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
=
(
(
(
v t s
n m l
r q p
c b a
which leaves the
matrix unchanged. But a 3 x 2 matrix when multiplied to 4 x 3 matrix does not leave the matrix unchanged.
(
(
(
v t s
n m l
r q p
c b a
x
(
(
0 0
1 0
0 1
=
(
(
(
t s
m l
q p
b a
it is evident that though identity matrices are necessarily square matrices, they can be multiplied with other matrices
which are not square matrices if conformable for multiplication, leaving them unchanged after multiplication.
Next, for multiplication with square matrices, the left identity must be same as right identity, i.e., if I x A = A
for left identity I and A x J = A for right identity J, then I should be equal to J. For we have I = I x J as J is right identity
Page 422 / 681
Page 6
and I x J =J as I is left identity, thus I = J as both are I x J.
.(10)
Next , the identity or unit matrix must be unique for a particular order; i.e., there must be only one unit matrix in
4 rows and 4 columns, only one for 5 rows and 5 columns, and so on , one only for every order. The order of a square
matrix is the number of rows or columns it has. If the unit matrix is not unique, let I and J be two different identity
matrices of same order. Now I = J x I as J is identity ,( left or right , no bother; as we have just proved them to be
equal) and J x I = J as I is also identity . Thus I =J (11)
4) Do not expect multiplication of matrices in general to be commutative and in fact they are not so .
except in some special cases(12)
Are vector products commutative either ? No, only dot product is commutative but not the cross product.. So there is
nothing unusual to expect that multiplication of matrices are non-commutative. The question of commutativity of
multiplication arises only when the both matrices are square matrices. Otherwise if a 3 x 4 matrix is multiplied with
another 4 x 5 matrix, multiplication in reverse order is not possible even.
(In particular cases e.g. A =
(
cos sin
sin cos
and B =
(
cos sin
sin cos
we see A x B = B x A and hundreds of such examples may
be given. But to disprove any statement, only one example to the contrary is sufficient. Take for example,
A =
(
i 0
0 i
and B =
(

0 1
1 0
, so that A x B =
(

0 i
i 0
= - (B x A); hence A x B B x A)
5) Product of two null matrices is always a zero matrix. But not vice versa. and
We can have two non-zero matrices whose product is a null matrix . ......(13)
This is also expected as dot product of two non-zero vectors perpendicular to each other or cross product of two non-
zero vectors parallel to each other is a zero vector when the vectors themselves are not null vectors. The following
example would illustrate. Let A =
(
0 1
0 1
and]
B =
(
1 1
0 0
, neither of which is a null matrix, but their product
A x B =
(
+ +
+ +
1 x 0 0 x 1 ) 1 ( x 0 0 x 1
1 x 0 0 x 1 ) 1 ( x 0 0 x 1
=
(
0 0
0 0
.
A square matrix whose determinant is 0 is called a singular matrix. For example,
(
0 0
0 0
,
(
(
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
,
(
(
r q p
c b a
c b a
,
(
(
r q 0
c b 0
c b 0
etc. are singular matrices.
6) Product of determinants of two square matrices is determinant of their product.
|M x N| = |M| x |N|(14)
Take M =
(
(
N R C
M Q B
L P A
, N =
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
and we have
|M| x |N|=
A P L
a b c
B Q M p q r
C R N l m n
=
Nn Rr c C Nm Rq Cb Nl Rp Ca
Mn Qr Bc Mm Qq Bb Ml Qp Ba
Ln Pr Ac Lm Pq Ab Ll Pp Aa
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
= |M x N|
(refer to the rule of product of determinants).
7) Eqn.(14) also shows that if either M or N is singular, so would be M x N. (15)
A null matrix must be singular but not vice versa in general, e.g.
(
(
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
..(16)
Page 423 / 681
Page 7
In particular, if product of two non-zero matrices is null matrix (and hence singular), at least one of them must be
singular (by (15))...(17)
The reverse is also true. For , when
A P L
a b c
B Q M p q r
C R N l m n
=0, any one of the two or both of them must be 0 as
they are ordinary numbers. This can be extended to any finite number of matrices.
8) Hence, if product of any number of square matrices is singular, at least one of them is singular.
.(18).
Now come to the vital problem; to explore whether there exists an inverse of our matrix
A =
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
of the system of equations (4); i.e., A x X = D, and if so, under what conditions. Let us assume that it
exists and let B be an inverse of A ; or B = A
-1
. We talk of one inverse for so far we do not know how many of them
are there. Now this B = A
-1
has to be multiplied with A to give unit matrix, say, I =
(
(
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
. Because B can be multiplied
with A, the number of rows in B must be same as number of columns of A. Then B x A = I.
Consider the product of any square matrix like B =
(
(
N R C
M Q B
L P A
with A =
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
from left and we get,
(
(
N R C
M Q B
L P A
x
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
=
(
(
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
nN rR cC mN qR bC lN pR aC
nM rQ cB mM qQ bB lM pQ aB
nL rP cA mL qP bA lL pP aA
where A, B, C etc. are any ordinary numbers.
If A, B, Q, R etc. just happen to be cofactors of a, b, q, r etc. respectively instead of any numbers, we see that
all the members of the matrix on the right side except those in the leading diagonal are 0 and those in the leading
diagonal each = the determinant of A=
n m l
r q p
c b a
= A, say.
(as aA + bB + cC = A = bB + qQ + mM etc. and bA + qP + mL = 0 = cB + rQ + nM etc.a result proved in determinants
section)
Hence,
(
(
N R C
M Q B
L P A
x
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
=
(
(
0 0
0 0
0 0
= A x
(
(
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
=
n m l
r q p
c b a
x I = AI
Hence
N R C
M Q B
L P A
(
(
shall be the inverse matrix of

(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
, which we were looking
for. We can write
1
n m l
r q p
c b a

(
(
N R C
M Q B
L P A
(
(
only if
n m l
r q p
c b a
= 0..(19)
9) Inverse of a nonsingular square matrix A is the matrix formed by interchanging corresponding rows
and columns in the matrix formed by cofactors of members of A and then dividing by |A|, if |A| = 0,
.(20)
Page 424 / 681
Page 8
A=
n m l
r q p
c b a
= 0 is the necessary and sufficient condition for
1
n m l
r q p
c b a

(
(
to exist.
And it is denoted by A
-1
and called inverse or reciprocal matrix of A ...(20a)
This can formally be proved also. Let B be an inverse of A, so that B x A = I. We have
|B x A| = |I| = 1 |B| x |A| = 1 neither |B| nor |A| is 0.So the condition is necessary. Now, if |A| = 0, we can have A
-1
by (19) above. Thus the condition is sufficient.
If M and N be two different inverses of A,
then M = I x M = (B x A) x M = B x (A x M) = B x I = B ....(20b)
So, if an inverse of any matrix exists, it is unique. . ....(20b)
If M and N are two square matrices of same order,
N
-1
x M
-1
is seen to be inverse of M x N; .(20c)
For, (M x N) x (N
-1
x M
-1
) = M x(N x (N
-1
)x M
-1
= M x I x M
-1
= M x M
-1
= I ,
Also (N
-1
x M
-1
) x (M x N) = I .
Similarly R
-1
xQ
-1
xP
-1
.C
-1
xB
-1
xA
-1
= AxBxC..PxQxR..(20d)
Multiplying the two we easily get I.
If M be a left inverse of A i.e., M x A = I, and if N be a right inverse of A i.e., A x N = I,
M = M x I = M x (A x N ) = (M x A )x N = I x N = N
So that, the left inverse of any square matrix, if exists is equal to the right inverse (20e)
It is not convenient to consider inverses of other matrices which are not square matrices, even if they may exist in
some particular case. Obviously the left inverse shall not be the right inverse in this case, as the number of rows and
columns shall differ. Then what about system of simultaneous equations in which the number of equations is less than
or greater than the number of variables ? The analysis would be done in the section for rank of matrices.
Now we can revert to (4) or (4a) and find out the solution of the system of eqn.s (1), (2), (3) or (4) or (4a), as
follows.
A x X = D
A
-1
x (A x X) = A
-1
x D
(A
-1
x A) x X = A
-1
x D
I x X =
(
(
N R C
M Q B
L P A
1
A
x
(
(
f
e
d
X =
(
(
z
y
x
=
(
(
+ +
+ +
+ +
fN eR dC
fM eQ dB
fL eP dA
1
.. .(21)
x =
fL eP dA + +
, y =
fM eQ dB + +
, z =
fN eR dC + +
...(21a)
Note here that A = aA + pP + lL , and the expression dA + eP + fL can be obtained by replacing a, p, l with d, e, f
respectively in aA + pP + lL or A. In other words, the expression is got by replacing the first column of A with members
of matrix
(
(
f
e
d
. So it is
n m f
r q e
c b d
.Similar statements can be made for 2
nd
and 3
rd
eqn. of (21) and combining the results
n m l
r q p
c b a
1
f m l
e q p
d b a
z
n f l
r e p
c d a
y
n m f
r q e
c b d
x
= = = , ...(21b)
Which is same as Crammers rule again,
Page 425 / 681
Page 9
This is not surprising. The solution we arrived at here must be same as Crammers or whatever one we had got earlier;
for how many different solutions the system of eqn.s have ?
Only one is the right answer. So without comparing and calculating the two solutions we could have straight stated that
they are identical to each other. The formula is quite general for any particular number of variables as proved.
Thus, towards the end of writing a set of linear eqn.s in brief and writing their solutions also in brief, we have been
successful only by adopting a symbol for matrix, a symbol for matrix multiplication ( and its inverse operation ,
whenever possible, by multiplication of the inverse matrix,) and of course, the inherent rules of the game regarding
addition etc. which were discovered by and by.
A square matrix formed by interchanging rows with corresponding columns of matrix A is called transpose matrix of A
and is denoted by A.
If A = [a
ij
],then A = [a
ji
]; (A) = [a
ji
] = [a
ij
] (rows & columns interchanged)= A ,
Transpose of a transposed matrix is the original matrix itself.(22)
If A = [a
ij
] , then A = [a
ji
]; similarly B = [b
ij
] , then B = [b
ji
] for any other square matrix B.
Now, (A B) = ([a
ij
] [b
ij
])
= ([a
ij
b
ij
]) since members of respective row and column are added
= [a
ji
b
ji
] i and j replace each other as rows and columns are interchanged
= [a
ji
] [b
ji
]
= A B ....(23)
Similarly,( kA) = (k[a
ij
]) = ([ka
ij
]) =[ka
ji
] = k[a
ji
] = k A ...(24)
10) This means square matrices can be safely transposed after or before making addition, subtraction or
multiplication with a constant, leading to same result.
Next, if A and B are both p x p matrices,
(A x B) = ([a
ij
] [b
ij
]) =
'
j k
1 k
kj ik
b a
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
=
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
=
=
j l
1 l
jl li
b a
(variables i and j can be replaced with each other since each varies from 1 to p; in effect only the order of summation is
changed; and we have written just l in place of k)
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
=
=
j l
1 l
li jl
a b (as a
li
and b
jl
are ordinary numbers)
=
(
=
=
j l
1 l
li jl
a b = [b
jl
] x [a
li
]
= B x A..(25)
11) Thus, transpose of the product is product of transposed matrices in reverse order.
This can be extended to any finite number of matrices. (A x B x C) = C x B x A
Compare the result with cross product of vectors. If
P and
Q are any two vectors their cross product changes

sign if multiplied in reverse order. i.e.,( refer the result in vectors section)
P x
Q = -

Q x
P (26)
A square matrix A is called symmetric if A = A or a
ij
= a
ji
meaning thereby the symmetric matrix remains unchanged if
rows and replaced with corresponding columns and vice versa. Similarly a square matrix A is called skew symmetric if
A = -A or a
ij
= -a
ji
. For example
(
(
1 6 1
6 4 3
1 3 2
is a symmetric matrix
'
1 6 1
6 4 3
1 3 2
(
(
=
(
(
1 6 1
6 4 3
1 3 2
whereas
(
(

0 6 1
6 0 3
1 3 0
is a skew symmetric matrix. Members of leading diagonal must each be 0 in case the matrix is skew symmetric.
For a
kk
= -a
kk
forces 2a
kk
= 0 or a
kk
= 0..(27)
An interesting result is deduced from this . If A be any square matrix, we have
Page 426 / 681
Page 10
A = (A + A) + (A - A)
Now (A + A) = A + (A) = A +A = A +A; so that A + A is a symmetric matrix, say 2S.
And (A - A) = A - (A) = A - A; so that A - A is a skew symmetric matrix say 2T.
Thus we have any square matrix A = S + T, sum of a symmetric and skew symmetric matrix. This is in a unique
manner. For, if U and V be two other symmetric and skew symmetric matrices respectively, U + V = A and U - V = A.
so that U = (A + A) = S and V = (A A) =T as before.
12) Every square matrix can be represented as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix and
uniquely so...(29a)
Again if A is any square matrix, (A x A) = (A) x A = A x A
So A x A is always a symmetric matrix. .....(29b)
If A and B are both symmetric, A x B is symmetric if and only if A x B = B x A
A x B is symmetric A x B = (A x B) = B x A = B x A....(29c)
If both matrices A and B are symmetric, then A x B + B x A is symmetric. For,
(A x B + B x A) = (A x B) +(B x A) = B x A + A x B= B x A+ A x B...(29d)
If both matrices A and B are symmetric, A x B - B x A is skew-symmetric.
For,(A x B - B x A) = (A x B) -(B x A) = B x A - A x B = B x A- A x B...(29e)
We have (A
n
) = (A x A x A x A...n terms) = A x A x A.n terms= (A)
n
.(29f)
If A is symmetric, A = A (A)
n
= (A)
n
=(A
n
)....(29g)
If A is skew-symmetric, A = - A (A)
n
= (-1)
n
A
n
, A
n
for n even, - A
n
if n odd(29h)
If A is symmetric B
x A x B is symmetric if it exists; for,

(B
x A x B)= B
x A x (B) = B
x A x B...(29i)
If A is skew-symmetric B
x A x B is skew-symmetric if it exists; for,

(B
x A x B)= B
x A x (B) = B
x (-A)x B = - B
x Ax B ...(29j)
13) Transpose of a square matrix formed by cofactors of members of a square matrix A is called adjoint matrix of
A and denoted by adj.A.
Since the members of a matrix are replaced by corresponding cofactors denoted by same letters in capitals, and
transposition is done on the resulting matrix, transposition formulae (23), (24) and (25) can be written for adjoints also.
No special proof is required although the proof may be given in the same lines for adjoints while deriving (23), (24) and
(25).We just write cofactors in place of members and get done. Thus we have
Adj.(A B) = Adj.A Adj.B....(28)
And Adj.(kA) = k (Adj. A).. ...(29)
Adj.(A x B) = Adj. B x Adj. A...(30)
In terms of adjoint, inverse matrix of A can be written as
A
-1
=
A
A . Adj
=
| A |
] A [
ji
, if |A| = 0, (|A| = determinant of A)....(21d)
As interchange of corresponding rows and columns do not affect determinants, for a nonsingular square matrix
A , we have |A| = |A| so that A is also nonsingular ; and Adj.A = Adj. [a
ji
] = [A
ij
] = (Adj.A) , so that
Page 427 / 681
Page 11
( )
( )
( )
'
'
'
1
. adj . adj . adj
1 -
'
'
'
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A =
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = =
..(31)
If we write A x A = A
2
, A x A x A = A
3
etc., we see that symbols like A
n
obey the law of indices for positive
integral values of n. (verify) Further,. for any nonsingular square matrix A, we have,
A
-1
x A
-1
x A
2
= A
-1
x A
-1
x A x A = A
-1
x I x A = A
-1
x A = I
So that A
-1
x A
-1
= (A
2
)
-1
; in other words, (A
-1
)
2
= (A
2
)
-1
and similarly (A
-1
)
3
= (A
3
)
-1
etc. Therefore there would be no
ambiguity in writing (A
n
)
-1
= (A
-1
)
n
and both can be conveniently represented by A
-n
, thereby extending the laws of
indices to include negative integral indices too. Evidently, A
0
= A
n+(-n)
= A
n
x A
-n
= A
n
x (A
n
)
-1
= I
Again, as we already know that the left inverse is same as the right inverse,
Or, I = A
-1
x A = A x A
-1
= I, it is seen that A is inverse of A
-1
too, or, (A
-1
)
-1
= A.
14) Hence laws of indices are valid for positive and negative integral indices of square matrices (only for
nonsingular matrices in case of negative indices) and A
0
= I,
and (A
-1)-1
= A ........(32)
Exercise1
Find 2 A B + if
0 4 1
1 3 7
A
(
=
(

and
4 2 3
1 5 7
B
(
=
(

. Ans.
8 8 7
2
3 7 21
A B
(
+ =
(

Exercise2
Solve for x, y, z if
2 3 7 0
4 6 1 2 3
x y y
a z a
+ + ( (
=
( (

Ans. 2, 3, 4, 3 x y z a = = = =
Hint. Equate the corresponding terms and solve equations in elementary methods.
Exercise3
Express the matrix
0 5 3
1 1 1
4 5 9
(
(
(
(

as sum of an upper triangular matrix and lower triangular matrix.
Ans.
0 5 3 0 0 0 0 5 3
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
4 5 9 4 5 9 0 0 0
( ( (
( ( (
= +
( ( (
( ( (

Exercise4
Express the matrix
0 5 3
1 1 1
4 5 9
(
(
(
(

as sum of a symmetric and skew symmetric matrix.
Page 428 / 681
Page 12
Hint. solve
0 5 3 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 1
4 5 9 9 0 9
a b p q a p b q
a c p r a p c r
b c q r b q c r
+ + ( ( ( (
( ( ( (
= + = +
( ( ( (
( ( ( (

to get
5, 1, 3, 4 . a p a p b q b q etc + = = + = =
Exercise5
If ( )
2
7 10 f x x x = + and
2 0 1
2 1 3
1 1 0
A
(
(
=
(
(

find ( )
2
7 10 f A A A I = + where
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
I
(
(
=
(
(

.
Hint.
2
2 0 1 2 0 1 5 1 2
2 1 3 2 1 3 9 2 5
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 2
A A A
( ( (
( ( (
= = =
( ( (
( ( (

,
2 0 1 14 0 7
7 7 2 1 3 14 7 21
1 1 0 7 7 0
A
( (
( (
= =
( (
( (

Exercise6
Give 2 examples of pairs of non-zero matrices whose product is 0 matrix.
Ana. 1.
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
( ( (
=
( ( (

,2.
0 2 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
( ( (
=
( ( (

.
Exercise7
Find| |
a h g x
x y z h b f y
g f c z
( (
( (
( (
( (

.
Ans. | |
2 2 2
2 2 2
x
ax hy gz hx by fz gx fy cz y ax by cz fyz gzx hxy
z
(
(
+ + + + + + = + + + + +
(
(

Exercise8
Show that
cos sin sin cos 1 0
cos sin
sin cos cos sin 0 1

( ( (
+ =
( ( (

Exercise9
Show that
cos sin cos sin cos sin cos sin
sin cos sin cos sin cos sin cos

( ( ( (
=
( ( ( (

.
Exercise10
Show that
cos sin
sin cos
n
n n
A
n n

(
=
(

if
cos sin
sin cos
A

(
=
(

only for n being a positive integer.
Exercise11
Page 429 / 681
Page 13
0 0 1 0
, ,
0 1 0 0
i i
A B C
i i
( ( (
= = =
( ( (

.Find
2 2 2
, , , , A B C AB BA
Ans.
2 2 2
; A B C I AB C BA = = = = =
Exercise12
If
3 1
1 2
A
(
=
(

, show that
2
5 7 0 A A I + =
The above example opens up another way of finding inverses, if some matrix equation is given.
Exercise13
If
3 1
1 2
A
(
=
(

, show that
2
5 7 0 A A I + =
and find
1
A
Hint.
( )
2 2 1 2 1 1
1 1
1
7
5 7 0 5 7 5 7
5 7 5
A A I A A I A A A A A I
A I A A A I

+ = = =
= =
complete the exercise.
Exercise14
Show that
2
3 9 A A I B + = , if
1 2 3 6 1 2
2 3 1 , 5 4 4
3 1 2 2 8 3
A B
( (
( (
= =
( (
( (

.
Also find
1
A
Exercise15
Show that
3 2
A rA qA pI = + + if
0 1 0
0 0 1 A
p q r
(
(
=
(
(

.
Exercise16
If
1 1 1
1 2 3
2 1 3
A
(
(
=
(
(

, verify that
3 2
6 5 11 0 A A A I + + = and find
1
A
Exercise17
For a non-singular non zero matrix
n
A of order n, AB AC B C = = and BA CA B C = = if B andC are of the same
rank. ( Hint. multiply by
1
A
.
Exercise18
For a non-singular matrix of order n,
1 n
AdjA A

= , where A means determinant of A
Page 430 / 681
Page 14
Hint.
1 1
0 0 .... 0
0 0 .... 0
0 .... 0
0
0 0 0 ....
n n
AdjA AdjA
A I AA A A AdjA A I
A A
A
A
A AdjA A A AdjA A A AdjA A
A

= = = =
(
(
(
(
= = =
(
(
(

Exercise19
If
1 2
3 6
A
(
=
(

,
2 0
0 0
B
(
=
(

,
0 0
1 0
C
(
=
(

.Show that
2 0
6 0
AB AC
(
= =
(

, but B C = .
Exercise20
Define
2 3
...............
2! 3!
A
A A
e I A = + + + + , show that
cosh sinh
sinh cosh
A
x x
e e
x x
(
=
(

if
x x
A
x x
(
=
(

Exercise21
Find
1
A
if
8 1 4
1
4 4 7
9
1 8 4
A
(
(
=
(
(

. Ans.
1
' A A
=
Exercise22
For non-singular matrices, show that ( ) ( )
1 1
1 1 1 1 1
, AB B A ABC C B A

= =
Exercise23
Show that inverse of a symmetric matrix is also symmetric.
Hint. Given
T
A A =
we have to prove
( ) ( )
1
1
T
T
A A

=
(
T
A
means transpose of
A
)
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1
T T
T
T T T T
T T
T
AA I A A AA I A A
A A I A A A A I A A
A A

= = = =
= = = =
=
Exercise24
For any square matrix A show that ' A A + is symmetric and ' A A is skew-symmetric; so that every square matrix can
be expressed as a sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.
Exercise25
For square matrices show that ( ) ( )
' '
' ' ' ' '
, AB B A ABC C B A = = .
Exercise26
Page 431 / 681
Page 15
For square matrices show that ( ) ( ) , adj A B adjB adjA adj A B C adjC adjB adjA = = .
Exercise27
Find the inverse of the following.
a)
cos sin
sin cos

(
(

, b)
0 0 1
1 0 0
1 1 0
(
(
(
(

c)
4 3 3
1 0 1
4 4 3
(
(

(
(

d)
0 0
0 0
0 0
a
a
a
(
(
(
(

e)
0 1 2
1 2 3
3 1 1
(
(
(
(

f)
8 4 3
2 1 1
1 2 1
(
(
(
(

g)
8 4 2
2 9 4
1 2 8
(
(
(
(

Ans. a)
cos sin
sin cos

(
(

b)
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
(
(
(
(

, c)
4 3 3
1 0 1
4 4 3
(
(
(
(

d)
1 0 0
1
0 1 0
0 0 1
a
(
(
(
(

e)
1 1 1
2 2 2
5 3 1
2 2 2
4 3 1
(
(

(
(

f)
1 2 1
3 3 3
5 1 2
3 3 3
1 4 0
(
(

(
(

g)
64 28 2
1
12 62 28
454
5 12 64
(
(

(
(

Exercise28
Solve the following sets of equations by matrix method by finding inverse matrices.
a) 2 4, 2 3 3, 3 2 3 x y z x y z x y z + + = = + + = Ans. ( ) ( ) , , 1, 2, 1 x y z =
b) 3, 2 3 4, 4 9 6 x y z x y z x y z + + = + + = + + = Ans. ( ) ( ) , , 2,1, 0 x y z =
c) 5 3 7 4, 3 26 2 9, 7 2 11 5 x y z x y z x y z + + = + + = + + = Ans. ( ) ( )
7 3
11 11
, , , , 0 x y z =
2: Gaussian elimination explained :Alternative treatment for matrices.
In the above, we defined matrices independently, to represent sets of linear equations in a product form A x X = D and
explored how do we want matrices to be, so that this short form of the set of equations would be fruitful and matrices so
defined also could find many more uses elsewhere.
Instead of A x X = D, we could have only taken D as the matrix and tried to solve the equations by process of
elimination as we generally do and then could have generalized the process. Let us take a particular example,
Let the system of equations be
0 1
2 0 0
1
x y z
x y z
x y z
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
represented by
1 0 1 1
2 0 1 0
1 1 1 1
(a)
Multiplying the 1
st
eqn by 2 throughout and subtracting it from 2
nd
we get
0 1
0 0 2
1
x z
z
x y z
+ + =
+ =
+ + =
represented by
1 0 1 1
0 0 1 2
1 1 1 1

.(b)
Subtracting the 1
st
equation from the 3
rd
we get
Page 432 / 681
Page 16
0 1
0 0 2
0 0 0
x z
z
y
+ + =
+ =
+ + =
represented by
1 0 1 1
0 0 1 2
0 1 0 0

.(c)
Now replacing the 1
st
eqn by addition of 1
st
and the 2
nd
eqn, we get,
0 0 1
0 0 2
0 0 0
x
z
y
+ + =
+ =
+ + =
represented by
1 0 0 1
0 0 1 2
0 1 0 0

.(d)
So that none of the equations contains more than one variables and this solves the problem
x = - 1 , z = - 2 and y = 0 .
The underlying principle is, we could direct work on the augmented matrix D instead of A x X and only by elementary
row operations, i.e. process of elimination what we generally do, proceed to get the solution . Anyway we have to find
A
-1
.
To find out A
-1
, we take the augmented matrix | | A I until A is reduced to I. Take a particular example, let us take
1 0 1
2 1 1
1 1 2
(
(
=
(
(

A . The augmented matrix | | A I becomes | |
1 0 1 1 0 0
2 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 2 0 0 1
(
(
=
(
(

A I
We reduce it by carrying out elementary row operations as follows:
| |
1
1 1 1
2 2 2
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
3 1 1
2 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 2 1 0 0 1 0
2 2 2
1 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1
2 2 2
(
( ( (
( ( (
( =
( ( (
( ( (

(
(

A I I A
So that
1
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 1 1
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 2 2
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(

A
Now to find X = A
-1
x D would be easier than before to solve the set of equations.
This procedure is formally developed in the next section by showing that row operations are matrix multiplications with
e-matrices or elementary row matrices. If you have some feeling that study of matrices depended upon study or use of
determinants, this section shall completely remove that feeling, giving matrices a standing on its own. the inference
may neatly be stated as :
Exercise29
Solve the following sets of equations by matrix method by Gaussian elimination.
d) 2 4, 2 3 3, 3 2 3 x y z x y z x y z + + = = + + = Ans. ( ) ( ) , , 1, 2, 1 x y z =
e) 3, 2 3 4, 4 9 6 x y z x y z x y z + + = + + = + + = Ans. ( ) ( ) , , 2,1, 0 x y z =
f) 5 3 7 4, 3 26 2 9, 7 2 11 5 x y z x y z x y z + + = + + = + + = Ans. ( ) ( )
7 3
11 11
, , , , 0 x y z =
Page 433 / 681
Page 17
3: Elementary row and column operations; many a way to find A
1
:
Remember the manual process of solving a system of equations such as
ax + by + cz = d .(1)
px + qy + rz = e..(2)
lx + my + nz = f..(3)
by elimination. We used to multiply (1) by e and (2) by f and subtract one from the other to get an equation whose
constant term became 0; the resulting equation being homogeneous. By repeating similar process with say (2) and (3),
we got another homogeneous equation. Then cross multiplication of these two gave the relationship among variables
and using this relationship in (2) or (3), we solved for the variables. Further we noted that interchange of any two
equations or multiplying an equation by a constant and adding or subtracting it from another did not affect the solution
although the original equations happened to have been modified, i.e., even if the square matrix representing the
coefficients of the variables happened to have been materially altered.
In an analogous manner we may observe that if any two of the variables are interchanged the values of these
unknowns is also interchanged in the same fashion. Since we are interested in solving the equations it does not affect
us whether we call an unknown x or call it y. But in this process two columns in the coefficient matrix get interchanged.
We can also add say, kax, kpx and klx respectively to both sides of (1), (2) and (3) respectively without changing the
equations or their solutions but materially altering the coefficient matrix. For a little while let us shift our attention from
the solution of the set of eqns. to the coefficient matrix.
If two rows of a matrix are interchanged or a multiple of one row is added to or subtracted from another row the
process is called an elementary row operation and similar description may be given for an elementary column
operation. Suppose a 2x3 matrix
(
f e d
c b a
is multiplied from left into a 3x4 matrix
(
(
g w v u
t s r q
p n m l
; the product
(
f e d
c b a
x
(
(
g w v u
t s r q
p n m l
=
(
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
fg et dp fw es dn fv er dm fu eq dl
cg bt ap cw bs an cv br am cu bq al
.
If tow rows of the 1
st
matrix are interchanged, the effect is seen as under.
(
c b a
f e d
x
(
(
g w v u
t s r q
p n m l
=
(
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
cg bt ap cw bs an cv br am cu bq al
fg et dp fw es dn fv er dm fu eq dl
;i.e., the effect is that the rows of the product matrix
are interchanged (as the changed rows of the 1
st
matrix are multiplied into the same columns of the second). It is
easily verified that if the elements of the 1
st
row of the 1
st
matrix are added with k times the respective elements of the
second row and then multiplication of the matrices is done, the effect shall be that the elements of the 1
st
row of the
product matrix shall be added with k times the respective elements of the second row of the product matrix. The
logic is clearly understood and the statement is perfectly general. Similarly interchanging two columns of the second
matrix, we observe that
(
f e d
c b a
x
(
(
g w u v
t s q r
p n l m
=
(
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
fg et dp fw es dn fu eq dl fv er dm
cg bt ap cw bs an cu bq al cv br am
.i.e., in effect, the respective columns in the product
matrix are interchanged. A similar statement can be made about adding a multiple of elements of a column of the 2
nd
matrix to members of another column to see just the same effect in the product matrix. Row operations in the second
matrix or column operations in the 1
st
matrix do not yield any useful result since inner product of rows of the 1
st
and
columns of the 2
nd
appear in the product matrix ; not inner product of columns of the first with rows of the second.
Thus any elementary row operation in a pre-multiplied matrix , in effect, results in the same row
operation in the product matrix and any elementary column operation in a post-multiplied matrix , in effect,
results in the same column operation in the product matrix
.(33)
Page 434 / 681
Page 18
This suggests use to e-matrices which are matrices after some elementary row operation or elementary column
operation is done on them. They can be recognized from the following examples. An e-matrix is one, which changes a
square matrix to the extent of an elementary row operation or elementary column operation when pre-multiplied or post
multiplied to it. We shall see that the operations are equivalent to pre- multiplication of an e-matrix or post-
multiplication of an e-matrix, as would be evident from the examples below .
Take A =
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
and B =
(
(
1 0 0
0 1 k
0 0 1
.
Then B x A =
(
(
1 0 0
0 1 k
0 0 1
x
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
=
(
(
+ + +
n m l
r kc q kb p ka
c b a
.results in a row operation on A, multiplying the first row by k and
adding it to second.
If C =
(
(
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1
, then C x A =
(
(
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1
x
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
=
(
(
r q p
n m l
c b a
illustrating pre-multiplication in both cases by e-matrices B or C
resulting in e-row operations, interchanging 2
nd
and 3
rd
rows.
Similarly A x B =
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
x
(
(
1 0 0
0 1 k
0 0 1
=
(
(
+
+
+
n m km l
r q kq p
c b kb a
,and
A x C=
(
(
n m l
r q p
c b a
x
(
(
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1
=
(
(
m n l
q r p
b c a
illustrating post-multiplication in both cases by
e-matrices B or C resulting in e-row operations. Thus.
An e-row operation is a pre-multiplication by an e-matrix and an e-column operation is a
post-multiplication by an e-matrix and vice versa......(33)
This result also holds for non-square matrices as well as evident from discussion made above when they are
conformable for multiplication with e-matrices.
Exercise30
Solve the following sets of equations by matrix method by elementary row operations.
g) 2 4, 2 3 3, 3 2 3 x y z x y z x y z + + = = + + = Ans. ( ) ( ) , , 1, 2, 1 x y z =
h) 3, 2 3 4, 4 9 6 x y z x y z x y z + + = + + = + + = Ans. ( ) ( ) , , 2,1, 0 x y z =
i) 5 3 7 4, 3 26 2 9, 7 2 11 5 x y z x y z x y z + + = + + = + + = Ans. ( ) ( )
7 3
11 11
, , , , 0 x y z =
Exercise31
Solve the above equations by elementary column operations.
4: Rank of a matrix and solution and consistency of a system of equations.
So far we have only discussed the algebra and grammar of matrices and that too, mostly for nonsingular square
matrices; have made just a restatement of Crammers rule in the forms of (21), (21a), (21b), (21c), (21d), and done
nothing to analyse the system of equations ; what and how many solutions they have or dont have, as we discussed in
the section for determinants. Let us sit down to see more closely the correspondence of the system of equations with
the matrices; and see how manipulations in the equations; such as done manually in process of elimination of variables
affect the corresponding matrices. Let us discuss what conclusion we arrive at , when the number of equations exceed
the number of variables or less than the number of variables, i.e., when the matrices are not square matrices.; and see
what happens when the matrices become singular.
Suppose in eqn.(4) , i.e., A x X = D , let A be zero matrix. This implies that the left side is 0 matrix which forces
the right side also to be 0 matrix, or each member of D is 0 which we did not assume. Hence D cannot be nonzero
Page 435 / 681
Page 19
when A = 0 , and in this particular case X may be anything we may choose and the set of eqn.s as such have infinite
number of solutions. If D = 0 , the equations are falsified and are said to be not consistent. In other words, we say
that the system of eqns. has no solution at all.
In another situation , suppose A is not 0 but singular, i.e., |A| = 0. Here D need not be 0. What happens to the
system of equations? Well; the determinant shall be zero if say, one of its rows has all constituents 0 each. This means
practically that the number of equations is one less than the number of variables. In this case, we can eliminate
manually all the variables except the last two (any two we choose, for that matter) and we would arrive at an eqn.
involving those two variables only; one of the variables can be chosen arbitrarily and the value of the other variable can
be calculated from it. Repeating the process of elimination, we can express each of the variables in terms of the one
we have chosen arbitrarily; thus giving infinite number of solutions of the set of eqn.s. In case two particular rows of |A|
happen to be equal , making the determinant 0 thereby, we arrive at the same situation as said just above. For, if two
equations happen to be the same, we can replace the two by one of them and one eqn which is the difference of these
two, i.e., another equation with all coefficients of the variables 0 each.( of course it is tacitly assumed that the
corresponding members of D should be same; otherwise the set of eqns shall not be consistent). We can look at the
meaning of not consistent from this point of view if a system of eqns, is not consistent there is no solution to it.)
Hence this is same as the situation discussed above; number of eqns, is less than the number of variables and we
have infinite number of solutions. In another situation in which suppose, all members of a particular column are 0 each,
we immediately see that, the variable corresponding to that column may be chosen arbitrarily. That means the set of
eqns shall have infinite number of solutions again.
In this manner, in the light of the above informal discussion, all varieties of situations in the analysis of solutions
of systems of linear equations are only of two classes. Class one, when the matrix is a square matrix and nonsingular(
in that case a solution exists and it is unique or only one), and class two - when the matrix is square and singular(
infinite number of solutions if D = 0 and no solution if D = 0). The cases when the rows and columns of the matrix are
not equal are very much included in the second class. For, suppose the number of rows is one less than the number of
columns. then we can add another trivial equation in the same variables with all coefficients equal to 0 each and thus
added a row of zeroes to arrive at a square matrix which is singular; by virtue of having one of its row having all
members =0. Otherwise imagine a situation where the number of columns is one less than the number of rows. In that
case we can add another arbitrarily chosen variable multiplied with 0 coefficient and added to each row and we arrive
again at a square matrix which is singular.
Thus it is not important how many equations or how many variables we have. But the single most important
information is what is the biggest non-singular square matrix we have in the system of equations. The order of
the biggest non-singular square matrix present in a particular matrix A is called rank of that particular matrix denoted
by (A). A matrix formed from another matrix by leaving ( deleting or wiping out as you choose to say for convenience)
some of its rows or columns is called a sub-matrix of the former matrix . A determinant of a square-sub-matrix of order
r x r is called a minor of the matrix A of order r. Thus, for a square matrix of order n , the largest minor is the
determinant of the matrix itself . It has
n
C
r
x
n
C
r
number of different minors of order r as r rows have to be chosen out
of n rows in
n
C
r
ways and for each such choice, r columns have to be chosen out of n columns in
n
C
r
ways. In
particular, we have n
2
number of different minors of a square matrix of order n 1 as
n
C
n - 1
= n; and n
2
number of
minors of order 1, a matrix of only one element too; as
n
C
1
= n also.
Thus a matrix A is said to be of rank r if at least there is at least one minor of A of order r which is non-
zero (non-singular) and all minors of order r + 1 or higher are zero (since this one is supposed to be the
biggest non-zero minor)...(33)
From the concept of rank, the following facts evidently follow immediately:
a) For a zero matrix A, (A) = 0.
b) For a non-zero matrix A, (A) >1,for (A) > ([a]) =1 for it contains some a, where a = 0.
c) For a non-zero singular matrix A, also (A) > 1. .
d) For a non-singular n x n matrix A ,(A) = n.
e) For I
n
, unit matrix of order n, (A) = n.
f) If there is a non-zero minor of order r of A, (A) > r.
Page 436 / 681
Page 20
g) If all minors of order r A are 0, (A) < r(34)
If our system of m number of eqns. in n number of variables is like,
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ a
13
x
3
+ ..+ a
1n
x
n
= d
1
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ a
23
x
3
+ ..+ a
2n
x
n
= d
2
a
31
x
1
+ a
32
x
2
+ a
33
x
3
+ ..+ a
3n
x
n
= d
3
..
..
..
a
m1
x
1
+ a
m2
x
2
+ a
m3
x
3
+ ..+ a
mn
x
n
= d
m
(35)
and if A =
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
mn 3 m 2 m 1 m
n 3 33 32 31
n 2 23 22 21
n 1 13 12 11
a . . . . a a a
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
a . . . . a a a
a . . . . a a a
a . . . . a a a
and B =
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
m mn 3 m 2 m 1 m
3 n 3 33 32 31
2 n 2 23 22 21
1 n 1 13 12 11
d a . . . a a a
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
d a . . . a a a
d a . . . a a a
d a . . . a a a
,
b is called the augmented matrix of A when the matrix D is combined with A in the manner shown.
If (A) = (B) = r s smaller of two numbers m and n, in the process of elimination of variables one by one, we can
eliminate variables one by one and arrive at
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+.+ a
1n
x
n
- d
1
= 0
0.x
1
+ o
22
x
2
+.+ o
2n
x
n
- g
2
= 0
0.x
1
+ 0.x
2
+ o
33
x
3
.+ o
3n
x
n
- g
3
= 0
0.x
1
+ 0.x
2
+ 0.x
3
... 0.x
n-1
+ o
r n
x
n
- g
r
= 0
and the remaining m r equations are of type
0.x
1
+ 0.x
2
+ 0.x
3
...+ 0.x
n
0 = 0(36)
as no bigger non-singular matrix can be obtained from the augmented matrix.
So these equations have non-trivial solutions as the remaining n r variables can be chosen arbitrarily, giving
infinite number of solutions of the system. But this system of equations are equivalent to the original set of equations
and so are their augmented matrices; for in fact, the latter are obtained from the former by process of elimination, i.e.,
by elementary row operations only. Only when r = n, there would be no more variables left to be chosen arbitrarily
and the only solution shall be got from
o
r n
x
n
- g
r
= 0, or o
nn
x
n
g
n
= 0 . Substituting this value in its previous equation we get x
n 1
and repeating the process
we get the only non-trivial solution. This is the method we employed in high school Now it is evident that
1) If we had taken an r x r square nonsingular matrix instead of m x n matrix, we could have found its unique
solution in this method which is non-trivial. ..(37)
2) We can convert a matrix to triangular form only by successive elementary row operations or pre-multiplying
by e-matrices or post multiplying by e-matrice.(38)
3) We can find a unique non-trivial solution for r variables in a system of m equations in n variables if the
rank of its matrix is r smaller of two numbers m and n, and equal to rank of its augmented
matrix..(39)
But if the augmented matrix is of rank one more than the matrix of the set of equations, we can get one more
equation during the process of elimination like,
Page 437 / 681
Page 21
0.x
1
+ 0.x
2
+ 0.x
3
.+ 0.x
n
+o
r+1 n
x
n
g
r+1
= 0 ;
in addition to 0.x
1
+ 0.x
2
+ 0.x
3
.... 0.x
n-1
+ o
r n
x
n
- g
r
= 0.
(and the remaining m r 1 equations would be of type,
0.x
1
+ 0.x
2
+ 0.x
3
.+ 0.x
n
0 = 0)
But x
n
cannot have two different values got from the last two equations and as such the system of equations shall be
inconsistent and shall have no solution. Hence
4) when the rank of the augmented matrix is equal to the rank of the matrix of the system of equations, we
get an unique solution and when the rank of the augmented matrix is greater than the rank of the matrix of the
equations the system of equations are inconsistent and we get no
solution....(40)
5) If the equations are homogeneous i.e., d
1
, d
2
etc are all 0 each, and there are n number of equations in n
variables, the system of equations evidently has always a trivial solution x1 = x2 = x3= xn = 0. It is
also seen that rank of the augmented matrix is same as rank of the matrix of the system of equations(as the
last column has all elements 0 each, the augmented matrix is singular and has rank
<n+1)..(41)
6) If the coefficient matrix is singular, its rank is < n . In case it is n 1 ,then we can write the equations as
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ a
13
x
3
+ ..+ a
1n
x
n
= 0
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ a
23
x
3
+ ..+ a
2n
x
n
= 0
a
31
x
1
+ a
32
x
2
+ a
33
x
3
+ ..+ a
3n
x
n
= 0
..
..
..
a
n1
x
1
+ a
n2
x
2
+ a
n3
x
3
+ ..+ a
nn
x
n
= 0, (42)
its matrix being singular
or equivalently,
a
11
x
1
/x
n
+ a
12
x
2
/ x
n
+ a
13
x
3
/x
n
+ ..+ a
1n-1
x
n-1
/x
n
= - a
1n
a
21
x
1
/x
n
+ a
22
x
2
/ x
n
+ a
23
x
3
/x
n
+ ..+ a
2n-1
x
n-1
/x
n
= - a
2n
a
31
x
1
/x
n
+ a
32
x
2
/ x
n
+ a
33
x
3
/x
n
+ ..+ a
3n-1
x
n-1
/x
n
= - a
3n
..
..
..
a
n1
x
1
/x
n
+ a
n2
x
2
/ x
n
+ a
n3
x
3
/x
n
+ ..+ a
nn-1
x
n-1
/x
n
= - a
nn
..(43)
Then we have n 1 variables x
1
/x
n
, x
2
/ x
n
and n equations; it would have a non-trivial solution if the augmented matrix
of (43) would be singular, or of rank < n. But augmented matrix of (43) is same as coefficient matrix of (42). Hence the
system of homogeneous eqns (42) would have a nontrivial solution only if its rank < n; i.e., only if it is singular. In fact
we get infinite solutions by choosing x
n
arbitrarily. Thus
A homogeneous system of n eqns in n variables shall have a non-trivial solution only if its coefficient matrix is
singular....(44)
We have studied what is the relation between any nonsingular square matrix A and unit matrix of same order I
and studied the relation between I and A
-1
in Cayley Hamilton theorem. To proceed from A to I and from I to A
-1
. Could
e-row or e-column operations help?. The answer is definitely yes; not in one way, but in three classes of ways ! .We
can start with A and proceed toward I by trying to reduce A through its normal form, diagonal form, triangular form
with the help of only e-row operations, with the help of only e-column operations or with combining both operations.
And the same operations applied to A to change it to I, when repeated in the same sequence, shall land us on A
-1
.
Reduction of nonsingular square matrices to normal form, diagonal form, triangular form are three different, powerful
instruments to solve systems of linear equations and they facilitate the job a lot, Let us sit down to see how .
Exercise32
Page 438 / 681
Page 22
Any row or column operation is equivalent to pre or post multiplication of corresponding e- matrix and does not change
rank of the matrix.
Exercise33
Determine the rank of the following matrices.
a)
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
(
(
(
(
(

, b)
1 3 4 5 10
3 2 5 4 8
(
(

c)
1 2 3
1 4 2
2 6 5
(
(
(
(

d)
4 3 12 4
0 1 2 1
1 1 2 0
(
(
(
(

e)
1 1 2 3
4 1 0 2
0 3 1 4
0 1 0 2
(
(
(
(
(

f)
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
1 2 3 4
2 3 4 5
3 4 5 6
4 5 6 7
(
(
(
(
(

g)
1 1 2 3
4 1 0 2
0 3 1 4
0 1 0 2
(
(
(
(
(

Ans. a) 1. b) 2. c) 2. d) 3. e) 4. f) 3. g) 4
5: Normal form, Diagonal form, Triangular forms
We have reduced any m x n matrix to its triangular form as above, by eliminating variables one by one in the
corresponding set of equations. We have seen that elimination of second variable is one e-row operation or
equivalently pre-multiplication by a suitable e-row matrix. Similarly elimination of third variable is successive pre-
multiplication by suitable row matrices and the coefficient matrix is thus reduced to triangular for. Equivalently we can
post-multiply by e-column matrices or resort to a combination of both processes. We can also start from the last
equation and first variable and arrive at an lower triangular form of the original matrix instead of upper triangular
form . Other triangular forms may also be obtained.
In an analogous manner we can convert each element of rightmost border column to 0s by series of pre or post
multiplication of e-matrices and convert all elements of the bottom row to 0 each by choosing a number of suitable e-
matrices. Likewise we shall proceed converting the elements of as many columns from right and as many rows from
bottom to all 0s; until we can proceed no further in our mission to reduce more rows or columns to all 0s. Eventually
we have to stop when r-th row and column is reached, r being the rank of the coefficient matrix. The matrix we arrive
at is equivalent to the original m x n matrix where both of the reference systems of equations have same solution(s), if
at all they have one, and are thus equivalent. The latter matrix is said to be a normal form of the original matrix. If we
start with the top right element or bottom left element and proceed as before , we get other normal forms.
Suppose a square nonsingular matrix is reduced to a triangular form in the above manner described earlier and
the corresponding reference set of equations is changed accordingly. Then we have the last equation containing only
the last variable. This we have already seen while reducing to triangular form and this is achieved by e-row operations
only or by a series of pre-multiplication by e-matrices only. Another series of suitable pre-multiplication can eliminate
the last variable from the 2
nd
row from last by targeting this row. These pre-multiplications shall not affect the last row
since they do not target the last row. Now the second row from the last contains only the second variable from the last
and all other elements as 0s.Carrying out similar processes we can have the r-th row containing only the r-th variable
and all other elements as 0s. So the matrix is ultimately reduced to diagonal form where the leading diagonal only
contains non-zero elements and all other elements are 0s. There would be only one such matrix as there is only one
leading diagonal. A diagonal matrix all elements of which in the leading diagonal are equal is called a scalar matrix. (It
is only a name, the matrix is not a scalar, not a single number ) Let the diagonal matrix be like
Page 439 / 681
Page 23
(
(
(
(
nn
33
22
11
a . . 0 0
. . . . .
. 0 a 0 0
0 . 0 a 0
0 . . 0 a
. An e-matrix like
(
(
(
(
1 . . 0 0
. . . . .
. 0 1 0 0
0 . 0 1 0
0 . . 0 a / 1
11
when pre-multiplied to it, shall further reduce it into
(
(
(
(
nn
33
22
a . . 0 0
. . . . .
. 0 a 0 0
0 . 0 a 0
0 . . 0 1
and eventually a series of such operation shall reduce the matrix to an n x n identity matrix.
Thus we have,
A matrix can be changed to normal form, diagonal form, triangular forms by a series of e-row operations, e-
column operations, or both. Eventually a nonsingular square matrix can be reduced to identity matrix of same
order which is its normal form(45)
Now let us assume that A is a diagonal matrix and a sequence of e-matrices
e
k
, e
k-1,
e
k-2
, e
k-3
.. e
2,
e
1
have reduced it to an identity matrix I of same order. We have e
k
. e
k-1.
e
k-2
. e
k-3
.. e
2.
e
1
A = I.
Post multiplying both sides by A
-1
, we have,
e
k
. e
k-1.
e
k-2
. e
k-3
.. e
2.
e
1
A x A
-1
= I x A
-1
or, e
k
. e
k-1.
e
k-2
. e
k-3
.. e
2.
e
1
I = A
-1
Hence we have,
The series of elementary row or column operations or both which reduce a nonsingular square matrix An of
order n to its normal form, the same operations applied in the same sequence on identity matrix of same order
In change it to A
-1
.(46)
This is the third way to find A
-1
as mentioned in the beginning of the section.
Converting the nonsingular square matrices to normal form, diagonal form, triangular forms convey that in process
of elimination there are three different ways hidden as to how skillfully we can carry out the elimination process and
hence three different skills for solving the equations apart from the direct method of matrices as in (21). The
elimination process was being taught only at high school and although we have now studied it in much detail
now, the basic facts remain the same, n independent equations in n unknowns must have a solution. Of
course the equations must be independent; i.e., the concerned matrix must not be singular, in other words (
verify). Number of equations less than number of unknowns means infinite solutions, and the opposite
situation when number of unknowns is less than the number of equations ,only yields a solution if the
equations are consistent.
Exercise34
Reduce the matrices to normal form.
a)
1 1 2 3
4 1 0 2
0 3 1 4
0 1 0 2
(
(
(
(
(

, b)
4 3 5 2
3 2 3 1
2 1 1 0
(
(
(
(

c)
4 3 3
1 0 1
4 4 3
(
(

(
(

Ans. a)
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
(
(
(
(
(

b)
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
(
(
(
(

c)
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
(
(
(
(

Exercise35
Page 440 / 681
Page 24
Reduce the matrices to triangular form. (different methods may give different answers)
a)
1 1 1
2 3 4
4 1 5
(
(
(
(

b)
1 2 3
1 4 2
2 6 5
(
(
(
(

c)
4 3 12 4
0 1 2 1
1 1 2 0
(
(
(
(

Ans. a)
1
5
1 1 1
0 5 2
0 0
(
(
(
(

b)
1 2 3
0 2 1
0 0 0
(
(
(
(

c)
1 1 2 0
0 1 2 0
0 0 10 0
(
(
(
(

Exercise36
Whether the set of homogeneous equations are consistent;
3 2 0, 2 3 0, 3 5 4 0, 17 4 0 x y z x y z x y z x y z + + = + = + = + + = have a non-trivial solution?
Ans. The rank of the coefficient matrix is 2 < 3, number of variables. So yes. x = 11y, z = 7y
Exercise37
Whether the set of equations are consistent;
3 1, 4 2 6 8, 15 3 9 21 x y z x y z x y z + = + = = have a non-trivial solution?
Ans. rank of coefficient matrix is 2 < 3, number of variables. So yes. x =1, y = 3z 2
Exercise38
0, 2 3 2, 2 3 3 x y z x y z x z + + = + = = have a non-trivial solution?
Ans. rank of coefficient matrix is 3 = number of variables. So yes, it has a unique solution.
Exercise39
1
6
2 11 0, 6 20 6 3, 3 x y x y z y z + + = + = =
if so, solve them. Ans. ( )
293 91 197
, , , ,
45 45 270
x y z
| |
=
|
\ .
Exercise40
Whether the set of equations are consistent; 2 6 6, 3 4 3, 3 8 10 11 x y z x y z x y z + = + = + =
Ans. Inconsistent.
Exercise41
Whether 6, 2 3 10, 2 x y z x y z x y z + + = + + = + + = are consistent ?
Ans. a)yes for every , except = 3, = 10.
b) If = 3, = 10, or if = 3, = 10, it has no solution.
c) infinite solutions for =3, =10.
Exercise42
For what values of , the equations 2 3 , 7 3 2 8, 2 3 5 9 x y z x y z x y z + + = + = + + =
a) have no solution Ans. = 9, = 5
b) have infinite solution Ans. = 9, = 5
c) have unique solution Ans. = 5
Page 441 / 681
Page 25
6: Of 0 Matrix, Singular and Identity Matrices :
We know if a and b be any two numbers ab = 0 a = 0 or b = 0 or both. We have seen in case of matrices
that there are matrices non-zero matrices M and N whose product may be 0 whereas they themselves are not 0. But
for any singular matrix
S = M x N either M or N or both have to be singular; and product of two singular matrices of course results in a singular
matrix. Now, if S is any singular matrix, S
n
must be singular for positive integral powers of n, and vice versa, for the
reason just mentioned. For negative or fractional powers of n, S
n
is not defined.
For any square matrix I, identity matrix, it is easily seen that I
n
= I. If T be a square matrix such that T
n
= I for
positive or negative powers , then can it be shown that T = I , or it can be something else as well ? It is just possible.
For example if T =
(
0 1
1 0
= I, so that T
2
=
(
0 1
1 0
x
(
0 1
1 0
=
(
1 0
0 1
=I, whereas T = I.
Try another example
(

0 i
i 0
and see that
2
0 i
i 0
(

=I whereas
(

0 i
i 0
= I.
(where 1 i = .)(see the reason for not defining fractional powers of matrices, even if A
3
= B, there may be another
matrix C such that C
3
= B; so cube root of B is not unique. It is no worth defining something which is not completely
unique or at least known)
Still in another situation, if A =
(
i 0
0 i
, B =
(

0 1
1 0
, and C =
(
0 i
i 0
we see that in each case A
2
= B
2
= C
2
= - I (verify); or
C
2
+ I = 0 etc. or polynomial expressions involving powers of square matrices may be equated to I or its multiples i.e.,
we may have equations of type A
2
5A + 7I = 0. Verify that a solution of this equation is A =
(
2 1
1 3
. Such examples
suggest us that there may be a subtle relationship between any square matrix A and the identity matrix I. But
abruptly we cannot put A = .I or A - .I = 0 expecting such a relationship; for A is supposed to be having all its
elements different in general whereas .I has all its elements 0 except those in the leading diagonal which are all equal
to .
But still we can put | A - .I | = 0..(47)
for some for any square matrix A and find the value of from the equation
a . . . . a a a
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
a . . . . a a a
a . . . . a a a
a . . . . a a a
mn 3 m 2 m 1 m
n 3 33 32 31
n 2 23 22 21
n 1 13 12 11
= 0
to find out any intrinsic relation between A and I if it is there at all. Expanding the determinant we get,
(-1)
n
[
n
+ p
1
n 1
+ p
2
n 2
+ p
3
n 3
+ p
n
] = 0
which gives n number of values of for which (33) holds.(47a)
This reveals the sort of relationship between A and I which may help us to find powers of A though not in terms of I but
just by manipulating I at least . Even we may get A
- 1
by manipulating I. This we would explore just a little while after.
But just now we should remember that Mathematicians call eqn (33) the characteristic equation of A and the
corresponding values of as characteristic roots or latent roots or simply eigenvalues of A. A function
f(x) = ax
2
+ bx + c may be distinguished from the corresponding equation
f(x) = ax
2
+ bx + c = 0 in this manner. If o and | are roots of the equation f(x) = 0, then
x - o and x - | are factors of the function f(x) even when f(x) = 0. As such
| A - .I | = (-1)
n
[
n
+ p
1
n 1
+ p
2
n 2
+ p
3
n 3
+ p
n
].(48)
is called the characteristic function of A instead if characteristic equation. The relationship between A and I is
beautifully illustrated in the following theorem.
Page 442 / 681
Page 26
7: Cayley Hamilton theorem ; relation between A, I and A
-1
:
For any square matrix A of order n,
A
n
+ p
1
A
n 1
+ p
2
A
n 2
+ p
3
A
n 3
+ p
n
I = 0(49)
where p
1
, p
2
etc. are given by
| A - .I | = (-1)
n
[
n
+ p
1
n 1
+ p
2
n 2
+ p
3
n 3
+ p
n
].
in other words, any square matrix A satisfies its own characteristic equation.
Still in other words, there is a linear expression involving integral powers of any square matrix A, which may be
equated to the identity matrix.
Start with A - .I and consider its adjoint B (say). The elements of B are nothing but are cofactors of
constituents of | A - .I| , determinants in each of which there are n -1 rows and columns. Thus each of them is a
polynomial in of degree n 1 with coefficients as functions of elements of A like .
a . . . . a a
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
a . . . . a a
a . . . . a a
mn 3 m 2 m
n 3 33 32
n 2 23 22
or like
(-1)
n - 1
[q
1
n 1
+ q
2
n 2
+ q
3
n 3
+ q
n
]. If each element of B is a polynomial like this, each element
having equal number of terms in powers of , and B is a square matrix of order n, then B can be thought of as a sum
of square matrices each of order n , each of which contains only one particular power of in its each element; i.e.,
B = B
1
n 1
+ B
2
n 2
+ B
n- 1
1
+ B
n
, taking
n 1
,
n 2
etc. common in the component matrices.
Now (A - I) x B = | A - .I|.I , as (A - I)
-1
= B/| A - .I|.
as product of a matrix and its adjoint = its determinant x unit matrix.
Or, (A - I) x (B
1
n 1
+ B
2
n 2
+ + B
n
) = (-1)
n
[
n
+ p
1
n 1
+ p
2
n 2
+ p
3
n 3
+ p
n
].I
which is true for all values of , since characteristic function is considered, not the characteristic eqn. Now equating the
coefficients of like powers of from both sides,
and remembering that I x B
1
= B
1
, I x B
2
= B
2
, etc., we get,
- B
1
= (-1)
n
I,
A x B
1
- B
2
= (-1)
n
p
1
I,
A x B
2
- B
3
= (-1)
n
p
2
I,
..
..
A x B
n-1
B
n
= (-1)
n
p
n-1
I,
A x B
n
= (-1)
n
p
n
I.
Multiplying the equations by A
n
, A
n-1
, A
n-2
,etc. both sides from left and adding up, we get,
0 = A
n
+ p
1
A
n 1
+ p
2
A
n 2
+ p
3
A
n 3
p
n-1
A+ p
n
I which proves the theorem.
This is the relation between I and positive integral powers of A, i.e., I can be expressed as a polynomial in A,
involving its positive integral powers.
Sometimes, it is easier to calculate A
2
, A
3
etc. rather than finding adj.A or A
-1
direct and this theorem gives us
an alternative method to calculate A
-1
if it exists i.e., when A is not singular. For, multiplying both sides of (35) by A
-1
,
we have,
A
n-1
+ p
1
A
n 2
+ p
2
A
n 3
+ p
3
A
n 4
p
n-1
I+ p
n
A
-1
= 0(50),
which gives A
-1
in terms of positive integral powers of A.
This is the relation between A
-1
and positive integral powers of A.
In particular cases, if the characteristic equation does not involve higher powers of A than third or fourth, it
would be easier to calculate A
-1
in terms of A, A
2
, A
3
and A
4
rather than finding adj.A and |A|.
Page 443 / 681
Page 27
Apart from this we got hold of a new symbol, the matrix, with its Algebra and Grammar to some extent. Though
we emphasize that mere introduction of a symbol tacitly carries all its Algebra and Grammar with itself, the complete
Grammar of the symbol would be evident when the symbol is invoked in multi-particle dynamics, stress and strain
in elasticity, wave Physics and Quantum Mechanics (See Fundamentals of Quantum Mechanics by Sir P.A.M
Dirac, for example), Coordinate Geometry and Theory of Complex Variable, vectors and vector spaces and so
on. Look into any standard book on Algebra at undergraduate level (such as Bernard & Child) in the chapter for
Number Theory, and how fractions, surds, complex numbers are dealt with taking a matrix of the form (a, b) meaning
a/b or a + \b or a + ib thereby respectively, completely avoiding cumbersome fraction, surd of imaginary quantity
notations! You can try developing one such theory yourself for sake of rigorous fun. A more interesting and useful
application of matrices is in the field of conic sections; plane curves obtained by cutting of cones or characterised by
constant ratio of distances of any point of it from a fixed point to the distance from a fixed st line. Though these curves
have vector equations , the vector equations are not suited for their analysis as the locus is not straight line, but turns
always in direction. Instead, they have their matrix equations which not only express them nicely, but take care of their
tangents, normals, polars etc. as well.
8: Matrix as a linear transformation;
Suppose a system of coordinates XY is has been changed to another system XY making an angle u with the original
(each axis has to rotate through the same angle in order that the new set of coordinates are rectangular). The
coordinates (x, y) of any point P are transformed to (x, y) in the new system and the two pairs of coordinated are
related like
x = x cos u + y sin u
and y = - x sin u + y cos u(51)
To recapitulate, note that the new coordinate x = OR is the projection of OP on OX. Since the segments OQ and QP (
QT + TP for that matter) together make a path from O to P, the sum of their projections on OX is also is equal to the
projection of OP on OX. Projection of OQ on OX is x cos . Projection of QT is QT cos (/2 ) = QT sin = ST and
projection of TP is
TP cos (/2 ) = TP sin = TR. So projection of PQ on OX is PQ cos (/2 ) = PQ sin. Basing on the fact that
projection of a straight line joining two points is sum of projections of line segments through any path joining the two
points, the rule becomes clear the new x coordinate is the sum of products of the old coordinates x, y and z with their
direction cosines with respect to x; as the segments x, y and z together make a complete path from O to P.
Equations 46 and 47 can be represented by a matrix equation
' cos sin
' sin cos
x
y

l l
l l
=
l l
l l
l l
x
x
y
l
l
l
l
.(52)
O X
Y
Y
X
P(x, y) or P(x, y)
QQ
R
S
T
Page 444 / 681
Page 28
or by, = A x X, ......(53)
where =
'
'
x
y
l
l
l
l
l
, X =
(
y
x
,the new and the old coordinates and A =
cos sin
sin cos

l
l
l
l
l
is called the transformation
matrix.
Similarly in three dimensional rectangular coordinates, the coordinates of a point P(x, y, z) are transformed into
new coordinates P(x, y, z). The direction cosines of the new axes OX, OY and OZ in the old coordinate system are
given by (l
1
, m
1
, n
1
), (l
2
, m
2
, n
2
), and (l
3
, m
3
, n
3
) respectively .
The new coordinates of P(x, y, z) in terms of old coordinates P(x, y, z) are
'
'
'
x
y
z
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
=
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
l m n
l m n
l m n
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
x
x
y
z
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
.(54)
(When the coordinate system is oblique , i.e., not rectangular, (when the angles between any pair them is not
a right angle), the coordinates of a point cannot be expressed in terms of direction cosines of the line joining the point
with the origin only , because its projections are not the coordinates. The angles between the respective axes
should be taken into account . Evidently the relation (50) shall not hold for oblique coordinates. )
Suppose a transformation A takes a set of rectangular axes to another set of rectangular axes. Let
, , e f g
denote unit vectors in directions OX, OY and OZ respectively and

, , i j k denote unit vectors in directions OX, OY and
OZ respectively( refer section on vector analysis) then

1 1 1
e l i m j n k = ,

2 2 2
f l i m j n k = and

3 3 3
g l i m j n k = so that
2 2 2
. 1
1 1 1
e e l m n = = and so also
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 l m n = and
2 2 2
3 3 3
1 l m n = ..(55)
Other relation may be found from

0 e e f f g g = = = and also
2 2 2

1 i j k = = = and again from

, , e f g f g e g e f = = = or from

. 0 . . e f f g g e = = = or from

e f f e = etc.. For
example, verify that
1 2 1 2 1 2
0 l l m m n n = etc. and
2 2 2
1 2 3
1 l l l =
etc..(56)
The relations derived from (52) may serve as alternative to the relations (51) but the relations in (51) are sufficient to
describe the rectangular coordinate system transformation.
Evidently no such relation such as (51) or (52) shall hold in general for oblique coordinates. But still more
generally, we can think of every square matrix A of order n being transformation matrix of a coordinate system having
n coordinates to another coordinate system having n coordinates. For, let A =
11 1
1
n
m mn
a a
a a
1

( )
be any nonsingular n
x n matrix If it is multiplied to a n x 1 column matrix
Page 445 / 681
Page 29
X =
1
2
.
.
.
n
x
x
x
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
, then A x X must be a column matrix some X =
'
1
'
2
'
.
.
.
n
x
x
x
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
. Thus any nonsingular square matrix A is a linear
transformation matrix, transforming X onto X. As such call |A|, the determinant of the transformation matrix as modulus
of the transformation with no restriction on it to be positive or
nonzero..(57)
If the transformation matrix is singular or 0, it is a singular transformation....(58)
Naturally the inverse transformation A
-1
would retransform the new coordinate system back to the old
coordinate system ; as such the reverse transformation matrix shall be A
-1
. Definitely so as A x A
-1
= I and A
-1
x A = I
.......(59).
for all transformations in general, not only for rectangular systems . Note that singular transformation matrix admits of
no inverse.
For a rectangular system of coordinates, since l
1
is cosine of angle of OX with OX, say o, the angle of OX with OX
is -o and l
1
= cos o = cos (-o) . Similarly, cosine of the angle of OX with OY, i.e., l
2
shall be cosine of angle of OY and
with OX and cosine of the angle of OX with OZ, i.e., l
3
shall be cosine of angle of OZ with OX. Hence the direction
cosines of OX in new coordinate system is l
1
, l
2
, l
3
.Similarly direction cosines of OY and OZ in the new coordinate
system shall be m
1
, m
2
, m
3
and n
1
, n
2
, n
3
respectively. Thus the transformation matrix which would transform the new
coordinate system back to the old coordinate system shall be
(
(
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
n n n
m m m
l l l
, which is nothing but transpose of A i.e., A. But earlier we have found that the retransformation matrix
shall be A
-1
.
Thus it follows that A, A
-1
= A
...
(60)
Further, |A
-1
| = |A
| = |A| ,as interchange of rows with columns does not affect determinants . Hence we have,
|A|
2
= |A
2
| = |A x A| = |A x A| = |A x A
-1
| = |I| = 1; or, |A| = 1..(61)
The relations (56) and (57) may not hold for non-orthogonal transformations.
In general, in n-dimensions, we can think of an orthogonal system instead of the rectangular system and an
orthogonal transformation in n- coordinates is one, in which
Page 446 / 681
Page 30
a particular vector such as X =
1
2
.
.
x
x
x
n
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
is merely transformed into a vector Y =
1
2
.
.
y
y
y
n
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
through multiplication of a square
matrix A =
. .
11 12 1
. .
21 22 2
. . . . .
. . . . .
. .
1 2
a a a
n
a a a
n
a a a
nn
n n
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
, i.e., Y = A x X,
we require
2 2 2
1 2
......
n
y y y =
2 2 2
1 2
......
n
x x x , being length or norm of the same vector from the origin in two
different coordinate systems. We see that
X x X =
1 2
. .
n
x x x
l
l
l
x
1
2
.
.
n
x
x
x
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
=[ [
2 2 2
1 2
......
n
x x x =
[ [
2 2 2
1 2
......
n
y y y =
1 2
. .
n
y y y
l
l
l
x
1
2
.
.
n
y
y
y
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
= Y x Y
Or simply X x X = Y x Y ..(61)
For an orthogonal system norm of a vector X is defined as
2 2 2
......
1 2
x x x
n
and an orthogonal transformation is a
transformation preserving the norm of any vector. Non-orthogonal systems do also preserve the norms of their vectors,
but the norm cannot be defined as sum of the squares of the components.( In oblique coordinate systems length from
the origin can no more be given by sums of squares of coordinates of the point).
For an orthogonal system, if X is any vector in old system transformed to Y in new system,
As A = A
-1
for any orthogonal system, where A is transformation matrix from X to X,
Then ,
For any orthogonal transformation A, A' x A =I(62)
Also taking the determinants of both sides,| A' x A| = 1,
or, | A'| x |A| = | A| x |A| = |A|
2
= 1 |A| = 1, as before...(63)
in the same lines as (56) and (57)
Page 447 / 681
Page 31
9: Linear transformations.
Not all transformations are orthogonal. Suppose we turn the axes through different angles so that the angles
between the new axes are not right angles and the transformation given by
(
(
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
where condition of orthogonality
is not satisfied. But in this case too, the transformation is linear; meaning thereby, that the sums and multiples of
vectors in old system are taken into sums and multiples transformed vectors in the new system. If X
1
=
(
(
1
1
1
z
y
x
and X
2
=
(
(
2
2
2
z
y
x
, and
X =
(
(
z
y
x
are any three vectors, then
A x (X
1
+ X
2
) = A x X
1
+ A x X
2
and A x (cX) = cA x X.(64)
for any ordinary number c, as may be verified easily. Essentially it means that the multiplication is distributive over
addition for matrices or linear transformations. We have,
A x X
1
+ A x X
2
=
(
(
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
x
(
(
1
1
1
z
y
x
+
(
(
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
x
(
(
2
2
2
z
y
x
=
(
(
+ +
+ +
+ +
1 3 1 3 1 3
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
z c y b x a
z c y b x a
z c y b x a
+
(
(
+ +
+ +
+ +
2 3 2 3 2 3
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 1 2 1 2 1
z c y b x a
z c y b x a
z c y b x a
=
(
(
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
) z z ( c ) y y ( b ) x x ( a
) z z ( c ) y y ( b ) x x ( a
) z z ( c ) y y ( b ) x x ( a
2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 3
2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2
2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1
= A x (X
1
+ X
2
)
and cA x X = c
(
(
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
x
(
(
z
y
x
=
(
(
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
cc cb ca
cc cb ca
cc cb ca
x
(
(
z
y
x
=
(
(
+ +
+ +
+ +
z cc y cb x ca
z cc y cb x ca
z cc y cb x ca
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
=
(
(
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
x
(
(
cz
cy
cx
= A x (cX) .
10: Rank and linear dependence :
Coming back to the Cartesian coordinates in 3-dimensions, any vector r can well be expressed as a linear
combination of its rectangular components such as
r = r
x
i
+ r
y
j
+ r
z
k
, where i
, j
, k
are unit vectors parallel to the axes. In other words the vector r is said to be linearly
dependent on the three unit vectors. The unit vectors themselves are linearly independent of one another as there is
no linear combination of the unit vectors pi
+ q j
+ s k
which is 0 unless each of p, q and s is 0. Whether the vector r be

expressed as a linear combination of another given set of three vectors or five vectors and if so, what condition those
vectors have to fulfill is subject to consideration. Thus we can make a statement the vectors x
1
, x
2
, x
n
are said
to be linearly dependent if a set of numbers
1
,
2
,.
n
can be found such that
1
x
1
+
2
x
2
+.+
n
x
n
= 0 where not all of
1
,
2
,.
n
are 0.
Or in other words, if any one of the vectors, say x
2
can be expressed as a linear combination of the rest of the vectors
such as x
2
= (-
1
/
2
)x
1
+(-
3
/
2
)x
3
+.+(-
n
/
2
)x
n
etc.
where
2
= 0. The situation is equivalent to a set of homogeneous eqns in
1
,
2
,.
n
,
1
l
1
+
2
m
1
+.+
n
t
1
= 0
Page 448 / 681
Page 32
1
l
2
+
2
m
2
+.+
n
t
2
= 0
..
1
l
n
+
2
m
n
+.+
n
t
n
= 0
where x
1
=
(
(
(
(
n
2
1
l
.
.
l
l
, x
2
=
(
(
(
(
n
2
1
m
.
.
m
m
,x
n
=
(
(
(
(
n
2
1
t
.
.
t
t
,or, [x
1
, x
2,.
x
n
] =
(
(
(
(
n n n
2 2 2
1 1 1
t . . m l
. . . . .
. . . . .
t . . m l
t . . m l
If this set of homogeneous eqn.s would have a non-trivial solution, then the vectors under consideration shall be
linearly dependent and otherwise linearly independent. This would be so only if the rank of the matrix < n or the matrix
is singular.
A set of row vectors x
1
, x
2
,. x
n
shall be linearly dependent if their matrix is of rank < n or if the matrix
is singular; otherwise linearly independent.(65)
Exercise43
Find the rank of :
a)
3 1 2
6 2 4
3 1 2
(
(
(
(

b)
0 1 3 1
1 0 1 1
3 1 0 2
1 1 2 0
(
(
(
(
(

c)
3 4 5 6 7
4 5 6 7 8
5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

Ans. a) 2 b) 2 c) 2
11: Eigenvectors:
So far we have studied the inherent relation among a square matrix A, I and A
-1
; how they transform into one another
beautifully , only by multiplication of the same set of
e-matrices! We have also seen how every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation with a certain power
up to which the matrix has to be successively raised with a set of coefficients, to be transformed into I, called as its
characteristic roots, latent roots or eigenvalues. The eigenvalues have a certain role to play when we look upon A
not as a tool to aid in solving equations, not as an entity to be used independently elsewhere, but as a transformation
matrix which transforms vectors into their own scalar multiples. Thus the eigenvalues not only showed the inherent
characteristics of the matrix A, but bring out the core character of the vectors which A operates upon. Perhaps the
most important application of matrices other than analysis of equations is description of Quantum Mechanics with the
help of matrices ( See Fundamentals of Quantum Mechanics by Sir PAM Dirac). Take the phenomena of electrons
revolving around positively charged nucleus, as first described by Rutherford. According to classical electrodynamics,
in this situation the electron should radiate energy and its orbit would shrink and ultimately it would take a spiral path
and fall into the nucleus to annihilate each other; so that atom would be destroyed quickly, almost as soon as it is
formed . So the model did not work. Neil Bohr forwarded the theory that the electron cannot assume just any orbit
around a nucleus ; it can only some particular orbits with certain energy values which are eigenvalues of the wave
equation
( energy equation) of the orbits. Differences of energies between permissible orbits for electron differ by integral
multiples of h where h is Planks constant and is frequency of radiation . ( The famous equation of Quantum
theory is E = h ). Electrons jump to higher energy levels or orbits absorbing energy packets of h units only and if
they fall to orbits of lower energy levels they radiate those energy packets .They cannot absorb or emit any arbitrary
amount of energy. This is the beauty of matrices without which perhaps quantum theory would have gone through a
weird development. Further application of eigenvectors are in sound wave physics and vibrating membranes.
Page 449 / 681
Page 33
In Cayley Hamilton theorem, we noted that to explore the relationship between A and I, we could not abruptly
put A = I for an ordinary number ; but we could put
|A - I| = 0 which gave us its characteristic roots. Now suppose A is a square matrix which transforms a certain vector
X into a scalar multiple of X itself, i.e., A x X = X. Let us see how many such vectors we can find for any particular
matrix A.
A x X = X A x X = I x X (A - I)x X = 0 .(66)
i.e, the situation when A transforms a vector X into a scalar multiple of itself.
If X =
(
(
(
(
n
2
1
x
.
.
x
x
, where A is an n x n non-singular matrix,(63) would result in a set of n homogeneous equations like
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
a . . . . a a a
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
a . . . . a a a
a . . . . a a a
a . . . . a a a
mn 3 m 2 m 1 m
n 3 33 32 31
n 2 23 22 21
n 1 13 12 11
x
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
n
3
2
1
x
.
.
.
.
x
x
x
=0=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
0
.
.
.
.
0
0
0
whose values would be got only if the coefficient matrix A - I must be singular for the set of equations to have
nontrivial solutions; which is the required condition (refer rank of matrix section). The solutions shall evidently given by
the characteristic equation
0
a . . . . a a a
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
a . . . . a a a
a . . . . a a a
a . . . . a a a
mn 3 m 2 m 1 m
n 3 33 32 31
n 2 23 22 21
n 1 13 12 11
=
in the manner as we did before. For each characteristic value (each value of ) or for each eigenvalues, we shall get a
value of the vector X =
(
(
(
(
n
2
1
x
.
.
x
x
, from the equation and shall call such vectors as eigenvectors of A. Those are the only
particular vectors whom the matrix A shall transform into their own scalar multiples of I. In consonance with the
arguments in case of homogeneous equations, the set of homogeneous equations shall not be all independent and one
of these equations shall be found to be linear combination of some others as the corresponding determinant is 0. If
one of the x
1
, x
2,
..x
n
is not 0, say x
n
= 0, x
1
/ x
n
, x
2
/ x
n,
..etc. shall be uniquely determined for one particular value of .
Again, (A - I)x X = 0 (A - I) x X = 0 for any constant . So , for one particular value of we get a class of
eigenvectors X . We can suitably choose a linearly independent set of X
1
, X
2
, X
3
,. X
n
, one out of each class
so that any other eigenvector X is a linear combination of these only. This is because we have n values of . Even if
two values of may happen to be same, still then we can suitably choose a linearly independent set of X
1
, X
2
,
X
3
,. X
n
, one out of each class and in fact many such choices can be made. Sometimes a set of linearly
independent eigenvectors may not be found also , so as to express other eigenvectors as linear combinations of this
set.
Page 450 / 681
Page 34
12: Reduction to Diagonal form ;
A square matrix A of order n can be reduced to diagonal form manually by making members of matrix 0s
element by element except the elements in the leading diagonal, as we have done in elimination process. But there is a
nicer way to do it, if the characteristic equation of A can give us n linearly independent eigenvectors. Let
X
1
=
(
(
(
(
1
1
1
t
.
.
y
x
, X
2
=
(
(
(
(
2
2
2
t
.
.
y
x
.. X
n
=
(
(
(
(
n
n
n
t
.
.
y
x
be its n eigenvectors corresponding to the latent roots,
1
,
2
n
and
let B =
(
(
(
(
n 2 1
n 2 1
n 2 1
t . . t t
. . . . .
. . . . .
y . . y y
x . . x x
. =[ X
1
X
2
.. X
n
] written briefly. Then
A x B = A x [ X
1
X
2
.. X
n
]
= [ A x X
1
A x X
2
A x X
n
]
= [
1
X
1

2
X
2
..
n
X
n
]
=
(
(
(
(
n n 2 2 1 1
n n 2 2 1 1
n n 2 2 1 1
t . . t t
. . . . .
. . . . .
y . . y y
x . . x x
.
=
(
(
(
(
n 2 1
n 2 1
n 2 1
t . . t t
. . . . .
. . . . .
y . . y y
x . . x x
. x
(
(
(
(
n
2
1
. . 0 0
. . . . .
. . . . .
0 . . 0
0 . . 0
. =B x
(
(
(
(
n
2
1
. . 0 0
. . . . .
. . . . .
0 . . 0
0 . . 0
.
or,
(
(
(
(
n
2
1
. . 0 0
. . . . .
. . . . .
0 . . 0
0 . . 0
. =B
-1
x A x B
which shows B
-1
x A x B is a diagonal matrix, got from A.
Hence B
-1
x A x B is a diagonal matrix, got from A if B is a square matrix formed of n linearly independent
eigenvectors of A(67)
13: Complex numbers, vectors and matrices compared:
One should clearly distinguish among the following.
a) Multiplication with a constant or scalar, all components of either a complex number , a vector or a matrix
simply get multiplied with that constant uniformly.
For a complex number, |k(a + ib)| = |k||a + ib| = |k|
2 2
b a +
For a vector, |k
P | = |

kP| =
2
z
2 2
y
2 2
x
2
P k P k P k + + ==|k|
2
z
2
y
2
x
P P P + + =|k||
P | =|k| |P| where |
P | stands for
magnitude of
P , i.e., P or
2
z
2
y
2
x
P P P + +
In case of an square matrix, |kA| =k |A| where |A| stands for determinant of A.(verify). In contrast, if a constant
is multiplied with a determinant, in effect it is multiplied with members of only one row or column.
b) In case of product of two complex numbers , their moduli are multiplied and arguments are added, r(cos u
+isin u)s(cos |+I sin |)=rs(cos(u +|) +I sin (u +|)),
or (a + ib)(c + id) = ac bd +i(bc + ad)
|r(cos u+isin u)s(cos |+isin |)| =|rs| |(cos(u +|)+I sin (u +|))|= rs = r.1.s.1 =
Page 451 / 681
Page 35
=|r(cos u+I sin u)||s(cos |+I sin |)|, where | | stands for modulus or absolute value or norm or distance
from origin.
c) In case of dot product of two vectors
P &
Q where their corresponding components are multiplied and

added up,
P .
Q = (P
x
, P
y
,P
z
).( Q
x
, Q
y
,Q
z
) = P
x
Q
x
+ P
y
Q
y
+ P
z
Q
z
, = PQ cos o, a scalar;
Here |
P .
Q | = | P
x
Q
x
+ P
y
Q
y
+ P
z
Q
z
|= | PQ cos o|=|P||Q||cos o|s|P||Q|.
Also P =
2
z
2
y
2
x
P P P + + = |
P |,Q =
2
z
2
y
2
x
Q Q Q + + = |
Q |,and o is the angle between
P &
Q and the product is a

scalar quantity, not a vector..
So cos o =
PQ
Q . P

=
PQ
Q P Q P Q P
z z y y x x
+ +
P .
Q =
Q .
P as cos o = cos ( - o)
P .
P or(
P )
2
=
2
z
2
y
2
x
P P P + + =P
2
cos 0 = |P|
2
= (as cos 0 = 1)
Note that | | denotes here magnitude of a vector or absolute value of a scalar as the context may be.
d) Cross product of two vectors
P &
Q =
P x
Q
(P
x
, P
y
,P
z
)x( Q
x
, Q
y
,Q
z
) = (P
y
Q
z
P
z
Q
y
, P
z
Q
x
P
x
Q
z
, P
x
Q
y
P
y
Q
x
)
= PQ sin o , a vector perpendicular to
P &
Q thumb of right hand pointing its direction when other fingers in

the direction of
P are turned towards
Q .
Note that |
P x
Q | = | PQ sin o| = |P||Q|}sin o| s |P||Q|.

And |sin o| =
| Q || P |
Q x P

=
| Q || P |
Q x P . Q x P
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
PQ
) Q P - Q P ( ) Q P - Q (P ) Q P - Q (P
2
x y y x
2
z x x z
2
y z z y
+ +
Alternatively, sin o = cos 1
2
=
PQ
) Q P Q P Q P (
1
2
z z y y x x
+ +
=
) Q Q Q )( P P P (
) Q P Q P Q P (
1
2
z
2
y
2
x
2
z
2
y
2
x
2
z z y y x x
+ + + +
+ +
=
( )( ) ( )
PQ
Q P Q P Q P Q Q Q P P P
2
z z y y x x
2
z
2
y
2
x
2
z
2
y
2
x
+ + + + + +
=
PQ
) Q P - Q P ( ) Q P - Q (P ) Q P - Q (P
2
x y y x
2
z x x z
2
y z z y
+ +
Also
P x
P = 0 as sin 0 = 0 and
P x
Q = -

Q x
P as sin o = - sin ( -o).

e) Product of matrices as explained above. By |A| we mean determinant of square matrix A which may even be
negative in a particular case and ||A|| we mean absolute value of |A|.
Page 452 / 681
Page 36
We have | A x B| = | A | x | B| as explained above where |P| denotes determinant of P ;(individual
determinants and the product may be negative also. But we have,|| A x B|| = || A | x | B|| = || A || x || B|| , where
||A|| etc. mean absolute value of | A | etc..
f) Multiplication of two determinants of same order are done in a variety of ways but the results must be the
same and one of the ways is akin to the process of multiplication of square matrices, i.e., determinants are multiplied in
just the same way as matrices are..
g) Addition or subtraction of complex numbers, vectors, and matrices are very
similar as the corresponding members are added or subtracted Addition in determinants have their own
peculiarities explained before. Addition of determinants does not bear any useful similarity with addition of matrices.
Two determinants same in all respects with each other except only one row or column may be added to or
subtracted from each other and the resulting determinant is obtained by adding to or subtracting from each other
the corresponding members of those rows or columns which are not equal in the two determinants.
Coordinates of points in two or three dimensional spaces are very similar in structure with complex numbers,
vectors or matrices. But fortunately or unfortunately we have so far not needed to add /subtract / multiply coordinates of
points nor perhaps anybody has explored that aspect. Still in particular problems in Coordinate Geometry, vectors,
matrices or complex numbers may be used; or vice versa, i.e., Coordinate Geometry may be invoked to help solve
particular problems in these areas. There is vast use of determinants in Coordinate Geometry of two and three
dimensions in finding equations of straight lines and curves and finding criteria to satisfy various conditions, looking for
invariants in transformation of coordinates from one system to another, which we shall deal in a little more detail
afterwards. In Coordinate Geometry, transformations of system of coordinates are very well represented by matrices.
Such similarities and differences observed should be thoroughly borne in mind before doing some
exercises in Coordinate Geometry, complex numbers, vectors, determinants and matrices so that problems
can be solved in a variety of ways from these five platforms and of course, everything from the platform of
Calculus. Illustration of the statement shall be made through examples.
Page 453 / 681
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
Page 1
CHAPTER 29 :INTRODUCTION TO THE ELLIPSE
1:Equation of an ellipse from compression of coordinates
We know is equation of a circle with its centre at the origin (0, 0) and with unit radius is
2 2
1 X Y + = . If we replace X with x/a and Y with y/b where a > b, the curve obtained
would no more be a circle in general , as it would have been only in case when b = a. The
graph would appear flattened
In y-direction as shown in the figure where PMN is a circle represented
by
2 2
2 2
1
X Y
a a
+ =
and QMN is the graph of the modified eqn.
1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= +
. All the y
coordinates in the new graph have been reduced in the ratio b/a. The curve shall
be called an ellipse with major axis 2a and minor axis 2b; as may be obtained
by putting y = 0 and x = 0 in its eqn. in turn, to get maximum values of x and y
respectively and denoting them by a and b respectively. Its equation would be
given by
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = eqn(a)
This is done as follows :
Let the eqn. of the circle be written in form 1
a
Y
a
X
2
2
2
2
= + .(a)
Transform the coordinates to x and y ,only by compressing Y coordinates by
a factor b/a where b/a < 1;i.e.,x = X, and y = b .Y/a ;
OR X = x and Y = a .y/b.(b)
2 2
2 2
1
X Y
b b
+ =
2 2
2 2
1
X Y
a a
+ =
1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= +
a
b
(x y)
O
X X
Y
Y
P
Q
R M N
Page 454 / 681
Page 2
The curve PMN is now changed to the curve QMN because of the transformation of
coordinates to new coordinates x and y. A relationship between x and y shall be its
equation. Since x and y are related to X and Y as in (b) and X and Y are related to
each other as in (a), we can rewrite (a) as, 1
a
b
y a
a
x
2
2
2
2
2
2
= + , 1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= +
which is the only one relationship between x any we sought for, and becomes the eqn.
of the new curve ( called ellipse).
The curve shall be bounded by as seen by analyzing the equation
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2
a
x
1 b y or
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2
b
y
1 a x , (obtained from eqn.(2).), as and no part of the curve shall lie beyond x =
a, x = - a , y = b and y = - b, for, x and y to have real number values. The curve would be
symmetrical about both the axes as its eqn. does not change by replacing x by x , or y by y.
We can also have the x- coordinate compressed and y-coordinate stretched
by prescribing b > a to get a standing ellipse with major axis b in y-direction and minor
axis a in x-direction. Again, we can replace x and y with each other to get the said
curve too; or simply interchange the axes which is safe as long as the curve is
symmetrical about the axes.
Still in another way, we can stretch only one of the coordinates, x-coordinate say, of
the circle 1
b
y
b
x
2
2
2
2
= + to get the ellipse 1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= + . So any ellipse can be thought of as a
circle which is stretched in direction of one of the axes only.
If b > a, the circle
1
a
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= +
can be thought of as expanded in the direction of y-axis or
compressed along the x-axis and a standing ellipse is obtained with its major axis 2b
along the y-axis. This is just as if the axes have been interchanged.
2: Change of form and Change of origin
Equations of such form
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 a y b x a b + =
, even
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 a Y b X a b + =
, where
, X px qy r Y lx my n = + + = + +
may be immediately recognised as ellipses. The only
thing is that th coefficients of X and Y ( of x and y for that matter) must be both
positive or both negative. Also the forms
( )
2
2
2 2
1
x a
y
a b
+ =
and
( )
2
2
2 2
1
x ae
y
a b
+ =
are the same as
1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= +
, the origin is shifted to the left vertex and shifted to the left
Page 455 / 681
Page 3
focus respectively. Note that
( )
2
2
2 2
1
x a
y
a b
+ =
opens up to
2 2
2 2
2
0
x y x
a b a
+ = .
3: Change of Axes
2 2
2 2
1
x y
b a
+ = where b < a is a standing ellipse , but e here is not > 1, for e is defined as
2
2
1
a
b
instead of
2
2
1
b
a
, quite consistent with the concept, as b is the major axis here.
4: Auxiliary Circle;
Draw a circle of radius a superimposed on the ellipse as shown in fig. 6A. Let the
coordinates of any point P on the ellipse be (x, y) ,ON =x and PN =y .Produce NP to
meet the circle at Q and join AQ and AQ. Since angle AQA is inscribed in a
semicircle, it is a right angle. By property of right triangles,
QN
2
=AN,NA = (a + x)(a - x)
=
2
2
2 2
a
a
x a
=
2
2
2
1 a
a
x
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2
2
a
b
y
=
2
2
2
b
a
PN
a
b
QN
PN
= If ordinates of all points on the circle of radius a are reduced b/a
times, the locus of such points would be the ellipse with major and minor axes, a and
b.
This is further logical confirmation of the fact that the ellipse is obtained by
compressing its y - coordinates in the ratio b/a.
O N
P
Q
A A X X
Y
Y
Fig.6A: Auxiliary circle
S
T
Page 456 / 681
Page 4
Exercise1
Taking any point P on the ellipse and its corresponding point Q on the auxiliary circle,
a st line parallel to the radius of the auxiliary circle OQ , cutting the coordinate axes at
S ant T respectively. Show that PS = b and PT = a.
Ans. PT = OQ = a as PTOQ is a parallelogram. Since b cos PN PS sin = = ,
PS cos sin cos PN ec b ec b = = =
5: Outside and inside of an ellipse
Take any point (h, k) outside the ellipse, draw its coordinates by dropping
perpendiculars on the axes. it would easily be seen that either one of these two
perpendiculars shall cut the ellipse or both. In that case if the point of intersection is
(x, y), then either h or k or both are greater than x, y as per relevance so
2 2
2 2
1
h k
a b
+ > ;
as
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = for the point of intersection. Thus
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ > , for points outside the
ellipse . similarly
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ < for points inside the ellipse.
Comparing the ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = with the auxiliary circle
2 2
2 2
1
X Y
a a
+ = , a point a point
(x, y) is outside the ellipse, if the corresponding point (X, Y) is outside the aux. circle,
i.e., if
2 2
2 2
1
X Y
a a
+ > , and vice versa.
6: Parametric Equations.
In the above figure, OQ = a, ON = x = cos a . Putting this in 1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= + ,we have,
2
2
2
cos 1
y
b
+ = ,or,
2 2 2
sin y b = . Thus both x and y can be expressed as functions of
a single parameter , which is called eccentric angle in the auxiliary circle.
cos x a = and sin y b = eqn(c)
Try another parametric equation
2
2 2
1 2
1 1
t t
x a and y b
t t
= =
+ +
.. eqn(d)
of the ellipse and correlate
1
2tan t

=
7: Distance of any point from the center
Putting cos x a = and sin y b = in 1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= + , we get,
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
cos sin
a b
r
a b
=
+
Page 457 / 681
Page 5
8: Vector Equations
If r or r
be the position vector of any point P on the ellipse,

( ) ( ) , , cos , sin , 0 r x y z a b
= = eqn(d)
where z = 0 represents xy-plane. The nice thing about vectors is, that they
carry three independent entities , or components as one entity, preserving their
independence and as such, three equations are briefly written as one equation. In
case of a st line most of the problems in coordinate geometry can be solved in vector
analysis. But vectors are seldom used in context of conic sections or curves as the
direction of the radius vector is always changing. Matrices are better suited for
representing conic sections; examples may be found at the last of conic sections.
Alternatively,
A Vector equation of ellipse may be like
1 2
2 r f r f a + =

,
where
1
f
,
2
f
are its foci and ( ) , , 0 r x y =
.
Since
1 2
2 f f ae =

. the equation becomes
1 2
1 2
f f
r f r f
e
+ =

Exercise
For an interior point of the ellipse, show that
1 2
1 2
0
f f
e
f f
s s
+

Hint. Inside the ellipse
1 2
1 2 1 2
0
f f
PF PF e r f r f
e
+ < + <

.Since the origin
0 r =
is inside the ellipse, then

1 2 1 2
1 2
1 2
0 0 0
f f f f
f f e
e
f f

+ < <
+

9:
If
1 2
, z z are two fixed points on the complex Argand plane , show that
2 2
1 2
z z
z z z z k
e
+ = = represents an ellipse with eccentricity e if 1 e <

10: A meaning of eccentricity e:
The circle has a centre and the ellipse has also a centre. But the centre of the ellipse
is not that important as the centre of the circle. We mentioned that the beautiful
properties of circle lies in the constancy of its radius. The ellipse has no such radial
symmetry as in the case of circle. Instead, there are two other points of importance
Page 458 / 681
Page 6
along the main axis or the major axis , one on each side of the center , each being
called a focus (see fig.7) . How far the focus is moved from the center so that the
circle is flattened to become an ellipse is measured by its eccentricity. This is the
corresponding most simple thing about any ellipse responsible for beautiful properties
of the ellipse. Not only that, this is characteristic of all conic sections, parabola,
hyperbola etc. as we would see later on. We explore below how the focus and
eccentricity are related .
In the eqn. 1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= + , put b = fa or b/a = f, (evidently f < 1, as b < a). This is the
compression factor of y- coordinates as mentioned above. This reduces eqn(2) to
x
2
f
2
+ y
2
= a
2
f
2
..(a)
The left side looks like square of a distance (as we knew distance formula between the
points (x, y) and (x
1,
y
1
), d =
2
1
2
1
) y y ( ) x x ( + )and the form of the equation indicates
us to make the expression a complete square so as to see what distance it might be.
Put e
2
= 1 f
2
(certainly we can, as f < 1) so that x
2
f
2
becomes
x
2
(1 e
2
), and a
2
f
2
becomes a
2
(1 e
2
), Thus the eqn. becomes
x
2
+ a
2
e
2
+ y
2
= a
2
+ e
2
x
2
In further endeavour to complete squares, we add 2aex to both sides and get
(x ae)
2
+ (y 0)
2
= e
2
(x a/e)
2
..(b)
The left side may be thought as the square of distance from any point (x, y) on the
curve from the point (ae, 0) and the right side may be thought of as e
2
times the
square of distance from any point (x, y) on the curve from the straight line x = a/e
(drop a perpendicular from point (x, y) onto the straight line x = a/e). The point (ae, 0)
happens to be a fixed point and the straight line x = a/e happens to be a fixed straight
line, a straight line parallel to y-axis at x = a/e; and the ratio of these distances happen to
be e , a constant, for any point on the ellipse. Turning our attention on this fixed point F,
we call it focus of the ellipse
( from which we take distance of any point on the ellipse as focal distance). In the figure
below, the point on the ellipse is denoted by P(x, y),the fixed point F is at
(ae, 0) , and the and the fixed line ( called the directrix) is the line x = a/e, denoted by
the lineDD
2
. To see how the x-coordinates are stretched, we calculate distances of

any point from the focus and compare with the distance from the directrix and find the
ratio same for all points. So we call the fixed straight line directrix of the ellipse
directing how much the figure may be elongated along the x-axis, if we start with the
circle 1
b
y
b
x
2
2
2
2
= + (vide the smaller circle in Fig.6). This also shows how the y-
coordinates are compressed along the direction of the directrix (or in the direction of y
axis) instead of stretching the x-coordinates if we start with the circle 1
a
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= + (vide
the larger circle in Fig.6).
It would take some time to understand that the ratio e, i.e., the ratio of distance from
the focus to the distance from the directrix of any point is as natural and as simple as
the constancy of radius in case of a circle. This is characteristic of all conic sections
Page 459 / 681
Page 7
like parabola and hyperbola, not only ellipse. We would see later on that e for a
parabola is 1 and for a hyperbola is more than 1. A natural deduction follows that
eccentricity of a circle is 0, for the circle is perfectly centered, and the center is the
focus. Its directrix is imagined as a st.line at infinity, and the focus at the center,
the focal distance is the radius, and the directrix distance is infinity, making e =
0 thereby.
11: Visualisation of e
Thus the directrices seemingly pull every point on the circumference of the circle as if
by strings perpendicular to the lines so that spokes of the wheel are compressed in
vertical direction and shift away from the centre and converge at the two foci in order
to fit inside the flattened circle, at distances ae from the centre, the ratio e determining
how far the foci would be away from the centre or which was previously the centre( the
focus is at a distance ae, between the center and radius a); hence called eccentricity.
The ratio f is some sort of complement of e, related to e by the relation e
2
+ f
2
= 1 and
as such, may be thought of as compression factor in contrast, as a central tendency.
(See Fig.). Also this may be noted that the distance from the focus to the tip of the
minor axis still remains a , the same as before the focus started moving. This is easily
verified as BF
2
= BO
2
+OF
2
, or,
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 b a e a e a e a + = + = . So BF = a.
The two foci (focuses) impress upon us to think as if the centre of the circle we started
with, has been split into two points which have moved apart a distance 2ae from each
other as a result of compression. Hence e is called the eccentricity of the ellipse( given
by
2
e 1 a b = ,as we have taken
F F
O A A N N
B
B
Y
M M
P
Q
X X
D
1
D
1
D
D
2
Fig.7: Graph of ellipse

L
1
L
1
Y
L
L
Page 460 / 681
Page 8
b = af and e
2
= 1 f
2
, or
2
2
a
b
1 e = ). For the ratio to have a practical meaning it must
be less than 1 as we have presumed.
(There are no real directrices across the y-axes and there are no real foci if b > a in
the eqn 1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= + , as only elongation of the curve along the x-axis is sufficient to take
account of both elongation in one way and compression in the other way. But to think
uniformly we may conjecture that there are two imaginary foci along the y-axis and
two imaginary directrices across the y-axis in such case).
In passing we may note here that FA/AN = e as A is a point on the ellipse; which
implies that the point A internally divides the segment FN in the ration e : 1. So there
must be a point on extended FN which divides it in the ratio e : 1 . We find that A is
the point doing so. For A is a point on the ellipse and as such FA/AN = e. Also
FA/AN = e; as F is also a focus and MN is its directrix. To avoid confusion verify
that the ratio does not hold if we take one focus and the other directrix and calculate
the ratio of their distances from any point. It may further be noted that the number a is
nothing but the geometric mean of ae and a/e.
If b > a, the circle
1
a
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= +
can be thought of as compressed in reverse in the
direction of y-axis or expanded along y-axis and a standing ellipse is obtained with its
major axis 2b along the y-axis. In this case e cannot be thought of as greater than 1. It
cannot be defined as
2
2
a
b
1 e = ;as it wont be a real number. But we see that the
graph is an ellipse, with foci, albeit along y-axis and directrices across
y-axis. Thus, in this case, e has to be defined as
2
2
b
a
1 e = as the major and
the minor axes have been interchanged.
12: Second focus and second directrix
The equation (2b) may be written as
(x + ae)
2
+ (y + 0)
2
= e
2
(x + a/e)
2
..(c)
by adding 4aex to both sides of (2b) and albeit the equation shall represent the same
ellipse as we have in fact, made no change in (b). But it shows that the same ellipse
has second focus at ( - ae, 0)at the point F, and second directrix at x = - a/e, the line
D
1
D
1
..
13: Distance of focus from the center.
The distance of the focus from the center is ae or ae as said above and e is given by
2 2 2
2
2 2
1
b a b
e
a a
= = ;this further gives

2 2 2 2
a e a b = , or
2 2
ae a b =
(Remember)
Exercise2
Find the circle of the smallest diameter that can pass though both the foci.
Page 461 / 681
Page 9
Exercise3
Show that the major axis, the minor axis and the distance between the foci can form a
right angled triangle and tangent of one of its angles is eccentricity.
427: Sum of distances of any point from two foci
Let us consider sum of distances of any point P from F and F. As FP/PM = e,
FP = ePM, and , as FP / PM = e, FP = e PM. Now FP +FP = e( PM + PM) = eMM =
eNN= e.2ON , as ON =ON. But ON = a/e, as , at any point on DD
2

is x = a/e. So,
FP + FP = 2a.eqn(2)
The sum of the focal distances of any ellipse is equal to the major axis. Some text
books take this fact about the ellipse as its definition.
14: Sum of distances of any point from two foci
In fact, there are many alternative definitions of ellipse revealing its many facets. Any
of these alternatives is sufficient to describe the properties of ellipse fully. In fact the
alternative definitions come from some important properties from which other
properties could be derived using standard mathematical tools. Exploration of these
alternative treatments give insight to geometrical properties of the ellipse. We count
below some of the alternative derivations / definitions tacitly carrying other properties
of ellipse and shall show how we can start from one definition and reach another and
vice versa.
15: Equation of ellipse from constancy of sum of distances from two foci
As we have indicated, sum of the distances of any point of the curve from two fixed
points (foci) is constant ( major axis).
Let the constant be 2a. Choose the origin midway between the two fixed points and
choose the x-axis along the line joining the two fixed points. There is no loss of
generality as we can shift the origin and the axes later as we please. Thus the
coordinates of the two fixed points may be taken as (k, 0) and ( - k, 0) ; or as (ae, 0)
and ( - ae, 0) if we denote k /a = e. Later on we would observe that this is really the
eccentricity e. If (x, y) be the coordinates of the point , the sum of whose distances
from (ae, 0) and ( - ae, 0) is 2a; we have,
a 2 y ) ae x ( y ) ae x (
2 2 2 2
= + + + + ,
Or ( )
2
2
2 2 2 2
a 4 y ) ae x ( y ) ae x ( = + + + +
or,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a 4 y ) ae x ( y ) ae x ( 2 y ) ae x ( y ) ae x ( = + + + + + + + +
or,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a 4 y ) ae x ( y ) ae x ( 2 y 2 e a 2 x 2 = + + + + + +
or,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a 2 xae 2 y e a x xae 2 y e a x y e a x = + + + + + + + +
or, ( )
2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a 2 e a x 4 y e a x y e a x = + + + + +
or,`
Page 462 / 681
Page 10
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 4 4 x a e y a x a e y x a e x a e y x a e
| |
+ + = + + = + +
|
\ .
or,
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4
2
2 2 2 2
e a x 4 y e a x y e a x a 4 a 4 y e a x + + = + + + + +
or, ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4
e a x 4 y e a x a 4 a 4 = + + , or, ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
e x y e a x a = + +
or,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
y e a x e x a + + = + , or, ) e 1 ( a y ) e 1 ( x
2 2 2 2 2
= +
or, 1
) e 1 ( a
y
a
x
2 2
2
2
2
=
+ (a)
is the required eqn. to the curve described by the locus of the moving point.
Or, 1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= + .(b)
may be taken as the eqn. to the curve which is called an ellipse.; where we have
taken ) e 1 ( a b
2 2 2
= . Naturally a restriction , e < 1 has to be imposed in order that b
may be a real number. The highest value of x may be found putting y = 0; (i.e.,
intersection of the curve with x-axis) which gives highest value of x = a. Similarly the
highest value of y may be found putting x = 0; (i.e., intersection of the curve with y-
axis) which gives highest value of y = b. It follows that the curve is symmetrical about
both x-axis and y-axis as the eqn. does not change by replacing y with y or x with
x. Hence it is a closed curve bounded by the lines x = a and y = b. 2a is seen to be
maximum stretch of the curve along the x-axis and is called its major axis and 2b is
seen to be maximum stretch of the curve along the y-axis and is called its minor axis.
Exercise4
What is the locus of vertex of a triangle whose base is fixed and sum of other two
sides is constant?
Ans. An ellipse, the two ends of the base being foci.
Exercise5
Trace the center of the in-circle of the triangle in the above problem.
O C X
X
B
N
I
A
Y
Y
M
L
Page 463 / 681
Page 11
In the figure I is the in center and base of the triangle is x axis and its perpendicular
bisector is the Y- axis. In view of BN = BL, CN = CM and AL = AM and sum of all the
six = a + b + c = 2s; we have BN + CM + AL = s , or , BN + CM + AM = s, or,
BN + b = s , or BN = s b
So that ON = BN OB = s b a/2 = (c b)/2 = x, say...(a)
The ordinate of the in center , evidently its radius , given by
y IN r
s
A
= = =
(b)
Where ( ) ( ) ( ) s s a s b s c A = =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2 2
1 1
4
2 2 2 2
a c b a b c
s s a s s a a c b s s a a x
+ + | || |
(
= =
| |

\ .\ .
Putting this value of in (b) find the relation between x and y to prove it to be an
ellipse.
Mark here that sum of three sides is constant and base is fixed means same thing as
sum of two sides other than the base is constant. A trivial fact can easily lead to
confusion.
Another method
Take the end points of the base of the triangle B ( ae, 0) and C(ae, 0) and the vertex
ot the triangle A( a cos , b sin ) as the vertex traces an ellipse of major axis 2a, and
sum of the sides is constant = 2a. The sides of this triangle are of lengths , base =
2ae, the other two sides are a + ae cos and ae ae cos respectively. The in center
of this triangle is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) cos sin 0 0
,
BC a CA ae AB ae BC b CA AB
BC CA AB BC CA AB
+ + + + | |
|
+ + + +
\ .
( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 cos 1 cos 1 cos 2 sin
,
2 1 cos 1 cos 2 1 cos 1 cos
ae a a ae a ae ae b
ae a a ae a a

+ + +
=
+ + + + + +
cos , sin
1
e
ae b
e

| |
=
|
+
\ .
, or , if (x, y) are coordinates of in center,
Then cos , sin
1
e
x ae and y b
e
= =
+
. Eliminate the variable using
2 2
cos sin 1 + =
Exercise6
Find the eccentricity of the ellipse described by the in center in the above problem.
Ands.
2
1
e
E
e
=
+
16: Construction of ellipse.
The above property is used for physically constructing an ellipse with given major axis
and eccentricity.
Page 464 / 681
Page 12
Take a piece of string of length equal to the major axis, and tie its ends to two fixed
points 2ae distance apart on a piece of paper on a drawing board with the help of two
fixing pins. Then hold the string taut by pencil point and move the pencil point in both
directions as far as the pencil would go. Then turn the string to the other side of the
line joining the fixed points and repeat the process. Thus an ellipse is drawn.(See fig
8)
17: Equation of ellipse from focal distance and directrix distance
We can start from the statement that the locus of the curve is such that the ratio
of the distance of any point on it from a fixed point (focus) to its distance from a fixed
straight line (directrix) is a given constant e < 1. Let the focus be at a point (h, k) and
the directrix be the line Ax +By +C = 0, we have,
Distance of any point P(x, y) from the focus F(h, k) is
2 2
( - ) ( ) x h y k + and the
distance of P(h, k) from the st.line 0 Ax By C + + = is
2 2
Ax By C
A B
+ +
+
, so that we have,
2
2 2 2
2 2
( )
( - ) ( )
Ax By C
x h y k e
A B
+ +
+ =
+
,..eqn(3)
This is the equation of the ellipse, where e is the given value of
eccentricity < 1. We may transform this equation to the conventional form which is
convenient. But this is a general equation of the ellipse, whose focus is at (h, k) and
directrix is the line 0 Ax By C + + = . It immediately follows that if some equation is
known to represent an ellipse in some other method, that equation may be rearranged
into this form so that its focus and directrix may be found out. We would return to
the point while studying general second degree equation in two variables.
Determination of focus, directrix etc.
One utility of this equation is that we can determine focus, directrix, center, major and
minor axes etc, by reducing any given equation to this form.
Reduction to standard form:
For now, let us use this equation to find the equation of the ellipse in the form
1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= +
Page 465 / 681
Page 13
Let F be the focus of the ellipse (0, 0) for the time being as in the case of the general
conic, the origin is taken at the focus and DD be the directrix . Let P(x, y) be any point
on the ellipse. Join FP and let the perpendicular from P on DD meet it at M. The
equation shall be obtained putting the ratio FP / PM = e , a given number less than 1.
Let A is the point on the ellipse which is on x-axis. So AF = eNA; in other words, the
point A divides the segment FN in the ratio e:1. There must be another point A on the
X-axis such that FA = eAN (external division) and A is on the ellipse as ratio of its
distances from the focus and from its directrix is e. Let AA = 2a and O be the middle
point of AA.
We have to shift the origin from F to O, middle point of AA for sake of symmetry and
simplicity; so we need determine the equation of the directrix DD , for which we have
to determine FN in terms of a and e, which is ON OF. So the segments ON and OF
in terms of a and e are required..
Now AA = 2a = FA + FA = e(AN + AN) = e(AN + AO +ON)
= e(AN + AO + ON) = e(ON +ON) = 2eON.
So ON = a/e..eqn(4)
Similarly, e.2a = e(AN AN)
= FA FA = FO + OA FA = FO + OA FA = FO + FO = 2FO
So FO = ae eqn(5)
Now, FN = ON OF = a/e ae , so that equation of DD becomes,
x = a/e ae, or, x - (a/e ae) = 0, .. eqn(6)
In eqn.(1) , as in case of general conic, we have assumed, focus F be at a point
(h, k) and the directrix DD
1
be the line Ax +By +C = 0.
But we have taken the point (h, k) as origin i.e., (0,0) and eqn. of the directrix DD
1
has
now become x + (a/e ae) = 0 , which is nothing but
F
F
O
A A
N N
B
B
Y
M M
P
Q
X X
D
1
D
1
D
D
Graph of ellipse
L
L
Page 466 / 681
Page 14
Ax +By +C = 0; so that A =1, B = 0, and C = a/e ae, by comparison.
With this consideration, eqn.(3a) becomes,
2
2 2 2
2 2
1 0
a
x ae
e
x y e
| | | |

| |
\ . \ .
+ =
+
Or,
( )
2
2 2
2
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
e
a
ae x e y ae ae x
. eqn(c)
If the origin is shifted to O, the point (-FO,0) or (-ae,0), x should be replaced by
x + ae, ( or x ae should be replaced by x) so that the equation becomes,
( )
2
2 2 2
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
e
a
x e y ae x ,
or, ( ) ( )
2 2 2
a ex y ae x + = + + . eqn(7)
Or, ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 e a y e x = + , or,
( )
1
1
2 2
2
2
2
=
+
e a
y
a
x
If we put x = 0 in this equation,
2
1 e a y = , or the values of y where the curve meets
the y-axis are
2
1 e a ,the points, B and B in the figure. The values of b are real of
course, as e
2
< 1. If this length
2
1 e a is denoted by b, the eqn. eqn(3e)becomes,
1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
= + is the equation of the ellipse. eqn(a)
2a is called major axis and 2b is called minor axis of the ellipse.
18: Focus and directrix
Note that the focus is at (ae, 0) and the directrix is
x - (a/e ae) = 0. .eqn(8).
19: Latus rectum:
Semi Latus Rectum is the y-coordinate of the point on the curve just above the focus.
It is also called the focal chord, or the chord passing through the focus. It is an
important parameter of the curve, as any other , like, distance from the focus, distance
from the directrix etc., for geometric considerations.
Length of the semi latus rectum FL may be obtained if we put value of x-coordinate
of the point L in the eqn. of the curve, eqn.(6), Putting x = -ae in the equation gives
the value of y as
2
1 b e or b. b/a or b
2
/a. Thus al = b
2
, thus b or the minor axis is the
geometric mean of the major axis and the latus rectum . In terms of e, it follows that
al = a
2
(1 e
2
), or l = a(1 e
2
),. eqn(9)
Since latus rectum is sometimes chosen as a parameter instead of a or b, we can
express a and b in terms of l. We have
2
2 2
1 1
l l
a and b
e e
= =

... eqn(9a)
Page 467 / 681
Page 15
as
2 2 2
(1 ) b a e =
20: Focal radii:
Distance of any point on the ellipse from focus is called a focal radius.
In the above figure,
FP = ePM = eQN = eNO + eOQ = e.a/e + ex ,Or FP = a + ex. .. ..eqn(10a)
Similarly,
FP = ePD = eQN = e (ON OQ) = e.a/e ex , Or FP = a ex .... eqn(10b)
Exercise7
Find the sum and product of focal distances of any point P(x, y):
Sum of focal distances is evidently a + ex + a ex = 2a, major axis.
Product of the focal distances is
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
cos ,
a b
a ex a ex a e x a a say
a

+ = = =
2 2 2 2
a si n
+b cos
=rr'
Remember
Exercise8
In the above ellipse show that
1
tan . tan
2 2 1
e
e

=
+
Hint. From sine law,
( ) ( )
' ' ' '
sin sin sin sin sin sin
S P SP SS SS S P SP

+
= = = =
+ +
cos
2 2
2
1
2sin cos 2sin cos cos
2 2 2 2 2
ae a e

+
= =
+ + +
cos cos 2cos cos
1 1
2 2 2 2
tan tan
1 2 2 1
cos cos 2sin sin
2 2 2 2
e e
e e

+
+
+
= = =
+
+

A A
S S
P

Page 468 / 681
Page 16
21: Span of the ellipse and sum of the focal radii:
The equation can be written either in form
2
2
1
a
x
b y = or,
2
2
1
b
y
a x = In order that
values of x and y be real, the domain of x and the range of y are not beyond [-a, a]
and [-b, b] respectively, or, the curve has no part beyond them. The curve is
symmetrical about x-axis and y-axis as the equation does not change by replacing y
by y or x by x. This indicates there is a second focus and second directrix .Since FO =
ae by eqn(3), and we have shifted the origin to O from F, the coordinates of F have
now become (OF,0) or (ae,0) and the coordinates of N have become (ON,0) or
(a/e,0). Take a point F (-ae,0) and N -a/e,0) and the line D
1
D
1
at N parallel to D
1
D
1
.
Now ( )
2
2
' F P x ae y = + + and ' ' '
a
PM QN ON OQ x
e
= = + = + .
From eqn.(3d),
( )
2
2 2 2
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + +
e
a
x e y ae x FP = e.PM which proves, F can be a focus and D
1
D
1
can
be the corresponding directrix for any point P.
The fact that the ellipse has two foci and two directrix prompts us to
sum of distances of any point on the ellipse from the two foci. In the above figure
PF + PF =
e.PM + e.PM = e(PM + PM) = e(MM) = e.NN = 2e.ON =2e.(a/e) =2a
Hence the sum of focal distances from any point on the ellipse = major axis as before
22: What does division of major axis by ordinate mean.
If the eqn of the ellipse is written as
2 2
2 2
1
y x a x a x
b a a a
+ | || |
= =
| |
\ .\ .
=
AQ A'Q
.
a a
.eqn(11a)
Had it been a circle, y
2
= AQ . AQ, and ZAPA would have been a right angle.
Similarly
2 2
2 2
1
x y b y b y
a b b b
+ | | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
=
BR B'R
.
b b
.eqn(11b)
if R is the foot of perpendicular from P onto minor axis BB
Page 469 / 681
Page 17
23: Alternative derivation of eqn of ellipse ; Ellipse as shadow of a circle
Let a plane t in the figure contain a coordinate system XOY and make an angle o
with the plane t , the plane of the paper .Let them meet on LL. Draw a circle VPU on
t of radius a , and let its projection on t be the figure VPU centered at O of coordinate
system XOY. Let P be any point on the circle with coordinates OQ = x and PQ = y,
respectively having projections OQ = x and PQ = y. It can be verified that the x-axis
and x-axis are parallel to each other but the y-axis and y-axis make an angle o
between them, equal to the angle between the planes. Hence projection of any
segment parallel to x-axis remains the same but projection of any segment parallel to
the y-axis is got my multiplying it with cos o. (verify). Thus OQ = OQ and PQ = PQ
cos o or
PQ = PQ/ cos o. We have a
2
= OP
2
= OQ
2
+ PQ
2
= OQ
2
+ PQ
2
/cos
2
o.
Or,
cos
2
2
2 2
y
x a + = for any point (x, y) on the circle.
But this is a relationship between x and y of any point on the figure VPU , so it is the
equation to it.
We verify that the figure is symmetrical about both the axes as x or y can replace x
or y respectively without affecting the equation and maximum value of x , i.e.
X
X
O
P
P
Q
S T
V
U
V
U
Y
O
Q
R
Y
L
L
Fig.9, Ellipse as a projection of a circle on an inclined plane
Page 470 / 681
Page 18
OV = a, putting y = 0 in the equation. This was expected, since it is the projection of
OV = a and projection of any segment parallel to X-axis does not change.
Comparing
cos
2
2
2 2
y
x a + = or 1
) sin 1 (
2 2
2
2
2
=
+
a
y
a
x
, with standard equation of ellipse
Putting sin o = e (sin o is naturally less than 1) and putting
2
e 1 a b = we see that, the
equation reduces to standard form of the ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ =
Thus projection of a circle on another plane at an angle with the plane of the
circle is an ellipse with eccentricity e = sin , where is the angle between the
planes.
We would show that sin is actually the eccentricity of the ellipse.
Mark two points R and S on the x-axis such that OR = a sin o and OS = a / sin o, and
drop a perpendicular PT on a line at S, parallel to y-axis. We observe that a is the
geometric mean of a sin o and a / sin o. Since their product gives a
2
. But this relation
is for a particular point. For any point P(x, y) on the curve,
2 2 2 2 2
( sin ) PR PQ RQ a x y = + = + and
( )
2
2
2 2
sin
a
PT QS OS OQ x
| |
= = =
|
\ .
or, e
2
=
( )
( )
sin
sin
cos ) sin (
sin
) sin (
2
2
2 2 2 2
2
2 2
2
2
x a
x a a x
x
a
y a x
PT
PR
+
=
|
.
|
\
|

+
= ,
as
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
' cos ' cos cos y y a x a x = = =
1
sin
.
sin 2 sin
cos cos sin 2 sin
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
ax x a
a x ax a x
+
+ +
=
( ) ( )
sin sin
sin 2 sin
sin 2 cos sin cos 1
2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
=
+
+ +
=
ax x a
ax a x
thus the figure is actually an ellipse and eccentricity = sin .. .eqn(12)
Thus another geometric meaning of eccentricity is obtained an ellipse can be
thought of as a projection of a circle on another plane at an angle o with the plane of
the circle is an ellipse with eccentricity e = sin o, where o is the angle between the
planes.
Page 471 / 681
Page 19
24: Another derivation of ellipse equation : a plane cutting a cylinder
The eqn. to the circle x
2
+ y
2
= a
2
, on the plane t, is actually equation to a cylinder
in three dimensions. For, construct a cylinder on the circle with its axis perpendicular
to x-axis and y-axis, and take any point (x, y, z) on it. The relation
x
2
+ y
2
= a
2
still holds whatever may be z. Hence it is the eqn. to the cylinder in fact.
Now , is the plane which intersects this cylinder generating the curve PVU and we
have already proved PVU to be an ellipse. If the plane makes an angle with the
axis of the cylinder, then = 90
0
- . Eccentricity is e = sin o = cos . This is yet
another meaning of eccentricity. But the above considerations hold only where |o| < t/2,
i.e. for the case of ellipse only. No section of cylinder parallel to its axis shall give us
an ellipse. The other families of curves, parabola and hyperbola cannot be obtained
from sections of cylinder.
25: TO SHOW THAT AN ELLIPSE IS ACTUALLY A SECTION OF A CONE:
The purpose of this article is to show that conic sections are really intersections of a
cone and a plane not through the vertex of the cone; to satisfy the curiosity of the
student. Moreover, there is a whole branch of geometry, called projective geometry, in
which it is very simply shown that conics are projections of a circle on a plane and
general theorems of circles can be transported to conic sections through principles of
projective geometry. Let a line segment WS = t revolve about a fixed st.line WG
always making a constant angle o with it at the point W and generate a right circular
cone WSK, where K is a point on the cone such that SK is the diameter of the circle
obtained by intersection of the cone with a plane passing through S and SK is
perpendicular to the axis WG at the point D. Now D is the centre of this circle and its
radius is given by
SD = DK =WS sin o = t sin o.(a)
Note that the triangles WSD and WDK are congruent to each other having a
common side WD, a right angle in each and the angle o in each of them. Thus DS =
DK, and thus the intersection of a plane with a cone perpendicular to its axis happens
to be a circle.
Now let a plane perpendicular to the plane of WSDK pass through the
point S making an angle | with SK and P be any point on it on its intersection with the
cones curved surface and let ST be the line of intersection of this plane with the
plane of WSDK , meeting the cone at T. Let PST is the curve of intersection with the
cone and the plane makes an angle | with AK means that ST makes an angle | with
SK i.e., Z KST = |. Drop a perpendicular PQ on ST, meeting the curve of intersection
at R. Set up a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system with origin
(0, 0) at S, the x-axis along ST and the y- axis along a direction
parallel to PQ ( SY in the figure). If (x, y) be the coordinates of the point P ,
Page 472 / 681
Page 20
SQ = x and PQ = y(b)
A relationship between x and y shall represent the equation to the curve of intersection
SRTP which is our goal; as P is any point on the curve. For that we take a plane
containing PR and perpendicular to the axis of the cone WG which intersects the cone
in a circle PURV,(as explained in last paragraph) with its centre at C on WG and let its
radius be
UC = PC = CV = CR = r.(c)
where U and V are points on the cone and UV || SK. We can find the relationship
between x and y , by relating them easily to UQ and PC = r. We immediately note that
Z SQU = Z QSK = |(d)
as SK || UV. To find x, let us concentrate on the triangle SUQ and
resort to the law of cosines or the law of sines which is more easy.
W
D
C
S K
P
O
T X
Y
G
Q
R
U V

r

x
y
t
Fig.10, Ellipse as intersection of a cone with a plane
Page 473 / 681
Page 21
Now US = UW SW = UC cosec o - t = r cosec o - t (e)
And Z SUC = Z WSD = t/2 - o...(f)
Z USQ = t - (t/2 - o) - | = t/2 + o - |....(g)
From the law of sines,
|
.
|
\
|
+
= =
|
.
|
\
|

2
sin
UQ
sin
US
sin
SQ
or,
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
=
|
.
|
\
|

2
sin
UQ
sin
t cosec r
sin
x
or,
|
.
|
\
|

=
=
) (
2
sin
UQ
sin
t cosec r
cos
x
or,
cos cos
sin t r UQ
sin sin cos cos
UQ
) cos(
UQ
sin sin
sin t r
cos
x +
=
+
=
= by
addendo
or, UQ = x cos | - t sin o +r..(h)
and, QC= UC UQ = r UQ = t sin o - x cos | (i)
But PQ lies in the plane of the circle and QC lies in the plane containing WUV ,and the
two planes are perpendicular to each other. This point is important to understand, the
plane of WSK is the plane of the paper and the plane of the intersection curve PSRT is
perpendicular to the plane of the paper. , Hence PQ QC; so that
PC
2
= PQ
2
+ QC
2
, or, r
2
= y
2
+ QC
2
Or, r
2
= y
2
+( t sin o - x cos |)
2
(j)
Now in the triangle WUC,
r =PC = CU = UW sin o = ( t + SU ) sin o..(k)
And in the triangle SUQ,
cos
x
sin
x
sin
SU
=
|
.
|
\
|

= , i.e., SU =
cos
sin x
So that r = ( t + SU ) sin o=( t +
cos
sin x
) sin o...(l)
From (j) ( t +
cos
sin x
)
2
sin
2
o = y
2
+( t sin o - x cos |)
2
.....(m)
This is the relationship between x and y and as such, the equation to the curve of
intersection we sought for.
Note that (j) could have been our required eqn. but it contains an extraneous variable
r, which changed whenever x or y changed, so, naturally it had to be eliminated, and
(m) is our equation sought for. Simplifying (m) we have,
sin
cos
sin x
t y ) cos x sin t (
2
2
2 2
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
or, ( ) sin sin x cos t cos y cos ) cos x sin t (
2 2 2 2 2 2
+ = + ..(n)
Page 474 / 681
Page 22
Though this is the equation of the ellipse, it needs to be further simplified
and needs to be interpreted. On simplification we have,
0 sin y ) sin sin cos (cos sin cos xt 2 ) sin sin cos (cos x
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= + +
or, 0 sin y ) cos( sin cos xt 2 ) cos( ) cos( x
2 2 2
= + + (o)
Considering the SKT, we have,
Z KST = | , Z SKT = t/2 + o , Z STK = t - Z KST - Z SKT = t/2 (o+| )
and SK = 2SD = 2t sin o , and call the maximum span of the curve of intersection ,
ST = 2a.
Applying the law of sines to the SKT ,
sin sin sin
KT SK ST
STK SKT
= =
Z Z
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
sin
a 2
) (
2
sin
sin t 2
sin
KT
or,
cos
a 2
) cos(
sin t 2
sin
KT
=
+
= (p)
From this cos(o+|) = (t/a) cos o sin o; which further simplifies (o) as,
0 sin y ) cos( sin cos xt 2
a
cos sin t
) cos( x
2 2 2
= +
or, 0 sin a y ) xa 2 x )( cos( sin cos t
2 2 2
= + , which, on completing
square ,
) cos( sin cos t a sin a y ) a x )( cos( sin cos t
2 2 2 2
= + (q)
Since the right hand side is a positive constant, and both the terms in left side
are positive assuming |o| and ||| both less than t/2, |y| would be maximum only when
|x a| is minimum or 0. Calling this maximum value of y as b, we have
b
2
sin
2
o = at cos o sin o cos (o - |). (r)
This reduces (q) to, sin b a sin a y ) a x ( sin b
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= +
Or, 1
b
y
a
) a x (
2
2 2
2
= +
which is equation to an ellipse with its left vertex at the origin, and a, b being its
semi major and minor axes. If the origin is shifted from (0, 0) to (a, 0) and the new
coordinates be X and Y, X = x a, and Y = y, then the equation reduces to
1
b
Y
a
X
2
2 2
2
= + ...(s)
which is standard equation to the ellipse. Thus it is shown that a plane section
of a right circular cone not parallel to its generator and not parallel to its axis is
actually an ellipse.
26: The value of e
Page 475 / 681
Page 23
It may be calculated from
2
2
2
a
b
1 e = ; with taking the value of a from (p),
cos sin
cos( )
t
a

=
+
, and value of b from (r),
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
sin cos( ) cos sin cos( ) cos( )
(cos cos sin sin ) {(1 sin )(1 sin ) sin sin }
{1 sin sin sin sin sin sin } {1 sin sin )
b a t a a
a a
a a

= = +
= =
= + =
or,
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
1 sin sin cos sin
sin sin
b
a

= =
or,
sin
cos sin 2
sin
sin cos
1
a
b
1 e
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
2

=
= = (t)
Note that the value of e does neither depend on t, the distance of its vertex from the
vertex of the cone. It depends upon b/a of course. Any ellipse parallel to this one,
bounded by the cone shall have the same e value as it was expected. Taking a
particular value of e, if we regard eqn.(t) as simply an equation in two variables o and
| it is evident that a change in value of | results in a corresponding change in the
value of o to maintain constancy of e. In other words, for the same ellipse, if the angle
| is changed, the cone is changed by change in o ; that means, infinite number of
cones can pass through the same ellipse, with different vertical angles. Is it just
possible that orbits of all the ten planets of the Sun might be bounded by a common
cone ?(enquire).
It may be further observed that any plane section of a cone not parallel to its
generator(s) and not parallel to its axis, shall result in an ellipse (cases of circles and
degenerate point ellipses at the vertex of cone included). Any plane section of a cone
parallel to its generator shall result in a parabola (case of degenerate coincident
st.lines passing through generators of cone included). Any plane section of a cone
parallel to its axis shall result in a hyperbola (case of two st.lines passing through the
vertex of cone included).These facts would be verified later on.
27: Another Alternative derivation of ellipse :
If y-coordinates are turned through an angle, a circle ellipse becomes an
ellipse.
Let X
2
+ Y
2
= a
2
.(a)
be the eqn. to a circle of radius a having its centre at O(0, 0 ). Let all the
y-coordinates are turned through an angle such that now all the ordinates make an
angle o with the x-axis instead of t/2 as done before. All the points on the curve move
so that the curve is changed. Take a new set of axes of coordinates so that
x = X and y = Y sin o...(b)
Page 476 / 681
Page 24
A relation between x and y shall be the eqn. to the new curve; which can be derived
from (a) and (b).
Hence, putting these values in (a),
2
2
2
2
a
sin
y
x = + , or 1
sin a
y
a
x
2 2
2 2
2
= + , or 1
b
y
a
x
2
2 2
2
= + if b
2
= a
2
sin
2
o..(c)
This is the eqn to the new curve, which is seen to be an ellipse; for b < a ,as |sin o| <
1.The value of eccentricity is cos sin 1
a
b
1 e
2 2
2
2
2
= = = < 1(d)
This is yet another meaning of eccentricity.
The case of turning all the y-coordinates is same as the case of compressing all
y-coordinates; for , in both cases, we have, x = X and y = Y sin ; i.e., a
compression of y-coordinates in ratio 1:sin
28: Another alternative derivation of ellipse -
To show that x
2
+ y
2
= a
2
in oblique coordinates represents an ellipse
Consider the eqn. X
2
+ Y
2
= a
2
(a)
in a Cartesian coordinate system XOY, the axes of which are inclined to each other at
an angle o with each other and never mind whatever may be the shape of the curve.
Transform the coordinate to a rectangular Cartesian
system XOY by taking the new axes as OX and OY at right angles to each other.
The coordinates of any point P may be obtained by drawing a
line parallel to OY at P cutting OX at Q , in the oblique coordinate system XOY, so that
OQ = X and PQ = Y.(b)
By dropping a perpendicular PR from P on to OX, we get the coordinates of the point
P in rectangular Cartesian system XOY as
OR = x and PR = y(c)
From the figure,
PR = PQ sin o and OR = OQ + QR = OQ + PQ cos o
Or, y = Y sin o and x = X + Y cos o

X
Y

Y

P
Q R O

o
o
Y
Fig.11: Ellipse in oblique coordinates
Page 477 / 681
Page 25
Or,
sin
' y
Y = and
sin
cos ' y sin ' x
sin
cos ' y
' x cos Y ' x X

= = =
Now (a) becomes,
2
2
2
2
2
a
sin
' y
sin
) cos ' y sin ' x (
= +
Or, x
2
sin
2
o -2xy sin o cos o + y
2
(1 + cos
2
o) = a
2
sin
2
o .(d)
Rotate the rectangular axes again through an angle u again and the new coordinates
become x and y. then we have,
x = x cos u - y sin u , and y = x sin u + y cos u .(e)
With these values put in (d), we have,
(x cos u - y sin u)
2
sin
2
o -2(x cos u - y sin u)( x sin u + y cos u ) sin o cos o
+ (x sin u + y cos u )
2
(1 + cos
2
o) = a
2
sin
2
o
Or,
(x
2
cos
2
u + y
2
sin
2
u - 2xy cos u sin u) sin
2
o -
2(x
2
cos u sin u + xy cos
2
u - xy sin
2
u - y
2
cos u sin u)sin o cos o +
(x
2
sin
2
u + y
2
cos
2
u +2xy cos u sin u) (1 + cos
2
o) = a
2
sin
2
o
or, x
2
(cos
2
u sin
2
o - 2cos u sin u cos o sin o +sin
2
u + sin
2
u cos
2
o ) +
2xy( - cos u sin u sin
2
o - cos
2
u sin o cos o+ sin
2
u sin o cos o +
cos u sin u + cos u sin u cos
2
o) + y
2
(sin
2
u sin
2
o +
2cos u sin u sin o cos o + cos
2
u + cos
2
u cos
2
o) =a
2
sin
2
o (f)
If we choose u so as to make xy-term vanish, we must have,
( - cos u sin u sin
2
o - cos
2
u sin o cos o+ sin
2
u sin o cos o
+ cos u sin u + cos u sin u cos
2
o) = 0
or, 2 cos u sin u cos
2
o - sino cos o (cos
2
u - sin
2
u) = 0
or, sin 2u coso - sin o cos 2u = 0 ,
or tan 2u = tan o; or u = o/2..(g)
With this, (f) becomes,
x
2
(cos
2
u sin
2
o - 2cos u sin u cos o sin o +sin
2
u + sin
2
u cos
2
o )
+ y
2
(sin
2
u sin
2
o + 2cos u sin u sin o cos o + cos
2
u + cos
2
u cos
2
o)
= a
2
sin
2
o
or, x
2
[cos
2
u(1 - cos
2
o ) - sin 2u cos o sin o+1 cos
2
u + (1 cos
2
u)cos
2
o]
+ y
2
[(1 cos
2
u)(1 cos
2
o) + sin 2u sin o cos o + cos
2
u + cos
2
u cos
2
o]
= a
2
sin
2
o
or,x
2
[cos
2
u - cos
2
u cos
2
o - sin 2u cos o sin o+
1 cos
2
u + cos
2
o cos
2
u cos
2
o ]
+ y
2
[1 -cos
2
u cos
2
o +cos
2
u cos
2
o + sin 2u sin ocos o +
cos
2
u + cos
2
u cos
2
o] = a
2
sin
2
o
or, x
2
[1 - 2 cos
2
u cos
2
o+ cos
2
o - sin 2u cos o sin o]
+ y
2
[1- cos
2
o +2 cos
2
u cos
2
o + sin 2u sin ocos o]= a
2
sin
2
o
or, x
2
[1 cos 2u cos
2
o - sin 2u cos o sin o]
+ y
2
[1+ cos 2u cos
2
o + sin2u sin ocos o]= a
2
sin
2
o
Page 478 / 681
Page 26
or, x
2
[1 cos o (cos 2u coso - sin 2u sin o)]
+ y
2
[1+ (cos 2u coso + sin2u sin o)cos o]= a
2
sin
2
o
or, x
2
[1 cos o cos (2u+o)]
+ y
2
[1+ cos (2u - o )]= a
2
sin
2
o
or, x
2
[1 cos o cos 2o]
+ y
2
[1+ cos o)]= a
2
sin
2
o, as u = o/2,
Or,
2 2
2 2 2 2
1
a sin a sin
1 cos cos 2 1 cos
x y

+ =
+
.(h)
with values of A and B being denominators of fractions in the left.
To prove (h) is an ellipse, we have only to show that . 1
A
B
1 e
2
2
2
< = We have,
2 3
2
2
1 cos cos2 1 cos 2cos
1 1
1 cos 1 cos
B
e
A

+
= = =
+ +
< 1 as the numerator is less than denominator.
So e <1 for positive values of e , excluding negative values ,if any.
29: Another derivation of ellipse: locus of a fixed point in a rod leaning against
a wall and sliding down.
Let P(x, y) be the fixed point in the rod AB of length l , which moves as the rod
slides down the wall OY over the ground OX.
Let AP = a, PB = b, so that a + b = l. If the angle ZPBO = ZAPR = ,
we get, AP = PR sec = x sec = a, and PB = PQ cosec = y cosec
=b. In other words,
cos
x
a
= , and sin
y
b
=
X O
A
B
P(x, y)
Q
R
Y
Page 479 / 681
Page 27
It is always wise to prefer invariants to variables, so we employ
2 2
cos sin 1 + = , which gives
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ =
which is equation of an ellipse. Reasoned differently, our effort should be in the
direction of eliminating extraneous variables such as . Length of the rod is redundant
as and b are already given constants
This may be taken as a method of construction of an ellipse, with given major and
minor axes.
The arrangement may be made on a drawing board and some marker may be fixed at
P to trace its movement when the rod is slid along OX slowly enough to keep A in
contact with OY.
30: Reflection property of ellipse.
A ray of light emanating from a focus S of the ellipse ABAB if reflected from
any point P on the wall of the ellipse shall go the other focus S. We would prove it by
equating PS/PS and SG / GS so that PG divides the angle SPS, with simple high
school geometry; so that angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection and the
reflected ray would be PS. Later on, we would derive equations to tangents and
normals and the proof would be a lot more easier with real taste of coordinate
geometry.
Draw the auxiliary circle AQA and drop a perpendicular PN on CT. Let PT and PG be
the tangent ( we use here the word tangent in the intuitive sense, st line touching the
curve at one point not crossing it, as read in high school before we formally introduce
the concept in a separate chapter and normal , a st line perpendicular to the tangent)
to the ellipse at P, meeting the X axis at T and G respectively, QT be tangent to the
aux. circle, perpendicular to radius CQ, and let the equation to the ellipse be written in
parametric form
cos x a = and sin y b = ..(a)
where is the eccentricity angle as shown in the figure,
Page 480 / 681
Page 28
We have CT = CQ sec sec CT CQ a = = and cos CN x a = = .(b)
Then
2
. CT CN a = ..(c)
as expected, CQT is right angle and QN CT
also,
2 2
1 cos sin
sec cos
cos cos
NT CT CN a a a a

| |
= = = =
|
\ .
(d)
and
2 2 2 2
2
sin cos
sin / cos
PN b b
GN
NT a a

= = = ...(e)
Now, ' ' cos NS CS CN ae a = = ; ..(f)
So that
( )
2 2
2
cos
cos
' ' cos
b a
b
GS GN NS ae a ae
a a

= + = + = + .(g)
Again,
( )
2 2
2
cos
cos
cos
a b
b
CG CN NG a
a a

= = = ..(h)
We already have,
( )
2 2
cos a b
SG SC CG ae
a

= + = + , so that
( )
( )
2 2
2 2
cos
1 cos
' 1 cos cos
a b
ae
SG e
a
GS e b a
ae
a
+
+
= =

+
...(i)
From earlier formulae for focal radii,
C
N
P
Q
A
A
X
X
Y
Y
Fig.12: reflection property
u
S S' G
G
T
B
B
S
Page 481 / 681
Page 29
cos 1 cos
' cos 1 cos
SP a ex a ae e
PS a ex a ae e

+ + +
= = =

.(j)
Thus
' '
SP SG
PS GS
= and QG bisects the angle SPS
It may further be observed that , as the normal PG bisects the angle SPS, the
tangent PT bisects the external angle SPS.
31: Easier alternative:
In the above figure, eqn of the tangent to the ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = at P(x, y) is
2 2
' '
1
xx yy
a b
+ = and perpendiculars F
1
T
1
and F
2
T
2
on it from foci F
1
and F
2
are given by
2 2
1 1 2 2
2 2 2 2
4 4 4 4
1 1
aex aex
a a
FT and F T
x y x y
a b a b
+
= =
+ +
so that their ratio is
1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2
sin
sin
FT F P F PT ex a
F T ex a F P F PT
Z +
= = =
Z
, confirming that the focal radii make equal
angles with the tangent. This proves reflection property.
The previous difficult treatment is given as it reveals may other
relationships.
32: Another alternative:
In the figure, letT
1
P be bisector of the external angle of the triangle PF
1
F
2
, and let F
2
F
2

intersect T
1
P at T
2
. from congruence of triangles F
2
PT
2
and F
2
PT
2
, PT
2
is perpendicular
bisector of F
2
F
2
and T
2
F
2
= T
2
F
2
.
Reflection property, easier way
T1
T2
P
F1 F2
F1
F2
Page 482 / 681
Page 30
This makes QF
2
= QF
2
, when QT
2
is joined and the triangles F
2
PT
2
and F
2
PT
2
are seen to
be congruent. If T
1
PT
2
is not the tangent to the ellipse at P, let it intersect the ellipse at
another point Q.
Now |F
1
Q + F
2
Q| = |F
1
Q + F2Q| > |F
1
F
2
| = |F
1
P + PF
2
| = |F
1
P + PF
2
| and hence Q lies
outside the ellipse. This is a contradiction since we have taken Q on the ellipse, being a
point of intersection of T
1
P with the ellipse. Thus the st line T
1
P is not the tangent at P is
false.
Example1:
Produce F
1
P and F
1
T
1
to meet at F
1
; and produce F
2
P and F
2
T
2
to meet at F
2
.
prove that T
1
F
1
= T
1
F
1
and T
2
F
2
= T
2
F
2
Just prove the triangle PF
2
T
2
is similar to the triangle PF
1
T
1
and finish.
Example2:
Prove that the points T
1
and T
2
lie on the auxiliary circle
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a a
+ = .
Example3 : Smashing kidney stones by lithotripsy:
A simple property of ellipse is used in smashing stones in the urinary bladder or in
kidney to small pieces without opening the human body by operation. Rays diverging
from one focus and getting reflected from the surface of an ellipsoid converge at the
other focus as the law of reflection holds; I.e., as the angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection. An ellipsoid APB in the figure as shown, with an inner surface
capable of reflecting ultrasound waves has a flexible diaphragm AB which fits closely
with the surface of human body and the instrument contains a source of ultrasound at
one of its foci F
1
. How much intensity of the ultrasound the patient can tolerate is
determined by testing with gradually increasing doses. A test called the spinning top
test is carried out .Intensity of sound is regulated by passing the sound waves through
a spinning disc with slits. Then the frequency and intensity of the ultrasound is
regulated with the help of an inbuilt computer attached to the system .
Reflection property: another alternative
T1
T2
P
F1 F2
F1
F2
Q
Page 483 / 681
Page 31
The sound produced at F
1
concentrates at the other focus F
2
.The echo of this sound
is heard through a speaker and the sound-image of the stone appears on the screen
of the monitor only if a stone happens to be at F
2
(hammering sound is heard). Thus
by means of adjustment, the stone is detected and its position is determined. After the
calibration is done in this manner, suddenly a high intensity ultrasound is produced at
F
1
hammering the stone at F
2
and smashing it to small pieces which can be
discharged through urine. The technique is not suitable for bile stones in the gall
bladder, because , the gall stones are not in a fluid medium as in case of kidney
stones but grow embedded in muscles. There is high risk of cutting up muscles
instead of smashing stones in case of slight mistake in determining the stone
accurately and the medium is not suitable for transmission of ultrasound of high
intensity. The technique is called lithotripsy.
A similar technique is developed for transmission of power though radiation instead of
through conducting wires, which uses up too much energy in transmission for small
networks..
Example4 :
One vertex of the ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a a
+ = is joined to all other points by chords. Find the
locus of middle points of these chords.
Let the vertex be the point ( ) , 0 a and any point on the ellipse be( ) cos , sin a b .
Middle point of the line joining these two points is given by
cos 0 sin
2 2
a a b
x and y
+ +
= = . Eliminating between the two eqns and
simplifying
2 2
2 2
x y x
a b a
+ = which can be verified to be an ellipse.
Exercise9
F
1
F
2
A
B
P Q
Page 484 / 681
Page 32
Find the eqn of ellipse whose
a) focus is at (0, 0) and directrix is x = - c and eccentricity is e
b) axes are x and y axes, and it passes through (a, b) and (b, a)
c) could another ellipse with axes as coordinate axes pass through these
points ? verify, Answer to this question would be found in the last chapter.
d) whose latus rectum is l and minor axis is distance between the tow foci.
Exercise10
Find the latus rectum, major and minor axes, and focus of the following ellipses
a)
2 2
5 7 11 x y + =
b)
2 2
25 16 1600 x y + =
c)
2 2
5 3 137 x y + =
exercise11
Find the locus of middle points of all chords passing through a fixed point (c, d) on
the ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ =
Exercise12
The two ends of the major axis of an ellipse are jointed to any point P on the ellipse
and are extended to cut the directrix at M and N. Find the angle subtended by the line
segment MN at the focus.
Ans. 90
0
. Let the points ( a, 0) and (a, 0)being end points of major axis the
ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ =
be joined to any point P(acos, bsin) on the ellipse so that
their equations are ( )
sin 0
0
b
y x a
aco a
..(a)
And ( )
sin 0
0
b
y x a
aco a

= +
+
..(b)
The directrix is
a
x
e
= .(c)
And the st lines (a) and (b) meet the st line (c) at the points
( )
( )
sin 1 sin 0
, ,
1
b e a b a a
a
e aco a e e e co

| | | | | |
=
|
| |
|

\ .
\ .
\ .
(d)
And
( )
( )
sin 1
,
1
b e a
e e co
| | +
|
|
+
\ .
(e)
respectively. The slopes of st lines joining these points to focus (ae, 0) are
Page 485 / 681
Page 33
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
sin 1
0
1 sin 1
1 1
b e
e co b e
a
a co e
ae
e
and
( )
( ) ( )
2
sin 1
1 1
b e
a co e
+
+
respectively,
Whose product
( )
( )( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2
sin 1 sin 1
1
1 1 1 1 1
b e b e
b
a co e a co e a e

+
= =
+
.So they are at
right angles to each other.
Exercise13
what is the situation if minor axis is considered instead of major axis in the last
problem?
Ans.
4
4
tan
b
a
=
Exercise14
An ordinate at any point P is extended down the major axis of the ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ =
up to a distance equal to the distance of the point from the focus. Find
the locus of that point.
Ans. If the coordinates of the point P are (acos , bsin ) . The x coordinate of the
point in question is x = a cos ..(a)
and the y coordinate of the point is focal distance of P ,
i.e. y = (a ae cos )(b)
Eliminating cos between (a) and (b) we get the locus required is the two st lines
y = (a ex), or jointly, (y + ex +a)(y ex +a)=0, pair of st lines.
Exercise15
Trace the intersection point of the two st lines , 1
y x x y
t t and t
b a a b
= + =
Ans.
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ =
Hint : either solve for x and y or eliminate t from the eqns.
Exercise16
Find the eccentric angle at the point of intersection of the two st lines in the last problem.
Hint. Solving for x and y, we get,
2 2
2 2 2
1 1 2
1
1 1 1
x t y t t
and t
a t b t t
| |
= = + =
|
+ + +
\ .
Putting
2
2
1
cos
1
x t
a t

= =
+
, so that
2
2 2 1
2
2sin
1 cos
2
tan tan
1 cos 2 2
2cos
2
t t
= = = =
+
Page 486 / 681
Page 34
Or,
1
2tan t

=
Exercise17
To explore the relationship among the parametric equations (acos , bsin ) and
2
2 2
1 2
1 1
t t
x a and y b
t t
= =
+ +
consider the four points of intersection of the circle
2 2
2 2 0 x y gx fy c + + + + = . If the eccentric angles are
1 2 3 4
, , and respectively.
Show that
1 2 3 4
2n + + + =
Ands. The intersection points are given by solving
2 2 2 2
cos sin 2 cos 2 sin 0 a b ga fb c + + + + = for . .(a)
Transform
2
2
2 2
2 2
1 tan 2tan
1 2
2 2
cos ( ) sin , ( )
1 1
1 tan 1 tan
2 2
t t
say and say
t t

= = = =
+ +
+ +
So that the eqn (a) becomes
( ) ( ) ( )
4 2 3 2 2 2 2
2 4 4 2 2 4 2 0 t a ga c fbt t b a c bt a ga c + + + + + + + + = ..(b)
If
1 2 3 4
, , t t t and t are its roots, i.e.,
3 1 2 4
1 2 3 4
tan , tan , tan tan
2 2 2 2
t t t and t

= = = = ,
Then
2 2
1 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 2 2 2
2
4 1 2 3 4 2
4 4 2 2 4
, , ,
2 2 2
2
2
fb b a c fb
s t s t t s t t t
a ga c a ga c a ga c
a ga c
and s t t t t
a ga c
+
= = = = = =
+ + +
+ +
= =
+

Now
1 2 3 4 1 3
1 3
2 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
tan 0 0
2 1
, 2
2
s s
as s s
s s
so n or n

+ + +
= = =
+
+ + +
= + + + =
Exercise18
Find the area of the triangle formed by joining any three points
1
,
2
and
3
of the ellipse
(acos , bsin ) .
Ans.
1 2 3 1 1 2
- - -
2 sin sin sin
2 2 2
ab

.
Hint. Put the formula for area of triangle
( )
1 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 3 1 1 3
1
2
x y x y x y x y x y x y + +
Where ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1
, cos , sin x y a b = etc.
Exercise19
Find the area of the triangle formed by joining any three points
1
,
2
and
3
of the
auxiliary circle (acos , asin ) of the ellipse (acos , bsin ) .
Page 487 / 681
Page 35
Ans. a/b
3 1 1 2 1 2
2 sin sin sin
2 2 2
ab

, or
2 1 2 3 1 1 2
- - -
2 sin sin sin
2 2 2
a

.
Exercise20
Show that the area of the triangle inscribed in a circle whose one side is fixed would be
maximum when the triangle is isosceles.
Ans. First assume that the base of the triangle is fixed. The vertical angle A (say) is fixed
since the triangle is inscribed in a circle. Product of sines of other two angles is
proportional to the area of the triangle which is proportional to the product of the other two
sides. Assuming the two base angle a acute angles, their sum is constant i.e.,
180
0
A ; their product would be maximum when they would be equal. Product of their
sines also would be maximum when they are equal; since sine of an acute angle
increases as the angle increases and vice versa. Hence the product of the other two sides
would be maximum when the base angles are equal, i.e., the triangle is isosceles.
Exercise21
Show that the area of the triangle inscribed in a circle would be maximum when the
triangle is an equilateral triangle.
Ands. The products of angles shall be maximum when they are all equal when their sum
is constant 180
0
. Since sines of the angles being proportional to sides of the triangle and
sines increase when the angles increase and vice versa, as long as the angles are acute,
the product of the sines would be maximum when the angles are equal, so also the
expression
2 3 1 1 2 1 2
2 sin sin sin
2 2 2
a

. But this is only when the triangle is
equilateral and the latter expression is the area of the triangle.
Mark here that the ellipse is a projection of the circle and the expression
3 1 1 2 1 2
2 sin sin sin
2 2 2
ab

is the area of the inscribed triangle. But the projection
of an equilateral triangle ceases to be equilateral!
Mark here that the sum of the angles is not
3 1 1 2 1 2
0
2 2 2

+ + = as the angles
are not
3 1 1 2 1 2
,
2 2 2
and

, but are
0 3 1 1 2 1 2
, 180
2 2 2
and

.(why?)
And the above considerations are correct only because
0 1 2 1 2
sin 180 sin
2 2
| |
=
|
\ .
Exercise22
Find the eqn of the circle whose diameter is a chord y mx c = + of the ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ =
Page 488 / 681
Page 36
Ans. We have to solve the two eqns to get the intersection points. Substituting
y mx c = + in
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ =
gives
( )
2
2
2 2
1
mx c
x
a b
+
+ =
which simplifies into
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 0 a m b x a mcx a c a b + + + =
.(a)
If x
1
and x
2
are roots of this equation, then
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
, .
a mc a c a b
x x and x x
a m b a m b
+ = =
+ +
(b)
If y
1
and y
2
are the y-coordinates of the points of intersection,
y mx c = + gives
( )
( )( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
2 , y y m x x c and
y y mx c mx c m x x cm x x c
+ = + +
= + + = + + +
(c)
The eqn of the circle with the line joining the points (x
1
, y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
) as diameter is
( )( ) ( )( )
1 2 1 2
0 y y y y x x x x + =
Or,
( ) ( )
2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
0 x y x x x y y y x x y y + + + + + =
.(d)
Putting the values of
1 2 1 2
, x x x x +
and
1 2 1 2
y y and y y +
we get,
( )( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 - 2 - 1 0 a m b x y ma cx b cy c a b a b m + + + + + + =
(For a derivation of ellipse or any conic section in Cartesian coordinates see next
chapter, chapter on parabola).
Exercise
A st line is drawn joining one point each of the st lines
, y mx z c = =
and
, y mx z c = =
such that the line makes a constant angle with the direction of the z
axis always. Show that the locus of its midpoint is an ellipse. Also find its eccentricity.
Ans.
4
4
2
1
1 ,
m
m or
m

Page 489 / 681

Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams Section8_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
Page 1
CHAPTER 41: INTERSECTION OF CONICS
In the previous chapters we had a fair introduction to conics sections in general, sequentially
proceeding from particular examples, circles, parabolas, ellipses and hyperbolas, so that the
student does not encounter abstract concepts abruptly. In this chapter it would be shown how
far more easier to deal direct with conic sections in general to get a real taste of analytic
geometry rather than cracking tough nuts all the way dealing with curves and st lines. In the
beginning we expected that analytic geometry frees us of conventional geometry of strenuous
mental labour in the same manner as algebra does with respect to arithmetic. Though this was
to a great extent, study of general conics would do more so , in the direction of making things
easier.
We have already developed the equation of general conics, their discriminant
satisfying particular conditions for particular kind of conics, their tangents and normals, chord
of contact, pole and polar, their centre and conjugate diameters in case of central conics , their
foci, directrices, asymptotes, evolutes, etc. and it is advised that we recapitulate them to
capitalize for the benefit of ease in further development. Before that, a few important aspects we
want to highlight the difference between conics which are curves and conics which are two st
lines .This is because the latter is a powerful problem solving tool as would be evident later on
when we use the condition. Another concept is a st line at infinity to provide for a receptacle
there where all parallel lines meet.
1:Condition that the second degree eqn in two variables represents two st lines:
Let ( )
2 2
, 2 2 2 0 U x y ax hxy by gx fy c = + + + + + = ..Eqn(1)
be the eqn to the conic section. This would be a curve in general, including a pair of st lines .
had U(x, y) been an eqn in 2
nd
degree in x only, it could always have been resolved into two
linear factors, real or imaginary. But it is in two variables . if y is regarded as function of x, as a
parameter, we resolve it into two factors
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2
2 ax hy g y h ab y gh af g ac + + + + (vide chapter 1). The expression under
the root would have to be a perfect square, in order that the two factors be linear. And the
condition for this is that the discriminant
2 2 2
2 - - - 0 abc fgh af bg ch A= + =
. Eqn(2)
and the details of particular cases have been discussed in chapter 1.
The eqn of two st lines
1 1
y mx c = +
and
2 2
y mx c = +
may be represented by a single eqn
( )( )
1 1 2 2
0 y mx c y mx c =
Page 490 / 681
Page 2
Further, if the general eqn in 2
nd
degree eqn in x and y represents two st lines, they would
be parallel to the two st lines represented by the general homogeneous eqn in 2
nd
degree
eqn in x and y.
2:Line at infinity
A st line 0 Ax By C + + = has intercepts
C
A
and
C
B
with the X axis and Y axis respectively
; obtained by putting y = 0 and x = 0 in turn. If A = 0 but C 0 the
x intercept moves to infinity and the st line becomes 0 By C + = , parallel to
X axis. If B = 0 but C 0 the y intercept moves to infinity and the st line becomes
0 Ax C + = , parallel to y axis. if both B and A are 0 , both the intercepts move to infinity so that
the st line is totally in infinity. Its equation is given by C = 0.
3: Parallel lines meet on the line at infinity
Take two parallel st lines 0 Ax By C + + = and 0 Ax By D + + = . The latter line can be written as
( ) 0. 0. 0
D C
Ax By C x y C
C
+ + + + + = ; which is a st line passing through 0 Ax By C + + = and

0. 0. 0 x y C + + = . Thus the line 0 Ax By D + + = passes through 0 Ax By C + + = at a point on
the st line 0. 0. 0 x y C + + = at infinity. Thus Parallel lines meet at line at infinity.
In the following paragraphs we would see further implications of linear equations differing in
their constant terms.
Use of partial differentials
4:Partial differentials met in conic sections
Conic sections are curves in a plane which is of two dimensions. Continuous plane curves
though change direction always, do not have any breadth across them; so are considered as
essentially of one dimension; more correctly , one parameter is enough to describe them,
although two variables are involved. We know a volume in three dimensions when
differentiated gives a surface which is essentially of two dimensions, or two parameter surfaces.
Similarly a surface described by two parameters when differentiated is expected to result in
diminishing one dimension, or resulting in st lines. Our conic sections are so to say surfaces in
three variables x, y, z where z may be taken to be a constant and the curves are some sort of
surfaces in two parameters, one of the parameters taken to be constant. In fact
( )
2 2
, 2 2 2 0 U x y ax hxy by gx fy c = + + + + + = is obtained from
( )
2 2 2
, , 2 2 2 0 U x y z ax hxy by gxz fyz cz = + + + + + = ,a homogeneous eqn in three variables or
Page 491 / 681
Page 3
two parameters only when z is presumed to be a constant. So differentiation or partial
differentiation for that matter shall yield only st lines. As a st line and a curve in a plane are
supposed to intersect at two points, real, coincident or imaginary, it is natural that tangents,
secants, polars, diameters, asymptotes et al are nothing but partial differentiation products of
curves! We can only think of partial differentiation for measuring changes along particular
directions or gradients. (In contrast, the differential coefficient only becomes limit of a ratio of
changes in two directions. Of course it is also related to the partial differentiations in x and y
directions via total differential). Thus partial differentials have an important role to play in
analysis of curves.
The relationship between partial differentials
x y
u u
U and U
x y
c c
= =
c c
and the total differential
du
is given by
0, 0
x
x y
y
u u dy U
du dx dy or du Udx Udy or
x y dx U
c c
= + = = + = =
c c
Eqn(3)
In particular, for
( ) , 0 U x y = , ( ) 2
u
U ax hy g
x
x
c
= = + +
c
and ( ) 2
u
U hx by f
y
y
c
= = + +
c
Eqn(4)
Exercise1 remember
If ( )
2 2
, 2 2 2 0 U x y ax hxy by gx fy c = + + + + + =
represents a pair of st lines, show that the point
of intersection is same as the point of intersection of the two st lines
0 0
x y
u u
U and U
x y
c c
= = = =
c c
, i.e.,
0 ax hy g + + = and 0 hx by f + + = .
5: Tangent and normal at any point (x, y)
The eqn to tangent at a point (x, y) on any curve may be written as
'
' '
'
'
x
x x y
U y y dy
x x dx U
=
= =
....................................................................................... Eqn(5)
and the normal
'
'
'
'
'
y
x
x x
U
y y dx
x x dy U
=
= =
.... Eqn(6)
Page 492 / 681
Page 4
the tangent at a point (x, y) on ( ) , 0 U x y = becomes
'
'
' ' '
' ' '
x
y
U y y ax hy g
x x U hx by f
+ +
= =
+ +
or, using
2 2
' 2 ' ' ' 2 ' 2 ' 0 ax hx y by gx fy c + + + + + = from (1) ,as (x, y) is a point on the curve, then
we have,
( ) ( )
2 2
' ' ' ' ' 2 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ax hy g x hx by f y ax hx y by gx fy gx fy c + + + + + = + + + + =
Or, ( ) ( ) ( )
' ' ' ' ' ' 0 ax hy g x hx by f y gx fy c + + + + + + + + =
.. Eqn(7)
Or may be written in the form ( )
' '
2 ' ' 0
x y
xU yU gx fy c + + + + =
.Eqn(7a)
Or may be written in the form
( ) ( ) ( ) ' ' ' ' ' ' 0 axx h xy x y byy g x x f y y c + + + + + + + + = . Eqn(7b)
as done before.
Remember that
( )
'
', ' '
' '
' '
x
x y y
U ax hy g dy
hx by f U dx
+ +
= =
+ +
. Eqn(8)
is the slope of the tangent at any point (x, y).
If the curve passes through the origin, ( ) ( )
0
0
2 2
x y
x
y
U g and U f
=
=
= = Eqn(9)
so that the tangent there becomes, 0 gx fy + = Eqn(10)
This could have straight obtained without any consideration of slope m or dy/dx or f
x
f
y
etc. had
we designed a function Ax + By + C = 0 for a st line, which should reduce to the eqn U(x, y) = 0
only for the point (x, y). evidently the tact for this design is symmetry, xx for x
2
, xy + xy for
2xy, x + x for 2x etc.
6: A secant through any point (x, y)
The eqn ( )
2 2
, 2 2 2 0 U x y ax hxy by gx fy c = + + + + + = would be satisfied for both points (x, y)
and (x, y) , so that
2 2
' 2 ' ' ' 2 ' 2 ' 0 ax hx y by gx fy c + + + + + = and
2 2
" 2 " " " 2 " 2 " 0 ax hx y by gx fy c + + + + + = . Subtracting the three eqns in pairs, the eqn for the
secant may be written as
Page 493 / 681
Page 5
' ''
' ''
' " ' ' ' '' ''
' " ' ' ' '' ''
x x
y y
U U y y y y ax hy g ax hy g
x x x x hx by f hx by f U U
+ + + + + +
= = =
+ + + + + +
, Eqn(11)
7: Chord of contact at (x
1
, y
1
)
Tangents to U(x, y) =0 at the points (x, y) and at (x, y) may be written as
( )
' '
2 ' ' 0
x y
xU yU gx fy c + + + + =
, ( )
'' ''
2 '' '' 0
x y
xU yU gx fy c + + + + =
. If these two
tangents pass through (x
1
, y
1
), , we have
( )
1 ' 1 '
2 ' ' 0
x y
xU yU gx fy c + + + + =
, ( )
1 '' 1 ''
2 '' '' 0
x y
xU yU gx fy c + + + + =
.Then both points
satisfy ( )
1 1
2 0
x y
xU yU gx fy c + + + + =
Eqn(12)
and hence this is the eqn of chord of contact of (x
1
, y
1
).
Or, alternatively, ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 ax hy g x hx by f y gx fy c + + + + + + + + =
Eqn(12a)
Or, even, ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 axx h xy x y byy g x x f y y c + + + + + + + + = ... Eqn(12b)
8: Polar of the point (x
1
, y
1
)
Since the chord of contact and the polar have been proved to be same, then
eqn (123) also gives the polar of the point (x
1
, y
1
).
9: Polar of the point (0, 0) is got by putting (0, 0) for (x
1
, y
1
) in (123b)
0 gx fy c + + = ..... Eqn(12c)
10: Equation of a chord bisected at any point (s, t) is parallel to the polar of the point
Let the chord intersect the conic at P(x, y) and at Q(x, y). So the point S(s, t) is the middle
point of PQ. From (7), the eqn of PQ is given by
Page 494 / 681
Page 6
( )
( )
' " ' "
' " ' ' ' '' ''
2 2
' " ' "
' " ' ' ' '' ''
2 2
'' ' " ' "
, ,
'' 2 2
'
2 ' "
'
' 2 ' "
x x y y
a h g
y y y y ax hy g ax hy g as ht g
x x y y
x x x x hx by f hx by f hs bt f
h b f
y y x x y y
as it is the same slope and if s t
x x
y y
y
y y y
y y
x x x x x
+ +
+ +
+ + + + + + +
= = = =
+ +
+ + + + + + +
+ +
+ +
= = =
= = =
+
"
2
' "
2
y t
x x
x s
x
=
+

Or,
y t as ht g
x s hs bt f
+ +
=
+ +
Eqn(13)
the slope is same as slope of the polar of the point (s, t).
or, ( )( ) ( )( ) 0 hs bt f y t as ht g x s + + + + + = Eqn(13a)
11: The curve itself
The curve itself ( )
2 2
, 2 2 2 0 U x y ax hxy by gx fy c = + + + + + = can be written as
( )
2 0
x y
xU yU gx fy c + + + + =
Eqn(14)
If the functionU is homogeneous i.e., ( )
2 2
, 2 0 U x y ax hxy by = + + = ,then by Eulers equation,
2 0
u u
u x y
x y
c c
= + =
c c
,or, ( ) 2 ,
x y
xU yU U x y + = Eqn(15)
12: Centre of the curve if there is one.
Since
U
dy
x
dx U
y
= gives the slope of the tangent. Then 0 U
x
= gives the set of points where the
tangent is parallel to the x axis. Since ( ) , U x y is a function of 2
nd
degree, 0 U
x
= is a first
degree eqn , i.e. 0 ax hy g + + = and represents a st line. Further 0
dy
dx
= or 0 U
x
= for that matter
gives the set of points for which y is extreme (maxima or minima) and since 0 U
x
= is a st line, it
is a st line joining the extreme points where y is extreme( maximum, minimum or stationery, see
maxima and minima in appendices) if there are any extreme values at all. Similarly, regarding y
Page 495 / 681
Page 7
as independent variable and x as a function of y in ( ) , 0 U x y = , for there is nothing sacrosanct
about that, then, 0 U
y
= or 0 hx by f + + = is the st line joining the extreme points where x is
extreme. Is it now clear that the centre is the intersection of these st lines given by
0 U
x
= , and 0 U
y
= , or . 0 U U
x y
= or, 0 ax hy g + + = and 0 hx by f + + = Eqn(16)
This gives the coordinates of centre
2 2
,
fh bg gh af
x y
ab h ab h

= =

Eqn(16a)
The argument of joining extreme points breaks down when any one of the sets of points is void.
More over, if the denominator is 0,i.e.,
a h
h b
= the centre is at infinity. This is the case of a
parabola. If any one of the numerators of x and y is 0 , say 0 fh bg = , then
h g
b f
= alongwith the
denominator, then
a h g
h b f
= = . The two eqns in (12) reduce to the same eqn; admitting of infinite
number of solutions; so there is infinite number of centres along the line 0 ax hy g + + = , or,
0 hx by f + + = . Since
2
0 ab h = , the two st lines represented by
2 2
2 0 ax hxy by + + =
represent two parallel st lines as both values of m are equal , being the roots of
2
2
2 0
y y
a h b
x x
+ + = .
The argument of joining extreme points also breaks down when the principal axes are tilted with
respect to the coordinate axes, e.g., imagine a tilted ellipse in the first quadrant; the diameters
joining the extreme points still intersect at the centre, but neither they are perpendicular to each
other nor they are conjugate to each other.
13: Conjugates and Asymptotes
Since asymptotes are st lines in the plane which are tangents at infinity their eqns are given by .
Partial differential coefficients, if they exist at infinity may give
'
'
'
'
x
y
U y y
x x U
in the limiting
case , or the tangents at origin, of the reciprocal equation if the limits in question exist at all. But
the statement has little practical use. Rather, we use the fact that the conjugate to a central
conic
2 2
2 0 ax hxy by c + + + = is given by
2 2
2
2 0 ax hxy by c
ab h
A
+ + + =
, differing from it by a
constant and the asymptote to a hyperbola
2 2
2 2
2
2
2 0 ax hxy by c
ab h
A
+ + + =
, differing by the same constant

2
ab h
A
.
Page 496 / 681
Page 8
14: Axes of the central conic:
Let the conic be
2 2
2 1 ax hxy by + + = . (a)
The middle term can be eliminated if the axes are transformed to new axes making an angle
with the old axes given by
2
2 1
tan 2 , ( ), , tan 2 tan 1 0
h
say or t
a b t
= = + =
(b)
If
1
tan and
2
tan be the two values of got from this eqn their product is the last term , - 1
revealing that the axes are cutting each other at an angle 90
0
.
Further the eqn
2 2
2 1 ax hxy by + + = can be written in polar coordinates by making
cos , sin x r y r = = , so that the eqn becomes
( )
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
cos 2 cos sin sin 1 cos sin ,
cos sin 1 tan
,
cos 2 cos sin sin 2 tan tan
r a h b
or r
a h b a h b

+ + = = +
+ +
= =
+ + + +
.(c)
Putting
1 2
, and = in turn, we get the lengths of
semi-axes
1 1 2 2
, , r r if and r r if = = = =
We actually need not find
1 1 2 2
, , , r or r since the whole of steps above would be
repeated while working out any problem. Instead, let us assume we have already got rid of the
xy term by turning the axes as required and the eqn of the central conic
2 2
2 1 ax hxy by + + = has
changed into
2 2
2 2
1
x y

+ = .(d)
the central conic (ellipse or hyperbola) referred to its axes as coordinate axes.
Since
2
a b and ab h + are invariants under this transformation, we have
We have
2
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
. a b and ab h

+ = + = Eqn(17)
So only direction of the axes may be determined from (b) and their magnitudes from (e).
Page 497 / 681
Page 9
Still easier would be to determine the values of
2 2
1 1
and

,i.e., the two values of
2
r from
( ) ( )
2 2
1 0 ab h r a b + + = ..(e)
It must be noted, however that
2
ab h should be positive (the central conic being an ellipse) .
In case the eqn (a) of the central conic is hyperbola,
2
ab h is naturally negative; then may take
2
1
in place of
2
1
and the above eqns may suitably be rewritten accordingly. ....(f)

15: Foci of the central conic
2 2
2 1 ax hxy by + + = :
Remember that the foci are at (ae, 0) and ( ae ,0) from the origin or centre (0, 0) for the ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = , where
2
2 2 2
2
1 , ,
b
e or ae a b
a
= = . Applying this analogy tactfully, the foci of
the above conic would be at
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2
cos , sin , cos , sin r r r r and r r r r and distance of the
focus from the centre would be
2 2
1 2
r r
For the hyperbola
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
= , the foci of the above conic would be at
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2
cos , sin , cos , sin r r r r and r r r r + + + + and distance of the
focus from the centre would be
2 2
1 2
r r
If the conic is in the form ( )
2 2
, 2 2 2 0 u x y ax hxy by gx fy c = + + + + + = the origin may be shifted
to
_
_
2 2
,
fh bg gh af
x y
ab h ab h
| |

|
= =
|
\ .
first, then rotation of axes
2
tan 2
h
a b
=
may be applied to find

axes, foci directrix etc for complete tracing of the curve. Better direct expression for foci shall be
derived later on.
16: Tracing of parabola, (having no centre, or centre at infinity):
Page 498 / 681
Page 10
If ( )
2 2
, 2 2 2 0 u x y ax hxy by gx fy c = + + + + + = stands for a parabola, the above consideration
fails as it is not a central conic. Instead , we transform the origin and the axes suitably to get the
eqn in standard form
2
4 Y aX = so that everything , focus, directrix, vertex etc .of it are
automatically revealed. This is done step by step. First, as the curve is a parabola, we have,
2
ab h = so that a and b are either both plus or both minus, and the first three terms make a
perfect square. This is shown by putting
2 2
, a and b = = now the eqn becomes,
( )
2
2 2 0 x y gx fy c + + + + = .(a)
At the second step, we give the axes a suitable rotation so that 0, x y or y x
+ = =
,corresponding to X axis Y = 0 corresponding to Y axis. so the axes should be turned through
an angle given by tan

= ; i.e.
2 2 2 2
cos sin and

= =
+ +
and
tan

=
Now we have to replace x and y by
2 2
cos sin
X Y
x X Y

= =
+
and
2 2
sin cos
X Y
y X Y

+
= + =
+
We have thus
2 2
x y Y + = + and the entire eqn (1) becomes
( ) ( ) ( ) { }
2 2 2
2 2
2
0 Y g X Y f Y X c

+ + + + + =
+
Or,
( ) ( )
2
3 3 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
g f f g c
Y Y X

+ +
+ =
+
+ +
Or,
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2
3 3 3 3 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
g f g f g f f g c
Y Y X

+ + + +
+ + = +
+
+ +
+ +
Or, ( )
( )
( )
2
3
2 2
2
2
f g
Y K X H

=
+
, . Eqn(18)
Page 499 / 681
Page 11
where
( )
3
2 2
2
2
g f
K

+
=
+
,
( )
( )
( )
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
g f
H c
f g

+ +
=
`
+

)
Eqn(18a)
This is a parabola whose latus rectum is
( )
3
2 2
2
2
g f
K

+
=
+
. Eqn(18b)
and its axis is parallel to the new X-axis, and vertex is at the point (H, K) with reference to new
axes.
Since the new axis is making an angle with old x-axis , the perpendicular on it from the old
origin makes an angle
0
90 + with old x-axis. Also since vertex is at the point (H, K) K is the
length of perpendicular from old origin to the axis of curve; thus its eqn in old axes is
( ) ( )
0 0
cos 90 sin 90 x y K + + + = ,or s cos x in y K + = ,or
2 2
x y K + = +
17: ENVELOPS
Envelop of a one parameter family ( ) , , 0 U x y = is found out by eliminating from the two eqns
( ) , , 0 U x y = and 0 U
= .
There is wide use of partial differentials in coordinate geometry in three or more dimensions
,namely differential geometry. But it is a nice experience to relate various aspects of coordinate
geometry to partial differentials. A second degree equation in three variables say ( ) , , 0 f x y z =
represents a surface. Then ( )
0 0 0
, ,
f
at x y z
x
c
c
represents the differential coefficient of the curve of
intersection ( ) , , 0 f x y z = in the plane of y = y
0
,
z = z
0
.
18: RECAPITULATION
The following have already been treated in Chapter 3 and just stated under for recapitulation.
1. Thus, if a point Z lies on the polar of point P then the point P lies on the polar of Z.
This is true for any conic section.
2. If the polars of points P and Q intersect at Z, polar of Z is the st line PQ.
3. For any conic directrix is the polar of the focus.
4. Locus of middle points of parallel chords is called diameter.
5. Thus two diameters are said to be conjugate when each bisects a system of
parallel chords , parallel to the other.
Page 500 / 681
Page 12
6. The sum of squares of semi-conjugate diameters is constant and equal to square
of radius of the director circle.
7. Product of the focal radii of any point on the ellipse equals the square of the
semi- diameters parallel to the tangent at the point
8. eqn of the diameter of the conic, parallel to y mx = .is
9. Conjugate diameters of general conic are related to each other by the relation :
( ) ' ' 0 bmm h m m a + + + =
10. If a pair of st lines through the origin are respectively
parallel to a pair of conjugate diameters of
general conic , then
11. Conics like circle, ellipse and hyperbola which have a centre, at which every chord
which passes through it is bisected. Such conics are central conics.
12. The eqn of the conic reduces to
2 2
2 0 ax hxy by c + + + = if origin is the centre.
13. The centre of the conic is given by and if origin is not the
centre. In case the conic is a pair of st lines, it is their point of intersection.
14. The eqn to the general conic referred to the new axes through the centre.
where is discriminant of the general 2
nd
degree eqn.
in x and y.
15. is eqn of a central conic whose origin is at (0,0).
16. The conjugate to a central conic
2 2
2 2
2
2 0 ax hxy by c
ab h
A
+ + + =
, differing from it by a constant and the asymptote

to a hyperbola
2 2
2 2
2
2
2 0 ax hxy by c
ab h
A
+ + + =
,
differing by the same constant.
17. Envelop of a one parameter family
( ) , , 0 U x y =
is found out by eliminating
from
the two eqns
( ) , , 0 U x y =
and
INTERSECTIONS OF CONICS
19: Four points of intersection
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 X a hm Y h bm g fm + + + + + =
2 2
2 0 Ax Hxy By + + =
2 2
2 2 2 0 ax hxy by gx fy c + + + + + =
2
aB Ab
Hh
+
=
_
2
fh bg
x
ab h
_
2
gh af
y
ab h
2 2
2
2 0 ax hxy by
ab h
A
+ + + =
2 2
2 0 aX hXY bY C + + + =
0 U
=
Page 501 / 681
Page 13
Two conics ( )
2 2
, 2 2 2 0 U x y ax hxy by gx fy c = + + + + + = and
( )
2 2
, ' 2 ' ' 2 ' 2 ' ' 0 V x y a x h xy b y g x f y c = + + + + + = may be treated as quadratic eqns in x
such as ( ) ( )
2 2
, 2 2 0 U x y ax hy g x by fy c = + + + + + = and
( ) ( )
2 2
, ' 2 ' ' ' 2 ' ' 0 V x y a x h y g x b y f y c = + + + + + = . Elimination of x from the two eqns gives
an eqn of fourth degree in y which give four real or imaginary values of y , (in pair or pairs if
imaginary), which in turn, give four values of x. Thus any two conics intersect at four points. It
also follows that , if two conics intersect at more than four points, they meet at every point i.e.,
they are identical or, one and the same conic, for, an equation of fourth degree shall have at
best, four distinct roots and, if it has one more root distinct from these four, any number would
be a root of that eqn and that would reduce to an identity, i.e., the eliminant would not present
any conditions . In other words, only one conic can pass through five distinct points . Also we
can find a unique conic passing through four given points and satisfying another particular
condition. This would be more evident from below. Further there would be only three pairs of st
lines passing through the four points of intersection; a point discussed in detail in a subsequent
paragraph.
20: A conic passing through intersection of two conics is
( ) ( ) , , U x y V x y = .. Eqn(19)
This is because ( ) ( ) , , 0 U x y V x y = is satisfied whenever ( ) , 0 U x y = and ( ) , 0 V x y = are
satisfied , so it passes through their intersection. Moreover ( ) ( ) , , 0 U x y V x y = is a conic as
it is an eqn of 2
nd
degree. Hence the result.
Page 502 / 681
Page 14
Example1
Find the common chord of two circles
2 2
1 1 1
2 2 0 x y g x f y c + + + + = and
2 2
2 2 2
2 2 0 x y g x f y c + + + + = .
Any curve passing through the intersection of the two circles is given by
( )
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 0 x y g x f y c x y g x f y c + + + + + + + + + = . Since we know that this would be
a st line, we could make 1 = to get rid of the square terms to get a st line passing through
the intersection of the two circles. This is ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 2 x g g y f f c c + + . There can be only
one st line passing through two points and that is this.
21: Only rectangular hyperbolas can pass through intersection of two rectangular
hyperbolas
Let ( )
2 2
( )
2 2
, ' 2 ' ' 2 ' 2 ' ' 0 V x y a x h xy b y g x f y c = + + + + + = be two rectangular hyperbolas. Then we
must have 0, ' ' 0 a b and a b + = + = being the sum of coefficients of
2 2
x and y
respectively in the eqn of the conics. ( ) ( ) , , 0 U x y V x y = is a conic which passes through
their intersection. Moreover the sum of coefficients of
2 2
x and y in the eqn of this conic
Intersection of conics
S S
U
V
P
Q
R
T
W
Page 503 / 681
Page 15
is ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ' ' ' ' 0 a a b b a b a b + = + + = . So ( ) ( ) , , 0 U x y V x y = is also a rectangular
hyperbola.
22: St lines passing through intersection of two conics
Let ( )
2 2
( )
2 2
, ' 2 ' ' 2 ' 2 ' ' 0 V x y a x h xy b y g x f y c = + + + + + = be two conics intersecting at P,Q,R & T . A
conic passing through intersection of two conics is ( ) ( ) , , 0 U x y V x y = , or,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
' 2 ' ' 2 ' 2 ' ' 0 a a x h h xy b b y g g x f f y c c + + + + + = , or say
2 2
2 2 2 0 Ax Hxy By Gx Fy C + + + + + = . The discriminant of this eqn is 0 OR,
2 2 2
2 0 ABC FGH AF BG CH + = is the condition for the conic passing through intersection
of two conics is ( ) ( ) , 0, , 0 U x y and V x y = = should be two st lines. But all the terms in
the discriminant are cubic containing , i.e. 0 A = is an eqn in
3
, which gives three values of
, each one giving a pair of st lines out of PQ and RT, PR and QT, or PT and QR, the sides of
the inscribed quadrilateral including its diagonals.
Again, out of three values of , either all values would be real or al least one, for
imaginary roots occur in pairs. These three st lines joint the four points of intersection is pairs.
Even if the four points of intersection may be imaginary, there would be al least one real st line
joining two of them !
23: A pair of st lines passing through intersections of two rectangular hyperbolas are
perpendicular to each other.
A pair of st lines passing through intersections of two rectangular hyperbolas must be a
rectangular hyperbola by the above result. Then a pair of st lines is a rectangular hyperbola
only when their =0. then they become
2 2
2 ax hxy by + + and their 0 a b + = which gives the
product of slopes ( roots of the latter eqn) is - 1 , 1,
b
or
a
= i.e. the st lines are perpendicular
to each other.
24: When two rectangular hyperbolas intersect at four points, each point of intersection
is orthocentre of the triangle formed by the other three points.
By the above result, if two rectangular hyperbolas intersect each other at P,Q,R & T , the pair of
st lines PT and QR are perpendicular to each other. Similarly
Page 504 / 681
Page 16
QT PR and RT PQ. Thus T is the orthocentre of the triangle PQR. Similar is
the rest of the proof.
25: Any conic passing through four points
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , , . , , K x y M x y L x y N x y = Eqn(20)
If A, B, C and D are four points and eqn to AB be ( ) , 0 K x y = , that of BC be ( ) , 0 L x y = , that
of CA be ( ) , 0 M x y = and that of AD be ( ) , 0 N x y = , then ( ) , 0 K x y = passes through the
points A, B and ( ) , 0 M x y = passes through the points C, D. Thus ( ) ( ) , , 0 K x y M x y = is the
eqn of the two st lines AB and CD, i.e., ( ) ( ) , , 0 K x y M x y = is a conic passing through the four
points A, B, C and D.
Similarly ( ) ( ) , , 0 L x y N x y = is another conic passing through the four points A, B, C and D.
thus ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , , . , , K x y M x y L x y N x y = is any conic passing through the intersection of the
two conics ( ) ( ) , , 0 K x y M x y = and ( ) ( ) , , 0 L x y N x y = .i.e., through the points A, B, C and D.
The previous result though appears a little too easy, is a bit too abstract. The same thing
can be restated in more concrete terms. If ( ) , 0 K x y = stands for
1 1 1
0 A x B y C + + = , perpendicular from a point ( ) , h k on it is
1 1 1
1
2 2
1 1
Ah B k C
p
A B
+ +
=
+
,say. The
statement ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , , . , , K x y M x y L x y N x y = turns into
1 3 2 4
p p p p = , .. Eqn(21)
where involves and expressions like
2 2
1 1
A B + , i.e., a constant as long as is a constant.
And is a constant for a particular curve passing through the points A, B, C and D. Thus, the
ratio of product of perpendiculars from a point on the curve on a pair of opposite sides
of an inscribed quadrilateral to the product of those from the same point on the other
sides is constant.
Note that the constant , and therefore change as the curve changes. If the point does not
lie on the curve, the relation albeit holds, but is no more a constant, so that the result has no
practical value.
Page 505 / 681
Page 17
26: A conic passing through intersection of a conic and a pair of st lines
Let the conic be ( ) , 0 U x y = and the st lines be ( ) , 0 K x y = and ( ) , 0 M x y = . A conic passing
through the intersection of this conic and this pair of st lines can be given as ( ) , U x y KM =
. Eqn(22)
This is a mere special case of (13) until it reveals further mystery beautifully.
a) If the st lines ( ) , 0 K x y = and ( ) , 0 M x y = meet at a point P on the curve ( ) , 0 U x y = ,
then our conic ( ) , U x y KM = passes through two coincident points on ( ) , 0 U x y = ,
thus both the conics have a common tangent there, i.e., both the conics touch each
other thereEqn(23)
b) If the st lines ( ) , 0 K x y = and ( ) , 0 M x y = coincide and meet the conic ( ) , 0 U x y = at
two points P and Q, ( as a st line must meet a conic at two points) both the conics touch
each other at P and Q and the two points become points of double contact. Two
curves are said to have points of double contact with each other if they touch at two
points. The eqn (16) becomes
( )
2
, U x y K = . Eqn(24)
The st line ( ) , 0 K x y = becomes the chord of contact , also the polar of the point
where tangents at the two points of contact meet each other.
c) In place of ( ) , 0 U x y = in the above result, if we take a pair of st lines
( ) ( ) , , 0 L x y M x y = then
2
LM K = . Eqn(25)
is a conic which is touched by
( ) , 0 L x y = and ( ) , 0 M x y = at the points where ( ) , 0 K x y = cuts
( ) , 0 L x y = and ( ) , 0 M x y = . i.e., ( ) , 0 L x y = and ( ) , 0 M x y = are tangents to
the curve
2
LM K = and ( ) , 0 K x y = is the chord of contact , also the polar of the
point where ( ) , 0 L x y = and ( ) , 0 M x y = intersect each otherEqn(26)
d) ( ) , U x y K = may be written as ( ) ( ) , . 0. 0. 1 U x y K x y = + + .,. Eqn(27)
which is a conic passing through intersection of ( ) , 0 U x y = , with the st lines
( ) , 0 K x y = and 0. 0. 1 0 x y + + = , or the line at infinity. Since
Page 506 / 681
Page 18
( ) , 0 U x y = and ( ) , U x y K = have same intersection with the line at
infinity, ( intersection point being on the st line ( ) , 0 K x y = ),they have
parallel asymptotes, because they touch each other at infinity.
Another example, the circles ( )
2 2 2
, 0 U x y x y a = + =
and
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
2 2
, 1. 1. 2 2 0,
2 2 0
U x y K x y a gx fy c a
or x y gx fy c
= + + + =
+ + =
.. Eqn(28)
intersect at line at infinity, albeit in two imaginary points called circular points, which
are obviously independent of any parameters used so that they are same for any two
circles.
e) ( ) , U x y = may be turned into ( ) ( )
2
, . 0. 1 U x y o x y = + + . Eqn(29)
It follows that the tangents to the two conics ( ) , 0 U x y = and ( ) , U x y = are
same at the point where ( ) , 0 U x y = or both of them meet at line at infinity. Thus
both the curves ( ) , 0 U x y = and ( ) , U x y = have parallel asymptotes, real or
imaginary.
As an example, if ( )
2 2 2
, 0 U x y x y a = + = is a circle and
( )
2 2 2
, 0 U x y b x y a b + = + + = is a concentric circle, they touch each other
at infinity at the points where they meet the line at infinity, and have double contact at
infinity. Eqn(29a)
f) Let ( , ) 0 T x y = is a tangent to ( ) , 0 U x y = .
Then ( ) , ( , ) U x y T x y = or ( ) ( ) , ( , ) 0. 0. 1 U x y T x y x y = + + . Eqn(31)
is a curve passing through intersection of ( ) , 0 U x y = and touching it at the point of
intersection of ( , ) 0 T x y = and 0. 0. 1 0 x y + + = . But the latter two intersect at infinity and
( , ) 0 T x y = touches ( ) , 0 U x y = . So ( , ) 0 T x y = touches ( ) , 0 U x y = at infinity and as
Page 507 / 681
Page 19
such ( , ) 0 T x y = is an asymptote to ( ) , 0 U x y = . Also ( , ) 0 T x y = touches
( ) , ( , ) U x y T x y = at infinity and as such ( , ) 0 T x y = is an asymptote to
( ) , ( , ) U x y T x y = .. Eqn(32)
g) ( ) ( )
2
, U x y AT BT C = + + must be a conic passing through intersections of the conic
( ) , 0 U x y = with the two st lines 0 T = and 0 T = where
( ) ( )
2
AT BT C A T T + + = Eqn(33)
27: Pair of tangents on the general conic from a point is
( ) ( )
2
1 1
, , U x y U x y L = ... Eqn(34)
Let the two tangents T
1
and T
2
drawn from the point P(x
1
, y
1
) touch the conic ( ) , 0 U x y = at Q
and R respectively. Then QR is the chord of contact of these tangents and the polar of P. So the
eqn of QR is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1 1
, 0 L x y ax hy g x hx by f y gx fy c = + + + + + + + + =
....(a)
The eqn to any conic which touches ( ) , 0 U x y = at Q and R is
( )
2
, U x y L = .(b)
The pair of tangents T
1
and T
2
drawn from the point P(x
1
, y
1
) is also a conic passing through Q
and R and its eqn is also given by (b) where is to be determined for the condition that this
conic passes through P. Thus
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 ax hxy by gx fy c
ax hy g x hx by f y gx fy c
+ + + + +
= + + + + + + + + (

.(c)
where is to be determined.
As (c) passes through the point P(x
1
, y
1
),
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 ax hx y by gx fy c
+ + + + +
= + + + + + + + + (

Page 508 / 681
Page 20
Or,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 1
2 2 2 ,
ax hx y by gx fy c
ax hx y by gx fy c
ax hx y by gx fy c
ax hx y by gx fy c U x y
+ + + + +
=
+ + + + + + + + (

+ + + + +
=
( + + + + +

= =
+ + + + +
With this value of , (b) becomes ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 1
, , , U x y U x y L x y = .................. Eqn(35)
To confirm whether this represents the pair of tangents on to the conic from the point P, we
observe that only one conic can pass through the five point, i.e., the point P and two coincident
points at each point of contact.
This problem would be dealt with , in a different manner later on.
28: Imaginary tangents from foci of the general conic
There is no point in tracking imaginary tangents unless the result is backward utilized to find the
location ( coordinates ) of foci (next article.). Tangents from foci or from any other point on the
concave side of the conic have to be imaginary as evident . Let the eqn to the conic be taken as
( )
2
2 2 2
x y e x k + = + i.e.,
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 0 x e y e kx e k + = , taking the origin at the focus and directrix at
x = - k . The pair of tangents drawn from it have the eqn
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 x e y e kx e k e k e kx e k
(
+ =

which simplifies to
2 2
0 x y + = , a circle
if 0 radius around the focus, i.e., the focus itself.
Thus the imaginary tangents from the focus are a real,point circleEqn(36)
29: Foci of the general conic ( )
2 2
, 2 2 2 0 u x y ax hxy by gx fy c = + + + + + = :
If (x, y) be a focus, the eqn to a pair of tangents from foci is
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2
', ' 2 2 2
' ' ' ' ' '
u x y ax hxy by gx fy c
x ax hy g y hx by f gx fy c
( + + + + + =

+ + + + + + + + + (

pair of tangents from focus satisfy the condition of being a circle, (though imaginary), i.e.,
coefficients of x
2
and y
2
in the above eqn must be equal and
Page 509 / 681
Page 21
xy- term must vanish. Then,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
', ' ' ' ', ' ' ' au x y ax hy g bu x y hx by f + + = + + + ..(A)
and ( ) ( )( ) ', ' ' ' ' ' hu x y ax hy g hx by f = + + + + + (B)
Combining (A) and (B),
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )
2 2
2 2
', ' ' ' ', ' ' '
' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
', '
au x y ax hy g bu x y hx by f
ax hy g hx by f ax hy g hx by f
u x y
a b h
+ + = + + +
+ + + + + + + +
= =
..(C
1
)
Or the focus is both on the loci of
( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )
2 2
,
u x y
a b h
+ + + + + + + +
= =
. Eqn(37)
Solving the two eqns give the coordinates of foci.
Once the foci are known, the directrices would be easily known as they are polars of foci; and
polars of points is easily written for any point.
30: Foci of the central conic ( )
2 2
, 2 1 u x y ax hxy by = + + = :
Eqn (3) above becomes,
( ) ( ) ( )( )
2 2
2 2
2 1
ax hy hx by ax hy hx by
ax hxy by
a b h
+ + + +
+ + = =
From
( ) ( ) ( )( )
2 2
ax hy hx by ax hy hx by
a b h
+ + + +
=
we get on simplification,
( )( ) ( )( )
2 2 2 2
h ab h x y xy ab h a b = , or,
2 2
x y xy
a b h
(a)
From
( )( )
2 2
2 1
ax hy hx by
ax hxy by
h
+ +
+ + =
, we get on simplification,
2
1 xy
h h ab
=
.(b)
From (a) & (b), the eqns,
2 2
2
1 x y xy
a b h h ab
= =

Eqn(38)
when solved give the foci.
Page 510 / 681
Page 22
The similarity in form with (3) above may be well marked; if the axes y = 0 and
x = 0 are transformed to 0 hx by f + + = and 0 ax hy g + + = respectively by changing the axes
and origin,, our eqn results in (3). So we could have well started with derivation of loci for central
conic direct from the condition of imaginary tangents and extended the derivation to general
conic as in case of derivation of centre. Only it may b remembered that the axes 0 hx by f + + =
and 0 ax hy g + + = are neither conjugate of each other nor perpendicular to each other.
Further note that
2 2
x y xy
a b h
are the two equations of bisectors of angles of two st lines given

by
2 2
2 0 ax hxy by + + =
Again , if the central conic
2 2
2 1 ax hxy by + + = transformed into
2 2
' 2 ' ' 1 a x h xy b y + + = by a
change of axes on the same origin, then
2 2
' ' ' ' ' a b a b and a b h ab h + = + =
, if the central conic
2 2
2 1 ax hxy by + + = transformed into
2 2
1 Ax By + = , then,
2
a b A B and ab h AB + = + =
31: To find a conic with a tangent and a normal as axes
Let the curve ( )
2 2
, 2 2 2 0 u x y ax hxy by gx fy c = + + + + + = pass through the origin , with x axis
as tangent and y axis as normal. Since the curve passes through the origin, c = 0. and the
tangent at origin( 0 gx fy c + + = ) becomes y = 0 since this is the tangent. Thus g = 0; so that the
eqn reduces to
2 2
2 2 0 ax hxy by fy + + + = . If y axis be the tangent at the origin and x axis is
normal, the eqn would be
2 2
2 2 0 ax hxy by gx + + + = . Eqn(39)
32: Axes of the general conic:
The eqns of st lines
1
0
2
U
ax hy g
x
c
= + + =
c
and
1
0
2
U
hx by f
y
c
= + + =
c
are not conjugate
diameters as one may be tempted to think. But they are st lines passing through the centre as
their solution gives the coordinates of the centre.
( if the conic has a centre at all). So they are diameters as any st line through the centre could
be one. Further they are the st lines joining extreme values of the function
( ) ( ) , 0 y x taken from U x y = = when x is treated as independent variable i.e.,
when ( ) , 0 U x y = is written as ( ) y x = and when y is treated as independent variable i.e.,
Page 511 / 681
Page 23
when ( ) , 0 U x y = is written as ( ) x y = in turn. But they may be taken as a pair of axes of the
conic, but these two are also a pair of conjugate diameters for product of their slopes is not
2
2
b
a
nor they obey '
a hm
m
h bm
+
=
+
; also they not perpendicular to each other for product of their
slopes is not 1 . so the two may be taken as oblique axes. (Imagine the standard ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = with axes as coordinate axes and centre at the origin shifted to any other point and
the axes tilted. Then it takes the form ( ) , 0 U x y = and intersection of principal axes of it no more
join the extreme points. But the lines who join the extreme points pass through the centre)
The eqn of the conic referred to these axes is
2 2
2
2 ax hxy by
ab h
A
+ + +
as derived in the
previous chapter.
For finding the axes of the general conic ( ) , 0 U x y = , we note that the eqn
( ) ( ) ( )( )
2 2
a b h
+ + + + + + + +
=
.(a)
when solved, gives both the foci, so it is a conic passing through both the foci. Further the
same gives, on simplification,
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
1
ax hy g
ax hy g
hx by f hx by f
a b h
+ +
+ +
+ + + +
=
which is a quadratic eqn in

( )
( )
,
ax hy g
Z say
hx by f
+ +
=
+ +
. Each of the two values of this gives the eqn of a st line . Thus
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
1
ax hy g
ax hy g
hx by f hx by f
a b h
+ +
+ +
+ + + +
=
, or
( )
2
2
1
, , 0
Z Z
or hZ a b Z h
a b h
= =
. The two values

of Z are negative reciprocals of each other and their sum is
a b
h
and product is - 1 . The lines

may be taken as
( ) ( ) 0 ax hy g hx by f + + + + + = and ( )
( )
0
hx by f
ax hy g
+ +
+ + = , Eqn(40)
where
1 a b
h

+ = . This pair of st lines pass through both the foci. Let us see whether both of
them pass through both the foci or one through each focus or one through both foci and the
other through none. Now , both the st lines pass through intersection of st lines
Page 512 / 681
Page 24
0 0 ax hy g and hx by f + + = + + = , i.e. the centre of the original conic. As both the foci
and the centre are collinear, only one of the st lines in (b) pass though both the foci both the st
lines (b) pass through the centre as the two st lines (a) are not coincident. Thus the pair of st
lines (b) or (a) for that matter represent a set of axes.
33:CHORDS AND HARMONIC RELATIONS
Let a secant from the point P(x, y) at an angle with the x axis cut the conic
( )
2 2
, 2 2 2 0 u x y ax hxy by gx fy c = + + + + + = ..(a)
at Q and Q . Then any point on this line at a distance r from P may be taken as
(x + r cos , y + r sin ).The coordinates of Q and Q may be found by putting these values in
(a),i.e.
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
' cos 2 ' cos ' sin 2 ' cos 2 ' sin 0 a x r h x r y r by g x r f y r c + + + + + + + + + + =
Or,
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
cos 2 cos sin sin
2 ' ' cos ' ' sin ', ' 0
r a h b
r ax hy g hx by f U x y

+ +
+ + + + + + + = (

Eqn(41)
which gives two values of r. which are of same sign or opposite sign according as the point
P is outside the conic or inside. The difference of the values gives the length of the chord.
Q
R
C
R
Q
O
X
Q
R
Chords and radii
P
Page 513 / 681
Page 25
Evidently if one of the values is 0 if the point is on the conic and the other value is the
length of the chord.
Many symmetric relationships may be derived from this approach. REMEMBER.
34: If two chords , QQ in the direction and RR in the direction are drawn from any point
P to cut the curve at Q, Q , and R, R respectively, then
. '
. '
constant
PQ PQ
PR PR
=
..Eqn(42)
From (151) above, product of the roots
( )
2 2
', '
. '
cos 2 cos sin sin
U x y
PQ PQ
a h b
=
+ +
....(a)
Similarly if is direction of PRR,
then
( )
2 2
', '
. '
cos ' 2 cos ' sin ' sin '
U x y
PR PR
a h b
=
+ +
...(b)
So,
2 2
2 2
. ' cos ' 2 cos ' sin ' sin '
. ' cos 2 cos sin sin
PQ PQ a h b
PR PR a h b

+ +
=
+ +
only depends on and and independent of
position of P.
35: If CQ and CR be focal radii from centre C parallel to PQ and PR
respectively , and as diameters are twice the radii, i.e. radii in opposite directions are
equal, then
2
2
. ' "
. ' "
PQ PQ CQ
PR PR CR
= Eqn(43)
36: If Q, Q coincide and R and R coincide, the secants become tangents from P and
their ration becomes ratio of radii in their directions respectively, for,
2 2
2 2
" "
,
" "
PQ CQ PQ CQ
or
PR CR PR CR
= = .. .Eqn(44)
as such, two tangents drawn from a point to a conic may not be equal.
37: If parallel chords PQQ and PRR from P(x, y) and P (x, y) cut the conic in Q,
Q and R, R respectively, then from (b) above,
Page 514 / 681
Page 26
( )
2 2
', '
. '
cos 2 cos sin sin
U x y
PQ PQ
a h b
=
+ +
and
( )
2 2
'', ''
' . ' '
cos ' 2 cos ' sin ' sin '
U x y
P R P R
a h b
=
+ +
So that
( )
( )
', '
. '
' . ' ' '', ''
U x y
PQ PQ
P R P R U x y
= Eqn(45)
which is independent of s or directions of chords and only depend upon the
points P and P
38: Let a conic and a circle intersect at four points Q,Q and R,R . If the st line QQ
and RR meet at a point P, and CQ and CR are radii of the conic drawn from its centre
parallel to QQ and RR respectively, then
2
2
. ' "
. ' "
PQ PQ CQ
PR PR CR
= from (c) above. Also
2 2
2 2
" . '
1
" . '
CQ PQ PQ r
CR PR PR r
= = = . Eqn(46)
taking the circle as a conic (all its radii are equal) ; i.e., CQ = CR. But in a general
conic which is not a circle, two radii are equal only when the radii are coincident or
opposite, i.e. when they are equally inclined to x- axis of the conic. So CQ and
CR must be coincident or opposite.
39: Thus in any central conic, equal radii are equally inclined to x- axis.
40: If any two chords are drawn from a fixed point P onto a circle of radius r ,
to intersect it at points Q , Q and R , R then
2
2
. '
1
. '
PQ PQ r
PR PR r
= = Eqn(47)
41: In view of the above, if PT an PT are two tangents drawn onto a circle from the
point P, then
2 2
2 2
. '
1
' . '
PT PQ PQ r
PT PR PR r
= = = Eqn(48)
since both the tangents intersect the circle at coincident points.
42: From a point P chords are drawn to cut a conic at two points. The locus of the
Page 515 / 681
Page 27
point which harmonically cuts these chords is the polar of the point P.
Let the point P be the origin (0, 0) . If Q and Q be the points at which the chord PQQ
cuts the conic making an angle with the x axis, the lengths PQ or PQ are values
of r from (1) above, by putting (0, 0) in
place of (x, y). so that
( ) ( )
2 2 2
cos 2 cos sin sin 2 cos 2 sin 0, 0 0 r a h b rg rf U + + + + + = Eqn(49)
Or,
2 2
2
cos sin
cos 2 cos sin sin 2 0
g f c
a h b
r r

+
+ + + + = ..(a)
as ( ) 0, 0 U c =
PQ and PQ are roots of this eqn and their sum is
1 1 cos sin
2
'
g f
PQ PQ c
+
+ = .
If R is any point on QQ such that
1 1 2 2
,
'
if PR s say
PQ PQ PR s
+ = = = , then
the locus of R is given by
2 cos sin
2
g f
s c
+
= ,or, cos sin 0 gs fs c + + = , or
0 gx fy c + + = which is polar of origin or the point P.
43: Instead of harmonic mean, if the point R on the chord be such that PR is
arithmetic mean of PQ and PQ , we have

2 2
' cos sin
,
2 cos 2 cos sin sin
PQ PQ g f
PR t say
a h b

+ +
= = =
+ +
,or,

( )
2 2 2
cos 2 cos sin sin cos sin 0 t a h b gt ts + + + + = ,or,

2 2
2 0 ax hxy by gx fy + + + + = , a conic which passes through the point P
( as P is the origin) .The same can also be written as
( )
2 2
2 2 2 0 ax hxy by gx fy c gx fy c + + + + + + + = , a curve passing through the
point P as well as through the intersection of the original conic and polar of P.
44: Instead of harmonic mean, if the point R on the chord be such that PR is
Page 516 / 681
Page 28
geometric mean of PQ and PQ , we have
2 2
. ' ,
cos 2 cos sin sin
c
PQ PQ PR v say
a h b
= = =
+ +
, or,
( )
2 2
cos 2 cos sin sin v a h b c + + = , or,
2 2
2 ax hxy by c + + = , a conic ,
its centre at P . Further
2 2
2 ax hxy by c + + = can be written as
( )
2 2
2 2 2 2 0 ax hxy by gx fy c gx fy c + + + + + + + = a curve passing through the
point P as well as through the intersection of the original conic and polar of P.
45: Conjugate diameters can also be found out easily from this point of view of
consideration of chords. If (x, y) be the middle point of any chord in some direction ,
the sum of two r values in (1) above shall be 0. This implies
( ) ( ) ' ' cos ' ' sin 0 ax hy g hx by f + + + + + = for the point (x, y) for any given , or given
sin
tan
cos
m

= = . All the chords parallel to this chord have the same slope and if their
coordinates are given by (x, y), evidently the locus of the point is
( ) ( ) 0 ax hy g m hx by f + + + + + = .. Eqn(50)
which is evidently the diameter conjugate to one parallel to y mx = . If
' m is its slope or '
a hm
m
h bm
+
=
+
, then, ( ) ' ' 0 a h m m bmm + + + = Eqn(51)
Is the condition that y mx = and ' y m x = would be parallel to two conjugate
diameters.
46: Pair of tangents from the (x, y) can also be easily found this point of view of
consideration of chords. The st line drawn from the point (x, y) touches the conic if the
roots of the eqn (1) so that we have
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
' ' cos ' ' sin cos 2 cos sin sin ', ' ax hy g hx by f a h b U x y + + + + + = + + (

Page 517 / 681
Page 29
Or, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
' ' ' ' 2 ', ' ax hy g hx by f m a hm bm U x y + + + + + = + + (

Substituting
'
'
y y
m
x x
for m in this eqn, we get,

( )( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
2 2
' ' ' ' ' '
' 2 ' ' ' ', '
x x ax hy g hx by f y y
a x x h x x y y b y y U x y
+ + + + + (

= + +
Eqn(52)
This is also reduced to the form ( ) ( )
2
1 1
, , U x y U x y L = Eqn(53)
where ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
' ' ' ' ' ' L ax hy g x hx by f y gx fy c = + + + + + + + + (

For,
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2
' ' ' ' ' ' ', '
', ' 2 ', '
x x ax hy g hx by f y y L U x y
L U x y L U x y
+ + + + + = ( (

=
Then
( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
' 2 ' ' ' ', ' ', ' 2 ', '
', ' ' 2 ' ' ' 2 ', '
a x x h x x y y b y y U x y U x y L U x y
U x y a x x h x x y y b y y L U x y
+ + +
(
= + + +

( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
', ' ' 2 ' ' ' 2 ', '
' ' 2 ' 2 '
2 2 ' 2 ' 2 ' ' 2 ' 2 '
', '
2 2 ' 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 ' 2
' 2 ' ' ' 2 ' 2 '
', '
U x y a x x h x x y y b y y L U x y
ax by ax by axx byy
hxy hxy hx y hx y axx hxy
U x y
gx hx y byy fy gx fy c
ax hx y by gx fy c
U x y
(
= + + +

( + + + +
(
+ + +
(
=
(
+ + + + + + +
(
(

= ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 , ', ' ax by hxy gx fy c U x y U x y ( + + + + + =

47: Foci of general conic
If S(x, y) is a focus of the conic ( ) , 0 U x y = and PSP be any focal chord,
1 1
' SP SP
+
is a constant for all points P on the conic. Tracking this fact would lead us to the foci.
Here is how it is. We know SP and SP would be of opposite sign since they are in
opposite directions . calling them r
1
and r
2
, the roots of (1) above,
2 2
2
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 4
' SP SP r r r r r r
| | | |
| |
+ = = +
| | |
\ .
\ . \ .
.(a)
Page 518 / 681
Page 30
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
2 2
' ' cos ' ' sin
4
', '
cos 2 cos sin sin
4
', '
ax hy g hx by f
U x y
a h b
U x y

( + + + + +
=
(

+ +
(b)
One focus (x, y) and another (x, y) may both be denoted by (x, y) in (b) above and
since it is independent of , putting arbitrary values of in (b) we would get an eqn
involving x and y from (b). Two such eqns shall be sufficient to determine x and y; and
any more equations would be redundant since they would be only combinations of the
first two eqns chosen by putting convenient values of in (b). the third and any other
eqn for that matter derived from (b) by putting chosen values of shall be consistent
because of the identity (b) , conditional identity with respect to . This is the technique is
and would be the most highlighted in the series of books written or to be written by this
author.
Putting 0, ,
2 4
and

= in (b) in turn, and equating the results in pairs,
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 2
2 2
' ' ' '
', ' ', '
', ' ', '
' ' ' '
,
', ' ', '
ax hy g hx by f a b
U x y U x y
U x y U x y
ax hy g hx by f
or a b
U x y U x y
+ + + +
=
+ + + +
=
..(c)
and
( )
( )
( ) ( ) { }
( )
( )
2
2
' ' ' ' ' '
1
2
', ' 2 ', '
ax hy g hx by f hx by f
b a b h
U x y U x y
(
+ + + + + + +
(
= + +
(

..(d)
Putting ' ' ax hy g X + + = , ' ' hx by f Y + + = , we get from (c)
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
' ' ' '
', ' ', '
ax hy g hx by f
a b
U x y U x y
+ + + +
= , or
( )
2 2
', '
X Y
a b
U x y
= .(e)
Adding both members of (c) and equating it to twice of (d), as (c) and (d) are equal,
Page 519 / 681
Page 31
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) { }
( )
( )
2 2
2
' ' ' '
', ' ', '
' ' ' '
2
', '
ax hy g hx by f
a b
U x y U x y
ax hy g hx by f
a b h
U x y
+ + + +
+
+ + + + +
= + +
Or,
( ) ( )
{ }
( )
( )
2
2 2
2
', ' ', ' ', '
X Y
X Y
a b a b h
U x y U x y U x y
+
+ = + +
Or,
( ) ( )
2
0 2 , ,
', ' ', '
XY XY
h or h
U x y U x y
= = .(f)
From (e) and (f), ( )
2 2
', '
X Y XY
U x y
a b h
= =
..(g)
Are the two eqns who give the foci.
or
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
', '
U x y
a b h
+ + + + + + + +
= =
Eqn(54)
48: Circle of Curvature
A tangent at a point P(x, y) of a curve is a st line joining two coincident points or in other
words it shows the direction of the next point if we imagine such a concept. The next tangent ,if
we agree to imagine so, shows how the tangent turns. A unique circle passes through these
three coincident points and is the circle of curvature at the point. The radius of this circle is the
radius of curvature and its inverse is the curvature at the point, as the two are reciprocal to each
other inasmuch bigger circles are less curved. These three coincident points are common to
both the curve and the circle of curvature. But the latter is also a conic section and there must
be a fourth point of contact not necessarily coincident with these points as two conics intersect
at four points. The chord joining the three coincident points at P to the fourth point of
intersection of circle of curvature with the curve is called the common chord at the point P.
Thus the tangent and the common chord at any point may be looked upon as common chords
drawn to the two conics from a point P and equally inclined to the xaxis . since the common
chord is not necessarily coincident to the tangent, and they are equally inclines to
xaxis, it follows that the slope angles of the tangent and the common chord are
supplementary.
In the previous chapter, the equation to the circle of curvature, and the evolute were
derived by employing means of differential calculus. Here we derive them from concepts from
Page 520 / 681
Page 32
intersection of conics. The latter way seems easier and serves as exercise for concepts of
intersection of conics.
a. At a point ( ) cos , sin P a b of the ellipse ( )
2 2
2 2
, 1 0
x y
U x y
a b
= + = , .(a)
eqn of the tangent is
( ) , cos sin 1 0
x y
T x y b
a b
= + = ..(b)
If ( ) , 0 L x y = be any st line passing through the point
( ) cos , sin P a b and inclined to the xaxis at an angle , its eqn is
( ) ( )
cos sin
cos sin 0 x a y b
a b

=
Or,
( ) , cos sin cos 2 0
x y
L x y
a b
= = .(c)
The circle of curvature is a conic passing through the point P and intersection of the conic
( ) , 0 U x y = the pair of st lines ( ) ( ) , , 0 L x y T x y = may be written as
( ) ( ) ( ) , , , 0 U x y L x y T x y + = (d)
where may be chosen to satisfy other conditions. The other condition here is that this
would be a circle; so that the coefficients of x
2
and y
2
must be equal, there being no xy term
evidently. Equating the coefficients of x
2
and y
2
from (d),
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 cos 1 sin
,
cos sin
a b
or
a a b b b a

+ = =
+
...(e)
The eqn to the circle of curvature becomes,
( )
( )
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
1 cos sin
cos sin 1 cos sin cos 2
x y
b a
a b
x y x y
a b b
a b a b

| |
+ +
|
\ .
| || |
= +
| |
\ .\ .
.(f)
Page 521 / 681
Page 33
which simplifies into the following through a few carefully worked out steps,
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
2 2 2 2
3 3
3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
3
2 2 2 2
2 2
cos sin
cos sin cos sin
' '
a b a b
x y
a b
b a a b a b
a b a b
a b x y
a b

| | | |
+ +
| |
\ . \ .
+ +
= =
+
=
Eqn(55)
whose centre is
2 2 2 2
3 3
cos , sin
a b a b
a b

| |
|
\ .
and
radius
( ) ( )
3
3
2 2 2 2
2
cos sin b a
ab ab
+
=
se mi -conj ugatedi a meter
. Eqn(55)
( )
3
, semi conjugatediameter ab = , product of the semi major and minor axes.
b. Replacing
2
b by
2
b , we get the circle of curvature of a hyperbola at ( ) ', ' P x y
( )
3
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
3 3
2 2
' '
cos sin
x y a b
a b a b
x y
a b a b

+ +
| | | | + +
+ + =
| |
\ . \ .
..Eqn(56)
c. For a parabola ( )
2
, 4 0 U x y y ax = = , or
2
2 , y at x at = = ..(a)
The tangent at a point t is given by
( ) ( )
2 2
.2 2 , , , 0 y at a x at or T x y ty x at = + = =
.(b)
A st line passing through the point t and equally inclined to the x axis as ( ) , 0 T x y = is
given by ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 0, , , 3 0 t y at x at or L x y ty x at + = = + = .(c)
So that the eqn to circle of curvature is
( )( )
2 2 2
4 3 0 y ax ty x at ty x at + + = ,(c)
where coefficients of x
2
and y
2
must be equal. The later condition gives,
2
2
1
1 , ,
1
t or
t
+ = =
+
,
Page 522 / 681
Page 34
Substituting this value in (c) and simplifying, the circle of curvature is
( ) { } { } ( )
2 2 3
2 3 2 2
2 3 2 4 1 x a t y at a t + + + = + (d)
where the centre is at
( )
2
2 3 , 2 a at at + and radius
( )
3
2
2
2 1 a t +
Now,
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
3
3
3
2
2 3 2
2
2
2
2 1 2 2 2
a at
a x
a t
a a a
+
+
+ = = =
f ocal di stance
Eqn(57)
Compare the result with the result that sum of squares of semi-conjugate diameters is
constant and equal to square of radius of the director circle.
Compare the result with the result that product of the focal radii of any point on the ellipse
equals the square of the semi- diameter parallel to the tangent at the point.
If two conics have common tangent at a point, i.e., have two common coincident points at a
point, they are said to be at contact with each other. Alongwith common tangent, if two conics
have common circle of curvature at any point, their contact is said to be of second order. If
there are four coincident points in common between two different conics, the contact is of third
order. Two different conics cannot have contact of fourth order since they would be coincident,
as a conic is determined completely by five points. Two different conics having contacts of third
order are said to be osculating each other. If one of them is a circle, which is completely
determined by three points, a circle and a different conic cannot have contacts of third order or
more. Since the circle of curvature has contact of second order, it is said to be the osculating
conic.
49: Tangents , Polars Asymptotes
Asymptotes are tangents of the curve at infinity. Tangents are polars of the points on the
curve itself. Polar of a point (pole) is the locus of a point such that it cuts the chords
drawn from the pole harmonically. Directrices are polars of foci. A line at infinity is polar
of the centre. A point at infinity is a pole of an asymptote. The proof of the statements are
left to the reader as exercises as all of them have been proved earlier in various chapters.
Page 523 / 681
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
Page 1
CHAPTER 42: THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL
1:Integration as reverse process of differentiation
If we know the rate of change of a particular function ( which is another function
again) at all points, we could find incremental changes of the function and if we now
the value of the function at only one particular point, by plotting successive changes or
increments, we can plot the entire graph of the function by moving forward from the
given point and by moving backwards. We would be able to construct the function
theoretically or in principle. But to know functional value at one particular point is a must ,
otherwise we could construct the function but cannot know where exactly to place it on
the axes of co-ordinates. Is it not the reverse process of differentiation?, Yes, it is ! This
process is called integration. A notation need be introduced to write integration. If
), x ( g
dx
) x ( df
= some other function of x, or if f(x) = g(x), or if g(x) is differential coefficient of
f(x), in turn, f(x) must be integration of g(x) or f(x).This we write as:

} }
= = dx ) x ( g ) x ( f dx ) x ( ' f (1)
(This is not a multiplication (inasmuch as
dx
dy
is not a division,) but the symbol
}
dx
denotes integration as the reverse process of differentiation.
The result of integration of ( ) g x , i.e. ( ) ( ) f x g x dx =
}
, is called integral of ( ) g x or a primitive
of ( ) g x , as ( ) g x is derived from it. It is also called an anti-derivative of ( ) g x . The function to
be integrated is naturally called the integrand.
It is not only the aim of integration process to find whose differential coefficient is the function
under our consideration. It is easier to observe rate of change of some function generally time
rate and space rate than to observe the function itself. For example, we can measure force,
rather easily which is rate of change of momentum; we can easily measure acceleration due to
gravity , albeit by indirect means , but it is difficult to measure velocity of a falling body.
Therefore we need to integrate, and study functions from that angle which are integrable.
Integration has a pictorial or geometric aspect also , quite interesting. In the following chapters
for definite integral, i.e., integration of a function or curve between two given ordinates, is
nothing but the area bound among the two ordinates, the curve and the x axis ; and the
curve itself is the differentiation of this area. And the area is nothing but sum of all the small
Page 524 / 681
Page 2
stripes of areas bound between two adjacent ordinates. But first some fundamentals must be
gathered.
Now we can carry over or translate all the formulae developed for differentiation to
similar formulae for integration, as we have defined integration as reverse process of
differentiation; just as we did for logarithms and inverse circular functions.
We know that differential coefficient of a constant is 0. Putting it the other way round,
we can say the function whose differential coefficient is 0, must be a constant. We
write this by
}
= . t tan cons dx 0 Choice of this constant is arbitrary until and unless it is specified.
In other words a function whose differential coefficient is 0, must be a constant.
Suppose we have to determine a function whose derivative is given. We could do so by
integrating the derivative. Would it be the particular function we were looking for? The
answer is no. How? We could well add a 0 to the given derivative and then
integrate; with the result that an arbitrary constant is added to the function we got.
Naturally this had to be the case. This would be clear when we try to draw the graph
of the resulting function. We could draw the graph; well, where exactly would we place
the graph on the paper, unless we know at least one point on the graph in particular?.
Hence the importance of the arbitrary constant is felt for getting initial value or
boundary value of the function. As an example, let speed is given by a function v(t)
=2t. On integration (as we know
2
2
dt
t
dt
= ) we get distance s(t) = v(t)dt = 2tdt = t
2
+ c
, where c is an arbitrary constant . To get particular value of this constant, we have to
know what was the initial distance or distance from origin at the starting time or t =
0. If this is taken as s
0,
we have, s
0
= s(0) = 0 + c, giving c = s
0
. We finally have s(t) = t
2
+ s
0 .
In general, on integration we have to add an arbitrary constant.
It is for this reason the result of integration, called the integral, is indefinite to the extent of an
arbitrary constant and as such, is called indefinite integral.
2:Algebra of integrals
We have to know some rules as to how integrals are added, subtracted , multiplied etc. else
how do we work with them?
Do you remember the formula,
dx
dv
dx
du
dx
) v u ( d
+ =
+
...(1)
Page 525 / 681
Page 3
Take ) x ( g
dx
du
= and ) x ( h
dx
dv
= .(2)
Now from (a1), ) x ( h ) x ( g
dx
) v u ( d
+ =
+
(3)
Or, on integration,
} }
+ =
+
= + dx )] x ( h ) x ( g [ dx
dx
) v u ( d
v u ...(4)
But from (a1),
}
= dx ) x ( g u and
}
= dx ) x ( h v ;
Putting these values in (a4) we get

} } }
+ = + dx )] x ( h ) x ( g [ dx ) x ( h dx ) x ( g
3:Sum or difference of the integrals is the integral of the sum
or difference of the functions - is the result.
a)
} } }
+ = + dx )] x ( h ) x ( g [ dx ) x ( h dx ) x ( g ..(5)
In the similar lines,
b)
} } }
= dx )] x ( h ) x ( g [ dx ) x ( h dx ) x ( g ..(6)
(put u v in place of u + v in (a3) above and complete the proof)
c)
} }
= dx ) x ( f c dx ) x ( cf where c is any constant..(7)
This just follows from ( )
d dU
cU c
dx dx
= formula in differentiation. Put
( )
dU
f x
dx
= so that ( ) ( ) U f x dx cU c f x dx = =
} }
. But
( )
dU
cU c dx cf x dx
dx
| |
= =
|
\ .
} }
from ( )
d dU
cU c
dx dx
= .Combining the two results,
( ) ( ) cf x dx c f x dx =
} }
- a constant multiple of the integrand comes out of the integral sign
as it is.
Page 526 / 681
Page 4
Exercise1 If ( ) f x k s and ( ) f x is integrable in [a, b], show that ( ) ( ) f x dx k b a s
}

remember
4:Examples and Exercises
How do we know that some function ( ) F x is integral of some other function ( ) f x , or how do
we verify whether ( ) ( ) F x f x dx =
}
? The answer is simple, differentiate ( ) F x and verify
whether
( )
( )
dF x
f x
dx
= .As illustration and exercise, take any ten functions you have
differentiated and verify that they are integrals of their differential coefficients. It is no magic
that you can integrate the ten functions below ( in fact myriads of such functions) without
knowing ABC of integration !. Try it.
Integrand primitive
2x
,
1 n
nx

,
n
x
2
x
,
n
x
,
1
, 1 0
1
n
x
n
n
+
+ =
+
cos x
,
sin x
,
2
sec x
sin x
,
cos x
,
tan x
x
e
,
ln
bx
ae b
x
e
,
bx
ae
( ) ( ) '
x
e f x f x + (

( )
x
e f x
2
1
1 x
,
2
1
1 x
,
2
1
1 x +
1
sin x
,
1
cos x
,
1
tan x
cosh x
,
sinh x sinh x
,
cosh x
a ax b +
( ) ' af ax b + ( ) f ax b +
1
x
ln x
Now you seem to know many things about integration, or, equally possible, you might have
been tricked by the author. No chance of any of the two statements. What you are seeing is
the same old results of differentiation, viewed just from the new angle of integration and you
can freely use the results in problems with the table turned left to right. However the results
would be derived formally hereafter.
Note : For brevity we skip the integration constant throughout , unless expressly required.
Page 527 / 681
Page 5
5:Integration by substitution; or change of variable
When Mathematics develops a new concept, involving some reverse operations, such as
finding logarithms as reverse process of laws of indices , or as inverse circular functions are
reverse process of trigonometric functions, the initial formulas or tools of working with them
are developed just by invoking the formulas for the original process viewed in the light of the
definition of the reverse process. Precisely the fundamental formulas of the reverse process
are translation of the formulas of the old process with the definition of the new concept.
We carry on the formula translation work from differentiation. It is no rocket science. Just
put symbols for the things you want to work with and follow the standard operations and the
new definition of course. Follow the examples below and remember the results.
6:substitution or change of independent variable
Remember the formula
dt
dx
.
dx
du
dt
du
= (8)
To translate it to the language of integration, just set ) x ( f
dx
du
=
so that
}
= dx ) x ( f ) x ( u (b2)
Putting these values in (b1), | |
dt
dx
) x ( f dx ) x ( f
dt
d
=
}
(9)
On integration with respect to t of both sides,
} }
= dt
dt
dx
) x ( f dx ) x ( f
Hence the formula ( ) ( )
dx
f x dx f x dt
dt
=
} }
(10)
In essence, the independent variable is changed, from x to t.
This can be written in another manner. If ) t ( ' g
dt
)) t ( g ( d
dt
dx
), t ( g x = = =
so that, ( ) ( ( )) '( ) f x dx f g t g t dt =
} }
..(from(5)....(11)
Page 528 / 681
Page 6
Again, as
}
dx ) x ( f can be written as
}
dg ) g ( f , for, x = g, (5) or (5a) can be written in yet
another manner, when x = g(t),
( ) ( ) ( )
dx
f x dx f x dt f g dg
dt
= =
} } }
.(12)
Example1
What is sin cos x xdx
}
?
You immediately recognize
( ) sin
cos
d x
x
dx
= . Therefore , by the above formula
( )
( )
( )
2
sin sin 1
sin cos sin 2sin sin
2 2
d x x
x xdx x dx xd x
dx
= = =
} } }
.
This is plane application of (5b) as
2
2ydy y =
}
.
Note here that dx in numerator and that in the denominator dont cancel out even if it looks so.
Actually there is no denominator in differential coefficient nor any numerator in the integral.
They just stand for reverse processes. The best policy for success is, derive the formula
theoretically sincerely , so that fundamental concepts take root. But dont remember the
derivation while working out the problem, just apply it. Of course you have to remember the
derivation if you are asked in the exam, or if you are explaining it to a peer. Even though dx in
numerator and that in the denominator dont cancel out, as factors do, they cancel out as
reverse processes and can be remembered as such and can freely be used anywhere, but
only under the integral sign.
Wait; it is not too much about the little problem, even by now. Still you may be facing some
problem about how to write. You can write the answer in the following manner, instead of the
above one-liner.
Set sin x t = , a new variable. We have cos
dt
x
dx
= , or, cos
dx
x
dt
=
So
( )
2
2 2
sin 1 sin
sin cos 2
2 2 2 2
x dt t x
x xdx t dx tdt
dx
= = = = =
} } }
. Perhaps it is clear by now. But the
above one-liner is perfectly rigorous and you can write in that manner just with a little practice.
Page 529 / 681
Page 7
The example is twice finished ; but still there is something to be said. You can safely write
( ) sin cos d x xdx = , freely , even without the integral sign, as long as you are not unscrupulously
using it. For example you can write sin x t =
and then
sin xdx dt =
with no harm done to
rigor.
They are the differentials read under differentiation chapter.
At last you have to return to the old variable by reverse transformation i.e., by putting sin t x =
so that the answer is in terms of the given variable.
Example2
Integrate 3 x x
Remember our difficulty identification principle in the preliminary chapter. Here obviously the
difficulty is 3 x and give it a symbol. Put
2 2
3 3 3 2 x t x t x t dx dt = = = + = so that
we have
( )
( ) ( )
2 3 3
2 4
2
3 3 2 6 2 6 2
6 2 1
3 3 3 and can be further simplified
2 4 2
x x dx t t dt tdt t dt tdt t dt
t t
x x
= + = + = +
= + = +
} } } } } }
Note that our one-liner work out was not possible here. We had to work out the details of
substitution
Example3
Integrate
1
x
x
e
e
+
We have the one liner here.
( )
( )
1
ln 1
1 1
x
x
x
x x
d e
e dx
e
e e

+
= = +
+ +
} }
,
as
( )
1 1 0
x x x x
d e de d de de

+ = + = + =
You could well try the regular way also.
Put , so that
x x
e t e dx dt

= =
Page 530 / 681
Page 8
Then
( )
( ) ( )
1
ln 1 ln 1
1 1 1
x
x
x
d t e dx dt
t e
e t t
+
= = = + = +
+ + +
} } }
Which can be further simplified.
Note The example could have been also written as
1
x
dx
e +
}
and could have been integrated by
substitution
x
e t = .
Example4
Integrate ( )
2
1 sin cos x x +
We have ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 3 1 1
1 sin cos 3 1 sin 1 sin 1 sin
3 3
x xdx x d x x + = + + = +
} }
7:Integration by parts.
Apart from formula translation from differentiation, two most important technique for integration
is substitution or change of independent variable, and this one, integration of product. Note
that both the techniques have been obtained by formula translation only; but their scope
extends much beyond.
Remember the formula
dx
dw
u
dx
du
w
dx
duw
+ = ...(13)
Set
}
= = vdx w .. that ... so ,.. v
dx
dw
.(14)
Utilising this in (c1) we get, ( ) vu vdx
dx
du
vdx u
dx
d
+ =
} }
.(15)
Or, ( )
} }
= vdx
dx
du
vdx u
dx
d
uv
On integrating both sides, we get,
( )
du
uvdx u vdx vdx dx
dx
=
} } } }

Hence the formula -
du
uvdx u vdx vdx dx
dx
| |
=
|
\ .
} } } }
................(16)
Page 531 / 681
Page 9
In words, integral of the product = 1
st
function x integral of second
- Integral of (derivative of the first x integral of the second)
Example5
Integrate cos x x
We have
( )
cos cos 1. cos
sin sin sin cos
x xdx x xdx xdx dx
x x xdx x x x
=
= = +
} } } }
}
See what happens interchanging first and second functions.
( ) ( )
2
cos . cos sin
2
x
x xdx x xdx x dx =
} } }
. The function becomes complicated and wont work. So
the choice of 1
st
function is important before applying the product formula.
Example6
Integrate
x
xe
We have ( ) 1. 1
x x x x x x
xe dx x e dx e dx xe e e x = = =
} } }
.here again verify that wrong choice of 1
st
function results in complications.
Example7
Integrate
3
ln x xdx
}
We have ( )
4 3 4 4
3 3 3 3
1 ln ln
ln ln ln
4 4 4 16
x x x x x x
x xdx x x dx x x dx x dx dx dx
x
| |
= = = =
|
\ .
} } } } } }
Example8
Integrate ( ) cos ln x
We have
Page 532 / 681
Page 10
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
cos ln .1 cos ln . sin ln cos ln sin ln .1
1
cos ln sin ln cos ln cos ln sin ln
I x dx x x x xdx x x x dx
x
x x x x x xdx x x x x I
x
= = = +
= + = +
} } }
}
Integrating ( ) sin ln .1 x dx
}
by parts again.
By transposing,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2 cos ln sin ln , cos ln sin ln
2
x
I x x x x or I x x = + = + (

8:Repeated integration by parts.
In problems like this and in may other, where integration by parts formula is to be applied
repeatedly, the formula may be obviously generalized as follows:
Put
1 2 1 3 2 1
, , , .......... ,
n n
v vdx v v dx v v dx v v dx
= = = =
} } } }
so,
( )
( )
-1
1 2 3
- ' " - .....................- -1 ..........(17)
n
n
n
uvdx uv u v u v u v dx = +
} }
Order of choice of 1
st
function
Often we choose the wrong first function for integrating by parts and the expressions in the
successive steps become longer and longer . To avoid this, experience is the guide. The more
problems you do, the more you bypass the pitfalls. The first function may be chosen , by and
large , in the following order. ILATE for acronym.
i) Inverse functions
l) Logarithmic functions
a) Algebraic functions
t) Trigonometric functions
e) Exponential functions
Examples which may be remembered as Important Results.
9:Functions from Algebra and Logarithm.
These results are from first principles we had mentioned in the very beginning and may be
remembered for working out problems. The more , the better i.e., the easier the problems shall
Page 533 / 681
Page 11
appear to be. Particularly Calculus needs a bit or regular practice; out of practice for a few
days and you have to do it all over again.
a) Integration of y = x
n
. We know,
1 m
m
mx
dx
dx

=
Or,
1 m
m
x
dx
dx
m
1

= Or,
1 m
m
x
dx
x
m
1
d
= , Put
n = m 1 or m = n + 1, so
n
1 n
x
dx
x
1 n
1
d
=
+
+
.
which gives, on integration,
1
1
n
n
x
x dx
n
+
=
+
}
(18)
Evidently this is not valid for n+1 = 0. or for y = 1/x
b) We know,
x
1
dx
x ln d
= , if x > 0,so on integration , this gives,
}
= x ln dx
x
1
If x < 0, -x > 0,
x
1
) 1 (
x
1
dx
) x ( d
) x ( d
) x ln( d
dx
) x ln( d
=
,so
}
= ) x ln( dx
x
1
So, in either case,
1
ln | | dx x
x
=
}
(19)
It is always safer to write ln | | x as logarithm function is defined only for positive values of the
argument. In fact the cause is as given under.
When x is negative, x is positive and
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1
ln ln 1
ln
d x
d d
x x
dx d x dx x x
= = = ( (

Therefore ( )
1
ln dx x
x
=
}
if x is negative. Then the integral of
1
x
is ln x if x is positive and ( ) ln x
if x is negative, so in both cases
1
ln | | dx x
x
=
}
. This is the exceptional case
n
x dx
}
where
1, . ., 1 0 n i e n = + =
c) We know,
x
x
e
dx
de
=
,
Page 534 / 681
Page 12
which gives on integration,
x x
e dx e =
}
.(20)
d) We know a ln a
dx
da
x
x
= or,
x
x
a
dx
da
a ln
1
= or,
x
x
a
dx
a ln
a
d
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
, if a > 0.
which gives,
ln
x
x
a
a dx
a
=
}
when 0 a ln = or, 0 a , 1 a > = ..(21)
If a < 0, - a > 0, ) a ln( a
dx
) a ( d
x
x
=
, or ,
x
x
) a (
dx
) a ( d
) a ln(
1
=
, or,
x
x
) a (
dx
) a ln(
) a (
d
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
, or,
}

=
) a ln(
) a (
dx ) a (
x
x
,0r,
}

=
) a ln(
a ) 1 (
dx a ) 1 (
x x
x x
,or,
}

=
) a ln(
a
dx a
x
x
,
So, in either case,
ln | |
x
x
a
a dx
a
=
}
.(22)
If a = 1,
} } }
= = = x dx 1 dx 1 dx a
x x
..(23)
Now we had enough of formula translation .Rather we should look for something new.
Let us take integration by substitution. Two special results given below are useful.
e)
1
[ ( )]
[ ( )] '( ) , 1 0
1
n
n
g x
g x g x dx if n
n
+
= + =
+
}
. .(24)
Let g(x) = t so that [g(x)]
n
= t
n
, and g(x) = dt/dx, then we get
1 n , if
1 n
)] x ( g [
1 n
t
dt t dx
dx
dt
t dx ) x ( ' g )] x ( g [
1 n 1 n
n n n
=
+
=
+
= = =
+ +
} } }
This is not something entirely new as told, but reminiscent of the formula
1
1
n
n
x
x xt
n
+
=
+
}
, and in
fact, has been derived from it.
Page 535 / 681
Page 13
A similar formula is derived from just the definition of integration,
( ) ( ) ' f t f t dt =
}
If we take
, t ax b dt adx = + =
, then,
( ) ( ) ' f ax b a f ax b dx + = +
}
Or,
( )
( )
'
f ax b
f ax b dx
a
+
+ =
}
..(25)
f) If n = -1 in the above,
}
= ) x ( g ln dx
) x ( g
) x ( ' g
Care should be taken to see that g(x) > 0.
If g(x) < 0, - g(x) > 0, so that )] x ( g ln[ dx
) x ( g
) x ( ' g
dx
) x ( g
) x ( ' g
=
=
} }
.
Hence,
'( )
ln | ( ) |
( )
g x
dx g x
g x
=
}
..(26)
I) tanxdx=-ln|cosx|
}
(27)
Put cos x = t, so that x sin
dx
dt
dx
x cos d
= = ,then we have
sin 1
tan
cos
x dt
xdx dx dx
x t dx
= =
} } }
Alternatively, direct we can have .
( ) cos sin
ln cos
cos cos
d x x
dx x
x x
= =
} }
with a little bit of practice, (Since ln is defined for +ve values only,
where we have used
dx
x cos d
x sin = , and dt
dt
dx
) x ( f dx ) x ( f
} }
= ,
}
= | x | ln dx
x
1
,and substituted
x sin
dx
x cos d
= (See integration by substitution)
1
ln | | ln | cos | dt t x
t
= = =
}
Page 536 / 681
Page 14
10:Inverse trigonometric functions
g) We know,
1 x ,
x 1
1
x sin
dx
d
2
1
<
,
So,
-1
2
1
sin , 1
1-
dx x x
x
= <
}
..(28)
h) We know,
1 x ,
x 1
1
x cos
dx
d
2
1
<
,
So,
-1
2
-1
cos , 1
1-
dx x x
x
= <
}
(29)
This was expected, for, sin
-1
x and cos
-1
x differ by a constant, /2.
But the constant /2.does not appear if corresponding sides of (12) and (13) are added.
Nothing to worry; since the left sides add up to 0dx
}
which is a constant only. So students are
advised not to panic if the answer provided in any book does not tally with his or her
own answer; as long as they differ by a constant.
i)We know, , R x ,
x 1
1
x tan
dx
d
2
1
e
+
=
So,
-1
2
1
tan ,
1
dx x x R
x
= e
+
}
.(30)
j) We know, , R x ,
x 1
1
x cot
dx
d
2
1
e
+
So,
-1
2
1
- cot ,
1
dx x x R
x
= e
+
}
.(31)
This was expected, for, tan
-1
x and cot
-1
x differ by a constant, /2
k) We know,
[ , 1 ] [ 1 , ] x ,
x 1 x
1
x sec
dx
d
2
1
e
,
Page 537 / 681
Page 15
So,
-1
2
1
sec , ] ,1[ ]1, [
1-
dx x x
x x
= e
}
...(32)
l) We know,
[ , 1 ] [ 1 , ] x ,
x 1 x
1
x ec cos
dx
d
2
1
e
,
So,
-1
2
-1
cos , ] - ,1[ ]1, [
1-
dx ec x x
x x
= e
}
....(33)
This was expected, for, cosec
-1
x and cot
-1
x differ by a constant, /2
11:Functions from Trigonometry.
A few more formula translations for trigonometric functions. Look at the results, already in the
differentiation chapter.
a) We know, x sin
dx
x cos d
= ,Integrating we get,
sin -cos xdx x =
}
... ..(34)
b) Similarly, x cos
dx
x sin d
= gives cos sin xdx x =
}
(35)
c) x sec
dx
x tan d
2
= gives
2
sec tan xdx x =
}
.(36)
d) x ec cos
dx
x cot d
2
= gives
2
cos -cot ec xdx x =
}
.(37)
e) x tan x sec
dx
x sec d
= gives, sec tan sec x xdx x =
}
..(38)
f) x cot ecx cos
dx
ecx cos d
= gives, cosecxcotxdx=-cosecx
}
. (39)
g) cot ln | sin | xdx x =
}
..(40)
Put sin x = t so that x cos
dx
dt
dx
x sin d
= = . we have,
Page 538 / 681
Page 16
} } } }
= = = = = | x cos | ln | t | ln dt
t
1
dx
dx
dt
t
1
dx
x sin
x cos
xdx cot
h) ( ) ( ) x sec
x tan x sec
x sec x tan x sec
x tan x sec
dx
d
x tan x sec
1
| x tan x sec | ln
dx
d
2
=
+
+
= +
+
= +
So we have, ( ) sec ln | sec tan | xdx x x = +
}
..(41)
2
2
2
2tan
2
1
1 tan 1 tan
1 sin
2 2
sec tan tan
cos 4 2
1 tan 1 tan
2 2
1 tan
2
x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
+
+ +
+ | |
+ = = = = +
|
\ .

+
So, , ( ) sec ln | sec tan | ln tan
4 2
x
xdx x x

| |
= + = +
|
\ .
}
..(42)
i)
( ) ( )
2
1
ln | cos cot | cos cot
cos cot
cos cot cos
cos
cos cot
d d
ecx x ecx x
dx ecx x dx
ecx x ec x
ecx
ecx x
=
+
= =
So we have, ( ) cos ln | cos - cot | ecxdx ecx x =

}
.(43)
Derive as above
1 cos
cos cot tan
sin 2
x x
ecx x
x
= = , so that
( ) cos ln | cos - cot | ln tan
2
x
ecxdx ecx x = =
}
.(44)
12:Inverse Circular Functions again, using integration by parts.
The following results are obtained using integration by parts as well as integration by
substitution.
a)
-1 -1 2
sin sin 1- xdx x x x = +
}
.(45)
Page 539 / 681
Page 17
We have,
1
1 1 1 1 1
2 2
sin 1 1 2
sin sin .1 sin 1 1 sin sin
2
1 1
d x xdx
xdx x dx x dx dx dx x x xdx x x
dx
x x

| |
= = = = +
|
\ .
} } } } } } }
}

+ =

2
2
1
x 1
) x 1 ( d
2
1
x sin x = x sin x
1
+
( )
1
1
2
2
1 2
1
1
sin 1
1
2
1
2
x
x x x
+
= +
+
where we have used
( )
2
d 1 x
2x
dx
=
b)
-1 -1 2
cos cos - 1- xdx x x x =
}
.(46)
We have,
1
1 1 1 1 1
2 2
cos 1 1 2
cos cos .1 cos 1 1 cos cos
2
1 1
d x xdx
xdx x dx x dx dx dx x x xdx x x
dx
x x

| |
= = = =
|
\ .
} } } } } } }
( ) ( )
1
1
2 2
2
1 1
2
1 1
1 1
cos cos
1
2 2
1
1
2
d x x
x x x x
x
+

= =
+
}
1 2
cos 1 x x x
=
c)
( )
-1 -1 2
1
tan tan - ln 1
2
xdx x x x = +
}
.(47)
} } } } } }
+
= |
.
|
\
|
= =

xdx
x 1
1
x tan x dx dx 1
dx
x tan d
dx . 1 x tan dx 1 . x tan xdx tan
2
1 1 1 1
) x 1 ln(
2
1
x tan x
x 1
) x 1 ( d
2
1
x tan x
x 1
xdx 2
2
1
x tan x
2 1
2
2
1
2
1
+ =
+
+
=
+
=

d)
2
-1 -1
ln(1 )
cot cot
2
x
xdx x x
+
= +
}
(48)
Page 540 / 681
Page 18
xdx
x 1
1
x cot x dx dx 1
dx
x cot d
dx 1 . x cot dx 1 . x cot xdx cot
2
1
1
1 1 1
+
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =

} } } } }
) x 1 ln(
2
1
x cot x
x 1
) x 1 ( d
2
1
x cot x
x 1
xdx 2
2
1
x cot x
2 1
2
2
1
2
1
+ + =
+
+
+ =
+
+ =

e)
-1 -1 -1
sec sec sin xdx x x x = =
}
, ..(49)
according as ] 1 , ] x , or [, , 1 [ x e e
1
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2 2
sec
sec sec .1 sec 1 1
1
sec sec sec sin
1 1
d x
xdx x dx x dx dx dx
dx
dx
x x xdx x x x x x
x x x

| |
= =
|
\ .
= = =

} } } } }
} }
according as [ , 1 [ x , or ], 1 , ] x e e
f)
-1 -1 -1
cos cos cos ec xdx x ec x x = =
}
.(50)
, according as ] 1 , ] x , or [, , 1 [ x e e

1
1 1 1
1
2
cos
cos cos .1 cos 1 1
1
cos
1
d ec x
ec xdx ec x dx ec x dx dx dx
dx
x ec x xdx
x x
| |
= =
|
\ .
= +
} } } } }
}

x cos x ec cos x
x 1
dx
x ec cos x
1 1
2
1
=
=
}

according as [ , 1 [ x , or ], 1 , ] x e e
13:Integrals of Hyperbolic functions:
a) We know, x h sec
dx
x tanh d
, and , x sinh
dx
x cosh d
, x cosh
dx
x sinh d
2
= = =
So, we have,
Page 541 / 681
Page 19
2
sinh cosh
cosh sinh ........................................................
sec tanh
xdx x
xdx x
h xdx x
=
=
=
}
}
}
(51)
14:Integrals involving logarithms, e
x
cos x ,sin x etc:
}
x
ln| x | dx =x(ln| x | -1) = x(ln| x | -lne) = xln| |
e
.....(52)
ln | |
ln | | ln | | .1 ln | | 1 1
1
ln | | ln | |
(ln | | 1) (ln | | ln ) ln | |
d x
x dx x dx x dx dx dx
dx
x x xdx x x x
x
x
x x x x e x
e
| |
= =
|
\ .
= =
= = =
} } } } }
}
Example10
A polynomial
2
0 1 2
...........
n
n
a a x a x a x + + + + can be integrated term by term
to
2 3 1
0 1 2
...........
2 3 1
n
n
x x x
a x a a a
n
+
+ + + +
+
Exercise2
Integrate
1
x a x b + + +
Hint . Rationalize
( ) ( )
1 x a x b x a x b
x a x b a b x a x b
+ + + +
= =
+ + + + +
Ans.
( )
( ) ( )
3 3
2 2
2
3
x a x b
a b
(
+ +

Exercise3
Integrate ( ) ( ) 2 2 3
x
e x x + . Ans.
( )
2
1 5 2
x
e x x +
Page 542 / 681
Page 20
Exercise4
Integrate
( )
3 2
ln 1 x x + Ans.
( ) ( ) ( )
4 2 4 2
1 1
4 8
1 ln 1 2 x x x x +
Exercise5
Integrate
( )
3
4
1 2x
x
+
. Hint expand and integrate term by term.
Ans.
2
2
36 9 1
8ln
3
x x
x
x
+ +
Example11
2
1
2 2 2
1
1 1 tan
1 1 1
x dx
dx dx dx x x
x x x

| |
= = =
|
+ + +
\ .
} } } }
Exercise6
Integrate
4
2
1
x
x +
. Hint. Divide the numerator by the denominator until it is a proper fraction
( degree of the numerator is less than that of denominator) and then integrate term by term.
4
2
2 2
1
1
1 1
x
x
x x
= +
+ +
Ans.
3
1
tan
3
x
x x
+
Exercise7
Integrate
3 3
2 2
sin cos
sin cos
x x
x x
+
.Hint. Break up into two terms and integrate term by term.
Ans. sec cos x ecx
Example12
Page 543 / 681
Page 21
( )
( )
1
2 2
2
1 sin 2 1 sin 2 sin cos 2sin cos
sin cos cos sin
x dx xdx x x x xdx
x x dx x x
+ = + = + +
+ = +
} } }
}
Exercise8
Show that ( )
1
2
1 cos 2 2 cos x dx x =
}
.Hint.
2
1 cos 2 2sin x x =
Misc. Exercise9
a) Find 1 cos2x +
}
. Ans. 2sin x
b) Find 1 sin2x
}
Ans. sin cos x x +
c) Find
2
1 2sin
cos
x
dx
x
+
}
Ans. 2sec tan x x +
d) Find
1 cos 2
1 cos 2
x
dx
x
+
}
Ans. tan x x
e) Integrate ( )
2
tan cot x x dx +
}
Ans. 2cot 2x
f)
Find
2
cos sin x xdx
}
Ans.
3
cos
3
x
g)
Find
sin
x x
e e dx
}
Ans.
cos
x
e
h)
Find
4
3sin sec x xdx
}
Ans.
3
sec x
i)
2
1
1
x
dx
x
+
+
}
. Ans.
( )
2
1
2 2
ln 1
1 2 1
tan
2 1 1 2
x
x
dx dx x
x x

+
= + = +
+ +
} }
j)
Find
ln x
x
e dx
}
Ans. x
k)
Find
( )
( )
2
1
cos
x
x
e x
dx
xe
+
}
Ans.
( )
tan
x
xe
Page 544 / 681
Page 22
l)
Find
dx
x x +
}
. Ans. ( )
1
2
2 2ln 1
1
dx
x
x
x
= = +
+
}
m)
Find
1 n
n
ax dx
bx c
+
}
Ans.
( )
ln
n
a
bx c
nb
+
n)
Find
1
sin
2
1
x
e
dx
x
}
Ans.
1
sin x
e

o)
Find
1
n
2
1
ta x
e
dx
x
+
}
Ans.
1
n ta x
e

p)
Find
4
2
1
x
dx
x
}
Ans.
1 2
sin x
q)
Find
( ) cos ln x
dx
x
}
Ans.
( ) sin ln x
r)
Find
2
sec
x x
e e dx
}
Ans.
tan
x
e
s)
Find
x x
dx
e e
}
Hint.
1
2
tan
1
x
x
x x x
dx e dx
e
e e e

= =
+ +
} }
= Ans.
t)
Find
( )
2
2
2 2 3
dx
x +
}
, Hint.
2 3 t x = +
, Ans.
1
2 3
sin
2
x
+
u)
Find
( )
2
1 ln x
dx
x
+
}
Ans.
( )
3
1 ln
3
x +
v)
Find
2 1 3
6
tan x x
dx
x
}
Ans.
1 3
1
tan
3
x
w)
Find
tan sec
x x x
e e e dx
}
Ans.
sec
x
e
x)
Find
( ) sin 2 3ln x dx
x
+
}
Ans.
( ) cos 2 3ln x +
y)
Find
2
2
sec
1 tan
xdx
x
}
Ans.
1
sin tan x
z)
Find
2
tan sec x x
dx
x
}
Ans. ( )
2
tan x
Exercise10
Page 545 / 681
Page 23
Integrate
1
3
cos x
x
Hint integrate by parts, 1

st
function
1
cos x
Ans.
2 1
2
1 cos
2
x x x
x

Exercise11
Integrate
( )
3
sin ln x
x
; Hint. Put ln x t = ,
t
x e = ,
t
dx e dt = , Ans.
( ) ( )
2
cos ln 2sin ln
5
x x
x
+
Exercise12
Integrate
3
1
2
3
tan
1 3
x x
x
Ans.
( )
1 2
3
2
3 tan ln 1 x x x
+
Misc. Exercise13
a) Find
cot
lnsin
xdx
x
}
. Hint.
sin t x =
,Ans.
( ) ln lnsin x
b) Find
( ) cos cot sin x x dx
}
, Ans.
( ) ln sin sin x (

c) Find
1 tan
1 tan
x
dx
x
+
}
. Hint
sin
tan
cos
x
x
x
=
,Ans.
( ) ln sin cos x x +
d) Find
2 3
tan x x dx
}
( )
( ) ( )
2 3 3 2
3
3 3
1 1
tan sin 3
3 cos
ln cos ln sec
3 3
x x dx x x dx
x
x x
=
= =
} }
e) Find
( ) cosec ax b dx +
}
Ans.
( )
1
ln tan ax b
a
+
f) Find
( )
2
sec tan sec x xdx
}
Ans.
1 1
ln tan tan
4 2
x
( | |
+
| (
\ .
(differentiate the last function to get the hint)
g) Find
( ) cos cos cot cos ec ecx x ecxdx
}
Hint
cos t ecx =
Ans.
1
ln cot cos
2
ecx
( | |
| (
\ .
Page 546 / 681
Page 24
h) Find
2 2
sin 2
cos sin
xdx
a x x +
}
. Ans.
( )
2 2
ln cos sin a x x
b a
+
i) Find
( )
2
cos 2
sin cos
xdx
x x +
}

Ans. remember one of the 4 forms.
( )
1 1
ln sin cos ln sin cos lnsin lncos
4 4 2 2
x x x x x x
| | | | | |
+ = + = + =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
j) Integrate
3 x
x e Ans.
( )
3 2
3 6 6
x
x x x e +
k) Integrate ln x , ln x x ,
2
ln x x ln
n
x x remember the following
Ans. ( ) ( )
1
ln .1 ln ln ln 1 ln ln ln
x
x dx x x xdx x x x x x x x e x
x e
= = = = =
} }
2 2 2 2
1 1
ln ln ln ln
2 2 4 2 2
x x x x
x xdx x xdx dx x x
x
| |
= = =
|
\ .
} } }
3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2
1 ln 1 ln 1
ln ln ln
3 3 3 9 3 3
x x x x x x x
x xdx x x dx x dxdx dx x
x x
| |
= = = =
|
\ .
} } } } }
4 4 4 4 4
3
1 ln 1
ln ln ln
4 4 4 16 4 4
x x x x x x
x xdx x dx x
x
| |
= = =
|
\ .
} }
By induction,
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1 1 1 1
1
2 2 2
1
ln ln 1 ln 1 ln ln ln
1 1
1 1 1
n n n n n
n n
x x x x x
x xdx x n x x e
n n e
n n n
+ + + + +
+
| |
= = + = =
|
+ +
\ . + + +
}
( )
1 1
2
ln ln .............................................(41)
1
n n
n
x x
x xdx
e
n
+ +
=
+
}
l) Integrate
( ) ln 1 x +
Ans.
( ) ( )
1
ln 1 1 ln
x
x dx x
e
+
+ = +
}
m) Integrate
( ) ln 1 x x +
Ans.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 2 2
2 2
2
2
1 1 1
ln 1 ln 1 ln 1 1
2 2 1 2 2 2 1
1 ln 1 ln 1 1
ln 1 1
2 4 2 2 4
x x dx x dx
x x dx x x x dx
x x
x x x x
x
x x
+ = + = + +
+ +
+ +
= + =
} } } }
n) Integrate
( )
2
ln x x
Page 547 / 681
Page 25
Ans. ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 3
2
2 2 1
ln ln 2ln ln ln
2 2 2 3 3
x x x x
x x dx x x dx x x
| |
= =
|
\ .
} }
o) Integrate ( )
3
ln x x
ans.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
3 3 3 2
2 2 3 2 2 3
3 2 3 2
3
ln ln 3 ln ln
2 2 2
3 1 3 1
ln ln ln ln ln ln
2 2 2 3 3 2 4 2 2 3
x x
x x dx x x x x dx
x x x x x x
x x x x x x
= =
(
| | | |
= = +
| | (
\ . \ .

} }
p) Integrate
1
tan x x
Ans.
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 2
2 2
1 1 -1
1 1 1
tan tan . tan . 1.
2 1 2 2 2 2 1
1 1
tan . tan tan -
2 2 2 2 2
x x x dx
x xdx x dx x dx
x x
x x x x
x x x

= = +
+ +
+
= + =
} } } }
q) Integrate
1
cot x x
Ans.
2
-1 -1
1
cot cot
2 2
x x
x xdx x
+
= +
}
r) Integrate
2 1
tan x x
Ans.
( )
3 3 3
2 1 1 1
2 2
3 2
-1 2
1 1
tan tan tan
3 3 1 3 3 1
1
tan - ln 1
3 6 6
x x dx x x
x xdx x x x dx
x x
x x
x x

| |
= =
|
+ +
\ .
= + +
} } }
s) Integrate
3 1
tan x x
( ) ( )
4 4 4 2
1 3 1 1 2
2 2
4 3 2 4 3
1 1
2 2
4 3 1 -1
1 4 2
1 1
tan . tan tan
4 4 1 4 4 1
1 1 1
tan tan 1.
4 12 4 1 4 12 4 1
tan tan
tan -1 - -1
4 12 4 4 4 4
x x dx x x
x x dx x x x dx dx
x x
x x x x x
x dx x dx dx
x x
x x x x x x
x x x

| |
= =
|
+ +
\ .
| |
= + = +
|
+ +
\ .
= + =
} } } }
} } }
t) Integrate
1
sec x
Ans.
1 1 -1 -1 -1 2
2
sec sec sec - cosh sec - ln -1
1
xdx
xdx x x x x x x x x x
x x

(
= = = +

} }
i.e.,
-1 -1 -1 -1 2
sec sec - cosh sec - ln -1 ..................(53) xdx x x x x x x x
(
= = +

}
Page 548 / 681
Page 26
u) Integrate
1
sec x x
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
2
2 2
-1 -1
1 1
sec sec sec
2 2 2 2
1
-1
sec sec -
2 2
x x dx x x
x xdx x x
x x
x x
x xdx x

= =
=
} }
}
v) Integrate
2 1
sec x x
3 3 3 2
2 1 1 1
2 2
3
1 2
2
3 2 2
1 1
1 1
sec sec sec
3 3 3 3
1 1
1
sec 1
3 3
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
sec . ln cosh
3 3 2 3 2 2 3
x x dx x x dx
x xdx x x
x x x
x dx
x x dx
x
x x x x x
x x

= =

| |
= +
|
\ .
+
= +
} } }
} }
w) Integrate
3
cos x x

Ans.
( ) ( )
3 3 2
cos 6 sin 3 2 cos x xdx x x x x x = +
}
x) Integrate cos cos 2 x x x
ans. ( ) ( )
1 1
16 2
3 sin3 cos3 sin cos x x x x x x + + +
y) Integrate
3
cos sin x x x
( )
3 4
1 1
4 128
cos sin cos 12 8sin2 sin4 x x xdx x x x x x = + + +
}
z) Integrate
2
sin
x
x
,
2
2
cos
x
x
ans. cot lnsin x x x + , tan lnsec x x x
exercise14
Integrate
( )
sin
sin
x
x a
Ans. ( ) ( ) ( ) sin ln sin cos a x a x a a +
15:Hyperbolic functions and inverse functions
Remember the hyperbolic functions from the chapter for functions
Page 549 / 681
Page 27
They are sinh
2
x x
e e
x

= , cosh
2
x x
e e
x

+
=
sinh
tanh
cosh
x x
x x
e e x
x
e e x
= =
+
,
cosh 1
coth
sinh tanh
x x
x x
e e x
x
e e x x
+
= = =
2 1
sec
cosh
x x
hx
e e x
= =
+
,
2 1
cos
sinh
x x
echx
e e x
= =
+
Also remember,
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 cosh sinh sec h tanh co sec h coth x x x x x x = = + = + ,
( ) sinh sinh cosh cosh sinh x y x y x y + = + , ( ) cosh cosh cosh sinh sinh x y x y x y + = + ,
( )
tanh tanh
tanh
1 tanh tanh
x y
x y
x y
+
+ =
+
etc.
Briefly to remember to replace sin
2
in trigonometric formula by sinh
2
in hyperbolic formulas.
The inverse function formulas were also worked out under the functions chapter.
To remember, for example: let
1
sinh y x
= ,
so that
2 2
sinh 2 1 0 1
2
y y
y y y
e e
x y e xe e x x
= = = = + ,
or,
( )
2
ln 1 y x x = + . But since
2
1 x x + is negative, its logarithm has no meaning. Also we
have
1
sinh y x
= .So
( )
2 1
ln 1 sinh y x x x
= + + = .
Similarly,
( )
1 2
cosh ln 1 x x x
= . But both values are positive here .

1
cosh x
will not be single

valued , hence not a function, if both values are taken. To modify the definition of
1
cosh x
to
make it a function, note that , for 1 x > ,
2
1 1 x x + + > and
( )
2
ln 1 0 x x + + > ; and
2
2
1
1 1
1
x x
x x
+ = <
+ +
, for which
( )
2
ln 1 0 x x + < .Hence the definition of
1
cosh x
is
modified and restricted to its positive values ; i.e.,
( )
1 2
cosh positive values of ln 1 x x x
= + .
Page 550 / 681
Page 28
Now, if
1
tanh y x
=
,
tanh
y y
y y
e e
x y
e e
= =
+
2
1
1
y
y
y
x e
e
x e
+
= =
1
1 1
tanh ln
2 1
x
y x
x
+
= =
The function is obviously defined only for 1 x <

16:Work out the following as exercises and remember
a)
1
1 1
coth ln
2 1
x
x
x
+
=
, defined only for 1 x > ,

b)
2
1
1 1
sec ln
x
h x
x
+
= only for 0 1 x < < and
c)
2
1
1 1
cos ln
x
ech x
x
+
= positive or negative sign is taken as x is positive or negative
respectively, for ,logarithm function is only defined for positive values of the argument.
17:Integration of algebraic and trigonometric functions continued
d)
1
1 ( )
( ) , , -1
1
n
n
ax b
ax b dx if n
a n
+
+
+ =
+
}
.(54)
Put ax b t + = , so that
1
dx dt
a
= ,
so
( ) ( )
1 1
1 ( )
( )
1 1
n n
n n
t ax b
ax b dx t dt
a a n a n
+ +
+
+ = = =
+ +
}
e)
1
ln | ( ) |
dx
ax b
ax b a
= +
+
}
....(55)
( Put n = 1 and prove the above result)
18:Six important integrals using trigonometric transformations
f)
-1
2 2
1
tan
dx x
x a a a
=
+
}
......(56)
Put x = a tan , so that dx/d = a sec
2
, so that we have,
Page 551 / 681
Page 29
} } } }

=
u
=
u
=
+ u
u u
= u u
+ u
=
+ a
x
tan
a
1
a a
d
) 1 (tan a
d sec a
d sec a
a tan a
1
a x
dx
1
2 2
2
2
2 2 2 2 2
g)
2 2
1 -
ln
- 2
dx x a
x a a x a
=
+
}
...(57)
( )
a x
a x
ln
a 2
1
| a x ( | ln | ) a x ( | ln
a 2
1
a x
dx
a x
dx
a 2
1
dx
a x
1
a x
1
a 2
1
a x
dx
2 2
+
= + =
|
.
|
\
|
+
= |
.
|
\
|
+
} } } }
h)
-1
2 2
sin
-
dx x
a
a x
=
}
..(58)
Put x = a sin , so that dx/d = a cos . We have,
i)
2 2
2 2
ln
dx x a x
a
a x
+ +
=
+
}
.(59)
2
= a(1+ tan
2
) = a(1+ x
2
/a
2
), and sec =
a
x a
2 2
+
a
x a x
ln | tan sec | ln d sec
tan a a
d sec a
x a
dx
2 2
2 2 2
2
2 2
+ +
= u + u = u u =
u +
u u
=
+
} } }
Alternatively
Also if you put sinh x a = , so that cosh dx a d = ,
we have
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 sinh cosh a x a a + = + =
1
2 2
1 1
cosh 1 sinh
cosh
x
dx a d d
a a
a x

= = = =
+
} } }
So,
2 2
-1
2 2
ln sinh
dx x a x x
a a
a x
+ +
= =
+
}
.(60)
a
x
sin d
sin a a
d cos a
x a
dx
1
2 2 2 2 2

} } }
= u = u =
u
u u
=
Page 552 / 681

Page 30
It so happens that there is no difference of any constant term between the two methods of
integration.
Similarly, putting sec x a = and cosh x a = in turn
j)
2 2
-1
2 2
-
ln cosh
-
dx x x a x
a a
x a
+
= =
}
.(61)
k)
2 2
2 2 -1
2
- sin 1-
2
a x x x
a x dx
a a a

= +
`

)
}
(62)
Put x = a sin , so that dx/d =a cos . We have,
( )
+ = |
.
|
\
|
u u + = |
.
|
\
| u
+ u =
u u + = u u = u u u =

} } } }
2
2
1
2
1
2 2
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a
x
1
a
x
a
x
sin
2
a
cos sin
a
x
sin
2
a
2
2 sin
2
a
d 2 cos 1
2
a
d cos a d cos a sin a a dx x a
l)
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2
-1
ln
2 2
sinh
2 2
x a x a x x a
a x dx
a
x a x a x
a
+ + +
+ = +
+
= +
}
..(63)
2
, and sec = \(1+tan
2
)=
\( 1+
2
/
2
) We have,

2 2 2 2
sec tan sec tan sec tan sec (sec 1) a d a d
( (
= = =

} }
2 3
[sec tan sec sec a d d +
} } }
u + u + u u u u = | tan sec | ln d sec tan [sec a
3 2
Or, on transposition,
}
u + u + u u = u u |] tan sec | ln tan [sec a d sec a 2
2 3 2
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2
tan sec sec sec sec sec tan sec a x dx a a a d a d a d d
(
+ = + = =

} } } } } }
Page 553 / 681
Page 31
Or, |] tan sec | ln tan [sec
2
a
d sec a dx x a
2
3 2 2 2
u + u + u u = u u = +
} }
a
x a x
ln
2
a
2
x a x
|
a
x
a
x
1 | ln
a
x
a
x
1 [
2
a
2 2 2 2 2
2
2
2
2 2
+ +
+
+
= + + + + =
m)
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2
2 2 -1
-
- - - ln | |
2
- - cosh
2
a x x a
x a dx x x a
a
a x
x x a
a
+
=
=
}
..(64)
Put x =a sec ,so that dx/d = a sec tan , x
2
= a
2
sec
2
=
a
2
(1+tan
2
),0r, a tan = \(x
2
-a
2
)
} } } }
u u u u = u u u = u u u u = d tan sec tan a d tan sec a d tan sec a a sec a dx a x
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
} } }
u u u u u = u u u u u u u = ] d sec sec sec [tan a d ) d tan sec ( sec sec [tan a
2 2 2 2
( ) u + u + u u u u = u u u u =
}
tan sec ln tan sec
2
a
sec tan a ] d sec sec [tan a
2
2 3 2
( )
2 2 2 2
2 2
1
sec tan ln sec tan ln | |
2 2 2
a a x x a
x x a
a

| |
+
= + = |
|
\ .
The process of integrating
} }

2 2
3
a x
dx
, and , xdx sec as done above indicate two special
techniques which can be used as standard tools in such problems. The former hints
at recursion formulae and the latter hint at partial fractions techniques.
Example13
( )
1
sin cos cos sin sin cos sin
dx dx dx
a x b x r x r x r x
= =
+ + +
} } }
,
where
2 2
, tan
b
r a b
a
= + = ,so
( )
1 1
ln tan
sin 2
dx x
r x r

+ | |
=
|
+
\ .
}
.
Example15
Page 554 / 681
Page 32
2
1 cos 2 1 1
sin sin 2
2 2 4
x
xdx dx x x
= =
} }
Example16
( )
3
3 2 2
cos
sin sin 1 cos sin cos sin cos
3
x
xdx x x dx xdx x xdx x = = = +
} } } }
Example17
2
2
cos 2
sin 4 cos 2 cos 2 2sin 2
3
x
x xdx x xdx = =
} }
Example18
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
3
2
1
cos cos 2 cos3 cos cos3 cos3
2
as cos3 4cos 3cos
1 1 1 1
cos cos3 cos 3 cos 3 cos 3 1 cos 6
2 2 4 4
1 1 1 1 1
cos 2 cos 4 cos 6 sin 2 sin 4 sin 6
4 4 2 4 6
1
sin
8
x x xdx x x xdx
x x x
x xdx xdx x x x x dx x dx
xdx xdx dx xdx x x x x
= +
=
= + = + + + (

(
(
= + + = + +
(

=
} }
} } } }
} } } }
1 1
2 sin 4 sin 6
2 3
x x x x
(
+ +
(

Example19
Find
2 2
sec cos
2 2
x x
ec dx
}
Ans.
2 2
2 2
4
sec cos
2 2
4cos sin
2 2
x x dx
ec dx
x x
=
} }
2
2
4 4 cos 4cot
sin
dx
ec xdx x
x
= = =
} }
Example20
Find 1 cos xdx
}
Page 555 / 681
Page 33
Ans. 1 cos 2 sin 2 2 cos
2 2
x x
xdx dx = =
} }
Example20
Find
1 cos
dx
x +
}
Ans.
2
2
sec tan
1 cos 2 2 2
2cos
2
dx dx x x x
d
x
x
| |
= = =
|
+
\ .
} } }
Example21
Find 1 cos xdx +
}
( ) 1 cos 2 cos 2 2 sin
2 2
x x
x dx dx + = =
} }
Example22
Find
1 sin xdx +
}
1 sin 1 2sin cos sin cos 2 sin cos
2 2 2 2 2 2
x x x x x x
xdx dx dx
| | | |
+ = + = + =
| |
\ . \ .
} } }
Exercise15
Find
1 sin xdx
}
Ans.
2 sin cos
2 2
x x | |
+
|
\ .
19:The following three exercises may be worked out and remembered .
Page 556 / 681
Page 34
a)
( )
1
2
2
1
sin
dx bx c
b a
a bx c

+
=
+
}
. (65)
b)
( )
1
2
2
1
sinh
dx bx c
b a
a bx c

+
=
+ +
}
... (66)
c)
( )
1
2
2
1
cosh
dx bx c
b a
bx c a

+
=
+
}
. (67)
Hint. Invoke the formula (46) to (53)
Exercise16
Integrate
3
8
1
x
x +
Ans.
1 4
sinh
4
x
Exercise17
Integrate
2
6 3
2
2 2
x
x x + + +
Ans.
( )
1 3
2sinh 1
3
x
+
Exercise18
Integrate
2
2
1
x
x +
Hint. Make
2 2
1 1 x x = +
Ans.
2
1
1 1
sinh
2 2
x x
x
+

Exercise19
Integrate
2
2
1
x
x
Ans.
2 1
1 cosh
2
x x x
+
Exercise20
Integrate( )
2
2 2 3 1 x x x + + +
Page 557 / 681
Page 35
Ans.
( ) ( )
2 2
1
2 3 1 32 108 61
24
x x x x + + + +
20: The following three exercises may be worked out and remembered
If integration is taken as an operation, integration of e
x
is the same function e
x
. It is like identity
operation or invariant , not changing by integration or differentiation. See the effect when it is
multiplied with some other function.
[ ( ) '( )] ( )
x x
e f x f x dx e f x + =
}
.....(68)
Exercise21
Integrate
1 ln
ln
x
x x
x x e
e e x
x x
+
= +
Ans.
1 ln 1
ln ln
x x x
x x
e dx e x dx e x
x x
+ | |
= + =
|
\ .
} }
Exercise22
Integrate
1 sin 2
1 cos 2
x
x
e
x
+
+
Ans.
2
1
2
tan
x
e x
Exercise23
Integrate
1 sin
1 sin
x
x
e
x
+
.
Ans.
2 2 2 1
2 2 2
2
1 2sin cos 1 sin
tan sec
1 sin 2cos
x x
x x x
x
x
x
e dx e dx e x dx
x
+ +
( = = +

} } }
( )
2
2
[ ( ) '( )] where tan
( ) tan
x
x
x x
x
e f x f x dx f x
e f x e
= + =
= =
}
Exercise24
Integrate
( )
2
1
x
xe
x +
Page 558 / 681
Page 36
Ans.
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
1 1 1
[ ( ) '( )] where
1 1
1 1
( )
1
x
x x
x
x
xe
dx e e f x f x dx f x
x x
x x
e
e f x
x
(
= == + = (
+ +
+ +
(

= =
+
} } }
Exercise25
Integrate
1 sin
1 cos
x
x
e
x
Ans.
2
cot
x
x
e Hint. ( )
2
2
2 2 2
1 sin sin cos , 1 cos 2sin
x x x
x x = =
Exercise26
Integrate
1
2
1 sin
1 cos
x
x
e
x

+
Ans.
1
2
2
sec
x
x
e
Hint.
2
2
1 cos 2cos
x
x + =
Exercise27
Integrate
( )
sin sin
cos
x x x
e e xe
+ Ans.
sin x x
e

Exercise28
Integrate
( )
2
1 1
ln
ln
x
x
(
(
(

Ans.
ln
x
x
21:
Remember the results
Exercise29
Integrate
1 cos
x
x +
, Hint. Put
2
tan
x
t = Ans. ( )
2 2
tan 2ln cos
x x
x +
Exercise30
Page 559 / 681
Page 37
Integrate
1 cos
x
x
, Hint. Put
2
tan
x
t = Ans. ( )
2 2
cot 2ln sin
x x
x +
Exercise31
Integrate
1 sin
x
x +
, Hint. Put
2
tan
x
t = Ans. ( ) ( ) ( )
4 2 4 2
tan 2ln cos
x x
x

+
Exercise 32
Integrate
1 sin
x
x
, Hint. Put
2
tan
x
t = Ans. ( ) ( ) ( )
4 2 4 2
cot 2ln sin
x x
x

+
Exercise33
Find a recursion formula for
n x n x
n n
I x e dx J x e dx
= =
} }
ans.
-1
- -
-1
n x n x
n n
n x n x
n n
I x e dx x e I
J x e dx x e J
= =
= = +
}
}
..(69)
22:Combination of trigonometric and exponential functions
We have already known that trigonometric functions and hyperbolic functions are exponential
functions only . But we seldom use the complex form of trigonometric functions, as their
domain and range are real numbers only , at least, as far as Calculus of real variable is
concerned. An interesting and useful feature is given below, by combining exponential and
trigonometric functions.
2 2
cos( ) sin( )
cos( )
ax ax
ax
ae bx c be bx c
e bx c dx
a b
+ + +
+ =
+
}
. (70)
We have ) c bx sin( b e ) c bx cos( ae )] c bx cos( e [
dx
d
ax ax ax
+ + = +
And ) c bx cos( b e ) c bx sin( ae )] c bx sin( e [
dx
d
ax ax ax
+ + + = +
Page 560 / 681
Page 38
Multiplying the first eqn. throughout by a ,the 2
nd
eqn. by b and adding, we get,
) c bx cos( e ) b a ( )] c bx sin( be ) c bx cos( ae [
dx
d
ax 2 2 ax ax
+ + = + + +
Dividing throughout by a
2
+b
2
and integrating we get,
2 2
ax ax
ax
b a
) c bx sin( be ) c bx cos( ae
dx ) c bx cos( e
+
+ + +
= +
}
This result could be put in another form.
Put a = rcos , and b = rsin ;so that r =\(a
2
+b
2
) and tan = b/a .
2 2
ax ax
ax
b a
) c bx sin( be ) c bx cos( ae
dx ) c bx cos( e
+
+ + +
= +
}
2
2 2
[ cos cos( ) sin sin( ) cos( )
cos( - )
......................
ax ax
ax
e r bx c r bx c e bx c
r r
e bx c
a b

+ + + +
= =
+
=
+
(71)
The last two results are particularly used in case of Alternating Current circuits and
transient (temporary, for very short time) current circuits, i = A cos (bt +c) is represented
by electric current or charge varying in time t, an equation is arrived at by using its
first and second derivatives and involving alternating e.m.f. Transient currents are
represented by i = e
-at
etc. and both cases are covered by
i = e
-at
Cos (bt +c) or by i = e
-a t
sin (bt +c) etc.
Alternative method :
sin( ) sin( ) [sin( )]
sin( ) cos( ) sin( ) cos( )
sin( ) [cos( ) sin( )( ) ]
ax ax ax
ax ax ax
ax
ax
ax ax
d
e bx c dx bx c e dx bx c e dx dx
dx
e e e b
bx c b bx c dx bx c bx c e dx
a a a a
e b
bx c bx c e dx b bx c e dx dx
a a
| |
+ = + +
|
\ .
= + + = + +
= + + + +
} } } }
} }
} } }
Page 561 / 681
Page 39
2
2 2
sin( ) [cos( ) sin( ) ]
cos( )
sin( ) sin( ) ]
ax ax ax
ax ax
ax
e b e e
bx c bx c b bx c dx
a a a a
e be bx c b
bx c bx c e dx
a a a
= + + + +
+
= + +
}
}
On transposing terms,
} }
+
+
= + + +
2
ax ax
ax
2
2
ax
a
) c bx cos( be
a
) c bx sin( e
dx ) c bx sin( e
a
b
dx ) c bx sin( e
Or,
}
+ +
= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
2
ax ax
ax
2
2
a
) c bx cos( be ) c bx sin( ae
dx ) c bx sin( e
a
b
1 Or,
2 2
ax ax
2
2
2
ax ax
ax
b a
a
b
1 a
dx ) c bx sin( e
+
+ +
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
= +
}
Or,
2 2
ax ax
ax
b a
dx ) c bx sin( e
+
+ +
= +
}
....(72)
This result could be put in another form.
Put a = rcos , and b = rsin ;so that r =\(a
2
+b
2
) and tan = b/a
2 2
ax ax
ax
b a
dx ) c bx sin( e
+
+ +
= +
}
r
) c bx sin( e
r
) c bx cos( sin r ) c bx sin( cos r [ e
ax
2
ax
| +
=
+ | + |
= ..(73)
Exercise34
Integrate
2
cos
x
e x
Ans. ( )
1 1
2
1 1
2 2
2 2
2 tan 2 2 tan 2
cos 1 cos 2 cos 1 cos
2 2 5
1 2
x x
x x x
e x e x
e xdx e x dx e

| |
= + = + = +
|
+ \ .
} }
Exercise35
Integrate sin2 sinh2 x xdx . Ans. ( )
1
4
cosh 2 sin 2 sinh 2 cos 2 x x x x
Page 562 / 681
Page 40
Hint. set
2 2
sinh 2
2
x x
e e
x

=
Exercise36
Integrate ( ) cos ln x
Ans. Put ln
t t
x t x e dx e dt xdt = = = = , so,
( ) ( )
( )
( )
1
4
cos tan 1
cos ln cos ln cos cos
2 2
t t
x
x
x x dx e tdt e x
= = =
} }
Exercise37
Integrate
2
sin
x
e x x
Hint.
2 2
sin sin 2 sin
x x x
x e xdx x e xdx x e xdxdx =
} } } }
,
Using
( ) ( )
1
4
2 2
sin tan 1
sin
sin
2
1 1
x x x
x
x
e xdx e e

= =
+
}
complete the exercise.
Exercise38
Integrate ( )
2
sin 3ln x x
Ans. Put ln
t t
x t x e dx e dt xdt = = = = , so,
( )
( ) ( )
4 4 2 2 3 3 3
sin 3 sin 3ln
sin 3ln sin 3 . sin 3
3 2 3 2
t t t t
t x
x x dx e t e dt e tdt e x

= = = =
} } }
Ex: If the function ( ) f x is derivable and ( ) ( ) ( ) f x y f x f y + = , and ( ) ' 0 2 f = show that
( ) 0 1 f = and ( )
2x
f x e =
Ans. Putting 0 x y = = we have, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 0 0 0 0, 1 f f f f = = .
The result ( ) 0 0 f = is not acceptable since , if it is so, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 0 0 0 f x f x f x f f x = + = = =
identically, which is of little further use.
Now, ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 0
1
' lim lim lim ' 0 2
h h h
f x h f x f x f h f x f h
f x f x f x f f x
h h h

+
= = = = =
Page 563 / 681
Page 41
Then,
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
' '
2 2 ln 2
x c x
f x f x dx
dx f x x c f x e Ce
f x f x
+
= = = + = =
} }
,say.
Using ( ) 0 1 f = , we have ( ) ( )
2 2.0
1 0
x
f x Ce f Ce C = = = = . So, ( )
2
1
x
C f x e = =
Exercise39 remember
Integrate
1
1
tan , 1
1
x
x
x

<
+
Ans. Put cos x = , so sin dx d = . Now
( ) ( )
2
1 1 1 2
2
2
1 1 2
1 1 1
2 2 2 2
2sin 1 1 cos
tan tan sin tan sin
1 1 cos 2cos
tan tan sin sin sin cos cos 1
x
dx d d
x
d d x x x

| |

= = |
|
+ +
\ .
(
= = = = +

} } }
} }
Exercise40
Integrate
1
2
sin
1
x x
x
Ans. Put
1
sin x
= , so that sin x = , then cos dx d = . Then

1
2 2
sin sin cos
1 1 sin
x x d
dx
x

=

} }
( ) ( )
2 1
sin cos 1. cos sin cos 1 sin d d x x x

= = = =
} }
Exercise41
Integrate
( )
3
2
1
2
tan
1
n
e x
x
+
Hint. Put
1
tan x
= , Ans.
( )
1
2
cos cot
1
n
e
n
n
+
Exercise42
Integrate
( )
1
2
2
tan
1
n
e x
x
+
; Hint. Put
1
tan x
= , Ans.
1
2
1 1 2
cos 2 tan
2
4
n
e
n n
n

(
| |
+
( |
\ .
+

Exercise43
Page 564 / 681
Page 42
Integrate
( )
1
1
2
sin
2
1
n x
xe
x
, Hint. Put
1
sin x
= , Ans.
( )
1
2
sin cot
1
n
e
n
n
+
Exercise44
Integrate
( )
1
1
2
2 sin
2
1
n x
x e
x
, Hint. Put
1
sin x
= , Ans.
1
2
1 1 2
cos 2 tan
2
4
n
e
n n
n

(
| |

( |
\ .
+

Exercise45
Integrate
( )
3
2
1
2
tan
1
x x
x
+
Hint. Put
1
tan x
= , Ans.
1
2
tan
1
x x
x
+
Exercise46 remember the following
Integrate
2 2
a x
x
Ans.
2 2
2 2
ln
a a x
a x a
x

+
Exercise47
Integrate
( )
2 2
ln x x a + + Ans.
( )
2 2 2 2
ln x x a x a x + + +
Exercise48
Integrate
( )
2 2
ln x x x a + + Ans.
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 1
1 1
2 4
ln sinh
x
a
x x x a x x a a

+ + +
Exercise49
Integrate
x
a x +
Ans. Put
2
sinh 2 sinh cosh x a t dx a t tdt = =
( )
( )
2
2
2
sinh
2 sinh cosh 2sinh cosh 2 1 sinh 2
2 1 sinh
x a t a
dx a t tdt a tdt a t dt t at
a x a t
= = = =
+ +
} } } }
Page 565 / 681
Page 43
Exercise50
Integrate
1
sin
x
a x
+
Hint. put
2
tan x a t =
Ans. ( )
1
tan
x
a
a x ax
+
Exercise51
Integrate
x a
x
+
Ans. Put
2
tan x a = ; Ans. ( )
4 2
tan sec ln tan a a

+ +
Last but not the least, if you are not confident of result of any integration, or do not
understand the process for some reason, just differentiate the result . If you get back your
problem alright, your answer is correct, Sheer common sense!
23:Integration of Rational Algebraic Functions
We have seen that polynomials or finite power series are easily integrated term
by term. Now rational algebraic functions such as
( )
( )
P x
Q x
where degree of the
numerator is less than that of the denominator and in the domain of definition
(
( ) 0 Q x =
excluded) can be expanded into converging infinite power series,
and then it can be integrated easily term by term, and it would be a convergent
series of course. So we may break up the rational algebraic function into
partial fractions, each of which can be expanded into a converging power
series and such fractions may thereafter be added term by term to be
integrated finally. A brief review of partial fractions already treated under the
chapter for functions is recounted here.
24:Partial fractions in integration:
(We have already dealt partial fractions under functions chapter in detail. This was with a view to
show that all smooth functions can be expressed as converging infinite power series; as it is a sum
of its partial fractions and each partial fraction is nothing but a convergent infinite power series. Now
repeating the topic with a different intention, to facilitate integration of rational algebraic functions,
for each partial fraction can be easily integrated , the result as a logarithmic function in general, so
that the sum of the partial fractions can be integrated easily.)
Page 566 / 681
Page 44
Remember an important example |
.
|
\
|
+
} } }
a x
dx
a x
dx
a 2
1
dx
a x
dx
2 2
. Let us try another example
}
+ +
+ +
dx
2 x 3 x
6 x 6 x
2
2
. The expression can be written as
) 2 x )( 1 x (
4 x 3
1
+ +
+
+ .The fraction part of it could be
identically written as
) 2 x )( 1 x (
4 x 3
2 x
B
1 x
A
+ +
+
+
+
+
Or, 4 x 3 ) 1 x ( B ) 2 x ( A + + + + , Or, 4 x 3 ) B A 2 ( x ) B A ( + + + + . Equating the coefficients of the variable x
from both sides(take values x = - 1 and x = - 2 in turns) , we get two equations A+B = 3 and
2A+B = 4, which, on solution give, A = 1 and B = 2 . So,
}
+ +
+ +
dx
2 x 3 x
6 x 6 x
2
2
} } }
+
+
+
+ =
2 x
dx 2
1 x
dx
dx which
can be easily integrated.
In a general way,
In First Step a rational function f(x) = g(x) / h(x) (where g(x) and h(x) are finite expressions in
x and its powers) should be divided off to make it a proper fraction form, i.e., in such a manner
that degree of g(x) should be less than that of h(x). Then the denominator should be
factorized. The topic has been dealt in detail in the chapter for functions and is being briefly
recapitulated here.
Rule 1:
The for each non-repeated real factor of 1
st
degree in x, ax + b type, a fraction A / (ax + b) may
be taken, as the partial fraction, where A is a constant to be determined.
Rule 2:
When some linear real factor appears in repetition in the denominator such as
2
) a x ( , two
constants A and B may be taken or two fractions
2
) a x (
B
a x
A
may be taken. Take an example

}
+
+
dx
) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
3 x
2
.Let
2 x
C
) 1 x (
B
1 x
A
) 2 x ( ) 1 x (
3 x
2 2
+
+
=
+
+
.Or,
) C A 2 B ( x ) C 2 _ A ( x ) C A ( ) 1 x ( C B ) 2 x )( 1 x ( A 3 x
2 2
+ + + + = + + + = +
Equating the coefficients of like powers of x from both sides, we get
A + C = 0, A - 2C = 1 and B - 2A + C = 3 which gives A= 1/3, B = 4 and C = - 1/3.Now the
function can be easily integrated.
Rule 3:
When the denominator contains some real irreducible quadratic factor, say, ax
2
+ bx +c, we take a
fraction like
2
ax bx c
Ax B +
+ +
For example, take
}
+ + ) 5 x )( 1 x (
xdx 5
2
where
2
5 x +
is irreducible.
Let
5 x
C Bx
1 x
A
) 5 x )( 1 x (
x 5
2 2
+
+
+
+
=
+ +
,Or, ) C Bx )( 1 x ( ) 5 x ( A x 5
2
+ + + + =
Page 567 / 681
Page 45
Or, ) C A 5 ( ) C B ( x ) B A ( x x 5
2
+ + + + + = ,Or, A = -5 /6, B = 5/6, and C= 1/6.Now the equation could be
easily integrated.
There is no point calling the fraction as partial fractions. But it is customary and the nomenclature
should be maintained.
Sometimes you have to simplify both sides using binomial or multinomial theorems to collect the
square, cube or fourth powers terms of x, involving long expressions. Since the identity is satisfied
for whatever value of x, it is also satisfied while x tends to some limit , 0 or as suitable.
Now, After decomposing any integrand which is a rational algebraic function, we get partial fractions
of the types as mentioned below. In principle, if we learn to integrate these partial fractions, our
integration is just the sum of integrations of these partial fractions.
a) Partial fraction of the type
L
ax b +
where the linear factor is not repeated
The integration is evidently ( ) ln
Ldx L
ax b
ax b a
= +
+
}
..(47)
b) Partial fraction of the type
( )
n
L
ax b +
where the linear factor is repeated
The integration is evidently
( )
( )
( )
1
1
1
1
n n
Ldx L
for n
a n
ax b ax b

= =
+ +
}
(48)
c) Partial fraction of the type
2
2
Lx M
Ax Bx C
+
+ +
To integrate the partial fraction with irreducible quadratic in the denominator, we may express
the numerator as linear function of the derivative of the quadratic
2
2 Ax Bx C + + or, 2 2 Ax B + .
That is, set ( ) 2 2 Lx M Ax B + = + + . linear function of 2 2 Ax B + ,in terms of , and
some constants to ne determined . The purpose is evidently to change the independent
variable from x to 2 2 y Ax B = + so that the integrand becomes
( )
2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2
d Ax B Lx M dx
dx
Ax Bx C Ax Bx C Ax Bx C

+ +
= +
+ + + + + +
} } }
The first integrand in the right becomes
( )
2
ln 2 Ax Bx C + + . The , expressing
2
2 Ax Bx C + + as
sum of two squares
2
2
2
1 B AC B
x
A A A
(
| |
| |
(
+ + |
|
|
(
\ .
\ .

, we can integrate the second integral, i.e.,
Page 568 / 681
Page 46
-1
2 2
2 2
2
2
1 1
tan
2
- -
-
dx dx Ax B
Ax Bx C A
AC B AC B
B AC B
x
A A
+
= =
+ + (
| |
| |
(
+ + |
|
|
( \ .
\ .

} }
..(49)
,
completing the integration. We have tacitly assumed
2
AC B is positive, as the quadratic
2
2 Ax Bx C + + is irreducible.
Note. Some formulae derived have been highlighted in bold; but given no formula number. It
indicates that you need not remember the formula. Not that it is unimportant, rather more
important than other numbered formulae; but you are advised to follow the procedure of
deriving these formula while working out problems rather direct apply the formulae themselves.
This would create too long expressions to work out easily. Examples below shall illustrate.
It remains to determine the constants , and
. Because
( ) 2 2 Lx M Ax B + = + +
is an identity, we have
2 , 2 L A M B = = +
, by equating the
coefficients of corresponding terms from both sides of it, so that
,
2
L AM BL
A A

= =
Exercise52
Integrate
3
5 2x
Ans. ( )
3
2
ln 5 2x
Exercise53
Integrate
2
7 2x
Ans. ( ) ln 7 2x
Exercise54
Integrate
( )
2
2
7 2x
Ans.
( ) ( )
2 1
2 1 2 7 2 7 2 x x
=
+
Exercise55
Integrate
2
1
3 4 x x + +
Ans.
1
2 3 2
7 7
tan
x
+
Exercise56
Integrate
2
2
2 3
x
x x
+
+ +
Ans.
( )
2 1
1 1 1
2 2
2
ln 2 3 tan
x
x x

+
+ + +
Exercise57
Integrate
2
2 3
3 4 5
x
x x
+ +
Ans.
( )
2 1
13 3 2 1
3
3 11 11
ln 3 4 5 tan
x
x x

+
+ +
Exercise58
Page 569 / 681
Page 47
Integrate
2
2
1
1
x
x
+
Ans.
1
ln
1
x
x
x
+
+
Exercise59
Integrate
3
3
3
3
x
x x
+
Ans.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
2 2
ln 1 3 ln 3 1 3 ln 3 x x x x + + + +
Exercise60
Integrate
2
1
1 x
Ans.
1
2
1
ln
1
x
x
+
Exercise61
Integrate
( ) ( )( )
1
1 2 3 x x x + + +
Ans.
( ) ( )
( )
1
2 2
1 3
ln
2
x x
x
+ +
+
Exercise62
Integrate
( ) ( )( )
2
1 2 3
x
x x x + + +
Ans. ( ) ( ) ( )
9 1
2 2
ln 1 4ln 2 ln 3 x x x + + + +
Exercise63
Integrate
( ) ( )
2
3
1
1 1 x x x +
Ans.
( )
( ) ( )
2
7ln 1 ln 1
1 1 1
2ln
2 1 2 4 4
x x
x
x x x
+
+
Exercise64
Integrate
( )( ) ( )
2
1 2 3
x
x x x
+

Ans. ( ) ( ) ( )
3 5
2 2
ln 1 4ln 2 ln 3 x x x +
Exercise65
Integrate
( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
1 2 4 x x x +
Ans.
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
4
1
2
ln 4
3ln 1 ln 2 7 tan 1
5 1 25 8 400 200
x
x
x x
x
+

+ +
Exercise66
Integrate
2
2
3 6
2 3
x x
x x
+

Ans. ( ) ( )
3 2
ln 3 1 x x x + +
Exercise67
Integrate
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( )
1 2 3
1 2 3
x x x
x x x
+ + +
+ + +
Ans.
( )
( ) ( )
3
5
2
12ln
1 3
x
x
x x
+
+
+ +
Exercise68
Page 570 / 681
Page 48
Integrate
( )
3
2
2
x
x +
Ans. ( )
4
4 2
2
x x
x
+
+
Exercise69
Integrate
( )( )
2
1 5
x
x x + +
Ans.
2
1 5 1
6 6
5
ln tan
1 5
x x
x

+
+
+
Exercise70
Integrate
( )( )
2
2 2
1
1 4
x
x x
+

Ans.
5 1
12 3
2 1
ln ln
2 1
x x
x x

+ +
Exercise71
Integrate
5
3 2
2 5 6
x
x x x +
Ans. ( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
32 248 1 1
3 6 15 10
9 ln 1 ln 2 ln 3 x x x x x x + + + +
Exercise72
Integrate
( ) ( )
2
1
x a x b +
Ans.
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )( )
2 2
ln ln
1
x a x b
x b a b
b a b a
+

+ +

Exercise73
Integrate
( )( )
2
2
2
7 1
1 1
x x
x x x
+
+ +
Ans.
1
4
3
2 1 3
tan
3 1
x
x

+
Exercise74
Integrate
( )( )
2 2
1
1 1 x x x x + + +
Ans.
2
1 1
1 1
4 2 2 3
1 2 1 2 1
ln tan tan
1 3 3
x x x x
x x

+ + + | |
+ +
|
+
\ .
Exercise75
Integrate
3 2
1
x
x x x + + +
Ans.
2
1
1 1
2 2
1
ln tan
1
x
x
x

+
+
+
Easy Substitutions
Exercise76
Integrate
( )( )
( )( )
2 2
2 2
1 2
3 4
x x
x x
+ +
+ +
Hint. put
2
y x = Ans.
1 1
2
3
tan 3tan
2 3
x x
x

+
Exercise77
Integrate
2
4 2
2
x
x x +
Hint. put
2
y x = Ans.
1 2 1
6 2
1
ln tan
1 2
x x
x

+
+
Page 571 / 681
Page 49
Exercise78
Integrate
( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2
x
x a x b + +
Hint. put
2
y x = Ans.
( )
1 1
2 2
1
tan tan
x x
a b
a b
a b

Exercise79
Integrate
( )
3
2
1
1 x x +
Hint. put
2
1 y x = + Ans.
( )
( )
2
2 2
1 2
ln 1 2ln
1 2 1
x x
x x
+ + +
+ +
Exercise80
Integrate
2
2 2
cos
4sin cos
+
Ans. ( )
1
1 2
3 3
tan 2tan

Exercise81
Integrate
( )
2
1
1 x +
Hint. put
2
1 1
, x y dy x dx
x x
| |
= = +
|
\ .
Ans.
1
1
2
1
tan
2
x
x

Exercise82
Integrate
2
4
1
1
x
x

+
Hint. put
2
1 1
, x y dy x dx
x x
| |
= = +
|
\ .
Ans.
2
2
1 2 1
ln
2 2 2 1
x x
x x
+
+ +
Exercise83
Integrate
( )
2
2
1
1 x +
hint. put
2
tan , sec x dx d = = Ans.
1
2
sin 2
2

| |
+
|
\ .
Exercise84
Integrate
2
4 2
4 19
5 14
x
x x
+
+
Ans.
1
3 1 1
7 7 2 2
2
tan ln
2
x
x

+
+
25:Vector integration
Motion of a point P with constant acceleration g
, say, may be given by

2
2
dv d r
g
dt dt
= =

. Integration
gives the velocity
0
dr
v gt v
dt
= = +

,
0
v
being initial velocity, the constant of integration. Integrating

again,
2
0
1
2
r gt t v = +

, choosing the constant of integration 0, or the motion starting from the origin.
Page 572 / 681
Page 50
This is a vector equation of a parabola whose axis is g
and r
is sum of two vectors one varying as

2
t
and the other as t .
Page 573 / 681
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
Page 1
CHAPTER 46:QUADRATURE AND RECTIFICATION AND MECHANICS OF ROTATION
1:AREAS OF BOUNDED REGIONS.
The concept that definite integral ( )
b
a
f x dx
}
is the area of the curve region bounded by the curve ( ) y f x = ,
the x = axis, and the ordinates at t a = and at t b = opens up many possibilities. [Similarly the area bound by
the curve ( ) x g y = , y axis , and the abscissa y c = and y d = is given by ( )
d
c
g y dy
}
.]. Simply speaking,
the concept of area of a rectangle of 5 units of length and three units wide comes from the concept of unit
area of a square of length and breadth each one unit. Since there are
5 x 3 square units in the rectangle, its are is 15 units. Because multiplication of length and breadth gives the
number of squares of unit area each enclosed in the rectangle it is natural to choose the unit of area as the
square of unit area of length. That is for sake of economy of fundamental units and with a purpose to
remind us always that area is a product of length and breadth, even though the concept of area is a totally
different concept from the concept of length.
This is about area of a rectangular region. What about are of a region bound by say a circle, ellipse,
or some curve of irregular shape ? To copy the figure on a graph paper and count the number of complete
squares inside the boundary of the figure and add half the number of squares on the boundary not lying
completely inside the figure is an answer too simplistic. We have to take graph paper of smaller squares for
better accuracy. In the process reducing the size of the squares makes them invisible too fast before we get
a fair idea of the area. Here the definite integral comes to our rescue. We can take the definite integrals of
the upper curve ( )
b
a
F x dx
}
and the lower curve ( )
b
a
f x dx
}
between the ordinates at the two points of
intersection and their difference gives us the fairly accurate idea about the area enclosed between the two
curves.( see the figure)
We would look at the subject from two angles.
x
O
y
x=a
x=b
y=F(x)
y=f(x)
Page 574 / 681
Page 2
One, how to calculate the area, especially when two branches of the curve are represented by the same
equation ( ) y f x = . Evidently ( ) y f x = is not a single valued function, or not a function in strict sense of
the term. For example, the lower half and upper half of a circle between two extremities x a = and x a =
are represented by the same equation
2 2 2
x y a + = . If this is how we can compute the area of circle, ellipse
etc, we no more shall need counting the small squares of the graph papers inside the figures.
Secondly, The area is not the area in the sense of geometry as we understand. If the function ( ) y f t =
stands for speed at a point of time t, the area gives the total distance travelled in time t. If the function
represents the variable force plotted against displacement , the area gives the work done by the variable
force between the initial and final displacements, as we have see in the previous chapter. In the first part of
this chapter we would discuss computation of area under various curves and their intersections and in the
second part, we would compute different physical quantities represented by the areas of integration
respectively
Example1
Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (2, 2), (3, 1) and (1, 0) using definite integrals of the st lines
joining pairs of points.
Area of ABC = area of ABD + area DBCE Area of ACE.
Equations of st lines AB , BC and CA are ( ) 2 1 y x = , 4 y x = and ( )
1
2
1 y x = respectively.
Hence the area of ABC =
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 3
2 3 3 2 2 2
1
2
1 2 1 1 2 1
1 3
2 1 4 1 2 4
2 2 2 2 2
x x x
x dx x dx x dx x x x
( ( (
+ = + =
( ( (

} } }
O
A(1, 0)
B(2, 2)
C(3,10)
D(2, 0) E(3,0)
X
Y
Page 575 / 681
Page 3
Example2: Area inside the ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ =
To find the area OAB, in the region the function is single valued,
The area is
2 2 2 2
2 2 1
0 0
0
sin
2 2 2 2 4
a
a a
b b x a x a x b a ab
ydx a x dx
a a a a
t t
= = + = = (
(

} }
.Because the graph is
symmetrical about both the axes, total area is ab t . Had the ellipse been a circle, i.e., if a = b , then the
area would have been
2
a t .
Example3: Area common to a circle
2 2
2 x y ax + = and parabola
2
y ax =
First find the intersection of the curves, which is
at the point (a, a) by solving their equations simultaneously.
O
A
B
P
C
O A
B
Page 576 / 681
Page 4
Then area OBPCO =
2
0
2
a
ax x dx
}
. Area OAPCO =
0
a
axdx
}
.The difference of these areas is the area
OAPBO =
( )
3
2
2
2 2
0 0 0 0
2
2
3
a a a a
ax x dx axdx a a x dx a x
(
=
(

} } }
Put sin , cos a x a dx a d u u u = = , 0 u = when a x = ,
2
t
u = when 0 a = ,so that the above becomes
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
0
2 2 2
cos
3 4 3 4 3
a a a
a d a
t
t t
u u
| |
= =
|
\ .
}
.
The area inside the parabola intercepted by the circle is
2 2 2
2 3 2
4 3 4 3
a a a
t t
t
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
Example4
Find the area of the region bounded by interception of two parabolas whose equations are
2
y x = and
2
x y = . We can set the latter equation y x =
First find the points of intersection of the two parabolas, as (0, 0) and (1, 1).
The area of the region OAPB = area of OAPC area of OBPC =
3
2
1
1 1 3
2
0 0 0
2 2 1 1
3 3 3 3 3
x
xdx x dx x
(
= = =
(

} }
.
Observe some trick employed here.
O X
P(1, 1)
Y
y x =
A
B
C
2
y x =
Page 577 / 681
Page 5
Example5
Find the area of the region bounded by the curve ( )
4 2 5
2 a y a x x =
The curve is symmetrical about the x axis as it does not change replacing y by y , and meets the x
axis at x = 0 and at x = 2a. So the area of the loop
5
2
2 2
2
0 0
2
2 2
a a
ydx x a xdx
a
=
} }
Put
2
2 sin , 4 sin cos x a dx a u u u = = , Now 0 u = when x = 0 and
2
t
u = when x = 2a. The integral becomes
( )
5
2 2
5
2 5 2 6 2 2 2
2
0 0
2 5 3 1 1 5
2 sin 2 cos 4 sin cos 64 sin cos 64
8 6 4 2 2 4
a a a d a d a a
a
t
t
u u u u u u u u t = = =
} }
Example6
Find the area of the region common to the circles
2 2 2
2 x y + = and ( )
2
2 2
2 2 x y + =
The second circle is same as the first with the same radius and the centre displaced to (2, 0) and the two
circles intersect at the points
( ) ( )
1, 3 1, 3 and .Also the second circle passes through the origin.
(Draw the figure) . The area is given by ( )
1 2
2
2
0 1
2 4 2 4 x dx x dx
(
+
(

} }
( ) ( )
1 2
2
1 2 1
1 0
1 1 2 1 1 8
2 2 4 2 sin 2 4 sin 2 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 3
x x
x x x x
t

( | | (
= + + + =
| ( (
\ .
Complete the
exercise.
O
X
Y
Page 578 / 681
Page 6
Example7
Find the area of the loop of
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
x x y a x y + = and the region bound between the curve and its
asymptote.
The st line x a = is the asymptote to the curve and the loop is extended from 0 x = to x a = an the curve is
symmetrical about the x axis. The equation can be written as
a x
y x
a x
=
+
, i.e.
a x
y x
a x
=
+
from 0 x =
to x a = and
a x
y x
a x
=
+
from x a = to 0 x = .
So the area of the loop is
( )
( )
2
2 2 2 2
2 2
0 0 0
1 4
2 2 sin sin 2 1
2 2 2
a a
x a x
a x
x dx dx a d a a
a x
a x
t
t t
u u u
| |
= = = =
|
+
\ .
} } }
putting sin x a u = , cos dx a d u u =
Similarly, the area between the curve and the asymptote is given by
( )
( )
2
0 0 0
2 2 2 2
2 2
1 4
2 2 sin sin 2 1
2 2 2
a a
x a x
a x
x dx dx a d a a
a x
a x
t
t t
u u u

+ | |
= = + = + =
|
+
\ .
} } }
putting sin x a u = , cos dx a d u u =
O
X A
B
C
x a =
x a =
Page 579 / 681
Page 7
example8
Compute the area of the region in the first quadrant enclosed by the parabolas
2
2 y ax = ,
2
2 x ay = and the
circle
2 2 2
3 x y a + = .
We have to find the area OAB. The point A is intersection of
2
2 y ax =
and
2 2 2
3 x y a + = , which is found to be at x = a. The y value need not be found out. The point B would be
intersection of
2
2 x ay = and
2 2 2
3 x y a + = and its abscissa is x = 2 a . Again the ordinate need not be
found out; since we have only to know the limits within which the integrals are to be computed.
The area OAFO = area OAC area OFC =
2
0
2
2
a
x
ax dx
a
| |
|
\ .
}
The area FAB = area CABD area CFBD =
2 2
2 2
3
2
a
a
x
a x dx
a
| |
+
|
\ .
}
.
The required area OAB is sum of these two , i.e.
2 2 2
2 2
0
2 3
2 2
a a
a
x x
ax dx a x dx
a a
| | | |
+ +
| |
\ . \ .
} }
3
2
2
3 2 3
2 1 2 1
0
2 3 2 3 1
2 3 sin sin
3 6 2 2 6 3 2 3 3
a a
a
x x a x x
a x a x a
a a a

| |
( (
= + + = +
|
( (
|

\ .
Complete the exercise by using
( )
1 1 1 2 2
sin sin sin 1 1

=
O X
Y
2
2 y ax =
A
B
C
2
2 x ay =
D
F
Page 580 / 681
Page 8
Exercise1
Compute the area of the region bound by ( )( ) 2 1 y x x = + and the x axis.
Ans.
9
2
Exercise2
Compute the area of the region enclosed by
2
, 0, 1 y x y and x = = = . Ans.
1
3
Exercise3
Compute the area of the region enclosed by the parabola
2
8 y x = and its latus rectum
Exercise4
Compute the area of the region enclosed by the curve
x
y e = , x axis and the ordinates at x = 1 and x = 2.
Ans.
2
e e
Exercise5
Compute the area of the region enclosed by the parabolas,
2
4 y ax = and
2
4 x by = .
Exercise6
Compute the area of the region bound by the cycloid ( ) sin x a u u = , ( ) 1 cos y a u = and the x axis
between [0, 2 ] u t = . This is a curve on a circumference of a circle rolling on a st line.
Hint ( ) ( )
2
2 2
0
1 cos 1 cos 3 a d a
t
u u u t =
}
Ans.
2:Area bound by a closed curve described by one parameter.
In almost all the examples above, the integrand was double valued; for example, the ellipse having its major
axis on the x axis and the origin inside the ellipse. To avoid ambiguity, we took one fourth of the ellipse,
where the function is single valued , computed the area in the 1
st
quadrant and multiplied it with 4 to get the
total area enclosed by the ellipse utilizing symmetry in x axis and in y axis. What could have we done if
the ellipse had been entirely in the 1
st
quadrant , like this in the figure below? had we not taken account of
Page 581 / 681
Page 9
this symmetry, there could have been confusing result 0 also instead of true area as we are dealing with
functions which are not single valued.
If we take the curve represented by parametric equations ( ) ( ) , x f t y t = = ,of a single parameter t,
we may make the function single valued from A to C, C to B, B to Q and from Q to A, through a complete
cycle. But integration of ydx , or ( )
dx
y t dt
dt
for that matter may still lead to fallacious results. The situation
indicates that we should have sign convention of some sort for areas of integration, so that they wont
cancel out. If the curve is supposed to be traced anticlockwise from A to C, C to B , B to Q and Q to A , the
area enclosed is always on the opposite side of the area under the curve and as such may be taken
( )
2
1
t
t
dx
y t dt
dt
}
where the range of the parameter
1 2
[ , ] t t describes the entire curve. Similar consideration under
the same sign convention would also give the area as
( )
2
1
t
t
dy
x t dt
dt
}
. Since both of these may have parts of
them cancelling out, the sure bet would be ( ) ( )
2 2
1 1
1
2
t t
t t
dy dx
x t dt y t dt
dt dt
| |
|
|
\ .
} }
since the regions of cancellation in
either calculation are different. The proof needs serious analytical approach and is beyond the scope of the
book. The informal discussion is given to facilitate understanding. the idea may still be more clarified
referring to the concept of curl of a vector area and Greens theorems. Again, this consideration would be
valid only when the graph is only a single loop. For a double loop, the areas of each single loop may be
calculated separately and added thereafter.
Note. for brevity, the area of a closed figure having only a single loop, we have
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
t t t t
t t t t
dy dx
A x t dt y t dt xdy ydx
dt dt
| | | |
= = | |
| |
\ . \ .
} } } }
O
A
B
C
P
Q
D E F G X
Y
Page 582 / 681
Page 10
Example9
Compute the area of the ellipse cos , sin x a t y b t = =
Ans. ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 2
0 0 0
1 1
cos sin
2 2
dy dx
A x t dt y t dt ab t t dt ab
dt dt
t t t
t
| | (
= = + =
| (
\ .
} } }
Example10
Compute the area enclosed by the asteroid
2 2 2
3 3 3
x y a + =
Ans. The parametric equations are
3 3
cos , sin x a t y a t = = , 0 2 t t s s .
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 3 2 3 2
0 0 0
1 1
cos 3sin cos sin 3cos sin
2 2
dy dx
A x t dt y t dt a t t t t t t dt
dt dt
t t t
| |
= = +
|
\ .
} } }
2 2
2 2 2
0
1 3
3 sin cos
2 8
a
a t tdt
t
t
== =
}
Exercise7
Compute the area inside the loop of the curve given by
( ) ( )
2 2
1 , 1 x a t y at t = =
where 1 1 t s s . Ans.
2
8
15
a
.
Exercise8
Compute the area inside the loop of the curve given by
3 4
, 1 x t t y t = = .
Hint. Find the range of t for the loop first. Ans.
16
35
Exercise9
Compute the area inside the two wings of the butterfly sin , sin 2 x a t y b t = = .
Page 583 / 681
Page 11
Hint the curve has two loops, 0 t to t = and 2 t to t t = . find the area of each and add
them.
Ans.
8
3
ab
Exercise10
Compute the area inside the cardioid ( ) ( ) cos 1 cos , sin 1 cos x a t t y a t t = + = +
Hint. consider for the interval [0, ] t t e and double the integral.
Ans.
2
3
2
a t
Exercise11
Compute the area enclosed by the curve
3 3
cos , sin x a t y b t = = Ans.
3
8
ab t
Exercise12
Compute the area enclosed by the curve cos sin x a t b t c = + + , cos sin y A t B t C = + + .
Ans. ( ) aB Ab t .
Exercise13
2 2 3
2 , 2 x t t y t t = = . Ans.
8
15
Exercise14
2 3
1, x t y t t = = . Ans.
8
15
Exercise15
Find the area common to the ellipses
2 2
1 ax by + = and
2 2
1 bx ay + = . Ans.
1
4tan
a
b
ab
Page 584 / 681

Page 12
3:
Area in polar coordinates
If the curve does not loop on itself, i.e., r is single valued function of , the area bound between the curve
and the radius vectors r and r + r is given by
2
1
2
r d
|
o
u
}
taking the limit
0, 0 r o ou
in
( )
2
2
1 1
2 2
r A r r ou o o ou s s +
.See the figure.
Example11
Find the area of the loop of the cardioide
( ) 1 cos r a u =
.
The curve being symmetrical about the x axis, the area is given by
( )
2 2
2
2 2 2 4 2
1
2
0 0 0
3 1 3
2 1 cos 8 sin 8
2 2 4 2 2 2
a
r d a d a d a
t
t t
u u t t
u u u = = = =
} } }
O
X
P(r, )
r
r
Q(r + r, + )
( )
2
2
1 1
2 2
r A r r ou o o ou s s +
Page 585 / 681
Page 13
Example12
Show that the area of the loop of the folium
3 3
3 x y axy + =
.
In polar coordinates the curve becomes
3 3
3 sin cos
sin cos
a
r
u u
u u
=
+
.the area of the loop is
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3
0 0 1
9 sin cos 9 tan sec 3
2 2
sin cos 1 tan
a a a dt
d d dt
t
t
t
u u u u
u u
u u u
= =
+ +
} } }
where
3
1 tan u +
.
which becomes
2 2
1
3 1 3
2 2
a a
t
=
.
Example13
X
O A
P
Page 586 / 681
Page 14
Find the common area between the ellipses
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 , 2 x y a y x a + = + =
.
The area is 8 times the area OAP as the two equations are interchanged as x and y are
interchanged. Solving the equations, we find the point P is
,
3 3
a a | |
|
\ .
. If the equations are transformed
into polar coordinates the 2nd equation becomes
2
2
2 2
2cos sin
a
r
u u
=
+
and the area is
1 2 2 2 2 4 4
2 1
2 2 2 2
0 0 0
1 sec 1
8 4 4 2 2 tan
2 2cos sin 2 tan 2 2
a a a dt
d d a
t
t t
u
u u
u u u

= = =
+ + +
} } }
, putting
tan t u =
.
4:
Rectification: length of plane curves
If
dy
dx
is slope of a tangent to the curve
( ) y f x =
, a small length of tangent may be taken as
2
1
dy
dx
dx
| |
+
|
\ .
so that the length of the curve from x = a to x = b may be given by
2
1
b
a
dy
s dx
dx
| |
= +
|
\ .
}
. Cf course conditions
apply. for example, the curve should not have turned up on itself, the curve should have been differentiable
all through, etc. This is a consequence of the fact that
2
1
ds dy
dx dx
| |
= +
|
\ .
, ds being the diagonal of the right
angled triangle formed by dx anddy .
Example14.
Find the length of the portion of a parabola
2
4 x ay =
from the vertex to one end of the latus rectum.
Ans. Since the parabola extends from the origin upward in the y axis and the end of the latus rectum is
at (2a, a), we have to integrate from x = 0 to x = 2a,
So
2
2
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 1
0 0 0
0
1 1 4
1 1 4 2 sinh
4 2 2 2 2
a
a a a
dy d x x a x x
s dx dx a x dx a
dx dx a a a a
(
| | | | + | |
= + = + = + = (
| | |
\ .
\ . ( \ .

} } }
Page 587 / 681
Page 15
( )
2 2 1
1
2 2 2 sinh 1 2 ln 1 2
2
a a a
a

(
(
= + = + +

, as
( )
1 2
sinh ln 1 u u u
= + +
Example15.
To find the length of the ellipse cos , sin x a y b u u = = .
The length of the ellipse shall be
( )
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0
4 sin cos 4 sin 1 cos
dx dy
a b d a a e d
d d
t t
u
u u u u u u
u u
| | | |
+ = + = +
| |
\ . \ .
} } }
( ) ( )
2 2
1
2 2 2 2 2 4 4 6 6
1 1 1
2 8 16
0 0
4 1 cos 4 1 cos cos cos ......... a e d a e e e d
t t
u u u u u u = =
} }
,
where e is the eccentricity of the ellipse.
The integral can only be computed by expanding .
( )
2
1
2 2 2 2 4 4
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 8 16
0
2 4 6
3 5 1
8 128 512
3.1. 5.3.1.
4 1 cos 1
4.2.2 6.4.2.2
1 ...............
a e d e e e
e e e
t
t
t t
u u
t t t
=
=
}
Exercise16
Find the length of the asteroid
2 2 2
3 3 3
x y a + = from x = 0 to x = a. Ans.
3 2
3
2
ax
Exercise17
Find the length of the catenary cosh
x
y c
a
= from the vertex point (0, c) to any point x = b.
Ans. sinh
b
c
c
4:Simpsons Rule for finding definite integral
More often than not, in practical application, e.g. constructing a bridge, a diversion or a fly over under
constraints of space available and weight bearing capacity etc., the indefinite integral cannot be expressed
Page 588 / 681
Page 16
simply in terms of elementary functions, even the integrand does not take the shape of some elementary
function. There is a beautiful way out, for finding the definite integrals in such cases, of course, with added
advantage in regular cases, e.g. in
2
0
sin xdx
t
}
, where the indefinite integral cannot be expressed in
elementary functions.
A small part of a curve may be considered as a tiny st line, arc of a circle or parabola or any other plane
curve just as well. this is linear or quadratic approximation for small increments of independent variable or
points plotted near to a given point on the curve. Let us take a small part of a given curve as a parabola
2
y a bx cx = + + . Take
2
2
QB y a bt ct = = + + , ( ) ( )
2
1
PA y a b t h c t h = = + + and
( ) ( )
2
3
RC y a b t h c t h = = + + + + , the two ordinates y
1
and y
3
being equally spaced about the middle y
2
.
The area under the curve bound by these ordinates is
( )
2 3 2
2 2
2
2 3 3
t h
t h t h
t h t h t h
bx cx ch
A ydt a bx cx dt ax h a bt ct
+
+ +

( | |
= = + + = + + = + + +
| (
\ .
} }
.(a)
As the ordinates are equally spaced, there is some relation among them, namely
( ) ( )
2 2 2
1 3 2
2 2 y y a bt ct ch y ch + = + + + = +
or,
2 1 3 2
2
2
y y y
ch
+
= (b)
In terms of
1 2 3
, , y y and y this area A becomes,
Simpsons Rule
O X
Y
P
Q
R
A B C
y
1
y
2
y
3
Page 589 / 681
Page 17
( )
2
2 1 3 2
2 1 2 3
2
2 2 4 .............( )
3 6 3
y y y ch h
A h a bt ct h y y y y c
| | + | |
= + + + = + = + +
| |
\ .
\ .
( )
1 2 3
4 ...............................................(1)
3
h
A y y y = + +
Now let ( ) y f x = be the curve in the interval AB , which is divided into 2n equal parts n, being a large
positive integer. Let P
1
, P
2
, P
3
.be the points on the curve corresponding to the points of division
and ( ) ( )
1 2 3 2 1
, , ................
n
f A y y y y f B
+
= = , be the respective ordinates at these points of division. We
can replace the small arcs, P
1
,P
2
P
3
, P
2
,P
3
P
4
, P
3
,P
4
P
5
,etc. by arcs of parabolas, as they are sufficiently
small, and have the following relation as per (c) above.
The area under the curve bound by the ordinates ( ) ( ) f A and f B is I , say,
( ) ( ) ( )
1
1 2 3 2 3 4 2 1 2 2 1 3
4 4 .......... 4
n n n
I h y y y y y y y y y
+
= + + + + + + + + + (

or, ( ) ( ) ( )
1
1 2 1 3 5 2 1 2 4 2 3
2 .... 4 ....
n n n
I h y y y y y y y y
+
= + + + + + + + + + (

( 2 )
In words, Simpsons rule says that the definite integral =
1
3
h times sum of (first and last ordinate) , (twice the
sum of odd numbered ordinates) and (4 times the sum of even number of ordinates)
Exercise18
The following points on a graph paper are joined to make a smooth curve. Find the area under the curve.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1, 2 , 1.5, 2.4 , 2, 2.7 , 2.5, 2.8 , 3, 3 , 3.5, 2.6 , 4, 2.1 Ans. 7.78.
Exercise19
We have
2
1
ln 2
dx
x
=
}
. Find out values of
1
n
n
y
x
= for x
1
= 1, x
2
= 1.1, x
3
= 1.2 x
11
= 2 and find an
approximate value for ln2 using Simpsons rule. Ans. ln 2 0.69315 =
Exercise20
Find an approximate value of t from
1
2
0
4 1
dx
x
t
=
+
}
by finding
2
1
1
n
n
y
x
=
+
for x
1
= 1, x
2
= 1.1, x
3
= 1.2
x
11
= 2. Ans. 3.124
Page 590 / 681
Page 18
5:Centre Of Mass, Centre Of Gravity
If a set of parallel forces act upon a rigidly connected system of particles such as weights
, 1, 2, 3.....
n n
W M g n n = = , ( vector notation for forces is omitted as they are all in the same direction)
situated at points whose position vectors are 1, 2,3.....
n
r n n
= , the system is equivalent to a single

force
1 2
............
n
W W W W = + + acting upon the body through a point whose position vector is
1 1 2 2
..........
n n
r W r W r W r W

= + + + . The system of particles may be replaced by a rigid body of continuous
distribution of matter and the summation can be replaced by an integral
r dW
R
W
=
}
, R
is position vector
of centre of Gravity. Since g is taken constant for bodies of dimensions small compared to the earth , it
cancels out from the equation . The same equation may be written as
r dm
R
M
=
}
, R
is position vector of
centre of mass . The bundle of parallel forces may be supposed to act at R
, where the entire mass may be

thought to have been concentrated. The vector equation is in fact equivalent to three equations
xdm
X
M
=
}
,
ydm
Y
M
=
}
and
zdm
Z
M
=
}
where ( ) , , R X Y Z
= and ( ) , , r x y z
= , coordinates of the points.

Also the equation
1 1 2 2
..........
n n
r W r W r W r W

= + + +
amounts to
1 1 2 2
1 2 1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
..........
.......... ..........
.......... 0
n n
n n n
n n
r M r M r M r M
r M r M r M r M r M r M
r r M r r M r r M

= + + +
+ + + = + + +
| | | | | |
+ + + =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
, i.e.
Algebraic sum of moments of masses about the CM is 0(3 )
Page 591 / 681
Page 19
Example16
In the figure an ellipse is shown with equation
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = with major axis a and minor axis b. Supposing it to
be a lamina of uniform thickness with uniform distribution of mass, let us find out the centre of gravity of the
quarter in the first quadrant.
Take a small stripe at ( )
1
1
2
r r
x x x
+
= + , at the middle point of its extremities at
1 r r
x and x
+
is with
area
r
hy , and mass
r
hy , being uniform density , i.e. mass per unit area and h being width of the stripe
1 r r
h x x
+
= = . This stripe can be replaced by a particle at its middle point
( )
1
1 1
,
2 2
r r r
x x y
+
(
+
(

with the same
mass. so that the centre of mass of the quarter is given by the centre of mass of summation of all such
particles, one for each stripe, 1, 2, 3,..... r n = .The coordinates are
( )
2
1 1
1 2 2
0 0 1 1
1 1
0 0
1
2
, ,
a a
n n
r r r r r
r r
n n a a
r r
r r
xydx y dx
hy x x hy y
hy hy
ydx ydx

+
= =
= =
(
(
+ (
(
(
( =
(
(
(
(

} }

} }
, when n. taking h dx = .
O
X
Y
X
r
X
r+1
Page 592 / 681
Page 20
Now
2 2
0 0
2 2
0 0
4
3
a a
a a
b
xydx x a x dx
a a
b
ydx a x dx
a
t
= =
} }
} }
and
( )
2
2 2 2
2
0 0
2 2
0 0
1 1
2 2 4
3
a a
a a
b
y dx a x dx
a b
b
ydx a x dx
a
t
= =
} }
} }
.
Example17
Find the centre of gravity of a wire in the shape of
3 3
sin , cos x a y a u u = = cut between the axes.
The centre of mass is given by
0 0
0 0
,
a a
a a
ds ds
x dx y dx
dx dx
x y
ds ds
dx dx
dx dx
= =
} }
} }
.
Now
2 2
0 0 0
a
ds ds dx ds
x dx x d x d
dx dx d d
t t
u u
u u
= =
} } }
. But
2 2
4 2 4 2
3 sin cos cos sin 3 sin cos
ds dx dy
a a
d d d
u u u u u u
u u u
| | | |
= + = + =
| |
\ . \ .
So
2 2 2 5 2
2
3 2 5 2
0 0 0 0
sin 3
sin 3 sin cos 3 sin cos 3
5 5
ds a
x d a a d a d a
d
t t t
t
u
u u u u u u u u
u
= = = =
} } }
Page 593 / 681
Page 21
and
2 2 2 2
2
0 0 0 0 0
sin 3
3 sin cos 3
2 2
a
ds ds dx ds a
dx d d a d a
dx dx d d
t t t
t
u
u u u u u
u u
= = = = =
} } } }
.
Now
2
0
0
3
2
5
3
5
2
a
a
ds
a
x dx
dx a
x
a
ds
dx
dx
= = =
}
}
. similarly
0
0
2
5
a
a
ds
y dx
dx a
y
ds
dx
dx
= =
}
}
.
6:Moment Of Inertia And Angular Velocity
a) Angular velocity vector
Suppose a rigid body rotates anticlockwise in the direction represented by the circle in the figure
above. The angular velocity vector is represented by .If O be any point on the axis of rotation OQ
,is taken as the origin and
r
is the position vector of a point P on the rotating body, drop a
perpendicular PQ from P onto OQ. Velocity of the point P is a vector perpendicular to the plane of
the paper and its magnitude is given by PQ = r sin . Then evidently v = e
x
r
...(a)
With a slight modification, v = - r x e
.....(b)
O
Q
P
r
Angular velocity vector
Page 594 / 681

Page 22
just the negative of moment of angular velocity.
Relation between L and , Moment Of Inertia:
Using
d r
v
dt
= and r =
v
e , ( v r

= e ), L r F

=

, and taking

L, r, F, v
as unit vectors in
respective directions, and noting that
, r v L = and
e
L =
,for a rotating body about a fixed axis,
(being unit vectors in the same direction),we have,
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2

0 , ;
d vv d v r d v dmv d v
L r F r mr mr mr r mr r
dt dt dt dt dt
d dv
mr r v mr r mr L mr L I L say
dt dt
e e
e
e o o o

= = = = = =
= + = + = =

as
dv
dt
is parallel to -r , and , .
d
angular acceleration
dt
e
o =
Thus
L I L o
= (c)
is the relation between L and we were looking for, to compare it with F = ma. In parlance,
2
mr I = (d)
is called rotational mass or moment of inertia or rotational inertia.
Since it is a scalar quantity, for rigidly connected mass points we can take summations and
write16(a) as
2
mr I =
..(e).
Integrals would replace summations for continuous distribution of matter in a rigid body rotating
around a fixed axis. Thus,
2
r dm I =
}
..(f)
b) Newtons laws for rotational motion.
The meaning of inertia is clear from Newtons laws for rotation, a rigid body shall continue to rotate
with a constant angular velocity around a fixed axis until acted upon by a net torque. The axis would
not also be disturbed without a net torque. This is the reason when the trainer told to pedal hard
when the bicycle was tilting; to maintain the angular velocity eroded by friction, so that the axis of
rotation is not disturbed by gravity.
Page 595 / 681
Page 23
What about Newtons second law? This is
L I L o
= for fixed axis. We can also include small

rotations of the axis also in this equation. Large rotations are beyond the scope of this book as
they cannot be exactly vector quantities. Angular displacements and velocities for that matter cannot
be regarded strictly as vectors even if they are assigned magnitude and direction. In fact they do not
obey the rule of vector addition. For example, take a parallelepiped , give it two 90
0
rotations, first ,
about a horizontal axis, then about a vertical axis; the resultant position would not be same if the two
rotations are given first about the vertical axis and then about the horizontal axis,(verify). Thus the
commutative law of vector addition does not apply! But nothing to worry as long as the angular
velocity , torque etc are along a particular axis. The vector addition reduces to algebraic addition.
c) Conservation of angular momentum
Centre of mass is a suitable mathematical tool to facilitate use of the principle of conservation of
linear momentum in mechanics ( vide chapters on vectors) . similar is the role of moment of inertia in
connection with the principle of conservation of angular momentum. A circus girl rotation on a disc
stretches her arms to decrease speed of rotation. A diver jumping from a dash board traces a
parabolic path into the waters; somersaults if any do not affect the path.
Example20: Moment of inertia of a thin rod
To find moment of inertia of a thin rod of length 2a centred at the origin and lying in the x axis ,
and uniform mall per unit length about y -axis. A portion of the rod of length dx at a distance x
from the origin has moment of inertia
2
. dx x o . So the moment of inertia is
3 3 2
2
2
3 3 3
a
a
a a
x a ma
x dx
o
o o

(
= = =
(

}
, where m is the mass of the rod.
Example18: Moment of inertia of a disk
O
X
Y
x dx
a
a
Page 596 / 681
Page 24
To find moment of inertia of a thin uniform disk about its diameter ( x axis). Take a stripe with
ordinates at
1
,
r r
x x
+
, its moment of inertia about x axis is
2
2
3
r
r
y
y h as the moment of inertia of a
thin rod of length 2a about an axis at its centre perpendicular to itself is
2
3
ma
, m being its mass and
2a being its length. So the total moment of inertia of the disk about the x axis is
2 1
1
2
3
n
r
r
r
y
y h
. The
equation of the circumference of the disk is
2 2 2
x y a + = , so
2 2 2
y a x = . The infinite summation
may be replaced by the definite integral
( )
3
2
4 2
2 2
2
3 4 4
a
a
a Ma
a x dx
t
= =
}
,
2
a t being its area.
7:Moment of inertia and centre of mass, a relation
Mass points A, B, C. contain masses
1 2
, ........ m m such that the point G is their centre of mass. Show that ,
for any point P, taking the centre of mass as the origin,
( )
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
..... .....
i
m AP m BP m AG m BG m PG + + = + + +

.
We have
( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2 2
2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
..... ..... ......
....... 2 . ....... .......
i i
i i
m AP m BP m AP m BP m p a m p b
p m m a m b p m a m b PG m m a m b
+ + = + + = + +
| | | |
= + + + + + = + + +
| |
\ . \ .

as
( ) 1 2
. ....... 0 p m a m b + + =

by definition of centre of mass and
2 2
2 2
, a a b b = =

etc.
8:Theorems of perpendicular axes and parallel axes
X
r+1 X
r
O
Page 597 / 681
Page 25
a) For a particle of mass m at P(x, y) MI about x - axis is
2
my and that about y axis is
2
mx . Adding
the two gives
2 2 2
my mx mr + = . But this is MI of the particle about the z axis as r is perpendicular to
the z axis. This is true for all points on a laminar body of uniform density. So
x y z
I I I + = , sum of
MI about two mutually perpendicular axes is MI about an axis perpendicular to both the axes. This
is also true for a prism , which can be thought of as many laminas stalked on one another.
b) In a three dimensional body of any shape , for a particle of mass dm at ( ) , , P x y z since
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
z x y
r x y z r dm x dm y dm z dm
x dm y dm y dm z dm z dm x dm I I I
= + + = + +
= + + + + + = + +
} } } }
} } } } } }
or,
2
2
x y z
I I I r dm + + =
}
c) In a three dimensional body of any shape , for a particle of mass dm at ( ) , , P x y z and having centre
of mass at C, at a distance s along x axis . Let the MI about z - axis though O be
O C
P
X
Q
r
s
O
X
Y
P
r
x
y
Page 598 / 681
Page 26
2
2 2 2
2 . 0
c
I r dm s dm CP dm s CPdm s dm I = = + + = + +
} } } } }
, as s is a constant,
2
c
CP dm I =
}
, MI
about CM, and . 0 s CPdm=
}
, being z component of algebraic sum of moments of mass points
around CM.
So
2
c
I I Ms = + , MI about any axis through O is sum of MI about CM, about an axis parallel to that
through O and
2
Ms
This is true for any three dimensional body as we have taken MI about any axis without any
restriction.
The above rules would help calculating MI in regular shaped bodies.
Misc Examples19
a) MI of a thin rod about an axis through an end point.
MI of a rod about an axis perpendicular to it and through its centre was calculated to be
2
3
Ma
when the length of the rod was 2a. Now MI about an axis though endpoint is, if 2 l a = since the
centre is the CM.
b) MI of a rectangular lamina or parallelepiped shaped bar
If the mass of the stripe shown be
M
dm dx
l
= its MI about y axis is
2
M
x dx
l
and so
2 2 3 3 2
2
0 0
2 2 2
3 3 8 12
l l
M M x M l Ml
x dx
l l l
= = =
}
.
O
X
Y
l/2
x
b
dx
Page 599 / 681
Page 27
The MI of the body about the x axis is similarly
2
12
Mb
, b being its width.
MI of the body about the z axis about the CM is given by perpendicular axis theorem,
( )
2 2
12
M l b +
.
MI about one end point is given by parallel axis theorem
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
2
4
12 4 12
M l b M l b
l
M
+ +
+ =
c)
To find MI of a triangular lamina ABC about one of its sides, BC. Take a small stripe parallel to BC at
a distance x from it . The length of the stripe at a distance x from BC is
h x
a
h
. Its mass would be

given by ( )
2
2 M h x M
dm a dx h x dx
h h
= =
A
where
1
2
ha A = is the area of the lamina and its MI
would be ( )
3 4 3 4 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0
2 2 2 2 2
3 4 3 4 6
h h
h h
M M x M x M h M h Mh
x dm h x x dx h h
h h h h h
= = = =
} }
x
dx
y
a
b
x
dx
A
B
C
h
a
Page 600 / 681
Page 28
d) If the lamina is elliptical mass of the shown stripe is 2
M
dm ydx
ab t
= where y is given by
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ =
.and the moment of inertia is given by
2
0
2 2
x a
x
M
MI x ydx
ab t
=
=
= =
}
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2
0 0 0
4 4
1 sin cos cos sin 2 2
4
x a
x
M x M Ma
x b dx a b a d d
ab a ab
t t
u u u u u u
t t t
=
=
= =
} } }
( )
2
2
2 2 2 2
0
0
1 cos 4 2 2 sin 4
4 4 4 4
Ma Ma Ma Ma
d
t
t
u
u
u
u u u u t
t t t
=
=
=
= = = =
}
Similarly MI about x axis is
2
4
Mb
; MI about z axis is
2 2
4
Ma b +
e) MI of a hoop of a circular ring :
If M is the mass of the ring and R be its average radius,
2
MR
about an axis though its centre and
perpendicular to it since all the tiny elements are at the same distance from the centre.
It is the sum of MIs of the ring about two mutually perpendicular diameters by the perpendicular axis
theorem. So moment of inertia about one of the diameters is
2
2
MR
.
f) MI of a hoop of a circular disk :
It is already calculated to be
2
2
MR
about an axis through the centre perpendicular to the disk. By
perpendicular axis theorem, MI of the disk about one of its diameters is
2
4
MR
.
g)
MI of a circular disk with hole
R
x
r
O
dx
Page 601 / 681
Page 29
Let the Mass of the annular disk be M, its outer and inner radii be R and r. A ring of width dx has a mass
( )
2
2
2 2 2 2
2
x dx x M
M
dm xdx
R r R r
t
t
(
+

=
(

and
2
R
r
MI x dm = =
}
3
2 2
2
R
r
M
x dx
R r
}
( )
( )
( )
4 4 2 2
4
2 2 2 2
2
2
4 2 4
R
r
M R r M R r
M x
R r R r
+
= = =

.
if this expression is doubted, for The MI should be MI of the disk of radius R minus MI of a disk of radius
r. Now mass of a disk of radius R is
2 2
2 2 2 2
R M R M
R r R r
t
t
=
(

so that its MI is
( )
2 2 4
2 2 2 2
2 2
R M R R M
R r R r
=

.
Likewise MI of the disk of the size of the hole is
( )
4
2 2
2
r M
R r
and the difference of the two is clearly
( )
2 2
2
M R r +
, so there is no confusion.
MI about a diameter would be
( )
2 2
4
M R r +
as before. MI around a tangent would be
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
2
5
4 4
M R r M R r
MR
+ +
+ = applying theorem for parallel axes.
h)
MI of a cylinder about an axis in its middle and perpendicular to its axis
Suppose the cylinder is of length l, radius R and mass M. Its MI can be found about its
x X
Y
l/2 l/2
O
Page 602 / 681
Page 30
axis treating it as a disk of radius R , i.e.
2
2
MR
. But about any diameter MI is not just half of it ,
unlike the case of thin disk. To calculate, let us take a thin disk of thickness dx at a distance x from
O. Its mass is
M
dm dx
l
= and MI is its MI about its diameter
2
4
M R
dx
l
plus MI of its CM about YY
i.e.,
2
2
0
2
l
x dm
}
=
2 2
0
2
4
l
M R
dx
l
}
+
2
2
0
2
l
x dm =
}
2
2
2
2
0
0
2 2
4
l
l
M R M
x x dx
l l
+ =
}
2
2
4 2
M R l
l
+
2
2
0
2
l
M
x dx
l
=
}
2 2 3
0
2
4 3
l
MR M x
l
+
2 2
4 12
MR Ml
= + .
i) MI of a hollow cylinder about own axis
Regarding it as an annular disk MI =
2 2
2
R r
M
| | +
|
\ .
, R, r being its outer and inner radii.
j) MI of a hollow cylinder middle of it about an axis perpendicular to its own axis.
Instead of
2
4
MR
, we put
( )
2 2
4
M R r +
in case of an annular disk. The same correspondence shall
hold in case of cylinder too. So its MI=
2 2 2
4 12
R r l
M
| | +
+
|
\ .
k) MI of a cone about its vertical axis.
O
R
A
X
X
r
x
dx
h
Page 603 / 681
Page 31
Let a disk of thickness dx at a distance x from the vertex radius r and mass dm. The volume of the disk is
2
r dx t and the volume of the cone is
2
1
3
R h t . If the mass of the cone is M, then
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
3 3 3tan r dx r dx x dx
dm M M M
R h R h R h
t u
t
= = = where tan r x u = . The MI of the disk about the axis of the
cone is
2 4 4 5 4 4 4 2
4
2 2 2 2
0 0 0
3 tan 3 tan 3 tan 3 3
2 2 2 5 2 5 10 10
h
h h
r dm M M x M h MR MR
x dx
R h R h R R
u u u
= = = = =
} }
where tan R h u =
l) MI of a cone about an axis through vertex parallel to its base.
Considering MI of the small disk of thickness dx at a distance x from the vertex about its diameter it
is
2 4
2 4
2
3 tan
4 4
r M
r dx x dx
R h
u
t = , half of MI around the axis of the cone, where is the density
2
3M
R h t
. The density of material is taken as .To this ,
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
3 3tan M x dx
r dx x r dx x Mx
R h R h
u
t t
t
= = must be added to get MI about XX. Total MI would
be integration of this sum. So MI =
4 2 4 5 2 5 2 2
4 4
2 2 2 2
0 0
3 tan 3 tan 3 tan 3 tan 3 3
4 4 5 5 20 5
h h
M M M h M h MR Mh
x dx x dx
R h R h R h R h
u u u u
+ = + = +
} }
.
m) MI of a thin spherical shell
As per perpendicular axes theorem in 3-dimensions , since
,
x y z
I I I I say = = =
by the symmetry of
the shell
2 2 2
3 2 2 2
x y z
I I I I R dm R dm MR = + + = = =
} }
since R is same for all mass elements. So
2
2
3
I MR =
.
As the basic purpose of this chapter is to learn integration more than learning MI, the problem is
solved by integration as follows .
Page 604 / 681
Page 32
Consider a thin ring of width dx in the shell at a distance sin x R u = from the centre. We have
cos , cos y R dx R d u u u = = . Width of the ring is R d . Area of the ring is
2
2 2 cos yRd R d t u t u u = Mass
of this ring is
2
2
2 cos cos
4 2
M M
R d d
R
t u u u u
t
= , and its MI about x axis is
( )
2 2 2
cos
2 2
M M
d y dx R x
R
u u = . The MI of the shell shall be
( ) ( )
3
2 2 2 2
0
2
2 0 0
2 3 3
R
M M R
R x dx R R MR
R R
( | |
= =
( |
\ .
}
.
Note - The manipulation from Cartesian to polar coordinates was done to know exactly the width R d of
the ring . The angle with the vertical was taken to avoid minus sign in differentiation
cos sin
d
R R
d
u u
u
= and finally reverted back to Cartesian coordinates as it was easier to integrate.
Corollary
a)
Show that the perimeter of a circle is
2 R t
. Integrate
2 Rd R
t
u t
u t
=
=
}
(Note that
Rdu is the infinitesimal arc)
b)
Show that the area of a circle is
2
R t
. Integrate
2 2
1
2
R d R
t
u t
u t
=
=
}
(Note that
2
1
2
R du is are of area of the infinitesimal stripe)
Rd
x
dx
R
O X
Y
Page 605 / 681

Page 33
n) MI of a solid sphere about its diameter
If the above figure represents a solid sphere instead of a hollow one, let us take a disk at a distance x from
the centre of thickness dx. Its width Rd is not important to calculate its volume.
Its volume is
2
y dx t , mass is
2
2
3 3
3 3
4 4
M My dx
y dx
R R
t
t
= and MI about x axis is
( )
2 2 5 2
2
2 2 4 2
3 3 3
0 0 0
3 3 3 2
2 2
4 2 4 4 3 5 5
R
R R
My dx y M M x x MR
R x dx R x R
R R R
(
= = + =
(

} }
o) MI of a hollow sphere about its diameter
If a hollow sphere has outer and inner diameters R and r respectively and mass M; its MI must be
difference of MIs of two solid spheres , one of radius R and another solid sphere of radius r. A solid
sphere of radius R would have mass
3
3
3 3
3 3
4
3
4 4
3 3
R M
R M
R r
R r
t
t t
=
and its MI would by

( )
3
5
3 3
2
3 3
2
2
5 5
R M
R M
R r
R
R r
. A solid sphere of radius r has mass

3
3
3 3
3 3
4
3
4 4
3 3
r M
r M
R r
R r
t
t t
=
and has Mi
( )
3
5
3 3
2
3 3
2
2
5 5
r M
r M
R r
R
R r
. Thus MI of the hollow sphere is

( )
( )
5 5
3 3
2
5
R r M
R r
For sake of integration, take a thin shell in the hollow sphere at a distance x from the centre. Mass of
the shell is
2
4 x dx t and its MI is
2 2
4 x dx x t . So MI of the hollow sphere is
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
5
2 2 5 5
0 0
5 5
5 5
3 3
3 3
2 8 8
4
3 3 5 3 5
2
8
4
3 5 5
3
R
R
x
x dx x R r
M R r
M
R r
R r
R r
t
t t
t
t
(
= = =
(

}
p) MI of a fly wheel
Page 606 / 681
Page 34
A flywheel is a hollow cylinder of mass M and outer and inner radii R and r respectively; which is
mounted on a concentric cylinder (axle) of larger length and radius r having mass m. The MI of the hollow
cylinder is
( )
2 2
2
M R r +
and that of the axle is
2
2
mr
so that the MI of the fly wheel is
( )
2 2
2
2 2
M R r
mr
+
+
8:Surfaces and Volumes of Revolution
When the ordinate rotates a complete revolution about the x axis , the curve described a cylinder of some
sort, for, the locus of the tip of the ordinate y describes the circumference of a circle which becomes a small
disk when the ordinate moves from y to y + y. The Curved surface of the disk is 2 ydx t and the volume of
the disk is
2
y dx t . So the surface of revolution is 2
b
a
ydx t
}
and the volume of revolution is
2
b
a
y dx t
}
. Of
course conditions apply, such as the curve should not turn on itself , the curve should not cut the x axis
,etc. If it makes a loop and the curve crosses on the x axis and is symmetrical about the x axis, then the
surface evidently shall become
b
a
ydx t
}
and the volume becomes
2
1
2
b
a
y dx t
}
. Similar expressions for curves
revolving about y axis ( derive as an exercise).
Exercise21
Compute the volume of the solid ( ellipsoid) by revolving the ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = a) about the x axis , b)
about the y axis .
Ans. a)
3
4
3
ab t b)
3
4
3
a b t
Exercise22
Compute the volume of the solid obtained by revolution of the cycloid
( ) ( ) sin , 1 cos x a y a u u u = + = + Ans.
2 3
5 a t
Exercise23
Compute the volume of the solid obtained by revolution of the cycloid ( ) ( ) sin , 1 cos x a y a u u u = + = +
Ans.
2
64
3
a t
Exercise24
Page 607 / 681
Page 35
Compute the volume of the solid obtained by revolution of the cardioid 1 cos r u = + about the x axis .
Hint. (Put cos , sin x r y r u u = = Ans.
3
8
5
a t
Exercise25
Compute the curved surface of the solid obtained by revolution of the cardioid 1 cos r u = + about the x
axis . Ans.
2
32
5
a t
There are two useful and interesting theorems due to Pappus, one about volume of revolution and the other
about the surface of revolution. The surface of revolution of a closed curve about the x axis is given by
the product of length of the curve and the path described by the centroid of the curve, if the curve does not
intersect the x axis . ( Just like area of a trapezium is product of distance between the parallel sides and
the middle length of the other sides.) . Similarly the volume of revolution is given by the product of the area
of the region enclosed by the curve and the path described by the centroid of the region.
9:Calculation of Electric fields, Magnetic inductances etc.
Application of integration for work done under a variable force and potential calculation has been cited in
the previous chapter. Same is the case for magnetic potential and gravitational potentials, the definition is
similar, work done per unit mass instead of charge and work done per unit pole in case of magnetic pole
and the formula respectively for them is employed. But the calculation of integrals remain the same as the
geometry of the figures are same.
Example21
O x
a
dl
2 2
a x +
dE cos
X
Y
P
dE sin
electric field due to a circular conductor
P
B
C
dE
Page 608 / 681
Page 36
To find out the electric field due to a conducting loop ABC at a distance x from the centre of it. Let it carry a
uniform charge per unit length consider a small length dl at A on the conductor having a charge dl . The
electric field dE due to it at P, at a distance x from it is given by
2 2
1
4
dl
dE
a x
tc
=
+
in the direction shown in
the figure. it has two components cos dE u along the x axis and sin dE u perpendicular to the x axis. The
;latter component is cancelled by the perpendicular component of field due to a similar charged small
element dl at B. So the net field calculation reduces to
2
0
cos E dE
t
u =
}
, arithmetic sum, as all of the
elementary field s are in the same direction , i.e. along the x axis. Further
( )
1
2 2 2
cos
x
a x
u =
+
.
Thus
( )
1
2
2
2 2
2 2
0
1
4
a
x dl
E
a x
a x
t
tc
=
+
+
}
, the circle ABC is described as varies from 0 to 2.
Since x and are constants,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 3 3 3
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0
1 1
2
4 4 4 4
a a
x dl x x qx
E dl a
a x
a x a x a x a x
t t

t
tc tc tc tc
= = = =
+
+ + + +
} }
along the x axis, as the total charge q = 2a.
Exercise26
In the above example calculate the potential at the point P.
Ans. Potential at the point is given by
( )
1
2 2 2
1
4
dl
dV
a x
tc
=
+
due to a small length of charge
dl
The total
potential is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0
1 1 1 2 1
4 4 4 4
l l
dl l q
dl
a x a x a x a x
t t
t
tc tc tc tc
= = =
+ + + +
} }
Exercise27
Calculate the electric field and potential at O in the above problem. Hint. put x = 0.
Page 609 / 681
Page 37
otherwise
The magnetic field at O due to the current element
i l A
is
0 0
2 2
4 4
i l idl
dB
a a

t t
A
= =
, a being radius of the circle
downwards into the paper. On integration,
0 0 0 0
2 2 2
2
4 4 4 2
i i l idl i
B dB a
a a a a

t
t t t
A
= = = = =
} } }
Example22:
To find electric field due to semicircular charged wire at its centre.
The electric field E due to acharged element BC of length l in the direction shown has two components,
E
x
=E cos horizontally as shown and E
x
=E sin vertically downwards. The horizontal component
cancels out due to a charged element say BC symmetrically positioned with BC and we need not attend to
the horizontal components and only integrate the vertical components
2 2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 sin
sin sin
4 4 4
y
l
E dE l ad
a a a
t t t
u
u u u
tc tc tc
A
= = = A =
} } } }
0 0 0
sin
4 2
d
a a
t

u u
tc tc
= =
}
where l adu A =
Example23: Magnetic induction due to a straight current carrying conductor.
O
l
d
A
B
C
D
Ex=E cos
Ex=E sin
E
B
C
i
i
i
i
l
O
Page 610 / 681
Page 38
In the figure, let OMN be an infinite conductor ( long st wire) carrying a current i. MN is a small
length dl of the conductor at a distance x from a point P, which is at a distance r from the conductor and at a
distance l = OM from O. Magnetic induction at P due to this small element dl is given by Bio & Savart law,
0 0
2 2
sin cos
4 4
i i dl dl
dB
x x
u o
t t
= = , where
0
is permeability of the medium. The direction of the induction is
into the paper as per right hand rule.
We have
2
tan sec
l
l r r dl r d
r
o o o = = = . So
2 2
0 0 0
2 2
sec cos
cos
4 4 cos 4
i i i r d r
dB d d
x r x r
o o o
o o o
t t o t
= = = , since cos
r
x
o = .
In integration , | | ( )
0 0 0
cos sin sin sin
4 4 4
i i i
d
r r r
u
u

o o o u
t t t
= =
}
if varies from to .
Example24
Find the magnetic induction in the above example if the wire is infinitely long.
Ans. In this case = 90
0
, = 90
0.
So
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0 0 0 0 0 0
sin sin sin90 sin 90 1 1
4 4 4 2
i i i i
r r r r

u
t t t t
= = =
Example25
O P
M
N
x
d
r
Page 611 / 681
Page 39
Calculate the electric potential at P due to a straight charged conductor such as one given above, if charge
per unit length in the wire is .
The electric potential at P due to the charged element MN having charge l is
0
1
4
l
dV
x
tc
A
= .For
integrating we need change the variables l and x as
2
tan sec
l
l r r dl r d
r
o o o = = =
and sec x r o = ; so that
2
0 0 0
1 sec
sec
4 4 sec 4
l r d
dV d
x r
o o
o o
tc tc o tc
A
= = = .On integration,
0 0
0 0
sec ln tan
4 4 4 2
tan
4 2
ln tan ln tan ln
4 4 2 4 2 4
tan
4 2
V d

t o
o o
tc tc
t
t t
t tc tc

( | |
== = +
| (
\ .
| |
+
|
( | | | |
\ .
= + + =
| | (
| |
\ . \ .
+
|
\ .
}
exercise28
Calculate the electric field at P due to a straight charged conductor such as one given above, if charge per
unit length in the wire is .
Hint . use field formula
2
0
1
cos
4
x
dl
dE
x
o
tc
= since vertical component cancels out by a similar charge
element below the horizontal line.
Page 612 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
Page 1
CHAPTER 49:2
ND
ORDER LINEAR DIFF EQNS AND CENTRAL FORCES
1:Linear differential equations with constant coefficients
Linear differential equation of order n is something like
( )
1
0 1 1 1
.......
n n
n n n n
d y d y dy
a a a a y f x
dx dx dx

+ + + + = where the coefficients
0 1 1
, ,.... ,
n n
a a a a
are
constants. The problem would be much simplified by putting
d
D
dx
= and exploring
algebraic properties of D enables us to use it as an operator. Our equation can be
written as ( )
1 2
1 2 1
..................... 0
n n n
n n
L y D p D p D p D p

( = + + + + + =

, dividing it by
0
a
throughout ,D called the differential operator , obeying
2 3
2 3
2 3
,
d d d d d d d
D DD D DDD
dx dx dx dx dx dx dx
= = = = = = etc.
Note that ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
L y y L y L y o | o | + = + , as ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
D y y D y D y o | o | + = + ,
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
1 2 1 2
D y y D y D y o | o | + = + , ( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 3
1 2 1 2
D y y D y D y o | o | + = + etc. can easily
be proved using properties of differential coefficients.
A solution of the homogeneous linear equation ( ) 0 L y = is may be added to a
solution of ( ) ( ) L y f x = and the result is a solution of ( ) ( ) L y f x = ; for, a 0 can always
be added to it always. Since a solution of ( ) 0 L y = contains as many arbitrary constants
as required in the solution of ( ) ( ) L y f x = , the general solution of ( ) ( ) L y f x = , would
be any particular integral of ( ) ( ) L y f x = added to the general solution of ( ) 0 L y = .
Before playing with the operator D, let us observe it a little closely.
Example1
Calculate ( ) ( )
2
2 3 4 5 sin D D D x +
Page 613 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 2
We have
( )
2
2
2
sin sin
4 5 sin 4 5sin 4sin 4cos
d x d x
D D x x x x
dx dx
+ = + =
Then ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 3 4 5 sin 2 4sin 4cos 3 4sin 4cos 20cos 4sin
d
D D D x x x x x x x
dx
+ = =
Example2
Show that ( )( ) ( ) ( ) D D y D D y o | | o for any constants , o | .
We have( )
dy
D y y
dx
| | = .
Then
( )( ) ( )
dy d dy dy
D D y D y y y
dx dx dx dx
o | o | | o |
| | | | | |
= =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
( ) ( )
2 2
2
2 2
d y dy dy d y dy
y y D D y
dx dx dx dx dx
| o o| o | o| o | o|
| |
( = = + + = + +
|

\ .
similarly it could be shown that ( ) ( ) ( )
2
D D y D D y | o o | o| ( = + +

Example3
Extension of the above
From the above example , there is no harm writing
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
1 2 1
......... .....
n n n
n n
F D D p D p D p D p D D D D o | _

= + + + + + =
where , , ,....... o | _ are the roots of ( )
1 2
1 2 1
......... 0
n n n
n n
F z z p z p z p z p

= + + + + + =
treating the operator D algebraically at par with numbers. The last equation is called the
characteristic equation or the auxiliary equation.
Example4
Next step is to solve
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
1 2
1 2 1
......... ..... 0
n n n
n n
F D D p D p D p D p D D D D o | _

= + + + + + = =
Page 614 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 3
First solve the equation ( ) 0 ln
x
dy dy
D y y dx y x y e
dx y
o
o o o o = = = = =
avoiding the integration constant for simplicity. For, we would add a complementary
integral to the solution which would take care of the arbitrary constants.
So the solution of
( ) 0 F D =
is
1 2
.........................
x x x
n
c e c e c e
o | _
+ + +
2:Case of Repeated Roots
In the event a root of
( ) 0 F D =
is repeated, regular procedure would not give two
arbitrary constants So we proceed as follows. Let
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )( )
2 2
0 0 0 F D D D D y D D y o o o o = = = = (let ( ) D y z o = )
( )
( ) ( )
1 1 1 1
1 1 2 1 2
x x x x x
x x x
dz dy dy
z z c e D y c e y c e e e y c
dx dx dx
d
ye c ye c x c y c x c e
dx
o o o o o
o o o
o o o o

= = = = =
= = + = +
So the two solutions are
1
x
y c e
o
= and ( )
1 2
x
y c x c e
o
= + .
The roots of the auxiliary equation would be real or in conjugate imaginary
pairs. If the roots are real it is all right. If two roots are conjugate imaginary pairs, let
i o | + and i o | be two conjugate roots of
( ) 0 F D =
. The corresponding solutions are
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) | |
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
cos sin cos sin
cos sin cos sin
x i x x i x x i x i x x
x x
y y c e c e e c e c e e c x i x c x i x
e c c x i c c x e m x n x
o | o | o | | o
o o
| | | |
| | | |
+
+ = + = + = + + = (

= + + = + (

The solution is real solution since arbitrary constants
1 2
, c c may be so chosen as to
make m and n real numbers.
Example5
Extension of the above
Page 615 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 4
If a root of the characteristic equation is repeated r times, then
( )
1
1 1
.........
x r
r r
e c c x c x
o
+ + + , would be the solution corresponding to the real repeated

roots and if the imaginary roots are repeated r times, then
( ) ( )
1 1
1 1 1 1
......... cos ......... sin
x r r
r r r r
e p p x p x x q q x q x x
o
| |

(
+ + + + + + +

would be the
solutions corresponding to it.
Now we are in a position to solve the problems of
simple harmonic motion , transient currents , population growth etc.
3:Simple harmonic motion : An example of linear Diff. Eqn with constant
coefficients
The differential equation for SHM is
2
2
d x k
x x
dt m
= = . meaning thereby that the
restoring force ( negative of displacement) due to elasticity is proportional to
displacement. The constant of proportionality k is called the spring or elasticity constant.
For simplicity, take
k
m
= . The equation may be written
( )
2
0 D x + = . The auxiliary
equation is
2
0 n + = the roots of which are i
.
A general solution as
( ) ( ) cos sin
i t i t
x ae be a b t i a b t

= + = + + may be taken. We may put

( ) cos , sin a b A i a b A c c + = = as a and b are arbitrary constants, so that the
general solution becomes
( )
cos x A t c = + ( )
4:Interpretation
A is the numerically greatest value of x called amplitude of SHM where x varies from
A to A . The motion repeats itself periodically after time period
2
T
t
= as
( ) ( )
cos cos 2 x A t A t c t c = + = + + . The reciprocal of time period
1
f
T
= or time
taken for a complete revolution is the number of revolutions per unit time and is called
Page 616 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 5
frequency of oscillation. [The equation of motion may also be written as
( )
sin x A t q = + if we choose
2
t
q c = + .] The initial position of the particle at t = 0 is
0
cos x A c = . It is the projection of radius A of a circle in a a fixed direction , the radius
making an angle while revolving around the center of the circle. Thus , if the particle is
executing SHM along a diameter of a circle of radius A, we imagine it is the projection of
a particle at the tip of the radius moving around the circle; so the angle is called the
phase angle. (The circle of reference may be called the auxiliary circle)In view of
( )
2
cos 2 cos x A t A t
t
t c c
( | |
= + + = + +
( |
|
(
\ .
, we have
2 2
, T say
T
t t
e
= = =
where e may be called the angular velocity of the tip of the radius going round the
auxiliary circle, as it describes an angle of 2t during a the time for a complete revolution
T . Since
1
f
T
= ,
2
2 f
T
t
e t = = . Moreover, as
2
T
t
e = , eis seen to be a constant, i.e.,
the auxiliary particle executes a uniform circular motion of constant speed Ae ( radius
times angular velocity) around the circle and as such the projection of a particle on a
diameter executing a uniform circular motion is SHM. Differentiating
( )
cos x A t c = +
gives
( ) sin cos
2
dx
v A t A t
dt
t
e e c e e c
| |
= = + = + +
|
\ .
or the phase of
velocity may be said to be ahead of the phase of displacement by
2
t
. Differentiating
again, ( )
2
2
2
cos
dv d v
a A t
dt dt
e e c = = = +
2
A x e = ( )
2
cos A t e e c t = + + which means the
phase of acceleration is ahead of the phase of displacement by . Replacing by
k
m
,
we have
1 1
2 2
k
f
T m
e
t t
= = = . It increases as stiffness of the spring or inversely as
mass as common sense dictates.
5:For better clarity we may take a reverse view of the problem
Page 617 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 6
1) Assume a solution A sin (et + ) of the differential equation y
m
k
dt
y d
2
2
=
and show that actually it is one. Interpret the result in connection with
circle of reference.
( yes, we assume solutions by reasonable guess from the experience of solutions of
known differential equations and determine the constants, boundary values etc.
afterwards from the conditions imposed. Imagine how you divided a number by another
number in long division, just assuming a quotient at each step by trial and error method)
Refer to the circle of reference as above (see the figure in the side) and consider its
diameter BB perpendicular to AA. Drop perpendicular QR onto BB and call the
distance
OR = y = r sin (u + ) = r sin (et + ).
It is easily seen that
dt
dy
= - re cos (et + ).and
2
2
dt
y d
= - re
2
sin (et + ) = - e
2
y.
Thus the required function y = A sin (et + ) satisfies the differential equation if r = A
and
m
k
= e .
R
B
A
B
A
O
P
Q
u
u + u
u
S u
r
Page 618 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 7
Show that y = A cos (et + ) + B cos (et + ) is a solution of the differential
eqn. y
dt
y d
2
2
2
e = . Show that this as superimposition of two SHMs and find the
resultant amplitude and phase angle.
We have, on differentiating y = A cos (et + ) + B cos (et + ) ,
dt
dy
= - Ae sin (et + ) - Be sin (et + ) .
by further differentiating,
2
2
dt
y d
= -Ae
2
cos (et + ) - Be
2
cos (et + ) = - e
2
y.
Thus it is seen that the given function is a solution of the
differential equation. Evidently if two SHMs of same frequency and different amplitudes
y
1
= A cos (et + ) and y
2
= B cos (et + ) are added up every instant we see y = y
1
+
y
2
, i.e., superposition of two SHMs. We can make an idea of addition of SHMs from the
following figure where a point mass of mass m is being acted upon simultaneously by
two horizontal springs of same k both springs in the same line ( it might suffice
requiring only same k/m; but one point cannot have two different masses at the same
time).
Resultant Amplitude and phase :
We have y = A cos (et + ) + B cos (et + ) ,.(A)
m
k
x
x = -A x = 0 x = A
B
Page 619 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 8
Or, y = A cos et cos - A sin et sin + B cos et cos - B sin
et sin
Or, y = (A cos + B cos ) cos et - ( A sin + B sin ) sin et
Putting A cos + B cos = C cos c and
A sin + B sin = C sin c (B)
we get, y = C cos c cos et - C sin c sin et = C cos (et + c)..(C)
To find C and c , we may square up and add the two expressions in (B) to get,
(A cos + B cos )
2
+ (A sin + B sin )
2
= C
2
cos
2
c + C
2
sin
2
c
or, A
2
+ B
2
+ 2AB cos ( - ) = C
2
and tan c =
+
+
cos B cos A
sin B sin A
The amplitudes are added just as if they are vectors with magnitudes A
and B and directions as angles and measured counterclockwise from a
fixed st.line both being in a plane, in case both the SHMs are along the
same line.
In particular,
a) if = then C = A + B , and c = = ;
b) if - = t/2,
2 2
B A C + = , tan c =

+
sin B cos A
cos B sin A
c ) if - = t, C = A B , and again c = = ;
It is observed that different phase angles do affect the resultant amplitude .
d) if A = B, and - = t, the last case shows resultant amplitude is 0 ; i.e.,
there is no motion at all.
Page 620 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 9
3) Show that y = A cos et + B sin et is a solution of the differential
eqn. y
dt
y d
2
2
2
e = . and represents an SHM . Find resultant amplitude and
phase.
We have, y = A cos et + B sin et
Or,
dt
dy
= - Ae sin et + Be coset
Or,
2
2
dt
y d
= -Ae
2
cos et - Be
2
sin et = - e
2
x
Thus it is seen that the function satisfies the differential equation.
Amplitude and phase :
If we put A = C cos c and B = - C sin c ,
y = C cos c cos et - C sin c sin et = C cos (et + c)
where resultant amplitude is given by C =
2 2
B A + and phase angle c is
given by tan c = - A/B.
(Compare the result with case b) of the above example; = 0 and = t/2.)
If phase angles are different in the constituent SHMs i.e., if we take
y = A cos (et +) + B sin (et +) ,
then , the resultant motion shall be given by
y = = C cos (et + + c)
and the amplitude and phase shall be given by C =
2 2
B A + and tan ( + c) = - A/B
Thus any combination of sine and cosine functions of time with same
frequency can again be a sine or cosine function. In other words, any finite
Page 621 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 10
number of SHMs of the same frequency combined together give rise to a
single SHM of the same frequency.
4) SHMs of different frequencies in the same if added , do not result
in SHMs. But SHMs of two frequencies can be added if the difference is
small. This gives rise to phenomena of beats in theory of sound.
Suppose two SHMs given by x
1
= A cos (e
1
t +
1
) and x
2
= B cos (e
2
t +
2
)
body are executed on the same in the same line where = e
2
- e
1
which is small
compared to e
2
or e
1.
The resultant motion is given by x = x
1
+ x
2
= A cos (e
1
t +
1
) + B cos (e
2
t +
2
)
= A cos (e
1
t +
1
) + B cos (e
1
t + t +
2
)
= A cos (e
1
t +
1
) + B cos (e
1
t + ), where t +
2
=
(say).
= C cos (e
1
t + c) ; where,
the resultant amplitude is,
) t cos( AB 2 B A C
1 2
2 2
+ + + = , where -
1
= t +
2
-
1,
and total phase angle is given by tan c =
) t cos( B cos A
) t sin( B sin A
2 1
2 1
+ +
+ +
The motion is approximately an SHM ,given by C cos (e
1
t + c), as the
amplitude slowly varies with time with a period
t
=
2
T =
2 1
2 1
1 2
1 2
1 2
T T
T T
T
1
T
1
1
2 2
1 2
=
t
e
t
e
=
e e
t
which is large as is small. Phase is
also periodic with the same period
t 2
.Frequency of this oscillation is
t
=
2
f =
t
e e
2
1 2
=
1 2
1 2
f f
2 2
=
t
e
t
e
,difference of the two frequencies. Again, if
Page 622 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 11
G is GCD of T
1
and T
2
and L is LCM of T
1
and T
2
, then let T
1
= Gt
1
, T
2
= Gt
2
,
2 1 2 1
2 1
2
2 1
2 1
t t
L
Gt Gt
t t G
T T
T T
T
= the time period T is proportional to LCM of T

1
and T
2
.
This is explanation of the phenomenon of beats in theory of sound (similar to
interference phenomena of light waves). What we hear is sound energy only and
this energy, or to be more exact, the intensity of sound energy is proportional to
square of amplitude and the latter varies with time slowly, undergoing maximum
and minimum values.
Simply speaking : let there be two time periods of SHMs, T
1
= 6 seconds and
T
2
= 7 seconds respectively along the same st. line and these two are
superimposed on a single body .Let the corresponding frequencies be f
1
=
6
1
Hz
and f
2
=
7
1
Hz respectively; neither being equal to the natural frequency of the
body under forces. This could be possible by processes of coupling or forced
vibrations. For the time being, let us not bother about the process but just
assume superimposition of the two SHMs. Considering the periods , the
resultant period would be easily seen to be T = 42 seconds; just the LCM of
the two periods; so that the frequency is
6
1
Hz -
7
1
Hz =
42
1
Hz , just the
difference of the two frequencies.
5) Motion of a point mass vertically hanging from a mass less spring:
Page 623 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 12
Let a body of negligible dimensions and of mass m be suspended from a
spring of length l from a rigid support. Assume the spring is having practically no
mass, for sake of simplicity. The weight mg elongates the spring a through a
length say Al,
So mg = kAl
when the mass is supposed to be in equilibrium under the weight and the
restoring force of the spring, (k being the spring constant). If the mass is
drawn a further small distance x below this level, a restoring force k(Al + x) must
act on the mass opposite to the direction of mg and the net force on it shall be
F = k(Al + x) + mg = mg kx + mg = kx
Thus it is seen that the restoring force is negative proportional to the
elongation of the spring and hence it is a case of SHM. In this case SHM is
set up only if the spring is disturbed a little ( drawn through a little distance x)
beyond the length l + Al of the spring elongated by the weight of the mass m.
otherwise the spring is at equilibrium with elongation Al under the effect of weight
of the mass m. It may be seen that
l
mg
k
A
= and frequency, time period etc can be
l l+Al
Al m
m
x
Page 624 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 13
calculated from this relation Time period
g
l
2
k
m
2 T
A
t = t = and frequency
l
g
2
1
T
1
f
A t
= = . Amplitude is a matter of choice as it is the maximum value of x.
There is a natural tendency to confuse Al as amplitude; but there is no such fact.
The spring characteristics such as the spring constant , e, f, T etc. are
independent of amplitude.
6) The differential equation
2
2
d x
x
dt
= may also be solved in alternative manner.
Since the second differential coefficient of sine and cosine functions
are negatives of themselves, we can straight write a solution
cos sin x A t B t = + where A and B are arbitrary constants to be
determined.
7) In still another manner, multiplying both sides by 2
dx
dt
we have,
( )
2
2
2 2 2
2
2 2
d x dx dx dx
x x C A x
dt dt dt dt

| |
= = + =
|
\ .
writing
2
C A =
so
2 2
dx
dt
A x
=
.
The standard integration of which yields
1
cos
x
t
A
c
= + ,or,
( ) ( )
cos cos
x
t x A t
A
c c = + = + .
6:Natural frequency
Returning to the importance of frequency in such type of motion called SHM, it is
observed that the frequency is independent of amplitude A or r in this case no
matter how far the mass point attached to the spring is pulled away from the rest
position, it would be vibrating same number of times in one second ! Extending
the analogy a little further and quite reasonably so, every matter has some
Page 625 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 14
elasticity and thus it is always vibrating with its natural frequency, which
depends only upon its mass and force constant; even if it is at rest, it vibrates in
the same frequency with zero amplitude.
7:Graphs of displacement, velocity and acceleration and energy :
O
a
-X
A
-A
t
t = t/ 2e
t = t/ e
t = 3t/ 2e
t = 2t/ e
Acceleration- time graph for a = -A e
2
cos (et + )
Just the same graph with acceleration coordinate - e
2
times the displacement coordinates . It appears as if the
D-t graph is dislocated to the right by t = t/e; described
to be behind in phase with D-t graph by t.
O t
Energy-time graph for x = A cos (et + ) for = 0
t = t/ 2e
t = 3t/ 2e
t = 2t/ e
E= kA
2
=K(E)+P(E)
P(E)= kx
2
= k A
2
cos
2
et
K(E)= mv
2
= m A
2
e
2
sin
2
et
t = t/ e
E
O
A
-A
t
Displacement time graph for x = A cos (et + ) for = 0
t = t/ 2e
t = t/ e
t = 3t/ 2e
t = 2t/ e
x
Page 626 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 15
8:Damped SHM
If the particle executing SHM moves through air resistance or inside a
viscous fluid medium, the SHM is damped. We shall assume the damping force per
unit mass proportional to velocity of the particle
dx
dt
, retarding it( called damping
constant). So the equation
2
2
2
d x k
x x x
dt m
e = = =
becomes
2 2
2 2
2 2
0
d x dx d x dx
x x
dt dt dt dt
e e = + + =
..( 1)
We may assume a trial solution
mt
x Ce =
; differentiating twice we get
( )
2 2
0 D D x e + + =
,or,
2 2
0 m m e + + = as the auxiliary equation, the roots of which
are
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
1 1
1 2 2 2
4 , 4 m m e e = + = .
Write them as
2
2
1 1
1 2 2 2
,
4
m m i ip
e = = , assuming the damping factor to be

a small positive number and putting
2
2
4
p
e = , for sake of brevity,

we have
1 1
2 2
1 2
t ipt t ipt
x Ce C e
+ =
= + which can be put in the form
O
v
Ae
-Ae
t
Velocity time graph v = - Ae sin (et + ) = Ae sin (et +t/2. Just
the same graph with velocity coordinate - e times
the displacement coordinates . It appears as if the D-t graph is
dislocated to the right by t = t/2e; described to be behind in
t = t/ 2e
t = t/ e
t = 3t/ 2e
t = 2t/ e
Page 627 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 16
( )
1
2
cos
t
x Ae pt
= + .(2 )
putting ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
cos , sin C C A i C C A c c + = = since
1 2
, C C are arbitrary
constants.
This is the same equation as ( ) cos x B pt c = + with amplitude
1
2
t
B Ae

=
logarithmically decreasing with time; with time period
2
2
2 2 2
4
p
t t t
e
e
= ~
if is
small.
We can write frequency
2 2
2
1 1 1
2 4 2 4
k k c
f
T m m m
t t
= = = where c may be taken
as damping constant independent of mass.
9:Critically damped SHM
When is not necessarily small and
2
e = , we have the two roots of the auxiliary

equation equal, so it does not give two solutions
1 1
2 2
1 2
t ipt t ipt
x Ce C e
+ =
= + for two
arbitrary constants required. we may proceed as per the procedure to be adopted for
equal roots case and take the general solution ( )
1 2
t
x c t c e
e
= + . ( See the treatment
for equal roots above) The motion in this case is not oscillatory and dies out as
t and as such it is called critically damped.
10:Aperiodic (not periodic) motion.
When
2
e > , greater than the angular frequencye for oscillation of the same
particle under same force without damping, the general solution is
2 2 2 2
4 4
2 2
t t
x Ae Be
e e +
= + and it is not a periodic motion and is quickly damped
away before even completing a complete cycle.
Page 628 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 17
11: Forced SHM
When we have the disturbing force time dependent and periodic it influences the
period of the SHM and is called Forced SHM. Details below.
12:Particular integral and general solution of non-homogeneous linear
differential equations..
So far we have discussed cases of vibratory motion in which a body attached to a
spring is pulled away upto a distance and then let loose. This is free vibration. The
body is then subject to the restoring force alone. It strikes back to the original
position under the sole influence of the restoring force proportional to the distance
from the original position but flashes past or beyond the original position with inertia
of motion as there is no force there and proceeds to an equal displacement
backwards if there is no friction etc. When the body vibrates under a periodic
disturbing force say, cos F t | in addition to the restoring force we have a case of
forced oscillation. The periodic force may be supplied by another vibrating body by
coupling the SHM with a second vibrating body in various manners.
We have the equation
2
2
2
cos
d x
x F t
dt
e | = + ( 3)
in absence of any damping force.
For solving such linear equations, as this one, which is of 2
nd
order, or of higher orders,
note that this is not a case of homogeneous equation ( ) 0 F D x = of order n ( x being a
function of t), as in case of free SHM or damped SHM. In that case we had the rule that
if
1 2
, .... o o etc. were roots of the auxiliary equation , then the general solution could have
been
1 2
1 2
....
x x
a e a e
o o
+ + . as this has n arbitrary constants. In case the linear differential
equation is not homogeneous, say ( ) ( ) F D x g t = the general solution would have also n
arbitrary constants as it has been n times differentiated to arrive at the differential
equation. We may have a particular integral or particular solution of ( ) ( ) F D x g t = if
Page 629 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 18
( )
( )
g t
F D
or
( )
1
F D
has got some meaning. We would see below what is the meaning of
( )
1
F D
depending upon what function is x of t, i.e., depending upon ( ) x f t = .
For example if
mt
x e = and ( )
1 2
1 2 1
..............
n n n
n n
F D D a D a D a D a

= + + + + , by repeated
differentiation
mt mt
De me = ,
( )
2 2 mt mt mt
D e D me m e = = so that we have
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 1 2 1
.... ....
mt n n n mt n n n mt
n n n n
F D e D a D a D a D a e m a m a m a m a F m e

= + + + + + = + + + + + =
so that
( ) ( )
1 1
mt mt
e e
F D F m
= . This is so of course when the factors of ( ) F m are non-
repeated. Do not confuse between the operator ( ) F D and algebraic expression ( ) F m
and take them with reference to the context. More examples of
( )
( )
g t
F D
would follow
below , but here it should be noted that
( )
( )
g t
F D
is, if it exists, is called a particular integral
or particular solution of the non-homogeneous linear differential equation ( ) ( ) F D x g t = .
What about the arbitrary constants ? Note that any solution of ( ) 0 F D x = is also a
solution of ( ) ( ) F D x g t = since ( ) g t also includes its 0 values. And the General solution
of ( ) 0 F D x = contains n arbitrary constants. Therefore a particular integral of
( ) ( ) F D x g t = added to the general solution of ( ) 0 F D x = is the general solution of
( ) ( ) F D x g t = ! remember it.
A general solution of the corresponding homogeneous equation ( ) 0 F D x = is called a
complementary integral or complementary function for ( ) ( ) F D x g t = ; so that its
general solution is a particular integral of it added to a complementary function.
Before we go out to explore particular integrals, let us finish the problem of forced
vibration
Page 630 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 19
2
2
2
cos
d x
x F t
dt
e | + = .( 4 ) without damping
or
2
2
2
cos
d x
x x F t
dt
e | + + = .(5 )
with damping force x , in the form ( ) ( ) F D x g t = .
For
2
2
2
cos
d x
x F t
dt
e | + = assume a particular integral cos x C t | = .
Differentiating it we get, sin
dx
C t
dt
| | = . Differentiating again,
2
2
2
cos
d x
C t
dt
| | = .Putting
these values in
2
2
2
cos
d x
x F t
dt
e | + = we get,
2 2
cos cos cos C t C t F t | | e | | + =
2 2
F
C
e |
=
so that a particular integral becomes

2 2
cos
F
x t |
e |
=
. The
complementary function of
2
2
2
cos
d x
x F t
dt
e | + = is the general solution of
2
2
2
0
d x
x
dt
e + = ,
which is ( ) cos A t e c + , containing two arbitrary constants , A c ,
Thus the general solution of
2
2
2
cos
d x
x F t
dt
e | + = is ( )
2 2
cos cos
F
x A t t e c |
e |
= + +
(
6 )
The motion consist of mainly two parts
( )
2 2
cos cos
F
A t and t e c |
e |
+
,of different
periods
2t
e
and
2t
|
and can be large enough and even break down when the periods
are same in view of the expression
2 2
F
e |
, since this becomes infinity.
Page 631 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 20
When the periods
2t
e
and
2t
|
are exactly equal, we have to proceed from the
beginning. The complementary function
( ) cos A t e c +
remains the same, but the
particular integral may be assumed
sin x Ct t e =
instead of
cos x C t | =
. (since
| e =
)
Differentiating the former,
cos sin
dx
C t t C t
dt
e e e = +
and
2
2
2
2 cos sin
d x
C t C t t
dt
e e e e =
. Putting these values in
2
2
2
cos
d x
x F t
dt
e e + =
we have
2 2
2 cos sin sin cos C t C t t Ct t F t e e e e e e e + =
, i.e.
2
F
C
e
=
13:
Particular integral of
( )
1
mt
e
F D
Returning to the inverse operator
( )
( )
1
g t
F D
for some function of t, let us discuss a few
more cases for
finding out particular integrals. We have already found out
( ) ( )
1 1
mt mt
e e
F D F m
=
.Now
consider two cases,
( )
1
g t
D o
and
( ) ( )
( )
1
g t
D D | o
. so that a general idea may be
formed about
( )
( )
1
x g t
F D
=
; we would verify whether the operator polynomial
( ) F D
may be factorised in the form
( ) ( ) D D | o
etc. and if so, would it be meaningful or
useful. Now we may understand that
( )
1
g t
D
stands for
( ) g t dt
}
since D stands for
differentiation. Similarly
( )
1
g t
D o
stands for a function, which when operated by
D o
Page 632 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 21
results in
( ) g t
. If we write
( ) ( )
1
g t X t
D o
=
, then
( ) ( ) ( ) D X t g t o =
, or,
( )
( ) ( )
dX t
X t g t
dt
o =
which is a linear differential equation. Multiplying both sides with
integrating factor
t
e
o
we have
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
t t t t
X t e g t e dx X t e g t e dx
o o o o
= =
} }
omitting the integration constant.
Thus
( ) ( )
1
t t
g t e g t e dx
D
o o
o

=
}
.
Similarly if
( ) ( )
( )
1
x g t
D D | o
=

, then
( )
( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )
1
D x g t D D x g t
D
| o |
o
= =
simply from the definition. Extending

the logic in this manner,
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )( ) ( )
( )
1 2 1 2 1
1 1 1
........ ....
n n
m m
n n
g t g t e g t e dt
F D D m D m D m D m D m D m

= =

}
if we write
( ) ( )
n n
m m
G t e g t e dt =
}
, then the above expression becomes
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
1 1
1 2 1 2 1
1 2 2
1 1 1
........ ....
1
....
n n
n n
m t m t
n
g t g t G t
F D D m D m D m D m D m D m
e G t e dt
D m D m D m

= =

=

}
and the
process may be completed in a finite number of steps.
Alternatively, simpler expressions may be found depending upon particular problem.
Also
( )
1
F D
may be resolved into partial fractions
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
1 2
1 1
....
n
g t g t
F D D m D m D m
=

Page 633 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 22
( ) ( )
1 1 1
1
1 1
1
n n
m x m x
A
g t Ae e g t dt
D m

= =

}
.
Note here that
1 2
, ....... A A
etc. are not arbitrary constants but numerators of the partial
fractions found out from calculation. The arbitrary constants would be got from the
complementary function, the general solution of the homogeneous equation
( ) 0 F D =
.
In case Some of the factors of
( ) F D
are repeated, we proceed as follows. We
have
1
mx mx mx mx mx
e e e e dx xe
D m

= =
}
. So
2
1 1 1
2
mx mx mx mx mx mx
x
e xe e e xe dx e
D m D m D m

= = =

}
( )
( )
( )
2 3
3 2
1 1 1
2 3!
mx mx mx mx mx mx
x x
e e e e e dx e
D m
D m D m

= = =

}
; in this manner we have
( )
1
!
r
mx mx
r
x
e e
r
D m
=
.
Now if
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1 1 1 1 1
!
r
mt mt mt mt
r r
x
e e e e
F D D m m r
D m D m

= = =

. Since the
repeated factors have been taken out, m is not a root of
( ) m
.
14:
Particular Integral of
sin mt
or
cosmt
We have
sin cos D mt m mt =
,
( )
2 2
sin sin D mx m mx =
( )
4 4
sin sin D mx m mx =
etc.
Then
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 2 2
2
1
sin sin sin sin D mt m mt mt m mt
D

= =
Page 634 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 23
( ) ( )
( )
2
2 2
1 1
sin sin , 0 mt mt if m
D m

= =
Similarly,
( ) ( )
( )
2
2 2
1 1
cos cos , 0 mt mt if m
D m

= =
In case
( ) F D
contains odd powers of D also, we can write,
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
1 2
F D D D D = +
.
Then
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
1 1 1 1
sin sin sin sin mt mt mt mt
F D p Dq D D D m D m
= = =
+ + +
( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 1 1
sin sin sin
1
sin cos 0
p Dq mt p Dq mt p Dq mt
p Dq p Dq p D q p m q
p mt mq mt if p m q
p m q
= = =
+ +
= + =
+
In case
( )
2
0 m =
It would contain factors like
2 2 2 2
0 0 m m o o = + =
or
( ) F D
would
contain factors like
2 2
0 D m + =
. Changing m to m + h, h0, and expanding by Taylors
theorem,
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 2 2
2
2
1 1 1
cos cos cos sin cos .......
2 2!
1
sin cos ...... neglecting cos , for, it already appears in the complementary function
2 2!
sin
= making h 0
2
h t
mt m h t mt ht mt mt
D m h m h
m h m
ht
t mt mt mt
m h
t mt
m
(
= + =
(
+ +
+ +

(
= +
(
+

By similar treatment
2 2
1 sin
cos =
2
t mt
mt
D m m
+
Page 635 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 24
15:
Particular integral of
( )
1
m
t
F D
Breaking up
( )
1
F D
into partial fractions, we have,
( )
1 2
1 2
1
............
A A
F D D D o o
= +

Expanding by binomial theorem,
1
2
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 ........
D D D
D o o o o o o
| | | |
= = + +
| |
\ . \ .
,
the job of finding integral reduces to differentiation; surely the series would exhaust as
soon as x
0
term is reached.
16:Forced oscillations with damping.
In presence of a damping factor, the equation of motion becomes
2
2
2
cos
d x
x x F t
dt
e | + + = .( 7 )
The complementary function of this linear equation is ( )
1
2
cos
t
x Ae pt
= +
where
2
2
4
p
e =
. To find a particular integral of the equation, we have,
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
cos cos cos
cos cos cos sin
by the above treatment
D
F t F t F t
D D D
D
t D t t t
F F
e |
| | |
e | e
e |
e | | | e | | | |
e | | e | |

= =
+ + + +

= =
+ +
Page 636 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 25
Hence the complete solution is
( )
( )
( )
1
2
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
cos sin
cos
t
t t
x Ae pt F
e | | | |
c
e | |

= + +
+
Near equality of and still play important role as the particular integral is maximum
when and near each other but no question of infinite displacements. the first part in
the displacement function dies out with time and then the impressed frequency
predominates as only the second term
( )
( )
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
cos sin t t
F
e | | | |
e | |

+
remains, which in
turn can be written as
( )
( )
2
2 2 2 2
cos F t |
e | |
+
with amplitude
( )
2
2 2 2 2
F
e | | +
17:
Particular integral by method of undetermined coefficients
In a slight modification for sake of simplicity we may take the equation in the form
2
2
cos
d x dx
m c kx F t
dt dt
| + + = freeing the stiffness constant and damping constant of mass,
just to see the effect of mass in the final derivation. A particular integral may be taken as
sin cos x A t B t | | = + , as a trial solution. Differentiating this cos sin
dx
A t B t
dt
| | | | =
,differentiating again, ( )
2
2 2 2 2
2
sin cos sin cos
d x
A t B t A t B t x
dt
| | | | | | | | = = + = .
Putting these in the differential equation
2
2
cos
d x dx
m c kx F t
dt dt
| + + = , we get,
( ) ( ) ( )
2
sin cos cos sin sin cos cos m A t B t c A t B t k A t B t F t | | | | | | | | | | + + + + =
Since this is an identity, we can make coefficients cos t | andsin t | from both sides equal
( do prove this by taking either of them = 0). This gives,
Page 637 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 26
( ) ( )
2 2
, 0 cA k m B F k m A cB | | | | + = = which gives
( )
2
2 2 2
,
cF
A
k m c
|
| |
=
+
( )
( )
2
2
2 2 2
k m F
B
k m c
|
| |
=
+
and in turn
( )
( )
2
2
2 2 2
sin cos
F
x c t k m t
k m c
| | | |
| |
(
= +

+
.
Which can be put into the form
( )
( )
2
2 2 2
cos
F
x t
k m c
|
| |
=
+
, taking
2
tan
c
k m
|
|
=
.
After the transient part dies out, this is the steady state equation and it is of same
frequency
2
|
t
as that of the impressed force and amplitude
( )
2
2 2 2
F
k m c | | +
, which
depends not only on frequency
2
|
t
, but on stiffness k , damping constant cand mass of
the vibrating body.
Exercise1
A tunnel is drilled straight between two points on the earths surface. Assuming uniform
density of the earth, show that a train left at one end without engine shall freely fall until
it reaches the other point and come back again executing SHM. Show that the time
period for the complete trip is 2
R
g
t ( about 90 minutes) and is independent of position
of the end points.
Hint. If the train has mass m, the gravitational force on it towards the center of the
earth is
2
mM
F mg G
R
= = , where G is universal gravitational constant, M is mass of the
earth, R its radius and g is acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth. As
the train goes down the tunnel, it is on the surface of a ball of radius r concentric with
Page 638 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 27
the earth, and having mass
3 3
4
3
3 3
4
3
r r
M M
R R
t
t
= = with radius r and acceleration due to
gravity is given by
3
2 3 3
m r GM
ma G M a r
r R R
= = , towards the center of the earth; the
mass above the concentric ball has sum total effect 0 as per Gauss law. If 2u is the
angle subtended by the middle portion tunnel at the center of the earth, when the train
is at a distance r from the center of the earth, the resultant force on the train along the
tunnel is
3
sin
GMm
r
R
u towards middle of the tunnel, and sin r u is the distance of the train
from middle point of the tunnel at that time. So this is an SHM with a spring constant
3
GMm
R
and thus has a time period
3 3
2
3
2 2 2 2
m R R R
GMm
GM R g g
R
t t t t = = = , a constant
for all tunnels and trains.
Misc. Exercises
Solve the differential equations whose operator equations are:
2)
( )
2
2 3 4 0 D D y + + = . Hint: the roots of the operator equation are
3 23
4 4
i so
the solution is
2
4
1 2
23 23
cos sin
4 4
x
e a x a x
(
+
(

3)
( )
3
5 6 0 D D y + = Hint : the roots of the operator equation are 2,3; so the
general solution is
2 3
1 2
x x
a e a e +
4)
( )
3
1 0 D y + = Hint : the roots of the operator equation are
3 1
2 2
1,
i
; so the
general solution is
( )
2
3 3
1 2 3 2 2
cos sin
x
x
y c e e c x c x
= + +
5)
( )
3 2
3 3 1 0 D D D y + + + = Hint : all the three roots of the operator equation are
1 each, hence for repeated roots
( )
2 x
y a bx cx e
= + + .
Misc. Exercises
Page 639 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 28
Work out the inverse operator in the following (particular integrals):
6)
4
2
1
x
D
Ans.
6
4 4 4 5
2
1 1 1 1
5 30
x
x x x dx dx x dx
D D D
(
= = = =

} } }
7)
1
sin
2
x
D
Ans.
2
2 2 2 1
1 1
sin sin sin tan
2 2 5
x
x x x
e
x e e xdx e x
D

| |
= = +
|
\ .
}
8)
9)
2
1
2
x
D+
Ans.
2
1 1 1
2 2 4
x x +
10)
( )
1
2
x
x e
D
+
+
Ans.
1 1 1
4 16 2
x
x e
11)
( ) ( )
( )
3
1
sin 2 2
3 3
x
x e
D D
+
+
Ans.
1 1
18 3
sin 2
x
x xe +
18:Elements of electrical circuit
Every electrical circuit has a source of emf , electromotive force ( or absence of it)
which provides a potential difference for driving electric charges around the circuit.
The current which is time rate of flow of charge through any cross section of the circuit
must be same everywhere since it is generally assumed that the charges do not
accumulate anywhere nor as they are created or destroyed. The current flows from
higher potential to lower potential outside the source of emf ( e.g. battery) trying to
nullify the potential difference thereby and the source of emf carries charges from lower
potential to higher potential so that the current would continue. As such, a complete
circuit is necessary for steady flow of current. Further the current is provided by the
movement of the free electrons which constantly collide against obstructing atoms
everywhere and dissipate energy in the form of heat and light. Therefore the emf, the
source of energy is necessary to replenish the loss of energy. Steady currents are
governed by Ohms law, which states that a potential difference is necessary for flow of
a current because of this resistance and the current is simply proportional to the voltage
or potential difference. the constant of proportionality, the voltage required for
generation of unit current is a measure of resistance of the circuit. In symbols,
R
V
R
I
= ,
V being potential difference between two points such as the two end points of a load,
such as an electric bulb, the current
dq
I
dt
= , where q o is the charge flowed during time
Page 640 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 29
t o ( or
q
I
t
= if the current is constant, qand t are total charge flowed though any cross
section during time t), and R is resistance. The voltage drop across two points
R
V RI = is
the energy per unit charge spent in moving the charge between the two points and the
emf E is the energy per un it charge spent in taking it around the whole circuit and as
such if R is total resistance of the circuit (including internal resistance, resistance inside
the source of emf)
R
V IR = is the portion of E allocated to resistance of the circuit.
If two parallel plates facing each other are set in the circuit, there is a break in the circuit
and the current stops as soon as the charges are accumulated on the faces of the
plates facing each other , (equal and opposite charges , as the charges cannot be
created or destroyed). This is because the capacitor ( the parallel plates) provide a
voltage
C
V opposing the emf , given by
C
C
Q
C
V
= , capacitance of the parallel plates as
the charges built up raise the voltage between the plates, evidently proportionally and
the constant of proportionality is the capacitance, charge required to build up unit
voltage across the plates. Evidently the charges built up oppose the emf as it tries the
drive the charges through and this voltage
C
C
Q
V
C
= is the part of emf allocated to the
capacitance of the circuit. Even if the circuit may have no parallel plates, it contains
some charge at all times and this is due to the capacitance of the circuit. Depending
upon the capacitance after the charges have built up, they may build up a larger voltage
than the source of emf and the charges may backflow into the source of emf. This
results in drop in voltage across the capacitor and again the charges flow into it from the
source of emf, repeating the cycles of such oscillations.
When a circuit is closed the current does not build up immediately as per Ohms law. It
takes time to attain steady state value because the circuit itself resists the change in the
current opposing the emf by building up a voltage
L
V simply proportional to induced
change of current
di
dt
and the constant of proportionality ,
L
V
L
di
dt
= opposing voltage per
unit rate of change of current is called self inductance. This is what is called Lenzs
law, a situation similar to inertia of rest (while the circuit is closed) and inertia of motion (
while the circuit is open or unplugged, the current takes time to die out) . As a body has
Page 641 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 30
to be dragged under a force for some time to impart some velocity to it or stop it from
speeding away, similarly an electrical circuit has to be dragged to the point of a steady
current or to extinguish the existing current completely out. Depending upon the circuit
the self inductance may topple off the emf to produce reverse currents and as such can
set up oscillations in the circuit as in the case of capacitance.
Resistance is always dissipative and comparable to air resistance, friction or damping;
The capacitance is comparable to elasticity of the spring and inductance is comparable
to inertia. Besides there is one more type of inductance , mutual inductance between
two circuits When the magnetic flux due to one circuit passes through another circuit
and is changed, ( by way of changing the current in it or by just moving it) the second
circuit produces a current in it so as to produce a magnetic flux to compensate the
change in flux The change in flux is given by N Mi = where M is mutual inductance
of the pair of circuitsi is the induction current being produced in the second circuit and
the opposition voltage produced is proportional to the rate of change of flux, i.e.
M
di
V M
dt
= according to the Lenzs law. The self inductance also can be viewed similarly,
when the current in the circuit is changed, the flux through it changes and the induction
current is produced so as compensate the change and the opposition voltage being
proportional to rate of change of current. A circuit has all the three elements acting
perfectly in accordance to the law of conservation of energy, by virtue of which, the emf
just compensates for the opposition due to resistance , capacitance and inductance.
The general circuit equation is
di q
L Ri
dt C
E = + + , which is just the law of conservation of
energy; the work done on a unit charge while taken around the complete circuit is equal
to 0 since the emf compensates for the energy spent. ( Any mutual inductance element
may be clubbed with L). Differentiating this equation we get the following if we want to
work with i as dependent variable , (if E varies with time)or simply rewrite the equation,
2
2
....................................(8)
d q dq q
L R
dt dt C
E = + +
changing the dependent variable to q as per demand of the situation( E constant).
These equations are same as damped forced oscillation equation and can account for
various conditions for the circuits, including transient currents when a circuit is
plugged or unplugged, oscillations set up in the circuits and also alternating currents
Page 642 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 31
where q, i and E are sinusoidal . Only the initial / boundary conditions shall make the
problems different.
19:Examples of Transient current circuits
a) Consider an electric circuit with no capacitance and connected to a source of
constant emf E and switched on. The circuit equation is
di
L Ri E
dt
+ =
we have to
find the expression for current at any instant by solving the first degree equation.
Just by separating variables
R
t
L
di R E
dt i Ae
E
L R
i
R
= =
. Putting the initial

condition 0 i = when 0 t = we get
E
A
R
= so that the equation becomes
1
R
t
L
E
i e
R
| |
=
|
\ .
The current grows to steady state Ohmic value
E
R
asymptotically. We may see that
putting
L
t
R
=
we get
( )
1
1
E
i e
R

=
, i.e. thetime taken for the current to achieve
1
1
e
| |
|
\ .
th of its final value
E
R
. So this time is
L
R
=
, called time constant of the
circuit. the higher its value, the more quickly the current grows up to steady state
value.
b) When the above circuit is switched off, the emf is 0 and the equation is
0
0
R
t
L
di di R
L Ri dt i i e
dt i L

+ = = = , where
0
i is the steady state value when the
circuit was switched off. After time
L
R
= the current falls to
1
e
th of its initial
value.
c) When the emf is a periodic function
0
sin E E t e = e.g. supplied by a rotating coil
in a magnetic field, and the circuit is switched on, the circuit equation becomes
Page 643 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 32
0
sin
di
L Ri E t
dt
e + = and ultimately the steady state current is also alternating with
this frequency. So we may assume a solution ( )
0
sin i i t e = where the
maximum current
0
i and the phase of the current are to be determined.
Differentiating this and putting the value in the differential equation gives
( ) ( )
0 0 0 0 0
cos sin cos sin cos sin 0 L i Ri t L i Ri E t e e e e + + = for all values of t .
Taking 0 t = and
2
t
t
e
= respectively we have
2 2 2 2 2 2
tan , sin , cos ,
L L R
R
L R L R
e e

e e
= = =
+ +
and
0 0
0
2 2 2
sin cos
E E
and i
L R
L R
e
e
=
+
+
.The quantity Le is called reactance of
the a-c circuit which may be large enough in high frequencies to reduce
resistance to insignificance. So a particular integral is
( )
0
2 2 2
sin
E
t
L R
e
e

+
. (
Note that is no arbitrary constant.
After finding out this particular integral , we have to add to it complementary
function, i.e. solution of the homogeneous equation 0
di
L Ri
dt
+ = i.e.
R
t
L
Ae
So the
complete solution contains the arbitrary constant to be found from initial condition
and the complete solution is ( )
0
2 2 2
sin
R
t
L
E
i Ae t
L R
e
e
= +
+
, tan
L
R
e
=
d) Consider an electric circuit with no inductance and connected to a source of
constant emf E and switched on. Take the circuit equation
q
Ri E
C
+ = or
dq q
R E
dt C
+ = where qis the charge in the capacitor at any time t & capacitanceC .
Growth and decay of charge is given by the solution
1
1
t
RC
q CE e
| |
=
|
\ .
, taking the
initial condition the final charge being CE. ( derive the solution as an exercise)
Page 644 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 33
Note that this is the same equation as
di
L Ri E
dt
+ =
, but R replaced by
1
C
and L
replaced by R . The time constant is found out to be RC = , time taken to
buildup charge to achieve
1
1
e
| |
|
\ .
th of its final value. In addition , we could find
the instantaneous current by differentiating the solution to get
1
t
RC
dq E
i e
dt R

= =
.The current does not pass through the capacitor as the circuit is not complete
and dies out as the capacitor is fully charged.
e) The case when the capacitor circuit is switched off may be dealt in the similar
manner. The equation is 0
dq q
R
dt C
+ = and its solution is
1
0
t
RC
q q e
= that is of
discharging of the capacitor . the time constant , time taken to reach
1
e
th of its
initial value. The instantaneous current may also be calculated to be
1
0
t
RC
q dq
i e
dt RC

= = .( Details are left to the reader as an exercise)
f) If the capacitor is connected to a sinusoidal source of emf, the differential
equation of the circuit may be taken as
0
sin
dq q
R E t
dt C
e + = . the charge on the
capacitor oscillates in the circuit in cycles of charging and discharging the
capacitor as per the solution (particular integral) ( )
0
2
2 2
sin
1
E
q t
R
C
e
e
e
=
+
where tan
1
R
C
e
= or the current is
( ) ( )
0 0
2 2
2 2 2 2
cos sin
1 1
E E
t t
R R
C C
e e
e e
=
+ +
where tan RC e = to which a
transient ( complementary function)
1
t
RC
Ae
may be added which dies away

ultimately and the complete current at any time is given by
Page 645 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 34
( )
1
0
2
2 2
sin
1
t
RC
E
i Ae t
R
C
e
e
= +
+
. The initial value of current may be observed
to be
0
0
2
2 2
1
E
i
R
C e
=
+
and the impedance of the circuit is
2
2 2
1
R
C e
+ ,
consisting of two parts, R for resistance and
1
C e
for non-dissipative reactance.
At small frequencies of the impressed emf the reactance may be large enough to
neglect the resistance element. The oscillations of current in the circuit continues
indefinitely in the frequency of the impressed emf and as such, it may be said
that the capacitor allows the alternating current to pass through unlike direct
current under the influence of a constant emf, which dies out quickly. (Details of
derivation are left for the reader as an exercise)
g) Now take a circuit with all the three elements, total inductance L L, total
capacitanceC and total resistance R connected to a source of constant emf E
The differential equation may be taken as
2
2
d q dq q
L R E
dt dt C
+ + = .
The variable qis suitably changed to make the equation simpler (to masquerade
the constant term) by taking a new variable Q q CE = , CEbeing charge of the
fully charged capacitor. The differential equation of the circuit reduces to
2
2
0
d Q dQ Q
L R
dt dt C
+ + = , a homogeneous linear equation and as such, no particular
integral is required. Assuming a solution
t
Q Ae
q
= ; differentiating and substituting
in the differential equation we get the auxiliary equation ,
2
1
0 L R
C
q q + + = whose
roots are
2
2
1
2 4
R R
L L LC
q o | = = , say. so the complete solution becomes ,
using Q q CE = ,
( )
t t t
q CE e Ae Be
o | |
= + + , the arbitrary constants to be
determined from initial conditions. The current function may be obtained by
differentiating it, i.e., ( ) ( )
t t t
i e A e B e
o | |
| o | o

( = +

Page 646 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 35
Suppose the capacitor has no charge when the circuit is plugged, 0, 0 q i = = when
0 t = .Putting this values in the equations for charge as well as for the current, we
get, ,
2 2
A CE B CE
o | o |
| |
+
= = . The constant
2
2
1
4
R
L LC
| = is real if
2
2
1
4
R
L LC
> , consequently | o < and the capacitor is charged continuously without
oscillations to its full valueCE.
Otherwise if
2
2
1
4
R
L LC
< , | becomes imaginary , oscillations (periods of
charging and discharging of capacitor) are set up in the circuit despite constant
emf and the solution may be put conveniently in the form
( )
0 0
sin
t
q CE A e t
o
e c
= + + where
0
, A c are arbitrary constants. The equation may
also otherwise derived by straight assuming a solution ( )
0 0
sin
t
Q A e t
o
e c
= + and
finding
2
0 2
1
,
2 4
R R
L LC L
o e = = , the method explained already in the article
for SHM.
When the roots of the auxiliary equation are equal and 0 | = ,neither of the
above solutions hold. Rather we may proceed ab initio for case of equal roots
and find the solution ( )
0
1 ,
2
t
R
q q t e
L
o
o o
= + = .as in the case of critically

damped SHM.
20:Example of Use of complex quantities in circuit equations
Let the emf in an A-C circuit having all three elements be
0
cos E t e so that the circuit
equation is
2
0
2
cos
x x x
d i di i dE t
L R
dt dt C dt
e
+ + = , where
x
i is the instantaneous current. Take an
imaginary current
y
i superimposed on the same circuit under emf
0
sin E t e and the
circuit equation becomes
2
0
2
sin
x x x
d i di i dE t
L R
dt dt C dt
e
+ + = . Let the complex current be
1
x y x y
i i i i ji = + = + on complex superposition of the emfs
0 0 0
cos sin
j t
E t jE t E e
e
e e + =
putting 1 j = and the superimposed equation becomes.
Page 647 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 36
2
0 2
j t
j t
d i di i dEe
L R E j e
dt dt C dt
e
e
e + + = = . The real current in the circuit shall be given by real
part of the complex solution since the real and imaginary parts are independent of each
other and do not affect each other. The only advantage is that the complex differential
equation is easier to solve and we can discard the imaginary part after the solution is
obtained. A particular integral of this equation may be a trial solution
0
j t
i i e
e
= .
Differentiating
2
2 2 2 2
0 0 0 2
, , 1
j t j t j t
di d i
ji e j i e i e j
dt dt
e e e
e e e = = = = . Substituting the values
in the differential equation we get,
2 0
0 0 0
j t
j t j t j t j t
i dEe
i e L Rji e e E j e
C dt
e
e e e e
e e e + + = = , or
2 2 2 2 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1
i i E
i L Rji E j ji L Rj i j E j i
C C
R j L
C
e e e e e e
e
e
+ + = + + = =
| |
+
|
\ .
.
The solution is real part of
( ) 0 0 0
0
1
j t j t
j t j t
j
E e E e E
i i e e
Ze Z
R j L
C
e e
e e
e
e
= = = =
| |
+
|
\ .
.where
1
tan
L
C
R
e
e

= and
2
2
1
Z R L
C
e
e
| |
= +
|
\ .
.
Or,
( ) ( )
0
0
2
2
cos sin
1
j t
E t j t
i i e
R L
C
e
e e
e
e
+ (

= =
| |
+
|
\ .
real part of which is
( )
0
2
2
cos
1
E t
R L
C
e
e
e
| |
+
|
\ .
The expression
1
L
C
e
e
is of the same class as that of resistance R and is called
reactance of the circuit to the emf, being the reaction of inductance and capacitance
and the factor
2
2
1
R L
C
e
e
| |
+
|
\ .
is called the total impedance of the circuit being the
total reaction of the circuit to the emf. The reactance
1
L
C
e
e
is different from
Page 648 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 37
resistance in that it does not dissipate energy as resistance as the energy is exchanged
between the source of emf and the circuit.
Note 1) , , R L Crepresent resistance, inductance and capacitance of the circuit in total .
2) Any transient current may be added to it as a complementary function.
In case of
1
0 L
C
e
e
=
then
1
2 2
f
LC
e
t t
= =
, is the natural frequency of the oscillating
circuit, which would oscillate even under constant emf. If presence of resistance or
damping, if it is small, the frequency of oscillation is nearly same. In case of oscillating
emf, impedance
2
2
1
Z R L
C
e
e
| |
= +
|
\ .
is minimum at this frequency and this is the
frequency of resonance.
21:The power factor
Power delivered to the circuit by the source of emf is the time rate of delivery of energy.
The emf being the sum total of voltages around the circuit is the energy delivered to the
circuit per unit charge and current is time rate of flow of charge, power is therefore
product of emf and current
( )
0
0
2
2
cos
cos
1
E t
Ei E t
R L
C
e
e
e
e
= =
| |
+
|
\ .
and the average power, averaged over a complete cycle of oscillation ( charging and
discharging of capacitor)
Page 649 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 38
( )
( )
( )
2 2
0
0
2
0 0
2
2
2
0
2
0
2
2
2
0
2
0
2
2
2
2 0
2
0
2
cos
cos
2 2
1
cos cos
2
1
cos cos cos sin sin
2
1
cos cos sin s
2
1
E t
Eidt E t dt
R L
C
E
t t dt
R L
C
E
t t t dt
R L
C
E
tdt
R L
C
t t
e e
t
e
t
e
t
e
e
e e
e
t t
e
e
e
e e
t
e
e
e
e e e
t
e
e
e
e
t
e
e
= = =
| |
+
|
\ .
=
| |
+
|
\ .
= + =
| |
+
|
\ .
+
| |
+
|
\ .
} }
}
}
}
2
0
2
0
2
2
in cos
1
cos
2
1
t tdt
E
R L
C
t
e
e e
e
e
(
(
(
(

=
| |
+
|
\ .
}
which shall be proved to be product of effective emf and effective current and cos ,
where is the phase difference between them. The effective current is that which shall
produce the same amount of heat ( )
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
0 0
0 0
1
cos
2 2 2
RI Ri dt R i t dt Ri
t t
e e
e e
e
t t
= = =
} }
due to steady a current I as the varying current i taken over a cycle; so that
0 0
2
2
2
1
2
i E
I
R L
C
e
e
= =
| |
+
|
\ .
which is also called root mean square current, being root
of the square of the average current. Similarly the effective emf is the root mean square
emf , as
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
0 0 0
0 0
1 1
sin
2 2 2 2
E E dt E tdt E E E
t t
e e
e e
e
t t
= = = =
} }
.
Page 650 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 39
Thus cos EI = , maximum power is delivered when current and emf are in phase .
22:PLANETARY MOTION: A GRAND EXAMPLE OF 2
ND
ORDER LINEAR DIFF.
EQN IN VECTORS
It may be reiterated that a simple model planetary motion is an example of
Central Forces where the force is always directed to a point. Now return to our
discussion of radial and tangential components of acceleration
a =
2
2
d v d r
dt dt

= =
.. . .
2
2 r r r r r e e e u
. .
| | | |
+ +
| |
\ . \ .
..(8)
under the chapter for coordinates and vectors. This was derived by differentiating
the vector r
twice.(ref the chapter on coordinates and vectors); dots on letters

denote
d
dt
Uniform circular motion is an example of central force.
Simple harmonic motion is an example of a central force when
. .. .
, , r r e
each equal
to 0 so that is a constant and the equation (8) reduces to
2
2
2
d r
r
dt
e =
and has
been discussed above in detail. Uniform circular motion is an example of central
force, represented by the very same equation
2
2
2
d r
a
dt
e =
, of course with the
difference that
r a =
, a constant.
The planetary motion in simplistic ideal case is a very good example of central force.
23:Planetary motion
As planetary motion is a motion under a central force, the motion shall
take plane in a fixed plane shall hold as the angular momentum is 0, as we have
discussed earlier in the chapter for coordinates and vectors. . A little more
Page 651 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 40
straightforward explanation may be given as follows. If F be the force vector
acting on the particle of mass m, and if its components be F
r
and F
respectively, (mark the beauty of vector notation; only F is sufficient to stand for
F
r
r + F
.
u , or F
r
+ F
)then a couple or unit vectors r and

.
u shall express the
vector F in terms of its components F = F
r
r + F
.
u
.(9)
(in fact the two unit vectors can express any vector quantity in the plane)
Now, since F = ma, then F
r
r + F
.
u=
.. . .
2
2 m r r r m r r
. .
| | | |
e + e+ e u
| |
\ . \ .
For central forces F
=0 and hence
2
. .
2
2
0 2 2 0, 0
dr d d d d
r r r r
dt dt dt dt dt
u u u | |
= e+ e= + = =
|
\ .
(Proceed from right to left in case of difficulty in
understanding)
Thus
2
d
r
dt
u
=h, say,(10)
a constant , say h, not varying in time, i.e., 0
dh
dt
= .(11)
Now, remember,
1
2
d r d A
r
dt dt

= . And
2
2
d A d
m mr r x hm
dt dt
. . .
u
| |
= u = e
|
\ .
..(12)
From(20), where
.
is unit angular velocity vector, as it is perpendicular both to
r
and
r d
.
Or in scalar terms we may write,
2
1 1
2 2
dA d
r h
dt dt
u
= = (13)
On integration,
( ) ( ) ( )
2 1 2 1
2
h
A t A t t t = .(14)
Page 652 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 41
This says, the area swept by the radius vector is ( ) ( )
2 1
A t A t , between the time
2 1
t t are proportional to each other; in other words, equal areas are swept by
the radius vector in equal time intervals !
This is Keplers second law for planets travelling around the stars.
Please observe that so far we have not used the formula of universal gravitation; in fact,
this was precursor of Newtons universal law of gravitation, or, the inverse square law.
In fact Newtons inverse square formula for universal gravitation were the result of
integrating the works of Galileo, Copernicus, Kepler and Robert Hookes. But another
important conclusion at this point; the Keplers second law is true for any particle or
body under any central force , not only gravitation ; (verify)!
24:Projectile motion and vector equation of a parabola
It is just shown that motion under central force is motion in a plane i.e., two
dimensional. There could be other motion in a plane also; e.g., the direction of a
constant forcemg is a fixed direction , say along a unit vector e (vertical direction , say).
The motion may be treated to be trivially under central force , since parallel lines meet
at a point at . Instead of treating it as a central force and going to limiting case, we
could straight set up its differential equation
2
2

dv d r
ge
dt dt
= =

and straight integrate it to get
0
dr
v gte v
dt
= = +

, where 0 v
is an arbitrary vector, as a constant of integration. We could

take it the initial velocity, the velocity with which the projectile is projected into space
initially. Integrating again, we get
2
1
0
2
r gt e tv = +

, taking this time integration constant as
0, meaning thereby that the initial position is taken when the motion starts.
The path of the projectile is a parabola given by this equation
2
1
0
2
r gt e tv = +

; where t is a
parameter, and we could assume
2
1
2
, x t y t = = , which is precisely the parametric
equation of a parabola , its axis in the direction of unit vector e . An additional freedom is
that the axes may also be oblique as e and 0 v
are not necessarily mutually

perpendicular.
Further, if we wanted a vector equation of a parabola, it is
2
1
0
2
r gt e tv = +

.
Page 653 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 42
Exercise12
A particle moves down an inclined plane, or slides down a hill on a curved path or slides
down a curved channel i.e. descends though a vertical distance of h between two points
of its motion under gravity in whatever possible manner ; then the speed at the lower
point v
is given by
2 2
2 v u gh = + where u is its speed at the upper point.
Hint : Equate kinetic and potential energies; i.e. loss in potential energy is gain in kinetic
energy.
25:Keplers first and third laws
We would derive Keplers first and third laws from Newtons laws for universal
gravitation , as a model central force. Suppose a planet of mass m is attracted by the
Sun of mass M. Taking the Sun as the origin of coordinates and r as radius vector of the
planet, we have
( )
2
2
2 2 2
, , , 0
r
d r d GMm km
r F GM k say and F
dt dt r r
u
u | |
= = = = =
|
\ .
..(15)
from Newtons law of universal gravitation attraction being along the radius vector.
0 F
u
= has already resulted in Keplers 2
nd
law.
We see that F
r
is a function of r , i.e.,
2 r
km
F
r
= and the left side
2
2
2
d r d
r
dt dt
u | |
|
\ .
happens to
be function of r, and t. Difficulty evidently. Can it so happen that t may be pushed up in
the numerator and r may be pulled down? Let us define
1
z
r
= and treat as
independent variable instead of t and see what happens.
We have
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 dr d dz dz d dz h dz
h
dt dt z z dt z d dt z d r d
u | |
= = = = =
|
u u u
\ .
and
Page 654 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 43
2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
d r d dz d dz d d z h d z
h h h h z
dt dt d d d dt d r d
u | | | |
= = = =
| |
u u u u u
\ . \ .
, putting
1
z
r
= and
2
2
d h
hz
dt r
u
= = .
Thus (27) i.e.
2
2
2 2
d r d km
r
dt dt r
u | |
=
|
\ .
becomes,
2
2 2 2 4 2
2
1 d z
h z h z kz
d z
=
u
,or,
2
2 2
d z k
z
d h
+ =
u
..
..(15)
Any solution z of this differential equation shall contain cos , sin as their
second order differential coefficients would be - cos , - sin respectively
2
2
d z
and z
du
should cancel out and of course z should involve
2
k
h
, which wont
affect the derivatives, but shall be remainder in z term after cancellation of cos ,
sin terms. Let us then assume a general solution of (15) as,
( )
2
cos
k
z A
h
= u c + (16)
where A and are two constants of integration to be determined from initial
conditions.
The meaning of integration constants and initial conditions shall be evident as we
proceed.
Differentiating z we have,
( ) sin
dz
A
d
= u c
u
, and ( )
2
2
cos
d z
A
d
= uc
u
, so that (16)
becomes(15), confirming that (16) is a general solution of the differential equation
(15).
Let us write the solution (16) in a slightly different but equivalent form such as
2
cos sin
k
z C D
h
= u + u + (17)
Page 655 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 44
by expanding ( ) cos cos cos sin sin cos sin A A A C D u c = c u + c u = u + u .The
equation (30) is easily verified to be the general solution of differential equation
(15), containing two arbitrary constants C and D as required. Let us take an initial
condition that r is minimum when the planet of mass m is closest to the origin
when = 0, or z is maximum there. By maxima minima consideration, for this
direction or for this radius vector,
0
dz
d
=
u
, and
2
2
0
d z
d
<
u
,when = 0,..(18)
i.e,
dr dz
h
dt d
=
u
, so 0
dr
d
=
u
when = 0..(18a)
Differentiating (30) and putting this condition , we obtain C = 0 and D > 0.
Now equation (30) can be written as
2
1
cos
k
D
r h
= + u, or
2
2
1 cos
h
k
r
h
D
k
=
+ u
..(19)
This is seen to be polar equation of a conic section. Comparing it to the polar
equation of a conic section
1 cos
pe
r
e
=
+ u
,
2
h
e D
k
= and
2
h
pe
k
= , so that
1
p
D
= .(20)
where p is the focal parameter (distance from focus to the directrix) and e is
eccentricity (see figure below);
Page 656 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 45
It is evident that the path of a body under the inverse square law of universal
gravitation is a conic section. If e < 1, the orbit would be closed, if e = 1, the
planet or the body shall take a turn around the Sun and escape into infinity, if e >
1, the orbit would be hyperbolic and the body would be deflected away from the
Sun in the same side as it came, i.e., it wont turn around the sun. To see under
what condition the orbit should be closed or elliptical, we have to further interpret
the value of e from another independent physical consideration, i.e. total energy
of the mass m.
26:Total energy and eccentricity: physical meaning of eccentricity
There is no difficulty is writing expression for kinetic energy T of the orbiting mass
m, it is simply
2 2
2 2
1 1
2 2
d dr
T mv m r
dt dt
(
u | | | |
= = +
(
| |
\ . \ .
(

(21)
As to the potential energy, the mass is supposed to have been attracted by the
sun from a great distance i.e., the gravitational field has done the work and it
must be negative by convention. In fact, had the planet been pushed into the field
against a repulsion force, the work done in pushing would have been stored in it
enabling it to go away automatically if left to itself. But the case is opposite here.
Since the force is a varying force ,varying as inverse square of r, we may
calculate the total work done W in small steps , small enough to keep the force
nearly constant is a step and then sum up. This is equivalent to integration which
is in fact, infinite summation. Thus
Planetary orbit
P Q
F
p
r
R
Page 657 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 46
2
r
r
km km km
W dr
r r r
= = =
}
..(22)
The total energy
2 2
2
1
2
d dr km
E T W m r
dt dt r
(
u | | | |
= + = +
(
| |
\ . \ .
(

.(23)
Law of conservation of energy warrants that this total energy E should be a
constant or invariant whatever the position or velocity of the planet might be.
[ In fact, the law of conservation of momentum and the law of conservation
of energy have not been observed to have been violated in a single
instance. Each of the principles gives us differential equation(s) whose
solution is the equation of motion ! Thus it is easier to find differential
equation than finding equations of motion direct. In some particular
instance, some of the equations may be redundant and that does not
matter. The law of conservation of mass does not in fact give us any
differential equation, for the concept of constant mass is built into the
differential equations already. If at all the law of conservation of energy is
proved to be violated at a particular instance, the loss of energy is
compensated by creation of mass according to Einsteins equation E =
mc
2
]
Putting = 0 in (33) we get,
2
1
h
k
r
e
=
+
(24)
Putting = 0 and
2
d h
dt r
u
= , 0
dr
dt
= from (17a) in equation (21), we get,
2
2
4
h km
E mr
r r
= (25)
Taking the value of e from (37) in terms r and putting it is (25), we get
2
2
2
1
h
e E
mk
| |
= +
|
\ .
..(26)
Page 658 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 47
Now , the statement of Keplers 1
st
law is long overdue and we can write,
If the total energy E is negative, then only e < 1 and the attracted mass
revolves around the Sun in elliptic al orbit or bound orbit.
With this value of e, we have got a new meaning of eccentricity. The total
energy of the planet will determine whether it would be bound to the sun in a
closed orbit , kiss off in a parabolic path or shall prefer a collision course and
get out of the system in a hyperbolic path. Evidently total negative energy
guarantees a bound orbit, 0 total energy determines escape velocity and
positive total energy means bouncing off, a total estrangement.
We can write the equation of the orbit
( )
2 2
2
2 1 cos
1 1 2 cos
h k h k
r
e
E h k m
u
u
= =
+
+ +
..(27)
( derived from (24))
Assuming e <1, i.e. the planet is revolving around the average of greatest and
least values of r from the focus to be
( )
2 2 2
2
1
2 1 1 1
h k h k h
a
e e k e
| |
+ = =
|
+
\ .
, major axis
and the minor axis is
( )
2 2
1
a
b a e h
k
= = and the equation of the orbit is given
by
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = ..(28)
From Keplers 2nd law
( ) ( ) ( )
2 1 2 1
2
h
A t A t t t = , if
2 1
t t T = , time period or time
taken for a complete revolution, then ( ) ( )
2 1
A t A t is the area of the ellipse, ab t .
Thus
2
2 2 2 2
2 3
2
4 4
2
ab a b
T a
h
h k
t t t
| |
|
= = =
|
|
\ .
(29)
Page 659 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 48
Square of period of revolution is proportional to cube of the perihelion distance.
This is third law of Kepler. (Since
2
h
is the areal velocity (magnitude) of the
particle under the action of the force. See below.)
27:Areal velocity and angular momentum and moment of momentum
Though the topic has been covered under the chapter for coordinates and
vectors, a quick reference is here for use in the problems to follow.
If r
is the radius vector of the moving particle from origin

O , then

sin r v r tvk pvk e = =

, where t e is the angle described by the particle in timet
and angular speed with reference to the origin, sin r t p e = , the perpendicular on the
tangent v
and
k is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of motion. If we replace

dr dr d dr
v r r r r
dt dt dt dt
u
u eu = = + = +
where
u is a unit vector perpendicular to r .Taking cross

product of both sides with r
, we have
2 2

0 ................(30)
dr
r v r r r r r r r k pvk
dt
e u e u e = + = + = =

as derived above. The areal velocity
2
1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2
r v r k pvk h e = = =

, say. The h may be
seen to be the magnitude of angular momentum per unit mass i.e.,
I
m
e
where
2
I mr = , and the angular momentum
2

I k mr k e e = may be seen as moment of
O
P
N
p
t
r
v
Page 660 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 49
momentum r mv

. The last expression r mv

indicates that the angular momentum is
moment of momentum.
28: An example Vector integration : Planetary motion as above (in vectors)
We can also direct integrate the vector differential equation
2
2 2
d r m
m r
dt r
or
2
2 2
1 1 d r
r
dt r
=
where acceleration is inversely proportional to square of distance r
being
unit vector in the direction of r
and
2
m
r
is the force acting on the particle. Since the force

is always directed towards a fixed point, the origin of force, the moment of force is 0,
which in turn, results in 0 torque. But torque is rate of change of angular momentum just
as force is rate of change of momentum. So the angular momentum is a constant vector
for central forces, whether inverse square , or not. But angular momentum is moment of
momentum i.e. H r mv =

, constancy of direction of which indicates that r and v

are
confined to a plane at right angles to r mv

and of course H
is constant in magnitude
also. In other words, the motion is entirely in a plane . Let
Hbe a unit vector parallel to

H
so that
2
H r mv mr H mh e = = =

,say, where

2
dr
r H h r v r
dt
e = = =

, a constant
vector v r e = and eis angular speed of the particle. Taking cross product of
2
r H e with
both sides of
2
2 2
1 1 d r
r
dt r
=
, we have

2
2
2 2
1 1 d r
h r r H
dt r
e

dr
H r
dt
e = =

since e is
the rate of turning the tangent( angular speed) and
dr
dt
isetimes an unit vector in the

plane of r
anddr
, which is precisely
H r
, being a unit vector perpendicular to both
H and r
.Integrating both sides of

2
2
1 d r dr
h
dt dt
=

we have
1
..................................................(31)
dr
h r ea
dt
= +
Page 661 / 681

Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 50
where
ea is a constant vector of integration in the plane of the motion itself , as both r
and
dr
dt
both are parallel to this plane. In other words , the unit vector
ais in a fixed
direction in the plane and may be taken as the x axis ,
. cos r a r u =
. cos r a u =
or may be
taken as component of r
or r
in the direction of
a
.
Taking the dot product of both sides of
1 dr
h r ea
dt
= +
with
r
we have
( )
1 1 1
. . . . cos . 1 cos
dr dr
r h r r er a r h r re h h r e
dt dt
u u

= + = + = +

. Taking
2
1
.
h
h h l

= =

, the polar equation of the path of the particle or equation of its orbit
emerges as
1 cos ............................................(32)
l
e
r
u = +
which is nothing but a conic section with semi-latus rectum
2
.........................................(33)
h
l
=
, the center of force being at one of the loci and e
being eccentricity. which is an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola according as
1, 1, 1 e or < = >
.
To find the speed of the particle take dot product of both sides of
2
2 2
1 1 d r
r
dt r
=
with
2
dr
dt
to get
2
2
2 2
2
2 3 3 3
1 1 2 2 2
2 . 2 .
dr d r dr dr r r
r v C C C
dt dt dt r dt r r r

| |
= = = + = + = +
|
\ .

Page 662 / 681

Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 51
or,
2
2
..................................(33) v C
r
= +
, the arbitrary constant C can be
determined from initial condition.
29:
Interpretation, finding the orbit and speed
Since
h r v =

a constant, ......................(34) h rsin v pv | = = ,
where
|
is the angle between
r and v

and p be the perpendicular from O on v
.
Let the speed be
1
v
at R, the end of the minor axis. Here the value of p at R must
be b, for the tangent there must be parallel to the major axis. The distance of R
from focus O must be a, for, it is
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2
1 b ae a e ae a + = + =
. Then
2
2
1 2
2 h
C v
a b
+ = = ,
as
2 2 2 2 2
1
h p v b v = = and combining it with
2
h
l
= , we get,
N
O O
P
Q
R
v
p
p
C -ae
b
r
a
Page 663 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 52
2
2
1 2 2
2 h l
C v
a b b a

+ = = = = as
2
b
l
a
= . So, C
a
= and we may write

2
2 2 1
.................................(34) v
r a r a

| |
= =
|
\ .
The expression gives at once the major axis in terms of v, given the original
position R as assumed. Since the center of force O is known, the other focus O
may be obtained by cutting a distance RO = a on the major axis.
It is a well known result from geometry, that
2
' pp b = , we may write
2
' '
...................................(35)
'
h hp hp
v
p pp b
= = =
This has an interesting consequence.
2 2 2 2
'
'
2 2
hp h h h
v ON NQ OO OQ
b b b b
= = = = +

and ' 2 2 OO ae and OQ a = =

, but ' v and O Q are

to each other.
30:To find an expression for e for planetary motion given above and criteria for
open / closed orbits.
The eqn.
1 dr
h r ea
dt
= +
may be written as

( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 2
2 2
1 1 2 2
. . . . 1
v h v h
v h r ea ea v h r e a a r v h r r e r v h

= + = = + = +

Now
( )
2
2
2 2
2
. . 0
0
. .
v v v h v
v h h v
h
h v h h
= = =

as
h r v =

, so
. . . 0 v h v r v r v v = = =

and
( )
( ) ( )
2
. .
. .
.
r v h h r v
h h h
r v h
r r r r

= = = =

.
So
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
. 1
v h
e r v h

= +

becomes
2 2 2 2 2
2
2
2 2
1 1
h v h h v
e
r r
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
.
Page 664 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 53
If the particle is thrust with initial velocity V at a distance cfrom the centre of force,
So , 1 e or > = < if
2
2
, V or
c
> = < respectively, i.e. hyperbolic, parabolic or elliptic orbit

respectively.
We can also consider initial kinetic energy
2
1
2
mV instead of
2
V in the above
consideration and infer that , 1 e or > = < if
2
1
,
2
Initial KE mV or
mc
> = < respectively,

i.e. hyperbolic, parabolic or elliptic orbit respectively. Total energy positive for hyperbolic
orbits, the attracted body bounces off the center of force in the same side it came. Total
energy is 0 for parabolic orbit, turns around the center of force and escapes, and for
bound orbits, total energy is negative.
Exercise13
A particle is executing motion in a conic section under a central force. Show that the
velocity distance graph ( hodograph)is a circle. Also show that the circle passes
through the origin if the path is parabolic.
Ans.: We can write

( )

( )

2
2 2
2
2
1 1 1 2
1 .
e
v h r ea r v h ea v h v h a e

| |
= + = = = +
|
\ .

squaring both sides. Since
( ) ( )
2
2 2
2 2 2
2
. . 0
0
. .
v v v h v
v h h v h v
h
h v h h
= = = =

, the above
expression becomes
( )

( ) ( )

( )
2
2
2
2
2 2
2 2
2
. 1 0 2 . 1 0
h v
e e
v h a e v v h a e
h h

| |
+ = + =
|
\ .
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
2 . 1 0 v v c e
h
+ =

where
e
c h a
h
=

, a constant vector since h
is constant.
i.e.
( )
2
2
2
2
2 . 1 0 R Rc e
h
+ =

is the equation of a circle whose centre is at
e
c h a
h
=

.
Further , if 1 e = , the circle becomes
2
2 . 0 R R c =

which is a circle passing through the
origin.
Example6
Page 665 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 54
A particle is moving around circle having radius a and its center at O (see the figure
above) with a constant speed v. It is knocked at the end of a radius OP, it suddenly
moved to R and its path becomes an ellipse with a focus at O and minor axis b = CR.
Find the impulse of the knock.
We have the centripetal force
2
2
mv m
F
a a
= =
, where
GM = ,intensity of force, being
product of universal gravitational constant and mass of the attracting body. So v
a
=
everywhere on the circle. When the particle is suddenly knocked and shifted to the point
R at the end of the minor axis, we have OR=a, major axis, as
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
' ' 1 OR OC CR a e b a e a e a = + = + = + =
. If the speed here is given by
2
2 1
u u
a a a a

| |
= = =
|
\ .
from (34) above. So u v = and the speed has not changed.
If
, i j
are unit vectors in the direction of x and y axes,
' OR aei b j =
. The velocity is
perpendicular to this direction, and a vector perpendicular to this direction is
bi ae j +
, a
unit vector in the direction of the velocity is

( )

2 2 2
2 2 2 2
1
bi ae j bi ae j bi ae j bi ae j
a
bi ae j a e b
a e a e
+ + + +
= = =
+ +
+

so that the velocity vector at R

becomes
bi ae j
u
a a
| |
+
=
|
|
\ .

. While on the circle, its velocity was in the direction of i
and
v
a
=
, so that
v i
a
. Thus the impulse or change in momentum is

( )

( )

b a i ae j bi ae j
m u v m i m
a a a a a

| | | | | |
+ +
= = | | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .

which is a given quantity, say

O
O
R
C -ae
b
a
R
Page 666 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 55
Z
. So the minor axis b may be obtained from this equation and the ellipse is specified.
It is interesting to
calculate its modulus
( ) 2
m
a b
a

and inclination with x axis
1
tan
a b
a b
.
Exercise14
Show that a planetary motion is a linear and a circular motion superimposed and
eccentricity is the ratio of the constant linear speed and uniform circular speed.
865:Central force as any function of distance in general
Let the differential equation of motion be
2
2

d r r
F Fr
dt r
= =

, where F is a function of r .
To find expression for velocity, take dot product of both sides with 2
dr
dt
to get
2
2

2 . 2 . 2
dr d r drr dr
Fr F
dt dt dt dt
= =

, so that the integration gives
2
2
2 2
dr dr
v C F dt C Fdr
dt dt
| |
= = =
|
\ .
} }
. Since
2 2 2
h p v = , taking
2
2
2
h
v
p
= we get,
2
2
2
h
C Fdr
p
=
}
, differentiating which wrt r we get
2
2 2
3
2 .....................................(35)
h
d
p h dp
F F
dr p dr
| |
|
\ .
= = .
This becomes p r equation of the orbit if the function F is known. The
differential equation can be integrated and the orbit would depend upon the initial
condition(s).
Page 667 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 56
Otherwise, if the orbit is known the equation (35) gives the force function.
Example7
The pedal equation ( p-r equation) of the ellipse is given as
2 2
1 2 1 a
p b r a
| |
=
|
\ .
when the
centre of force is at the focus . Find the force function.
Ans.: We have
2 2 3 2 2
1 2 1 2 2 d a d dp a
dr p b dr r a p dr b r
| |
| |
= =
| |
\ .
\ .
so
2 2
3 2 2
1 h dp h a
F
p dr b r
| |
= =
|
\ .
, the
central force is inverse square
Example8
If the force
2
F
r
= is inverse square, we can integrate

2 2 2
3 2 3 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
h dp h dr h l
dp C C
p dr r p r p r p r

= = = + = +
Now, the pedal equations of ellipse, parabola and hyperbola with focus as origin are
respectively
2 2 2
2 1 2 2 1
, ,
l l l
and
p r a p r p r a
= = = + , where
2
b
l
a
= .
31:Central force directly proportional to distance
For an ellipse with origin as center, the pedal equation is
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 a b r
p a b
+
= . So in this
case
P
v
O
p
r
D
Page 668 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 57
2 2
3 2 2
h dp h
F r
p dr a b
= = . Thus the central force is directly proportional to distance .
Taking
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 ..........(37)
d r dr dr d r d r
n r n r v C n r
dt dt dt dt dt
| |
=
= = = =
|
\ .

Since
h pv =
for any central force, from above ,
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 v C n r
p h h
= =
Comparing it with
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 a b r
p a b
+
=
we get,
( )
2 2
h nab and C n a b = = +
Substituting the values we get,
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
............................(38) v n a b r nOD = + =
Where ODis semi-conjugate diameter of OP.
Example9
In the figure, the point P is moving with a velocity v
wrt the Q. The point Q is rotating

about the origin O with a constant angular speed e about an axis perpendicular to the
plane of the paper. Find the velocity of P relative to O.
Ans.
v k q e +

, if
k is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the paper and OQ q =

.
Example10
Show that under constant angular velocity, acceleration is
( )
A A r

.
O
Q
P
Page 669 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 58
Ans.: If A
is the constant angular velocity, v A r =

. Then
( ) ( )
0
dv d d A dr
A r r A A v A A r
dt dt dt dt
= = + = + =

.
Example11
Find the law of force when a particle describes an ellipse under the action of a force
always directed towards its center.
The components of acceleration are
2 2
2 2
cos sin
d x x d y y
F F and F F
dt r dt r
u u = = = = respectively(a)
Differentiating the equation of the ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = , we have
2 2
0
x dx y dy
a dt b dt
+ = .(b)
From (a) and (b) we get,
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
0
dx d x dy d y F x dx y dy
a dt dt b dt dt r a dt b dt
| |
+ = + =
|
\ .
Multiplying this by 2 and integrating
2 2
2 2
1 1 dx dy
a dt b dt

| | | |
+ =
| |
\ . \ .
, say, a constant.
Again differentiating (b)
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
0 0 0
x d x y d y dx dy F x y F
F r
a dt b dt a dt b dt r a b r

| |
| | | |
+ + + = + + = + = =
| | |
\ . \ .
\ .
The force is seen to be directly proportional to r.
Example12
Find the law of force when a particle describes an ellipse under the action of a force
always directed towards its focus.
Page 670 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 59
Take the ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = , the origin at the center and components of force directed to
the focus are
2 2
2 2
cos sin
d x x ae d y y
F F and F F
dt r dt r
u u
= = = =
respectively(a)
as ( ) , 0 ae is a focus and r a ex = being a focal radius, making an angle with major
axisa.
From (a), ( )
2 2
2 2
0
d y d x
x ae y
dt dt
= , integrating which, ( )
dy dx
x ae y C
dt dt
=
say.(b)
Differentiating
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = ,we get
2 2
2 2
0
dy dx
x dx y dy
dt dt
x y
a dt b dt
a b
+ = = =
.say.
Using this, (b) becomes ( )
2 2
x y aC aC
x ae y C
a b a ex r
+ = = =
..(c)
Differentiating
2 2
0
x dx y dy
a dt b dt
+ = we get,
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
0
x d x y d y dx dy
a dt b dt a dt b dt
| | | |
+ + + =
| |
\ . \ .
which becomes, on using (a) and (c),
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 4 2 4 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
0 1 0
0
x x ae F y a C y x F xe C
r a b r b a a b r a b r
F r C aC
F
r a b r b r
( (
| |
+ + + = + =
( | (
\ .

+ = =
Hence the force is inversely proportional to
2
r
.
Example12
Page 671 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 60
The force on a particle moving in a plane is always towards a fixed point directly
proportional to its distance from it. Find the orbit.
The components of acceleration are
2
2
d x
x
dt
=
..(a)
and
2
2
d y
y
dt
=
....(b)
The two equations can simultaneously written as
2
2
d r
r
dt
=
where
r xi yj = +
. Note that
is assumed to be same for both x and y directions, i.e., frequency of the two SHMs to
be the same.
General solution of (a) may be taken as
( )
cos x A t c = + with x a = when 0 t = and
0
dx
dt
= when 0 t =
, so that it may be written as
cos x a t = (c)
General solution of (b) may be taken as
( )
cos y B t q = + with 0 y = when 0 t = and
dy
V
dt
= when 0 t =
, so that it may be written as
cos sin
2
V V
y t t
t

| |
= + =
|
\ .
(d)
N
P
V
r
r
Page 672 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 61
Eliminating t from (c) and (d) we have
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a V
+ = or
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = which is an ellipse
with major axis aand minor axis
2
b V = .
Exercise15
Two simple harmonic motions at right angles to each other superimposed on a
particle result in an elliptical orbit.
Ans.: The result is true for whatever consistent initial conditions are taken, for ,
eliminating t direct from (c) and (d), we have
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
sin ' sin ' ' cos ' cos ' sin ' Ay A x A x Ay AA c c c c c c + = (

The expression for velocity may be got differentiating (c) and (d) to have
,
dx y dy x
a b
dt b dt a
= = , so that
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
'
dx dy
v a b x y a b r r
dt dt

| | | |
= + = + = + =
| |
\ . \ .
, say (using
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = ),
where ' r is a semi-diameter conjugate to r , related by
2 2 2 2
' a b r r + = + ,square of radius
of director circle of the ellipse.
Exercise16
Show that two SHMs of same frequency superimposed result in motion in an ellipse
even if the SHMs are not at right angles to each other. In other words, show that the
motion described by cos sin r nta ntb = +

result in a force on the particle varying directly
as the distance from the force center.
32:To deduce Newtons inverse square law from Keplers laws
Under any central force we have the tangential component of acceleration is 0 , ( eqn
22) which yields
2
d
r h
dt
u
=
where
1
2
h
is magnitude of areal velocity, or
h
is angular
momentum per unit mass, or moment of velocity. Also the radial component of the
Page 673 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 62
acceleration is given by
2
2
2
d r d
r
dt dt
u

| |
=
|
\ .
, force per unit mass .Changing the
independent variable to
1
z
r
=
, we have
2
2 2
1 1 dr dz dz d dz d dz
r h
dt z dt z d dt d dt d
u u
u u u
= = = =
.
Differentiating again,
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
d r d dz d dz d d z d z
h h h hz h z
dt dt d d d dt d d
u
u u u u u
| | | |
= = = =
| |
\ . \ .
.Using this value we get,
( )
2
2
2 2 3
1 d
r hz h z
dt z
u | |
= =
|
\ .
. and finally , from
2
2
2
d r d
r
dt dt
u

| |
=
|
\ .
we get
2
2 2 2 3
2
d z
h z h z
d

u
=
i.e.,
2
2 2 2
d z
z
d h z
u
+ = .( 43)
(Under any central force)
Now , since the orbit of a planet is given by a conic 1 cos
l
e
r
u = + or 1 cos lz e u = + ,
differentiating twice we get,
2
2
cos
d z
l e
d
u
u
= and adding this to 1 cos lz e u = + we get,
2
2
1
d z
l z
du
(
+ =
(

, or
2
2
1 d z
z
d l u
+ = but since for any central force,
2
2 2 2
d z
z
d h z
u
+ = . Thus
2 2
1
h z l
=
So
2 2 2
2
h z h l
l r
= = and inverse square law is established.
33:Some more particular integrals
34:Particular integral of
( ) ( )
1 1
ax ax
e V e V
f D f D a
=
+
Page 674 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 63
Previously we had found anti-derivative of
( )
ax
f D y e =
,
( ) sin f D y mx =
,
( ) cos f D y mx =
,
( )
n
f D y x =
etc, and also when factors are repeated. Now it is to show that
( ) ( )
1 1
ax ax
e V e V
f D f D a
=
+
.
If W be any smooth function of x, we have .
( ) ( )
ax ax ax ax
D e W e DW ae W e D a W = + = +
Repeating the formula for ( ) D a W + instead of W ,
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
2
2 ax ax ax ax
D e W De D a W e D a D a W e D a W = + = + + = + .
Proceeding in this manner or using Leibnitz theorem for n-th differentiation,
( )
( ) ( )
1 2 2
1 2
1 2 2
1 2
......
......
r ax ax r r ax r r ax r r ax
r
ax r r r r r r ax
D e W e D W C ae D W C a e D W a e W
e D C aD C a D a W e D a W

= + + + +
= + + + + = +
Now
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
......
......
ax n n n ax
n
n n n
ax
n
ax
f D e W D a D a D a e W
e D a a D a a D a a W
e f D a W

= + + + +
(
= + + + + + + +

= +
Then suppose ( ) V f D a W = + so that
( )
1
W V
f D a
=
+
Using this in the previous step, ( )
( )
1
ax ax
f D e V e V
f D a
=
+
.
Operating both sides by
( )
1
f D
, we have
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1
ax ax ax ax
f D e V e V e V e V
f D f D a f D f D f D a
= =
+ +
Page 675 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 64
35:Particular integral of
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1 1
' xV x f D V
f D f D f D
(
=
(

If W be any smooth function of x, we have .
( ) ' D xW xDW W xDW D W = + = + where ' 1
d
D D
dD
= = or identity operator.
Similarly ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
2 ' D xW xD W DW xD W D W = + = + , where
( )
2 2
' 2
d
D D D
dD
= = .
Generalizing, ( ) ( )
1
'
r r r r r
D xW xD W rD W xD W D W
= + = + , so that we may write,

( )( ) ( )( )
1 2
1 2
...........
n n n
n
f D xW D a D a D a xW

= + + + +
or, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ' ..........................( ) f D xW xf D W f D W a = +
Now let ( ) f D W V = i.e.,
( )
1
.............................( ) W V b
f D
=
From (a) and (b), ( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1
' f D x V xV f D V
f D f D
| |
= +
|
|
\ .
.Operating both sides by
( )
1
f D
,
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
' ' x V xV f D V xV x V f D V
f D f D f D f D f D f D f D f D
( (
= + =
( (

or,
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 1 1
' xV x f D V V
f D f D f D
(
=
(

Example15
Find general solution and particular integral of
2
2
2
x
d y
y xe
dx
+ =
The general solution is
1 2
cos sin c x c x +
Page 676 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 65
and a particular integral applying
( ) ( )
1 1
ax ax
e V e V
f D f D a
=
+
we have
( )
( )
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
1 4 5 5 4 2 1
1
5 5
4 4
1 higher powers of 0 0... 5 4
5 5 5 5 5 25
x
x x x
x x x
e
xe e x e x x
D D D D D D
e D D e e
D x x x
= = =
+ + + | |
+ +
+ +
|
\ .
| |
| |
= + = + + =
| |
\ .
\ .
So the complete solution is ( ) ( )
2
1 2
5 4 cos sin
25
x
e
f x x c x c x = + + .
Example16
2
2
2 4 cos
x
d y dy
y e x
dx dx
+ =
Writing in the operator language,
( )
2
2 4 cos
x
D D y e x + = and roots of
2
2 4 D D + are
1 3i .
So the complementary function is
( ) 1 2
cos 3 sin 3
x
e c x c x + . For finding particular
integral,
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2
1
2 2
1 1 1
cos cos cos
2 4 3
1 2 1 4
1
cos cos
1 3
x x x
x x
e x e x e x
D D D
D D
e x e x
= =
+ +
+ + +
= =
+
So the complete solution is
( )
1
1 2 2
cos 3 sin 3 cos
x x
e c x c x e x + +
Example13
Page 677 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 66
4
2
4
sin
d y
y x x
dx
=
The diff eqn is
( )
4 2
1 sin D y x x = and the roots of
4
1 D are 1, 1, , i i , so that the
general solution is
1 2 3 1
cos sin
x x
c e c e c x c x
+ + + .
The particular integral is
2 2
4 4
1 1
sin imaginary part of
1 1
ix
x x x e
D D
=

.
Now,
( )
2 2 2
4 4 4 3 2
2 2 3 2
2 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
1 4 6 4
1
1 1 1 3 1
1 ........
3 1 4 4 2 4
1
2 4
1 3 5 1 5
1 higher powers of D 3
4 2 4 4 2
ix ix ix
ix ix
ix
ix
x e e x e x
D D D i D Di
D i
e x e Di D D i x
Di Di
Di D D i
e D i
i D x e x ix
D i D
= =
+
+
(
(
(
( = = + + +
(
| |
(
+ +
|
(
\ .
( (
= + = +
( (

3
2
5
3
4 3 2
ix
i x
e ix x
(
= +
(

The imaginary part is
3
2
1 5 3
cos sin
4 3 2 8
x
x x x x
| |

|
\ .
and the complete solution is
3
2
1 2 3 1
1 5 3
cos sin cos sin
4 3 2 8
x x
x
x x x x c e c e c x c x
| |
+ + + +
|
\ .
Example14
Find particular integral
( )
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2
1 1 1 1
.2 2
1 1 1 5 1 5
1 4
5 4
5 1 5 25
x x
x x
x x x
xe xe
xe x D e D
D D D D
xe xe xe
x
D
| |
= =
|
+ + + +
\ .
= =
+
Exercise17
Page 678 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 67
Find a particular integral of
( )
2 2
1 sin 2 D y x x + = . Ans.
2
1 26 8
sin 2 cos 2
3 9 9
x x x
| |

|
\ .
Exercise18
Find a particular integral of
( )
2
2 1 sin D D y x x + + = .Ans. ( )
1 1
1 cos sin
2 2
x x x +
36:Homogeneous linear equation
( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
1 2
..........
n n n n n n
n
x D a x D a x D a y f x

+ + + + =
(change of variable reduces this to linear equation with constant coefficients)
This equation is special because it can be reduced to linear diff equation with constant
coefficients.
Let ln ,
z
z x x e = = so that
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
,
dy dy dz dy d y d y dy d y dy
dx dz dx x dz dx dz x x dz dz dz x
| |
= = = =
|
\ .
,
Similarly
3 3 2
3 3 2 2
1
3 2
d y d y d y dy
dx dz dz dz x
| |
= +
|
\ .
. In operator notation these are respectively,
( ) ( ) ( )( )
2 3
2 3 3 2
2 3
, 1 , 3 2 1 2
dy d y d y
x Dy x D D y x D D D y D D D y
dx dx dx
= = = + =
As an exercise it is left for you to prove by induction or otherwise, that
( )( ) ( ) 1 2 .......... 1
n
n
n
d y
x D D D D n y
dx
= + , ( ) ( ) ( )
1
1
1
1 2 ..... 2
n
n
n
d y
x D D D D n y Z
dx
= + =
Now the differential equation becomes
( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
1
1 2 .......... 1 1 2 ...... 2 ......
n
D D D D n a D D D D n a y Z + + + + + = (

or ( ) D y Z | = , where Z is a function of ln z x = .
Page 679 / 681
Chapter 49 : 2
nd
Page 68
This can be solved for z for linear differential equation with constant coefficients.
Example17
Solve the diff equation
2
2
2
2ln
d y dy
x x y x
dx dx
+ =
Putting
z
x e = ,
z
dx
e
dz
= we have
z
dy dy dz dy
x e Dy
dx dz dx dz
= = = , ( )
2
2
2
1
d y
x D D y
dx
= . So the diff
equation becomes ( ) 1 1 2 D D D y z + = (

, or,
( ) ( )
2
2
2 1 2 1 2 D D y z D y z + = = .
The complete solution is ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
2 4 2 4
x x x
y z c c z z y e c c e e = + + + = + + +
Exercise18
2
2 3
2
4
d y dy
x x y x
dx dx
+ = Ans.
2 2 3
1
5
y ax bx x
= + +
Exercise19
2
2 6
2
7 5 2
d y dy
x x y x
dx dx
+ + = Ans.
5 2 6
2
77
y ax bx x

= +
Exercise20
2
2 3 2
2
2 2 ln
d y dy
x x y x x x x
dx dx
+ = + + Ans.
( )
2 3 2
1 1
2 2
ln ln ln 1 y ax bx x x x x x x = + + +
It is interesting to note the Bertrand s theorem which states that these two and only
two central forces ( )
2
k
F r
r
= and ( ) F r kr = are the only two central forces who have
stable and closed orbits.
Page 680 / 681
DIFFERENT CONIC SECTIONS
VISUALISATION OF e
Forthcoming:
1.Central Forces
The Uniformly Accelerated
Motion, The Uniform Circular
Motion, Simple Harmonic
Motion, Planetary Motion,
all in one, leading to
differential equations, the
ultimate codes of nature
Forthcoming:
2.The Sword And
The Shield
The Straight Line and
the Plane, Vectors,
Determinants, Matrices
MAIL THE WRITER @
nyn_3@rediffmail.comfor
mistakes, suggestions and
help in the topic or
problems freely.
2.
3.
1.
Page 681 / 681

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Page 1 / 681

Table Of Contents In The Whole Book

26, Indeterminate form- 27,

36, Simple Evaluation of

Function( Also called Eulers 1st integral)

(gamma) function, also called Eulers 2nd integral 12,

Coulomb. in magnitude; mass of electron m =

Nm2/kg2, k = (1/ 4tc0) =

m which is in the order of nuclear radius. Beyond the

and the actual roots

. The entire Calculus may be viewed as some sort of

be another identity element 0 = . Since both are identities, 0 0 0

= , i.e. the identity element is unique.

and is called inverse function of f. Do not confuse

. If Y = R we say the function is onto Y instead of into Y. Note that if

= ; the left inverse is same as the right inverse and it is unique.

= means the set of inverse images of the

= for all B Y _ then

= for all A X _ then

is one-one but not onto.

is called a signum function. And

= for all subsets of Y, then

_ for all subsets A of X then

= . This is also linear and monotonic.

Ans. , for sin 1 x s

Ans. , as 1 1, x < s and 3 x > incompatible.

=y (say) = h(x) (say), (2)

by actual long division. The question whether it has any meaning

is an Algebraic function in contrast. See

3 Algebraic numbers either rational

= . But both values are positive here .

to make it a function, note that , for 1 x > ,

, defined only for 1 x > ,

repeats itself and so it is a periodic

sin x +cos x = = tan x +cot x = sec x +cosec x

. Ans. 2 1 x < < and 1 2 x < < .

is same as ( ) f a . This is dealt in the next chapter.

For this reason note here that the functions f(x) = x

= = = , as it does not involve indeterminate forms.

g(x) = m, for each c

f(x) = L , for each c

(f(x) - g(x)) = L - m (to prove)

((-1) . g(x)) = ( -1) . m or,

(f(x) x g(x)) = L x m (to prove)

g(x) = m, for any c

1/ g(x) is not 1/ m let

1/ g(x) = r Utilizing the result (d)

( g(x) (1/g(x) ) = m .r , not equal to 1.

1 = 1 (Identically means ,independent of x or g(x))

(f(x) g(x)) = L m (to prove) if 0 m=

1/ g(x) ( by result (d)

f(x) exists at all. (Without

g(x) exists, then

g(x) = L (Without proof)

= . Hint : x x = for x < 0.Remember

+ + = + .... upto ..... x

Exercise11:For |x| <1 show that

. Put sin-1x = , so that x = sin , We have

Page 161 / 681

does not exist.

according as a0/b0 is +ve or ve.

> < . The b could be any real number.

does not exist.

does not exist . Hint : Show LHL = , and RHL = - .