PROBLEM SET WEEK 12

1) During the design process; the engineers have to consider knockdown factors. Knockdown factors relates to material reduction due to imperfections in the material and external effects which effectively reduce the material ability to support the predicted load. When the material is subjected to change in temperature its properties for example its stiffness is reduced. This reduction in stiffness is illustrated by a knockdown factor k which is multiply to the expected stiffness if there was no change of temperature and the results will give us the real stiffness of the material. Temperature change is not the only factor affecting the materials properties, other knockdown factors include tension, compression, damage in tension, damage in compression, presence of a hole in the structure etc...

The diagram above shows the various knockdown factors of different materials. It can be observed that due to the non-isotropic properties of composite materials. The values of knockdown factors of composite materials are lower than the knockdown factors of isotropic material like aluminium alloys. Which means that composite material are more vulnerable to knockdown factors. This results in composite materials having lower real properties.

2) Table 1: Comparative Mechanical Properties of Age-hardenable Al alloys and Al-Li alloys C ($/kg ) (g/c c) 2.83 229 2.8 2.7 2.83 10 229 2.8 2.59 50 329 2.53 2.6

Cr Alloy ($/kg) Hardene d 7178-T6 2024-T3 6061-T6 7050T7651 7075-T76 Al-Li 2090-T83 8090T3X Weldalite 049-T6 10

UTS (MPa) 558 448 310 552 503 550 340 720

Yield (MPa) 490 310 276 490 427 520 210 680

% EL 10 10 17 11 8 6 13 5

E (GPa) E/ 72 72 69 72 72 76 80 25. 4 25. 7 25. 6 25. 4 25. 7 29. 3 31. 6

/ 197. 2 160. 0 114. 8 195. 1 179. 6 212. 4 134. 4 276. 9 166. 7

29. 2091-T8x 2.58 430 330 18 75 1 Advantages: - Higher Modulus - Generally comparable/higher strengths - Better weight specific properties - Low density - Good fracture toughness - Very high fatigue crack growth resistance - Current production techniques are still valid, e.g. extrusion, sheet forming and forging. Disadvantages: - Can have highly anisotropic properties in some heat treated alloys - High crack growth rate for microstructurally short cracks crack initiation - Cost

The 2090 alloy, according to http://www.keytometals.com/Article58.htm, has the following properties: An elevated temperature exposure for the peak-aged tempers (T86, T81 and T83) that show good stability within 10% of original properties. Excellent fatigue crack growth behaviour. Lavernia et al explains that:

Initial interest in aluminium-lithium alloys derived from the benefits associated with lithium, both in the presence of solid solution and as the coherent Al3Li phase which result in a density reduction of about 3% for each weight per cent addition of lithium and an increase in Young's modulus of about 6%. In principle weight savings in aircraft structural parts could reach 15% Lecture Notes Although the cost to manufacture 8XXX alloys is 3X > other aluminium alloys, it is about 5-10 X < than their composite counterpart

3) What are the major factors that need to be considered in the design of carbon fiber based composite components. Carbon fiber is one among many different fibers that can be used to form composites structures. Discuss the factors that influence the choice of fibers used in aerospace PMC structures. Carbon has exceptional specific modulus, strengths but due to its weak impact resistance and through thickness strength as well as being anisotropic mean that certain design considerations must be made. These include manufacturing methods that give fiber vol > 55%, use > 10% plies in each principal direct (0 , 90 , 45 ) and not using more than 4 adjacent plies in any one direction. Also carbon fiber is sensitive to stress concentrations, to avoid them; highly directional laminates near holes or notches must not be used. As well as minimize number of joints by designing large components which reduce strength and increase weight and cost. But these are not all the factors, there are many more to be considered such as manufacturing defects.

The key driving factors in choosing a fiber for a PMC structure are performance, weight savings, costs, safety and how it handles environmental effects. Where the performance is measured via how well the material performs in regard to strength, modulus, impact and fatigue testing. The cost are based on production rates, manufacturing equipment control and material and labour costs while safety and environmental influences can be measured via hot/wet properties, thermal effects and moisture absorption, UV, corrosion cracking, crack detection, repair, life prediction.

4) Increasing number of aerospace components has been replaced by Ti alloys. Describe the properties of Ti alloys and compare them with the properties of the materials which they have replaced. Give examples of three applications of Ti alloys in aircrafts and describe the benefits associated with their use.

Titanium in comparison with nay aluminum alloys offer equal or better density corrected strength, better damage tolerance and excellent corrosion

resistance, not to say anything about the superior elevated temperature performance. Also they are used due to limitation on space, a titanium member is very strength per volume efficient meaning the same strength can be carried by a physically smaller structural member. Below are two tables, one on titanium properties the other on aluminum:

Titanium has replaced many aluminium and steel components in aircrafts one example is the landing gear component on the Boeing 777 which has saved 270kg per aircraft.

Another example is the mid fuselage bulkhead of the F-22 raptor which weighs 150kg (one of the biggest titanium forging ever produced) but was initially forged from a single cast ingot of almost 3000kg.

Titanium is heavily used in jet engines, comprising one third of structural weight in modern jet engines with increasing proportion being used. Compressor blades were the first engine components to be made of titanium, but compressor disks and recently the large front fan blades as well are being made from titanium. For example the Rolls-Royce Trent jet engine series: