Timber growth

Geoff' s Woodwork
for Students of Woodwork

Timber growth

Cross section of a tree truck

Annual or growth rings ~ in temperate climates there are two

distinctive growth seasons, spring and summer ~ the spring growth is
rapid and is shown as a broad band whereas the hotter, dryer summer
growth shows up narrow. In tropical countries the growth rings are
more even and difficult to distinguish.

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Timber growth

Bark ~ the outer layer, corklike and provides protection to the tree
from knocks and other damage.
Bast ~ the inner bark, carries enriched sap from the leaves to the cells
where growth takes place.

Cambium ~ layer of living cells between the bast and the sapwood.
Crown ~ the branches and leaves that provides its typical summer
shape.
Heartwood ~ mature timber, no longer carries sap, the heart of the tree,
provides the strength of the tree. Usually a distinctive darker colour
than the sapwood.

Medulla ray ~ (rays) food storage cells radiating from the medulla ~
provides a decorative feature found in quarter cut timber.
Pith or medulla ~ the centre of the tree, soft and pithy especially in the
branches.
Sapwood ~ new growth, carries the raw sap up to the leaves. Usually
lighter in colour than the heartwood, especially in softwoods.
Trunk ~ main structure of the tree, produces the commercial timber.

Root structure ~ Absorbs water and minerals from the soil. It is the
anchor of the treee.

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Timber growth

Hardwoods and Softwoods.

There are two main groups of timber producing trees used

commercially; softwoods and hardwoods. These terms immediately
create contention because they do not accurately describe the timber
correctly.

Softwoods. Softwoods are coniferous trees and the timber is not

necessarily 'soft'. They are 'evergreen'. (The larch is an exception)
Their general characteristics are:
Straight, round but slender, tapering trunk.
The crown is narrow and rises to a point.
It has needle like or scale-like shaped leaves and it's fruit, i.e. it's seeds
are carried in cones.
The bark is course and thick and softwoods are evergreen and as such
do not shed their leaves in autumn.

Hardwoods. Hardwood trees are broadleaf and generally deciduous.

Their timber is not necessarily hard. For instance, balsa (the timber
used for making model planes) is a hardwood. The general
characteristics are:
Stout base that scarcely tapers but divides into branches to form a
wide, round crown.
The leaves are broad and may have single or multi lobes.
The bark may be smooth or course and varies in thickness and colours.
Its fruit may be: nuts, winged fruits, pods, berries, or fleshy fruits.

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Timber growth

Other terms

( ** I am afraid there are often contradictory explanations in some terms. UK readers especially be aware of the n.american
term of 'burl' in examinations)

Branch ~ main bough from trunk

Bole ~ The greater part of the trunk under the first branch.

Boulle (log) ~ french term for through and through cutting of the trunk and retained complete in the seasoning process
especially for matching grain. (included for interest only)

Bur(r) (burl n.americ.) ~ produced by the tree to form over early growth of twigs known as epicormic shoots. Also formed to
protect damaged timber. Provides beautiful figure prized by cabinet makers and for making veneers.

Burl ** ~ (buttress) Briar pipes are made from this material nearer the root structure. I believe North American usage
includes the description similar to burr.

Butt (butt-swell) ~ The wider part of the trunk especially close to the ground. Veneers have some 'burry' circles but is
characterised by a wild freakish pattern.

Buttress ~ On some trees the widening of the bole providing interesting grain especially for veneers. The part of the trunk or
bole as it enters the ground. Large tropical trees have 'butresses' reaching well over a metre from the ground.

Crotch ~ the forked meeting of the trunk with a branch forming interesting growth ring formation.

Trunk ~ stem ~ main part of tree ~ see bole

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Conversion of timber

Geoff's Woodwork
for Students of Woodwork

Conversion of timber (updated Apr 2004)

As soon as possible after felling the tree should be converted into usable timber.

There are two main methods of converting timber:

● Through and through (or Plain or Crown sawn) which produces tangential boards and
● Quarter Sawn which produces radial boards.

The Quarter sawn is far more expensive because of the need to double (or more) handle the log. There is also more
wastage. It is however more decorative and less prone to cup or distort. Note also there are two ways of sawing the
quarter.

Through and through produces mostly tangentially sawn timber and some quarter sawn stuff. (see diagram)
Tangential timber is the most economical to produce because of the relatively less repetitive production methods. It
is used extensively in the building industry.

There are other ways but they are all variations of tangential and radial cuts to obtain the best or most economical
boards for the use it is to be put. These basic cuts are not always able or need to be, on the exact tangent or radius of
the trunk. The cuts, that fall between, crown and quarter are called 'rift' and between 'rift' and 'quarter' are identified
as 'figured' - see below for explanation. Boxing the heart refers to eliminating the heartwood from the boards that
would otherwise produce shakes, juvenile wood or may even be rotten.

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Conversion of timber

Tangential boards (crown, plain or flat sawn) are

used extensively for beams and joists. They are
stronger when placed correctly edge up with the
load in the tangential axis. These type of boards
suffer from 'cupping' if not carefully converted,
seasoned, and stored properly. Annual growth
rings form an angle less than 45 degrees.

Radial boards (radial, figured or quarter sawn) are

typically cut on 'the quarter' and produce a pattern
of the medullary rays especially in quartered oak.
Such timber is expensive due to the multiple cuts
required to convert this board. The radial face of
the board is slightly stronger and stiffer than the
tangentially face but the cross section and
condition of the timber has more effect on
strength. Annual growth rings form an angle
greater than 45 degrees.

Crown sawn is obtained by sawing tangentially to

the annual rings. It is also referred to as 'Plain
Sawn' or 'through and through'.

Rift sawn is the cut which falls between crown and

true quarter sawn. It is straight grained and in oak,
does not reveal any 'silver ribbon' grain features.
Quality floor boards are prepared from rift sawn
timber because it wears well and shrinks less.
Annual growth rings form an angle between 30 and
60 degrees.

Quarter sawn boards are radial cut from the centre

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Conversion of timber

of the tree. It produces the distinctive silver ribbon

effect (in oak) across the whole board. Annual
growth rings form an angle greater than 45
degrees. True quartered boards producing the best
features will have the angle on or very much closer
to 90 degrees.

'Figured' - is the cut between 'rift' and 'true

quartered'. It has varying degrees of 'silver
ribbon' (in oak) showing through but not the full
figured effect found in true quarter sawn boards.

Different species have their best features enhanced

by choosing the best cut appropriate to their
species.

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seasoning

Geoff's Woodwork
for Students of Woodwork

Seasoning Timber

Seasoning is the controlled process of reducing the moisture content (MC) of the timber so that it
is suitable for the environment and intended use. We need to reduce the MC of timber for the
following reasons:

● Every time the MC reduces the timber shrinks especially tangentially.

● Consequently it will show fewer tendencies to warp, split or shake.

● Seasoned timber although lighter will be stronger and more reliable.

● The sap in timber is a food for fungi and wood parasites. Remove the sap and the wood
will be less attractive to these dangers.

● For construction grade timber the timber must be below 20% MC to reduce the chances of
Dry Rot and other fungi infestations.

● Dry well seasoned timber is stronger.

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seasoning

● Dry well seasoned timber is easier to work with and consequently safer especially machine
working.

● Timber with higher moisture content is difficult to finish i.e. paint, varnish, etc.

There are two main ways of seasoning timber, Natural (Air) and Artificial (Kiln) drying. Both
methods require the timber be stacked and separated to allow the full circulation flow of air, etc.
around the stack.

Air Seasoning.

Air seasoning is the method used with the timber stacked in the open air. It requires the
following:

● Stacked stable and safely with horizontal spacing of at least 25 mm.

● Vertical spacing achieved by using timber battens (piling sticks) of the same or neutral
species. Today some timber yards are using plastics. The piling sticks should be
vertically aligned and spaced close enough to prevent bowing say 600 to 1200 mm max
centres.

● Ends of boards sealed by using a suitable sealer or cover to prevent too rapid drying out
via the end grain.

● The stack raised well clear of the ground, vegetation, etc to provide good air circulation
and free from rising damp, frost, etc.

● Over head cover from effects of direct sunlight and driving weather.

The details depend on the size, quantity and species of the timber. You cannot however expect
to obtain less than 16 - 17% mc in the UK. Further seasoning needs to be done inside, in heated
and ventilated buildings.

Kiln Seasoning.

There are two main methods used in artificial seasoning, compartmental, and progressive. Both
methods rely on the controlled environment to dry out the timber and require the following
factors:

● Forced air circulation by using large fans, blowers, etc.

● Heat of some form provided by piped steam.

● Humidity control provided by steam jets.

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seasoning

The amount and duration of air, heat and humidity again depends on species, size, quantity, etc.
Schedules are published for the various species to enable operators to select an appropriate
drying environment. In the UK they are usually provided by the Kiln Manufacturers and also
published in the Handbook of Hardwoods and Handbook of Softwoods (BRE).

Compartmental.

A compartment kiln is a single enclosed container or building, etc. The timber is stacked as
described above and the whole stack is seasoned using a programme of settings until the whole
stack is reduced to the MC required.

Progressive.

A progressive kiln has the stack on trolleys that ‘progressively’ travel through chambers that
change the conditions as it travels through the varying atmospheres.

The advantage of this system, although much larger, has a continuous flow of seasoned timber
coming off line.

How to Season your own timber.

This process is for small batches and is based on a one inch thick board, for other thicknesses
and varying species you should adjust this time according to your experience and judgement. I
have made notes in italics below to help you along the way.

In the UK - generally ~ for a one-inch thick board such as oak will take about 12 months.
Beech is much faster. Further rough guides for Air drying times for fresh felled timber in
temperate areas similar to the UK:

Softwoods ~ 25 mm thick, stacked in spring reduces to about 20 % in 1 1/2 to 3 months.

Softwoods ~ 50 mm thick, stacked in spring reduces to about 20 % in 3 to 4 months.

Hardwoods ~ 25 mm thick, stacked in autumn reduces to about 20 % the following summer.

Hardwoods ~ 50 mm thick, stacked in autumn reduces to about 20 % the following autumn.

However, note that these times show reduction to only 20 %. Further outdoor exposure may
bring it down to 16 or 17 % but usually will require indoor drying to get to 12 % or less.
Extreme care and good judgement is needed to get timber down to these levels without tension
and stresses developing. Low heat, correct humidity and ventilation is what you must get right
and certainly do not try to force the pace. Read R.B. Hoadley's book, Understanding Wood for
a better guide to home seasoning.

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seasoning

These are rule of thumb for temperate climates and you must make checks, record conditions and
use your judgement and make adjustments where necessary.

Take samples from centre of stack, identify, weigh and record. Note the season of the year that
you start the process and carefully note weather extremities to help you predict the duration and
effects.

After approximately 3 months for softwoods and 12 months for hardwoods – start weighing
samples (note times above) and record together with notes on the weather in the immediate past
cycle. You may well want to start weighing and recording before these times to get a better
understanding of the different species you may have in the stack.

Weigh and record every week thereafter and after three consecutive weighs showing no
difference consider the stack Air Dry for external use.

Test using the oven method to determine the %MC and whether it is fit for your use.

Re-stack the timber in-doors. Take care that the environment is not too hot and there is sufficient
ventilation. You need to control this environment and thus you need to take regular readings of
temperature and humidity of the air and % mc of timber samples.

Take samples from centre of stack, identify, weigh and record temperatures and humidity if you
have access to an hydrometer.

Continue to weigh and record every week and after three consecutive weighs showing no
difference consider the stack Air Dry for internal use.

Test using the oven method.

Continue the process until you reach the % MC you require for your particular use.

Keep your notes and they will help you to predict the seasoning process of future batches.

Test using the oven method.

Remove sample from centre of stack. Cut off a member 300 mm long. Cut off a small cube
sample approx. 25 mm long. Weigh and record. Place in a warm oven (experience must judge
- dangers of over heating is obvious) for 15 to twenty minutes or so and re-weigh and record.
Continue until there are no discernible differences between readings. You will now have a wet
weight and a dry weight. The %MC is obtained by the formulae –

Wet weight – dry weight / dry weight X 100 = %MC (this is a standard scientific formulae for
determining wood %MC - not mine !)

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seasoning

A moisture meter is very handy but not quite so accurate as the oven method. Why not test your
sample using the oven method and then see how much you can trust your meter?

Top

more information at 'Conversation on seasoning' - (timber, boards, sticks and PEG)

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Shrinkage

Geoffs Woodwork
for Students of Woodwork

Timber defects
Shrinkage

When timber is seasoning and it's moisture content (MC) is reduced below the Fibre Saturated Point (FSP)
continued drying will cause dramatic change such as increase in strength but also distortion and shrinkage.

Shrinkage is the greatest tangentially over the radial direction with little loss along the length of the board, etc.

Cupping

Because of this varying

shrinkage rates tangential
boards tend to cup because
of the geometry of the
annual rings shown on the
end grain. It can be seen
that some rings are much
longer than the others close
to the heart. Therefore they
will be more shrinkage at
these parts than the others ~
cupping is the result.

In square section timber cut

from the same place,
diamonding is the result.

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Shrinkage

Knots

Knots are the result of the

trees attempt to make
branches in the early growth
of the tree. They are the
residue of a small twig,
shoot, etc. that died or was
broken off by man or an
animal in the wood or
forest. The tree
subsequently continued its
growth over this wood.

The knot may be live,

sound, or tight or if it has
become separated and is
contained in residue of bark,
dead.

Dead knots become loose

and downgrade the
appearance and stability of
the board. Most grading
systems uses the amount of
knot area as an indication of
its quality. The more knots
the less the quality.

Dead loose knots are

extremely dangerous to
machinists. The cutters may
pick these up and eject them
rapidly towards the operator.
Splits

A separation of the wood

fibres along the grain
forming a fissure that
extends through the board
from one side to the other.

It is usual in end grain and is

remedied by cutting away
the defected area. All
boards should have an
allowance so that some end
grain may be cut away
because of possible shakes
or splits.

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Shrinkage

Checks and end

checking

A separation of the fibres

along the grain forming a
fissure which shows up on
one face or at the end grain
but does not continue
through to the other side.
Wind or twisting

Spiral or corkscrew
distortion in a longitudal
direction of the board.

Due to the board being cut

close to the centre of the tree
which has spiral grain.

The board is of not much use

but small cuttings may be
obtained from it with careful
selection.

Bow

Bowing is concave/convex
distortion along the length of
the board.

It is a seasoning and or
storage defect caused by the
failure to support the board
with stickers at sufficient
intervals. The boards own
weight and probably those
above it bears down and the
resultant bow is inevitable.

This defect can and should

be avoided by careful use of
stickers supporting the board
at the correct width.

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Shrinkage

Spring

Spring is concave/convex
distortion along the length of
the board again but this time
the distortion is in the flat
plane of the board.

Boards with this defect may

have been cut from near the
heart of the board and is the
result of growth stresses
being released on conversion.

Useable timber may be

recovered from these boards
by cutting a straight edge
and re sawing. The grain
direction however may not
be satisfactory for aesthetics
and care should be taken for
placing the possible short
grain figure where stability
is required.
Shakes

Shakes are separation of the

fibres along the grain
developed in the standing
tree, in felling or in
seasoning. They are caused
by the development of high
internal stresses probably
caused by the maturity of
the tree.

The shake is the result of

stress relief and in the first
place results in a single
longitudal crack from the
heart and through the
diameter of the tree.

As the stress increases a

second relief crack takes
form at right angles to the
first and is shown as a
double heart shake.

Further cracks are known as

star shakes and show the
familiar pattern shown.

Ring or partial cup shakes in

the form of longitudal
tangential cracks occur as a
result of high radial
tension. It is often said that

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Shrinkage

it is caused by an early frost

freezing the rising sap or
perhaps a heavy felling on
hard ground.

External radial cracks are

caused by the tree laying too
long before it is converted
and seasoned.
top
reference sources: H.E. Desch & J.M. Dinwoodie ~ Timber text and graphics © G.Malthouse ~ all rights reserved

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