Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
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The tradltlonal arguments - from rellglous and moral perspectlves as well as from
'sclentlfc' perspectlves - have been challenged and]or re|ected not only by devel-
opments ln sclence but by lnternatlonal |urlsprudence and ln numerous courts
throughout the world.
All human belngs are persons before the law regardless of thelr sexual orlentatlon
or gender ldentlty, and are entltled to rlghts and freedoms derlvlng from the lnherent
dlgnlty of the human person as well as to the equal protectlon of the law wlthout
dlscrlmlnatlon. }udges and lawyers, as protectors and guarantors of human rlghts for
z. Constltutlonal Court of Colombla, }udgment ho. C-S1]S of September 1S, paras. 1o, 11 and 1z (0rlglnal
ln Spanlsh, unofflclal translatlon).
. Constltutlonal Court of South Afrlca, }udgment of 0ctober 1S, Case of Ncticrcl Cccliticr cj Ccy 8 lcsbicr
Fquclity crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cj /ustirc crJ cthcrs, Ccsc CCT11]S, paras. 1z, and 1zS.
. See for example, Constltutlonal Court of South Afrlca, }udgment of 0ctober 1S, Case of Ncticrcl Cccliticr
cj Ccy 8 lcsbicr Fquclity crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cj /ustirc crJ cthcrs, Court of Flnal Appeal of the hong
Kong Speclal Admlnlstratlve keglon, }udgment of 1, }uly zoo,, Case of Scrrctcry jcr /ustirc v. cu uk lur
Zic crJ lcc kcn Chucr, Constltutlonal Court of Colombla, }udgment ho. C-S1]S of September 1S,
Constltutlonal Trlbunal of Fcuador, }udgment ho. 111-,-TC of z, hovember 1,.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw
all persons, have an essentlal role to protect the rlghts and freedoms of persons wlth
dlfferent sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty. lndeed, as polnted out by the Court of
Flnal Appeal of hong Kong, ln a case ln whlch the |udlclary declared unconstltutlonal
a legal provlslon allowlng crlmlnallsatlon of homosexuallty:
"1hc rcurts hcvc thc Juty cj crjcrrir thc rcrstituticrcl ucrcrtcc cj
cquclity bcjcrc thc lcw crJ cj crsurir prctcrticr ccirst Jisrrinirctcry
lcw."
Although lt ls true that the lssue of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty has been
neglected by lnternatlonal law ln the last decades, the lssues have nevertheless
attracted the concern and attentlon from human rlghts courts and bodles. human
rlghts vlolatlons on the grounds of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty appear
at varlous levels wlthln the work of the uh treaty bodles and speclal procedures of
the former Commlsslon on human klghts and lts successor, the uh human klghts
Councll. keglonal Courts and bodles have made an lmportant contrlbutlon towards
the protectlon of rlghts of persons wlth dlfferent sexual orlentatlon or gender lden-
tlty as well as developlng legal arguments based ln lnternatlonal law. ln recent years,
the lssue of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty has been taken lnto account
and lncorporated ln new legal lnstruments and legal standards, both unlversal and
reglonal. Polltlcal bodles of lntergovernmental organlsatlons, both unlted hatlons
and reglonal, have adopted resolutlons ralslng the questlon of human rlghts vlola-
tlons commltted on the basls of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty.
Sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty ralse classlc legal lssues of lnternatlonal
human rlghts law, such as non-dlscrlmlnatlon, equallty before the law and the rlght
to prlvate llfe, amongst others. however, the questlon of sexual orlentatlon and
gender ldentlty are not restrlcted to these legal lssues. lndeed, the questlon of
sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty could be ralsed ln relatlon to all human rlghts
and fundamental freedoms. Fxperlence teaches us that ln certaln contexts, persons
wlth dlfferent sexual orlentatlon were not fully recognlsed as persons under the
law, a unlversal and fundamental rlght. ln many countrles, persons face multlple
obstacles lmpalrlng, because thelr sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty, the rlght
to work, to soclal protectlon, educatlon, and]or adequate houslng. Although ln the
last decade the questlon of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty has ralsed more
attentlon and found more legal answers from lnternatlonal human rlghts law and
|urlsprudence, certaln aspects remaln under-developed.
The lC} works to lncrease the legal protectlon of vlctlms whose human rlghts are
vlolated because of thelr real or percelved sexual orlentatlon and]or gender ldentlty
and to develop lnternatlonal law ln order to provlde, from a hollstlc perspectlve,
. Court of Flnal Appeal of the hong Kong Speclal Admlnlstratlve keglon, }udgment of 1, }uly zoo,, Case of
Scrrctcry jcr /ustirc v. cu uk lur Zic crJ lcc kcn Chucr, Flnal Appeal ho. 1z of zoo6 (Crlmlnal), para.
z.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho.
better recognltlon and protectlon of human rlghts for persons wlth dlfferent sexual
orlentatlon and gender ldentlty.
As a frst contrlbutlon, the lnternatlonal Commlsslon of }urlsts (lC}), |olntly wlth the
lnternatlonal Servlce for human klghts, sponsored a meetlng of legal experts on
these lssues. The meetlng took place ln hovember zoo6, ln ogyakarta (lndonesla),
wlth the partlclpatlon of twenty-nlne lnternatlonal human rlghts law experts and
|urlsts, who agreed a statement of Prirriplcs cr thc Applircticr cj lrtcrrcticrcl
huncr kihts lcw ir rclcticr tc Scxucl 0ricrtcticr crJ CcrJcr lJcrtity (cyckcrtc
Prirriplcs), whlch were offclally launched ln 0eneva ln March zoo,. The prlnclples
are an authorltatlve lnterpretatlon of lnternatlonal human rlghts law on the sub|ect
and lnclude statements of rlghts as well as obllgatlons of States.
Followlng the adoptlon of the cyckcrtc Prirriplcs, the lC} declded to lnltlate a
serles of studles wlth the alm of contrlbutlng to the clarlfcatlon of the nature and
scope of exlstlng State obllgatlons ln relatlon to human rlghts and sexual orlen-
tatlon and gender ldentlty, and to develop the legal argument that lnternatlonal
human rlghts law does and should protect agalnst abuses based on these grounds.
Followlng thls, the lC} has produced a Practitieners Cuide en 5exua| 0rientatien,
Cender tdentity and tnternatiena| Buman Rights Law. Thls 0ulde addresses ques-
tlons of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty ln relatlon to certaln human rlghts
and fundamental freedoms. The alm ls to clarlfy the exlstlng lnternatlonal legal
framework to deal wlth abuses of certaln rlghts on the grounds of sexual orlenta-
tlon and gender ldentlty and lllustrate how the legal arguments for human rlghts
protectlon are properly developed and sustalned. 0ther rlghts and freedoms - such
as the rlghts to be person under the law, to famlly, to work, to soclal protectlon, to
educatlon or to adequate houslng, are not addressed ln thls 0ulde.
lnsplred by the cyckcrtc Prirriplcs, thls 0ulde draws on many sources of lnterna-
tlonal law and |urlsprudence as well as some comparatlve natlonal law and practlce.
For lnternatlonal human rlghts |urlsprudence, the maln sources are uh human rlghts
treaty bodles, uh speclal procedures, the lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts,
lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts, the Furopean Court of human klghts
and the Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts. Followlng a slmple
structure, lt revlews the lnternatlonal law and |urlsprudence as well as comparatlve
law on the addressed sub|ects.
The present 0ulde frst lntroduces the sub|ect by puttlng the treatment of sexual
orlentatlon and gender ldentlty ln an hlstorlcal context, Chapters l and ll provlde
the foundatlons ln lnternatlonal and comparatlve publlc law for human rlghts clalms
based on sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty. ln partlcular, these Chapters explore
how arguments of equallty before the law and non-dlscrlmlnatlon are used to sustaln
thls clalm. Chapter lll looks at the rlght to prlvate llfe. Chapter lv deals wlth arbltrary
deprlvatlon of llberty. The rlght to llfe ls addressed ln Chapter v. Torture and lll-
treatment are dlscussed ln Chapter vl. Chapter vll deals wlth freedom of expresslon
and the rlghts to assembly and assoclatlon. Chapter vlll examlnes asylum rlghts.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw
"1c pcrclizc scnccrc bcrcusc cj thcir scxucl cricrtc-
ticr is likc whct uscJ tc hcppcr tc us, tc bc pcrclizcJ
jcr scncthir whirh wc rculJ Jc rcthir cbcut cur
cthririty, cur rcrc. .] l wculJ jirJ it quitc urcrrcpt-
cblc tc rcrJcnr, pcrscrutc c nircrity thct hcs clrccJy
bccr pcrscrutcJ."
-Archblshop 0esmond Tutu, hobel Peace Prlce
Laureate and Angllcan archblshop
6
t. Cenera| Censideratiens
hlstorlcally, persons wlth dlfferent sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty vls--vls the
of model of sexuallty soclally or morally accepted or lmposed, have been sub|ect
to persecutlon and dlscrlmlnatlon. A dlverslty of 'arguments' - rellglous, moral,
'sclentlfc', and 'cultural' - have been used ln an attempt to |ustlfy represslon of
homosexuallty and denegatlon of rlghts for persons of dlfferent sexual orlentatlon or
gender ldentlty. however, lt ls also true that not all socletles and systems of rellglous
or moral values were opposed to homosexuallty and same-sex erotlclsm.
:. Re|igieus and mera| disceurses
Socletles' values and notlons of proprlety have often been based on rellglous ldeolo-
gles of morallty. kellglous and moral dlscourses have shaped attltudes and laws ln
respect of sex and gender. lt ls unsurprlslng therefore, that ldeas and law-maklng
concernlng sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty are strongly embedded wlthln
socletal perceptlons that refect these bellefs. Among all the Abrahamlc rellglons,
,
there has been a varlety of oppresslon and tolerance of same-sex erotlclsm at
dlfferent tlmes, places and among dlfferent branches of these rellglons.
}ewlsh law orlglnally condemned all non-procreatlve sexual practlces as part of 0od's
mandate to Adam and Fve to populate the Farth.
S
There was also a strong emphasls
on purlty. Conslstent wlth vlolatlon of purlty laws, the penalty for homosexual prac-
tlces was death.
The nlneteenth and twentleth centurles saw the emergence of sclence as a forum
to repress homosexuallty. From blologlcal, medlcal, crlmlnologlcal and soclologlcal
approaches several theorles emerged to |ustlfy, 'sclentlfcally', the represslon of
homosexuallty. The theorles of westphal and Lombroso are examples. ln 1S6o, the
0erman psychlatrlst Karl westphal lnvented the dlagnosls of the mental dlsorder
of "contrary sexual feellng", whlch would later come to be called "lnverslon" ln the
Fngllsh-speaklng world. ln ltaly, Cesare Lombroso, formulated, from the crlmlnal
anthropology and blology perspectlve, hls theory of the born crlmlnal ("lnnate
crlmlnal offender"), whose weakened nervous system predlsposed hlm to engage
ln degenerate behavlour, whlch lncluded homosexuallty.
ln 0ermany, although the law agalnst homosexual conduct had exlsted for many
years prlor to the kelch Crlmlnal Code
o
, the hazl reglme took these laws further.
A 1 reform to the 0erman Penal Code allowed for the lndefnlte "preventatlve
custody" of "habltual dellnquents," thls was supplemented by the 1 lcw cbcut
Alicrs tc thc Ccnnurity, whlch provlded for the sterlllzatlon of such persons,
lncludlng "asoclal persons, vagrants, and homosexuals".
1
homosexuals were
lnterned ln concentratlon camps and branded wlth a plnk-trlangle. Tens of thou-
sands perlshed ln these camps.
z
Some States ln the unlted States of Amerlca also passed laws around the same tlme
leglslatlng the sterlllzatlon of "habltual crlmlnals", although the uS Supreme Court
6. Artlcle 6 (z) of the lcw cj vcrcrts crJ Misrrccrts (lcy Jc vccs y Mclccrtcs), of August 1 (0rlglnal
ln Spanlsh, unofflclal translatlon).
,. Amendment of 1 }uly 1 (0rlglnal ln Spanlsh, unofflclal translatlon).
S. Arturo Arnalte, kcJcJc Jc viclctcs - lc hcncscxucliJcJ cr cl jrcrquisnc, Fd. La Fsfera de los Llbros,
Madrld, zoo.
. Artlcle of the lcw cj vcrcrts crJ Misrrccrts (lcy Jc vccs y Mclccrtcs).
o. Thls provlslon dated from 1S,1.
1. Franclsco Muoz Conde, "Fl proyecto naclonalsoclallsta sobre el tratamlento de los 'extraos a la comu-
nldad'", ln kcvistc Ccripcr, ho. zo, Madrld, 1 }anuary zoo1, p. z.
z. See irtcr clic: }ohansson, warren, "Plnk Trlangles", ln FrryrlcpcJic cj hcncscxuclity, cp. rit., and }ohansson,
warren, and Percy, wllllam A. "homosexuals ln hazl 0ermany", ln henry Frledlander (Fd.), Sincr wicscrthcl
Ccrtcr Arrucl: vclunc ;, hew ork, Allled 8ooks, Ltd., 1o, Llvely, Scott, "homosexuallty and the hazl
Party", ln 0eorge A. kekers (Fdltor), 1hc /currcl cj huncr Scxuclity, Lewls & Stanley Publlshers, uSA,
16.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 11
lnvalldated these laws.
0urlng the nlneteenth century, approaches emerged dlfferent from sclentlfc dlscl-
pllne counterlng the theorles whlch attempted to |ustlfy, on a 'sclentlfc' basls the
represslon of homosexuallty. For example, ln the 1S6os, 0erman |urlsts Karl helnrlch
ulrlchs and Kroly Kertbenkya proposed the exlstence of a thlrd gender, composed
of people wlth souls or natures of the opposlte sex.
under thls law, "those who commlt homosexual acts", as well as "lnsolent, brutal
or cynlcal" people, the "morally perverted" and "the mentally defclent",
could
be sentenced to a wlde range of punlshments, lncludlng, for homosexuals and
prostltutes, "confnement ln a re-educatlon establlshment".
At the same tlme, the research of uS lnvestlgators such as Alfred Klnsey and Fvelyn
hooker demonstrated that there was no sclentlfc basls for assertlng that hetero-
sexuallty ls "normal" whlle other forms of sexual orlentatlon are "devlant", or that
same-sex attractlon was pathologlcal. These researchers dld not focus, as prlor
psychlatrlsts had, on convlcted crlmlnals or patlents seeklng treatment, and showed
that homosexuals exhlblted the same frequency of psychologlcal well-belng and
o. Paul 0ray, "Alcr 1urir", Tlme, z March 1.
1. Ana Slmo, "Scuth Ajrirc", The 0ully, z August zooo.
z. For example, the Amerlcan Psychlatrlc Assoclatlon flrst classlfled "homosexuallty" as a dlsease ln 1z.
Amerlcan Psychlatrlc Assoclatlon, 0lagnostlc and Statlstlcal Manual: Mental 0lsorders (0SM-l) (1z),
S-.
. Law 16]1,o (ley Sobre Pellgrosldad y kehabllltaclon Soclal) of August 1,o, 80F ho. 1S,.
. lbiJ., Artlcle zo.
. lbiJ., Artlcle o.
6. Fskrldge, Jcr. rit., pp. ,1z-,16.
,. See for example, Andrew hodges, Alcr 1urir: thc Frinc, vlntage, kandom house, London 1z.
S. For example, unlted States Court of Appeals for the hlnth Clrcult, 0eclslon of z }une 1,, Case of
Pitrhcrskcic v. lNS.
. unlted States 0epartment of State, Press kelease, Forced Medlcal Treatment of uAF homosexuals, zS
hov zoo, avallable at www.state.gov]r]pa]prs]ps]zoo],o.htm, Amnesty lnternatlonal, Crincs cj
hctc, rcrspircry cj silcrrc: 1crturc crJ ill-trcctncrt bcscJ cr scxucl iJcrtity, ACT o]o16]zoo1, Chapter
(zoo1).
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1
dlsorder as do heterosexuals.
6o
These concluslons galned acceptance among sclen-
tlsts and health professlonals ln the uS throughout the 16os, culmlnatlng ln the
abandonment of the dlagnosls of homosexuallty as a mental lllness by the Amerl can
Psychologlcal Assoclatlon ln 1,. Subsequently, the Amerlcan Psychologlcal,
Psychlatrlc, and Medlcal Assoclatlons have all stated the posltlon that reparatlve
therapy, based on the fawed assumptlon that a patlent should change hls or her
sexual orlentatlon, ls lneffectlve and ls llkely to cause harm.
61
Flsewhere, the recognltlon that varlant sexual orlentatlon ls not a dlsease evolved
more slowly. The Amerlcan Psychologlcal Assoclatlon has opposed the classlfcatlon
of homosexuallty as a dlsorder slnce 1S,
6z
whllst the psychlatrlc bodles of }apan,
kussla and Chlna dld not do so untll 1, 1 and zoo1, respectlvely. The world
health 0rganlzatlon removed homosexuallty from the lrtcrrcticrcl Clcssircticr
cj 0isccscs crJ kclctcJ hcclth Prcblcns (lC0-1o) ln 1z.
6
ln thls context, the concluslon of the Constltutlonal Court of Colombla ls apt. They
took lnto account the sclentlfc lnvestlgatlons made slnce the mlddle of twentleth
century and reports from the world health 0rganlzatlon:
"hcncscxuclity is rct c Jisccsc, rcr c hcrnjul rcrJurt, it rcprcscrts c
vcricticr cj huncr scxucl cricrtcticr. 1hcrcjcrc, thc trcJiticrcl visicrs cj
hcncscxuclity cs c Jisccsc cr cr cbrcrnclity thct nust bc rurcJ ncJirclly
crc rct crrcptcblc ir rcrtcnpcrcry plurclistir scrictics".
6
y. Pe|itica| and idee|egica| disceurses
ln addltlon to the rellglous, moral and "sclentlfc" arguments used, the questlon
of homosexuallty has also been utlllsed for polltlcal persecutlons and targetlng
polltlcal opponents. hlstory ls, lamentably, rlch ln wlth lllustratlons. The Stallnlst
purges and McCarthylsm are |ust two of the many examples. ln lmperlal kussla,
unllke western Furope, medlcal dlscourse on homosexuallty had relatlvely llttle
lnfuence ln the late nlneteenth century. homosexuallty was crlmlnallsed ln 1S,
but ln fact the Tsarlst authorltles had a relatlvely lndulgent attltude towards same-
sex practlces. The 8olshevlk revolutlon abrogated the crlmlnal leglslatlon of the
Tsarlst reglme, lncludlng the laws relatlng to same-sex relatlons between consentlng
adults. The Sovlet crlmlnal code of 1zz dld not lnclude homosexuallty as an offence.
6o. Fvelyn hooker, "The Ad|ustment of the Male 0vert homosexual", ln /currcl cj Prcjcrtivc 1crhriqucs, vol.
z1 (1,), p. z, A.C. Klnsey, w.8. Pomeroy, C.F. Martln, Scxucl 8chcvicr ir thc huncr Mclc, w.8. Saunders
Fd., Phlladelphla, 1S.
61. See Karolyn Ann hlcks, "keparatlve Therapy: whether parental attempts to change a chlld's sexual orlenta-
tlon can legally constltute chlld abuse", ln Ancrircr urivcrsity lcw kcvicw, vol. , May zooo.
6z. Fox, k.F. (1SS), Proceedlngs of the Amerlcan Psychologlcal Assoclatlon, lncorporated, for the year 1S,:
Mlnutes of the Annual meetlng of the Councll of kepresentatlves, Ancrircr Psyrhclcist, , oS-1.
6. wh0, "lC0-1c", www.who.lnt]classlflcatlons]apps]lcd]lcd1oonllne.
6. Constltutlonal Court of Colombla, }udgment ho. C-S1]S of September 1S, para. 11 (0rlglnal ln Spanlsh,
unofflclal translatlon).
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 1
however, the Stallnlst reglme assoclated homosexuallty wlth fasclsm and denounced
"pederasts" as agents of corruptlon and subverslon of capltallsm. homosexuallty
was re-crlmlnallsed ln 1,
6
uslng medlcal language to provlde sclentlfc |ustlfca-
tlon for the deportatlon of homosexuals to the 0ulag or lnternment ln psychlatrlc
establlshments.
66
The Stallnlst reglme dldn't hesltate to use the new leglslatlon
for polltlcal represslon and purges. The statement of Maxlm 0orkl "0estroy the
homosexuals and fasclsm wlll dlsappear" refected thls polltlcal lnstrumentallsa-
tlon.
6,
lronlcally, ln the unlted States, the argument agalnst homosexuallty was used
durlng the McCarthy Fra as part of the antl-communlst crusade. homosexuals were
portrayed as a threat to natlonal securlty and]or as communlst agents.
6S
ln thls
context, Presldent 0wlght 0. Flsenhower slgned Fxecutlve 0rder 1oo "Scrurity
kcquircncrts jcr Ccvcrrncrt Fnplcyncrt", z, Aprll 1, whlch declared homo-
sexuals to be "securlty rlsks" and mandated frlng all federal employees who were
deemed to be gullty of "sexual perverslon."
The sense of natlonhood and cultural relatlvlsm are often used to ob|ect to decrlm-
lnallslng homosexuallty, argulng that lt ls allen to natlonal ldentlty, culture and
values. Countrles lnvoke "natlon", "natlonal tradltlons" and "cultural speclfclty" as
the crlterlon for the unacceptablllty of homosexuallty. ln the now-overruled 1S, uS
Supreme Court declslon 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk,
6
the ma|orlty deployed reasonlng that
mlrrored the rhetorlc used ln many Southern countrles to retaln sodomy laws. 0ne
|ustlce pronounced that the federal constltutlon dld not confer a "fundamental rlght
upon homosexuals to engage ln sodomy", fndlng the prohlbltlon of sodomy "deeply
rooted ln thls hatlon's hlstory and tradltlon". Slmllarly, ln a dlssentlng |udgment ln
0uJccr v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, a Cyprlot |udge on the Furopean Court of human
klghts noted that "all clvlllzed countrles untll recent years penallzed sodomy", and
foretold "publlc outcry and turmoll" lf such laws were repealed ln elther Cyprus or
horthern lreland, slnce "both countrles are rellglous mlnded and adhere to moral
standards whlch are centurles old".
,o
lf lnternatlonal human rlghts law and |urlsprudence re|ects the argument of cultural
relatlvlsm, that domestlc moral values |ustlfy the denlal or lmpalrment of an lndl-
vlduals sexual orlentatlon, the uh human klghts Commlttee generally re|ects the
6. The 1 law was revoked ln 1.
66. See: healey, 0an, hcncscxucl 0csirc ir kcvcluticrcry kussic: 1hc kculcticr cj Scxucl crJ CcrJcr 0isscrt,
unlverslty of Chlcago Press, zoo1, 0orsuch, Anne F., "homosexual 0eslre ln kevolutlonary kussla: The
kegulatlon of Sexual and 0ender 0lssent", ln /currcl cj thc histcry cj Scxuclity, volume 11, ho. , 0ctober
zooz, and 0ert hekma, harry 0osterhuls and }ames Steakley (Fdltor), Ccy Mcr crJ thc Scxucl histcry cj
thc Pclitircl lcjt, harrlngton Park Press, 1.
6,. healey, 0an, cp. rit., p. zz,.
6S. 0avld K. }ohnson, 1hc lcvcrJcr Srcrc - 1hc CclJ wcr Pcrscruticr cj Ccys crJ lcsbicrs ir thc FcJcrcl
Ccvcrrncrt, unlverslty of Chlcago Press, zoo.
6. uS Supreme Court, }udgment of o }une 1S6 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk, ,S uS 1S6 (1S6)].
,o. 8oth horthern lreland and Cyprus remalned lntact after 0uJccr v. uk (1S1) and McJircs v. Cyprus
(1).
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1
crlmlnallsatlon of homosexuallty on the basls of the rlght to prlvacy, lncludlng
consensual adult sexual actlvlty.
,1
. 0ecrimina|isatien and centinued crimina|isatien
The Furopean world of the Fnllghtenment had lnherlted the crlmlnal laws rooted
ln 8lbllcal passages and centurles of Chrlstlan tradltlon that mandated the death
penalty for non-procreatlve sex.
,z
The French kevolutlon broke wlth thls Furopean custom by abollshlng moral crlmes,
lncludlng sodomy, under a new Penal Code, promulgated ln 1,1. updated by
hapoleon, and spread by hls mllltary conquests, the Code was adopted throughout
Contlnental Furope. After the fall of hapoleon, most countrles repealed thelr
hapoleonlc Codes, but a few - notably France, 8elglum, Spaln and the hetherlands
- dld not re-crlmlnallse sodomy.
,
ltaly ln 1SS (the Klngdom of Two Slcllles and later
the Klngdom of haples) decrlmlnallsed consensual same-sex acts between adults,
as dld Portugal ln 1Sz (but the crlme was relntroduced ln 11z). Subsequently,
some of the new States created ln Furope between the mld-nlneteenth and early
twentleth centurles, such as ltaly and Poland, never lnstltuted a crlmlnal prohl-
bltlon of sodomy, or enacted a varlant of the hapoleonlc Code shortly after thelr
lndependence.
,
ln other reglons, few other countrles decrlmlnallsed homosexual
relatlonshlps: for example, ln }apan, ln 1SS, the government reversed lts declslon
adopted ln 1S, maklng consensual sex between men lllegal.
The modern decrlmlnallsatlon movement began ln the mld-twentleth century. The
arguments were rooted ln the soclal sclences, notably the feld of psychology.
0enmark became the frst natlon of the twentleth century to repeal lts sodomy law,
ln 1, followed by Swltzerland ln 11 and Sweden ln 1.
,
After the Second
world war, the 8rltlsh wolfenden keport of 1, and the Amerlcan Model Penal
Code, frst drafted ln 1, recommended that the crlme of sodomy be abollshed.
,6
The Amerlcan State of llllnols became the frst to adopt thls recommendatlon ln
161. 8y 1S, half of the states of the unlted States of Amerlca had followed the
lead of llllnols.
,,
ln Furope countrles followed a roughly slmllar but sllghtly more
,1. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of 1 March 1, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Austrclic, Communlcatlon
ho. SS]1z, para. S..
,z. See for example, Levltlcus 1S:zz.
,. Stephanle Coontz, Mcrricc, A histcry: Frcn 0bcJicrrc tc lrtincry, cr hcw lcvc CcrqucrcJ Mcrricc, Fd.
Penguln 0roup, hew ork, zoo, Chapter .
,. kobert wlntemute, "lnternatlonal Trends ln Legal kecognltlon of Same-Sex Partnershlps", ln uirripicr lcw
kcvicw, ulnnlplac unlverslty School of Law, uSA, volume z, zoo.
,. lbiJ., and hubert Kennedy, "Chapter 1: 8eglnnlngs" ln /currcl cj hcncscxuclity, volume S, ho. 1]z, 1,
pp. ,, 1.
,6. wllllam Fskrldge, "Challenglng The Apartheld 0f The Closet: establlshlng condltlons for lesblan and gay
lntlmacy, norms, and cltlzenshlp, 161-1S1" ln hcjstrc lcw kcvicw, volume z, 16.
,,. Mellnda Kane, "Soclal Movement Pollcy Success: 0ecrlmlnallzlng State Sodomy Laws, 16-1S", ln
Mcbilizcticr: Ar lrtcrrcticrcl ucrtcrly, volume S, humber , 0ctober zoo, pp. 1 and 1.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 16
rapld tra|ectory. Czechoslovakla and hungary were the frst of thls group to abollsh
thelr sodomy laws, also ln 161.
,S
8y 1S, most of Furope on both sldes of the
lron Curtaln had decrlmlnallsed sodomy, wlth only fve countrles, the 8rltlsh Crown
0ependencles, and certaln parts of ugoslavla retalnlng thelr antl-sodomy laws.
,
lt should be noted that several countrles ln Latln Amerlca and Fast Asla elther never
had an expllclt legal prohlbltlon of sodomy or, as was the case ln }apan, Mexlco and
8razll, enacted a verslon of the hapoleonlc Code durlng the nlneteenth century.
So
hotable exceptlons, ln addltlon to those countrles mentloned ln the prevlous para-
graph, lnclude Chlna, whlch dld not repeal lts antl-sodomy statute untll 1, and
the former 8rltlsh colonles of Southeast Asla, whlch retaln thelr antl-sodomy laws
today.
S1
Most former 8rltlsh colonles of Afrlca, the Carlbbean and South Asla have also
retalned thelr antl-sodomy laws, as have all Mlddle Fastern and horth Afrlcan
natlons, save lsrael.
Sz
kegardlng the former 8rltlsh colonles ln the Carlbbean, many
lnclude ln thelr constltutlon "savlngs law" clauses
S
, whlch malntaln old colonlal
laws and vlctorlan laws, lncludlng the 1S61 provlslons of the uK's 0jjcrrcs ccirst
thc Pcrscrs Art and the 1SS Crlmlnal law amendment, proscrlblng buggery and
gross lndecency. The unlted Klngdom repealed vlctorlan laws agalnst homosex-
uallty through lts own tumultuous lnterrogatlon of them: beglnnlng wlth the law
and morallty debates that led to the wolfenden keport, followed by the leglslatlve
changes ln the 16os and human rlghts lnterventlons resultlng from lts engagement
wlth the Furopean human klghts system.
y. Mevement tewards recegnitien
The year 161 also saw the creatlon of the Mattachlne Soclety of washlngton ln the
unlted States of Amerlca, whose mlsslon to work publlcly "to equallze the status and
posltlon of the homosexual" made a sharp break wlth older "homophlle" organlsa-
tlons, whlch had eschewed publlclty.
S
Slmllar organlsatlons grew rapldly elsewhere
around the world, re-characterlslng the effort to repeal antl-sodomy laws as a part
,S. Fskerldge, Jcr. rit., p. S, Mlchael }ose Torra, "0ay klghts after the lron Curtaln", ln Flctrhcr Fcrun cj wcrlJ
Ajjcirs, volume zz:z, summer 1S, pp. , and ,6.
,. lbiJ., and Pratlma harayan, "Somewhere 0ver the kalnbow: lnternatlonal human klghts Protectlon for
Sexual Mlnorltles ln the hew Mlllennlum", ln 8cstcr urivcrsity lrtcrrcticrcl lcw /currcl, zoo6, ho.z, pp.
1 and 1,.
So. Charles P. Sherman, "The 0ebt of Modern }apanese Law to French Law", ln Cclijcrric lcw kcvicw, vol. 6,
ho. , March 11S, p. 1S, wayne Percy, cp. rit., p. So6, 0anlel 0ttosson, lC81 wcrlJ lccl wrcp up survcy,
Fd. lnternatlonal Lesblan and 0ay Assoclatlon, zoo6.
S1. 0anlel 0ttosson, lC81 wcrlJ lccl wrcp up survcy, Jcr. rit.
Sz. lbiJ., and lndlana unlverslty, 0fflce of 0verseas Study, "Cl81 kcscurrcs ir thc MiJJlc Fcst", www.lndlana.
edu]-overseas]lesblgay]mlddleeast.html.
S. See Constltutlons of 8arbados, s z6, }amalca, s z6(S), Trlnldad retalned lts savlng clause even after lt became
a republlc.
S. Fskerldge, Jcr. rit., pp. Sz1-Szz.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1,
of a broader human rlghts struggle. As early as 16 some actlvlsts were descrlblng
thelr efforts as a "gay llberatlon".
Farly on, the Furopean human rlghts system was frlendly to sexual-orlentatlon-
based clalms. ln 1S1, the Furopean Court of human klghts declared the offences
of buggery and gross lndecency ln horthern lreland to vlolate the rlght to prlvacy
under Artlcle S of the Furopean Conventlon on human klghts (FChk). Thls declslon
arose from a challenge to the law by a gay man who argued that the exlstence of the
offences ln horthern lreland made hlm llable to crlmlnal prosecutlon and lnfrlnged
on hls rlght to prlvacy. The court ruled ln thls landmark case of 0uJccr v. 1hc
uritcJ kirJcn that the "malntenance ln force of the lmpugned leglslatlon constl-
tutes a contlnulng lnterference wlth the appllcant's rlght to respect for hls prlvate
llfe (whlch lncludes hls sexual llfe)".
S
The Furopean Court declded slmllarly ln 1SS and 1 ln Ncrris v. lrclcrJ
S6
and
McJircs v. Cyprus
S,
respectlvely. 8oth States ln questlon clted strong feellngs
agalnst homosexuallty based on rellglon and clalmed that there was a legltlmate
alm ln the "protectlon of morals" for malntalnlng the laws. The Furopean Court dld
not defer to the margln of appreclatlon or the lndlvldual State practlce ln elther case
and lnstead clted the overwhelmlng practlce ln other member States of the Furopean
human rlghts system that had long decrlmlnallzed consensual sex between adults
of the same sex. The Court found no "presslng soclal need" for the malntenance of
the leglslatlon ln elther sltuatlon. ln performlng lts proportlonallty test, the Furopean
Court found that the harm resultlng from the antl-homosexual laws through the
vlolatlon of the rlght to a prlvate llfe outwelghed the "legltlmate alms" pursued by
the law ln questlon.
The Furopean Court was however unwllllng to examlne a broader scope for sexual-
orlentatlon rlghts beyond strlklng down penal laws through the rlght to prlvacy
provlslon.
SS
lt was not untll 1 that the Furopean Court expressed a broader
role for the rlght to prlvacy, ln the cases of lusti Prccr crJ 8crkctt v. 1hc uritcJ
kirJcn
S
and Snith crJ CrcJy v. uritcJ kirJcn.
o
uslng Artlcle S of the FChk,
the Court felled laws that excluded gays and lesblans from the mllltary and opened
up an lnterpretatlon of prlvacy that envlsaged gay and lesblan llfe reachlng beyond
closed doors and lnto the publlc realm. Also lmportantly ln 1, the Furopean Court
expressly affrmed "sexual orlentatlon" as a prohlblted category of dlscrlmlnatlon,
S. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of zz 0ctober 1S1, Appllcatlon ho. ,z],6, para. 1.
S6. }udgment of z6 0ctober 1SS, Case of Ncrris v. lrclcrJ, Appllcatlon ho. 1oS1]S.
S,. }udgment of zz Aprll 1, Case of McJircs v. Cyprus, Appllcatlon ho. 1o,o]S.
SS. The Furopean Court of human klghts conslstently refused to pronounce on arguments of dlscrlmlnatlon
based on dlfferent ages of consent between homosexuals and heterosexuals ln the cases of 0uJccr, Ncrris,
and McJircs.
S. }udgment of z, September 1, Appllcatlons ho. 11,]6 and z,,]6.
o. }udgment of z, September 1, Appllcatlons ho. S]6 and S6]6.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 1S
strlklng down a Portuguese court declslon that dlspossessed a father of hls custody
rlghts because he was gay.
1
To date slx countrles have enacted leglslatlon allowlng same-sex marrlage: the
hetherlands,
z
8elglum,
Spaln,
Canada,
horway
6
and South Afrlca.
,
Two of
these States dld so by order of thelr respectlve supreme courts.
S
An addltlonal 1S
countrles
The Furopean Court of human klghts has consldered that "|udlclal control of lnterfer-
ences by the executlve wlth the lndlvldual's rlght to llberty provlded for by artlcle
of the Furopean Conventlon on human klghts] ls lmplled by one of the fundamental
o. The Commlttee was set up by the former uh Commlsslon on human klghts ln 16 wlth the purpose of
carrylng out several studles. lts mandate to carry out the study on the rlght of everyone to be free from
arbltrary arrest, detentlon and exlle was endorsed ln resolutlon 6z 8 (XXll) of the Fconomlc and Soclal
Councll.
1. StuJy cj thc riht cj cvcrycrc tc bc jrcc jrcn crbitrcry crrcst, Jctcrticr crJ cxilc, uh 0oc. F]Ch.]Sz6]
kev.1, p. ,, para. z, 16).
z. See Fcrt Shcct Nc. 26: 1hc wcrkir Crcup cr Arbitrcry 0ctcrticr, Annex lv "kevlsed Methods of work",
para. S (http:]]wwwz.ohchr.org]engllsh]about]publlcatlons]docs]fsz6.htm).
. See, among others, the lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts (}udgment of z1 }anuary 1, Ccrcrcn
PcrJcy, paras. 6-,, }udgment of S }uly zoo, Ccncz Pcquiycuri v. Pcru, para. S, }udgment of z hovember
zoo, Mcritzc urrutic v. Cuctcnclc, para. 6, }udgment of 1S September zoo, 8ulcric v. Arcrtirc, para.
1z, and }udgment of , }une zoo, /ucr hunbcrtc Sdrrhcz v. hcrJurcs, para. ,S) and the Furopean Court of
human klghts (}udgment of z6 May 1, 8rcrricr crJ Mr8riJc v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, para. S, }udgment
of z hovember 1SS, 8rccr crJ cthcrs v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, para. z, }udgment of z, September zoo1,
Cbrcy crJ cthcrs v. 1urkcy, para. zz, }udgment of z6 hovember 1,, Murct Sckik crJ cthcrs v. 1urkcy,
para. , and }udgment of 1 hovember 16, Chchcl v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, para. 11S).
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw ,
prlnclples of a democratlc soclety, namely the rule of law".
The Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts also requlres that ln addltlon to belng
reasonably |ustlfable wlth reference to Artlcle .1, an arrest must be a measure
proportlonal to the sltuatlon lt purports to remedy. The Furopean Court consldered
that although Artlcle .1 of the Conventlon allows for the detentlon of persons "for
the preventlon of the spreadlng of lnfectlous dlseases", the arrest and detentlon of
an hlv-posltlve man for |ust that purpose was arbltrary because "less severe meas-
ures had not been consldered and found to be lnsuffclent to safeguard the publlc
lnterest".
6
The Court reached lts declslon desplte notlng that the sub|ect of the
arrest order was often non-cooperatlve wlth hospltal staff and had a sexual prefer-
ence for teenage boys. here the Court conducted a proportlonallty test: welghlng
the rlsks of the spread of hlv agalnst the severlty of the clrcumstances the arrest
and detentlon are lntended to remedy.
,
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts has clarlfed that as well as adherlng to
the procedures prescrlbed by law and ensurlng those laws are ln accordance wlth
the prlnclples establlshed ln the Conventlon, to ensure a detentlon ls not arbltrary
lt must not be "unreasonable, unforeseeable or lacklng ln proportlonallty."
S
y.: Lega|ity
All the ma|or human rlghts treatles requlre that arrests or detentlon be made
accordlng to a procedure establlshed by law. The lCCPk says, "n]o one shall be
deprlved of hls llberty except .] ln accordance wlth such procedure as are estab-
llshed by law",
The other type of procedural arbltrary arrest occurs when the arrestlng authorl-
tles fall to follow the legal procedure establlshed for arrest under natlonal law. ln
the case of Cusirskiy v. kussic, the buslnessman 0uslnskly had been arrested and
detalned for questlonlng ln the course of a crlmlnal lnvestlgatlon lnto fraud he was
alleged to have commltted.
Slmllarly,
the human klghts Commlttee has determlned that, whlle Artlcle 1. of the lCCPk
allows for pursulng the "legltlmate ob|ectlve of safeguardlng and lndeed strength-
enlng natlonal unlty under dlffcult polltlcal clrcumstances, lt] cannot be achleved
by attemptlng to muzzle advocacy of multl-party democracy, democratlc tenets and
human rlghts".
o
The Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts and the
lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts have also consldered that when the
law ls used for an lllegltlmate purpose, such as prosecutlng the polltlcal opposltlon
or sllenclng human rlghts advocates, any deprlvatlon of llberty under such laws
would be arbltrary.
1
. 0eprivatien eI |iberty en greunds eI 5exua| 0rientatien and
Cender tdentity
Frequently, L08T persons are deprlved of thelr llberty solely on the grounds of thelr
sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty. Thls klnd of deprlvatlon of llberty can lnclude
|udlclal prosecutlon and trlal, admlnlstratlve detentlon, deprlvatlon of llberty on
medlcal grounds and arrest for the purposes of harassment, among others. lt has
already been shown that slnce sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty are part of the
rlght to prlvate llfe and grounds of non-dlscrlmlnatlon, the deprlvatlon of llberty on
. worklng 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon: 0plnlon ho. o]zoo1 (lslamlc kepubllc of lran), of 0ecember zoo1,
para. 11, ln uh 0oc. F]Ch.]zoo]S]Add.1.
o. vlews of z1 }uly 1, Case of Albcrt wcnch Mukcr v. Ccncrccr, Communlcatlon ho. S]11, para. .,,
ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C]1]0]S]11.
1. See irtcr clic: Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts, Communlcatlons ho. 1o], 11] and
1], Case of Ccrstituticrcl kihts Prcjcrt, Civil libcrtics 0rcriscticr crJ McJic kihts AcrJc/Nicric,
Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts, Communlcatlon ho. z1]zoo1, Case of Purchit crJ
Mccrc / 1hc Ccnbic, lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts, keport ho.]6, Case 11.o, Ccrcrcl
/csc Frcrrisrc CcllcrJc kcJriucz (Mcxirc|, lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts, kesolutlon ho.
]Sz, Case ,Sz (8ollvla).
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. ,6
sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty grounds can amount to an arbltrary deprlva-
tlon of llberty.
The exlstence of laws crlmlnallslng certaln manlfestatlons of sexual orlentatlon or
gender ldentlty, even ln clrcumstances where these laws are not actlvely enforced,
wlll reduce the scope of llberty for persons of homosexual orlentatlon or trans-
gender ldentlty.
z
States consequently have an obllgatlon to ellmlnate these laws,
for reason that they necessarlly lead to arbltrary deprlvatlon of llberty. For example,
buggery laws, even though technlcally lmpllcatlng all consentlng adults engaglng
ln anal lntercourse, are prlmarlly assoclated wlth male homosexuallty, thelr appll-
catlon therefore dlsproportlonately affects gay men. The targets of these laws
are frequently men of homosexual orlentatlon, regardless of whether they have
commltted the physlcal act of buggery ltself. The State-sponsored lmposltlon of an
aura of crlmlnallty on homosexual men through these laws marks the entlre commu-
nlty wlth a badge of perverslty.
Legal provlslons that cause loss of llberty because of sexual orlentatlon or gender
ldentlty may occur more lndlrectly. 0etentlon or prosecutlon may be ostenslbly
based on reasons other than one's ldentlty or status, but these reasons may merely
be a pretext for taklng actlon agalnst one's sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty.
0etentlons made under laws whlch deem consensual homosexual sex or expres-
slons of gender ldentlty to be mental lllnesses requlrlng compulsory hospltallzatlon
z. kyan 0oodman, "8eyond the Fnforcement Prlnclple: Sodomy Laws, Soclal horms and Soclal Panoptlcs", ln
Cclijcrric lcw kcvicw, ho. S, zoo1, p. 6 .
. See K Thomas "8eyond the Prlvacy Prlnclple" ln Ajtcr lJcrtity, edltors, 0 0anlelson and K Fngle, koutledge,
hew ork, 1.
. }udgment of 0ctober 1S, Ncticrcl Cccliticr cj Ccy 8 lcsbicr Fquclity crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cj /ustirc
crJ cthcrs, Case CCT11]S, para. 1oS.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw ,,
are arbltrary.
5ummary
The rlght to personal llberty and the rlght not to be arbltrarlly deprlved of n
llberty are unlversally recognlsed and protected by lnternatlonal human
rlghts law,
L08T persons deprlved of thelr llberty have the same rlghts and guarantees n
of other detalnees, such as: the rlght to be lnformed of the reasons for the
arrest and of any charges agalnst hlm]her, the rlght to be lnformed about
hls]her rlghts and how to avall hlmself or herself of these rlghts, the rlght
to a |udlclal remedy to challenge the lawfulness of hls detentlon and order
hls release lf the detentlon ls not lawful, the rlght to be brought promptly
before a |udge or other |udlclal offlcer, the rlght to prompt access to a lawyer,
o. Furopean Commlttee for the Preventlon of Torture, visit kcpcrt ukrcirc 2ccc, CPT]lnf (zooz) z, para. 6,
and CcrrluJir cbscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: 8rczil, A]6], 16 May zoo1, para. 11,
kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr thc qucsticr cj tcrturc crJ cthcr rrucl, irhuncr cr JcrcJir trcctncrt
cr purishncrt, irtcrin rcpcrt, A]6]16, }uly zoo1, para. z.
1. Furopean Commlttee for the Preventlon of Torture, visit kcpcrt Ccrncry 2cc, CPT]lnf (zoo,) 1S, para. 11z,
Furopean Commlttee for the Preventlon of Torture, visit kcpcrt ukrcirc 2ccc, CPT]lnf (zooz) z, para. 6,
Fcrncr v. 8rcrrcr, 11 u.S. Supreme Court, Sz, S, (1).
z. Furopean Commlttee for the Preventlon of Torture, visit kcpcrt Ccrncry 2cc, CPT]lnf (zoo,) 1S, paras.
1o, 1z.
. Fcrncr v. 8rcrrcr, 11 u.S. Supreme Court, Sz, S, (1).
. lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, }udgment of z September zoo, Case of /uvcrilc kccJurcticr lrstitutc
v. Pcrcucy, Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of 1 }une zooz, Case of Pcul crJ AuJrcy FJwcrJs
v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. 6,,].
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw S
the rlght to have access to the outslde world, the rlght to humane treatment
durlng detentlon and the rlght to have prompt access to medlcal personnel
and medlcal asslstance. Sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty shall be not
lnvoked to deny or restrlct these rlghts and safeguards,
0eprlvatlon of llberty based only on sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty n
grounds can amount to an arbltrary detentlon. States have an obllgatlon to
ellmlnate laws and legal practlces that crlmlnallse certaln manlfestatlons of
sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty, for reason that they necessarlly lead
to arbltrary deprlvatlon of llberty. Thls lncludes the use of vague "morallty"
provlslons and admlnlstratlve practlces that are ostenslbly deslgned,
lncludlng under deflnltlons of mental health,
The concept of deprlvatlon of llberty assumes dlfferent forms, lncludlng n
arrest, detentlon, pre-trlal detentlon, admlnlstratlve detentlon, pollcy
custody, lnternment, house arrest, amongst others,
The rlght to llberty may be the sub|ect of derogatlon ln tlmes of emergency. n
however, such derogatlons must be conslstent wlth other obllgatlons under
lnternatlonal law,
The notlon of "arbltrarlness" ls not to be equated wlth "agalnst the law", but n
must be lnterpreted more broadly to lnclude elements of lnapproprlateness,
ln|ustlce and lack of predlctablllty,
For a deprlvatlon of llberty to avold belng arbltrary, lt must observe the n
followlng crlterla: procedural and substantlve legallty, legltlmacy of purpose,
necesslty, proportlonallty and observance of human rlghts, ln partlcular the
rlght to a remedy and to securlty of person,
L08T persons can lawfully be deprlved of thelr llberty, but thelr deprlvatlon n
of llberty must meet the above crlterla to avold belng arbltrary,
A deprlvatlon of llberty ls arbltrary when: n
lt ls clearly lmposslble to lnvoke any legal basls |ustlfylng the deprlva-
tlon of llberty,
the deprlvatlon of llberty results from the exerclse of the rlghts or
freedoms guaranteed by the artlcles of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj
huncr kihts and the lCCPk, or
the total or partlal non-observance of the lnternatlonal norms relatlng
to the rlght to a falr trlal ls of such gravlty as to glve the deprlvatlon
of llberty an arbltrary character,
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. S6
States have the legal duty to protect detalnees from any klnd of threats and n
acts of torture, lll-treatment or punlshment, sexual vlolence, corporal punlsh-
ment, and other lnhuman acts.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw S,
"t]hc suprcnc riht cj thc huncr bcir".
-human klghts Commlttee
The
Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts conslders the rlght to llfe as "the
fulcrum of all other rlghts and] the fountaln through whlch other rlghts fow".
oo
The rlght to llfe must always be lnterpreted ln an expanslve way and any of lts llml-
tatlons must be approached wlth a restrlctlve lnterpretatlon. The lnter-Amerlcan
Court stlpulates that "b]ecause of lts lnherent nature, any restrlctlve approach to
thls rlght ls lnadmlsslble".
o1
8y referrlng to lts llmltatlons, the Furopean Court of
. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of 1 March 1Sz, Case of Sucrcz Jc Cucrrcrc v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon
ho. ]1,, para. 1.1.
6. Artlcle of the unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klghts, Artlcle 6 of the lCCPk, Artlcle of the lnternatlonal
Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klghts of All Mlgrant workers and Members of Thelr Famllles, Artlcle
6 of the Conventlon on the klghts of the Chlld, Artlcle 1o of the Conventlon on the klghts of Persons wlth
0lsabllltles, Prlnclple 1 of the Prlnclples on the Fffectlve Preventlon and lnvestlgatlon of Fxtra-legal, Arbltrary
and Summary Fxecutlons, Artlcle , of the unlted hatlons 0eclaratlon on the klghts of lndlgenous Peoples,
and Artlcle of the 0eclaratlon on the human klghts of lndlvlduals who are not hatlonals of the Country
ln whlch They Llve, Artlcle of the Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klghts, Artlcle of the Afrlcan
Charter on the klghts and welfare of the Chlld, Artlcle l of the Amerlcan 0eclaratlon on the klghts and 0uty of
Man, Artlcle of the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts, Artlcle of the Arab Charter on human klghts,
Artlcle z of the Furopean Conventlon on human klghts, Artlcle z of the Charter of fundamental rlghts of the
Furopean unlon.
,. }udgment of 1 hovember 1, Case of the "Strcct ChilJrcr" (villcrcr-Mcrclcs ct cl.| v. Cuctcnclc, para.
1.
S. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 6: 1hc riht tc lijc (Artirlc 6|, para. 1 and Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt
Nc. 1: Nurlccr wccpcrs crJ thc riht tc lijc (Artirlc 6|, para. 1.
. }udgment of 1 hovember 1, Case of the "Strcct ChilJrcr" (villcrdr-Mcrclcs ct cl.| v. Cuctcnclc, para.
1.
oo. Case of Fcrun cj Ccrsricrrc v. Sicrrc lccrc, Communlcatlon ho. zz]S (zooo), para. 1.
o1. }udgment of 6 Aprll zoo6, Case of 8clJccr-Ccrric v. Pcru, para. Sz. See also, Case of the "Strcct ChilJrcr"
(villcrcr-Mcrclcs ct cl.| v. Cuctcnclc, Jcr. rit., para. 1.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. SS
human klghts declded that they must be "strlctly construed".
oz
Accordlng to the
human klghts Commlttee, "t]he expresslon 'lnherent rlght to llfe' cannot properly
be understood ln a restrlctlve manner".
o
z. 5tates' eb|igatien te pretect the right te |iIe
under lnternatlonal human rlghts law, the obllgatlon of protectlon ln relatlon to the
rlght to llfe ls absolute and ls lncluded among the obllgatlons from whlch a State
cannot derogate under any clrcumstances.
o
Accordlngly, a State may not, even ln
tlme of war, publlc danger or other emergency
o
that threatens lts lndependence
or securlty, take measures suspendlng the obllgatlon to protect the rlght to llfe. The
absolute protectlon of the rlght to llfe applles to every lndlvldual under the |urls-
dlctlon of the State and, accordlngly, "the actlvltles of the lndlvldual ln questlon,
however undeslrable or dangerous cannot be a materlal conslderatlon".
o6
The rlght to llfe not only presumes that no person shall be deprlved of thelr llfe arbl-
trarlly (negatlve obllgatlon), but also requlres States to take all necessary measures
to protect and preserve the rlght to llfe (posltlve obllgatlon). The lnter-Amerlcan
Court of human klghts has polnted out that the State must "adopt any and all
necessary measures to protect and preserve the rlght to llfe of the lndlvlduals under
thelr |urlsdlctlon. .] States must adopt all the necessary measures to create a legal
framework that deters any posslble threat to the rlght to llfe, to establlsh an effectlve
legal system to lnvestlgate, punlsh, and redress deprlvatlon of llfe by State offclals
and prlvate lndlvlduals, and guarantee the rlght to unlmpeded access to condltlons
for a dlgnlfed llfe".
o,
The duty to protect the rlght to llfe lmplles the prohlbltlon to return, deport, extra-
dlte, expel, transfer or otherwlse send anyone to a country where he or she faces
a real rlsk of arbltrary deprlvatlon of llfe.
oS
ln partlcular, States that have already
oz. }udgment of z, September 1, Case of MrCcrr crJ 0thcrs v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho.
1,]1]6], para. 1,.
o. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 6, 1hc kiht tc lijc (Artirlc 6|, Jcr. rit., para. .
o. Artlcle of the lCCPk, Artlcle 1 of the Furopean Conventlon on human klghts, Artlcle z, of the Amerlcan
Conventlon on human klghts, and Artlcle of the Arab Charter on human klghts. The Afrlcan Charter on
human and Peoples' klghts does not contaln any provlslon allowlng for derogatlons ln tlmes of emergency.
ln the absence of such a clause all rlghts enshrlned ln the Afrlcan Charter are consldered non-derogable
and llmltatlons on those rlghts can never be |ustlfled by emergencles or speclal clrcumstances. See Afrlcan
Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts, Case of McJic kihts AcrJc crJ Ccrstituticrcl kihts Prcjcrt
v. Nicric, Communlcatlons ho. 1o], 1zS], 1o] and 1z]6), 1S, paras. 6,-6S.
o. Furopean Court of human klghts, MrCcrr crJ 0thcr v. uritcJ kirJcn, Jcr. rit., para. 1,, and }udgment
of 1 0ecember zooo, Case of Cbl v. 1urkcy Appllcatlon ho. zz6,6]), para. ,S. See also huncr kihts crJ
thc Fiht ccirst lrtcrrcticrcl 1crrcrisn, 1hc Ccurril cj Furcpc CuiJclircs, March zoo, 0uldellne Xv.
o6. See, nutctis nutcrJis, }udgment of z 0ctober 16, Case of Chchcl v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon
ho. zz1], para. So.
o,. }udgment of 6 Aprll zoo6, Case of 8clJccr-Ccrric v. Pcru, paras. Sz-S.
oS. See irtcr clic: the uh Prlnclples on the Fffectlve Preventlon and lnvestlgatlon of Fxtra-legal, Arbltrary and
Summary Fxecutlons (Prlnclple ) and the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle zz.S).
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw S
abollshed the death penalty have an obllgatlon both not to lmplement lt and not "to
expose a person to the real rlsk of lts appllcatlon".
o
The uh human klghts Commlttee has stated that "t]he protectlon agalnst arbltrary
deprlvatlon of llfe, whlch ls expllcltly requlred by the thlrd paragraph of Artlcle 6.1 of
the lCCPk] ls of paramount lmportance. The Commlttee conslders that States partles
should take measures not only to prevent and punlsh deprlvatlon of llfe by crlmlnal
acts, but also to prevent arbltrary kllllng by thelr own securlty forces. The deprlvatlon
of llfe by the authorltles of the State ls a matter of utmost gravlty. Therefore, the law
must strlctly control and llmlt the clrcumstances ln whlch a person may be deprlved
of hls llfe by such authorltles".
1o
The rlght to llfe further requlres that States take reasonable measures to protect thelr
cltlzens from belng arbltrarlly deprlved of llfe. These lnclude, at the level of publlc
pollcy, the obllgatlon to combat vlolent crlme, and at the level of actlon by securlty
forces, the obllgatlon to act to prevent speclfc foreseeable acts of vlolence.
An lndlvldual's rlght to llfe ls also vlolated ln cases where "the authorltles knew or
ought to have known .] of a real and lmmedlate rlsk to the llfe of an ldentlfed lndl-
vldual .] from the crlmlnal acts of a thlrd party and .] falled to take measures .]
to avold that rlsk".
11
ln a case ln whlch a mentally lll prlsoner, Chrlstopher Fdwards,
was kllled by hls cell mate, klchard Llnford, whom the prlson authorltles knew to be
a vlolent paranold schlzophrenlc, the Court dld fnd a vlolatlon of the State's obllga-
tlon to protect Fdwards' llfe, slnce "lnformatlon was avallable whlch ldentlfed .]
Llnford as .] a real and serlous rlsk to .] Chrlstopher Fdwards, when placed ln hls
cell".
1z
The FJwcrJs case also hlghllghted the State's lncreased obllgatlon to protect
the rlght to llfe of people who are unlquely unable to defend the rlght themselves.
1
These lnclude prlsoners, the mentally lll and chlldren. lt ls arguable whether thls
category could be extended to sexual mlnorltles.
People ln detentlon are unlquely dependent on the State to safeguard thelr rlghts,
therefore the State has an enhanced obllgatlon to protect them. The lnter-Amerlcan
Court has noted that the State has an obllgatlon to "keep to an absolute mlnlmum"
"collateral" restrlctlons on human rlghts resultlng from the lawful deprlvatlon of
o. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of August zoo, Case of kccr /uJc v. CcrcJc, Communlcatlon ho.
Sz]1S, para. 1o., and vlews of zS }uly 1,, Case of A.k./. v Austrclic, Communlcatlon ho. 6z]16,
para. 6.11, uh. 0oc. CCPk]C,6o]0]6z]16.
1o. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 6, Jcr. rit., para. .
11. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of z 0ctober zooz, Case of Mcstrcncttcc v. ltcly, Appllcatlon
ho. ,,o],, para. 6S. See also, Furopean Court of human klghts: }udgment of zS 0ctober 1S, Case
of 0sncr v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. zz], para. 116, }udgment of 1 }une zooz, Case of
Pcul crJ AuJrcy FJwcrJs v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. 6,,], para. , and }udgment of z
hovember 1, Case of 8rcnilcy v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho.,,]6.
1z. }udgment of 1 }une zooz, Case of Pcul crJ AuJrcy FJwcrJs v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho.
6,,], para. 6o.
1. lbiJ., para. 6.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. o
llberty.
1
Thus, a State vlolated |uvenlle prlsoners' rlght to llfe when they were kept
ln a prlson lacklng fre alarms, extlngulshers and evacuatlon plans, and perlshed
ln a fre.
1
y. Arbitrary deprivatien eI |iIe and death threats
vlolatlons of the rlght not to be arbltrarlly deprlved of llfe can be grouped lnto three
categorles:
summary executlons: the basls of thls concept ls the appllcatlon of death n
penalty ln condltlons prohlblted by lnternatlonal law,
arbltrary executlons: these are those deprlvatlons of llfe due to the exces- n
slve or lllegal use of force by law enforcement offlclals, ln condltlons that are
contrary to those prescrlbed by lnternatlonal law, and
extra|udlclal executlons: they are related wlth the category of murder or n
lntentlonal homlclde ln crlmlnal law. For example, the polltlcal assasslnatlons
and the deaths caused by attacks or the kllllngs perpetrated by State securlty
forces, paramllltary groups, death squads or other prlvate forces cooperatlng
wlth the government or tolerated by lt enter lnto thls deflnltlon.
The prohlbltlon of extra|udlclal, arbltrary or summary executlon ls a peremptory
norm of lnternatlonal law (jus rccrs).
16
y.: xtrajudicia| executien
Fxtra|udlclal executlons are a gross human rlghts vlolatlon
1,
and constltute a crlme
under lnternatlonal customary law.
1S
Thus, a 0uatemalan "soclal cleanslng" opera-
tlon ln whlch street chlldren were kldnapped and murdered by out-of-unlform pollce
1. lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, }udgment of z September zoo, Case of the "/uvcrilc kccJurcticr
lrstitutc" v. Pcrcucy, paras. 1z and 1.
1. lbiJ., para. 1,S.
16. Slxth uh Congress on the Preventlon of Crlme and the Treatment of 0ffenders (1So), kesolutlon ho. on
Fxtralegal Fxecutlons, paras. z and , uh document A]C0hF.S,]1]kev.1 (1S1), lnter-Amerlcan Court of
human klghts, }udgment of 1 March zoo1, Case of 8crrics Altcs (Chunbipunc Auirrc ct cl. v. Pcru|, lnter-
Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts, kcrcnncrJcticr cr Asylun crJ lrtcrrcticrcl Crincs, zo 0ctober
zooo, and hlgel kodley, 1hc 1rcctncrt cj Priscrcrs urJcr lrtcrrcticrcl lcw, Clarendon Press, 0xford, 1,
Second Fdltlon, p. 1z.
1,. See irtcr clic, human klghts Commlttee: vlews of z March 1Sz, Communlcatlon ho. o]1,S, Case of 8lcicr
lcwhcjj y vclic Jc 8lcicr v. uruucy, vlews of 1 March 1Sz, Communlcatlon ho. ]1,, Case PcJrc
Pcblc Ccrncrc v. Cclcnbic, and Flnal 0bservatlons on 8urundl, of August 1, CCPk]C],]Add.1,
para. .
1S. See irtcr clic: 0eflnltlon "8. Scricus rrincs urJcr irtcrrcticrcl lcw " of the uh upJctcJ Sct cj prirri-
plcs jcr thc prctcrticr crJ prcncticr cj huncr rihts thrcuh crticr tc rcnbct inpurity ( ln uh 0oc.F]
Ch.]zoo]1oz]Add.1, S February zoo), . The updated Set of prlnclples was recommended by the former
uh Commlsslon on human klghts, resolutlon F]Ch.]kFS]zoo]S1 of z1 Aprll zoo) and lnter-Amerlcan
Commlsslon on human klghts, kecommendatlon on asylum and lnternatlonal crlmes, of zo 0ctober zooo.
See also, hlgel kodley, 1hc 1rcctncrt cj Priscrcrs urJcr lrtcrrcticrcl lcw, cp. rit., p. 1z.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1
ls a clear example of a vlolatlon of the rlght.
1
The prohlbltlon of extra|udlclal execu-
tlons by the State also lncludes kllllngs commltted by non-State actors actlng at
the State's behest or acqulescence.
zo
For example, the lnter-Amerlcan Court has
found that where Colomblan paramllltarles engaged ln kllllngs of clvlllans wlth the
"acqulescence or tolerance" of the State, even ln the absence of dlrect orders or
speclfc knowledge that the kllllngs would occur, the Colomblan government vlolated
the rlght to llfe.
z1
y.z Arbitrary executien
lnternatlonal human rlghts law permlts lmpllcltly or expllcltly for the use of lethal
force by law enforcement offclals, though under lmperatlve restrlctlons. The ma|orlty
of treatles fnd the ratlonale ln the prohlbltlon of the "arbltrary" taklng of llves. Thls
ls the reasonlng used ln the lCCPk, the Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts,
the Ajrircr Chcrtcr cr huncr crJ Pccplcs kihts and the Arcb Chcrtcr cr huncr
kihts. An exceptlon ls the Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts that expressly
states the cases ln whlch force can be used only when "absolutely necessary": "(a)
ln defence of any person from unlawful vlolence, (b) ln order to effect a lawful arrest
or to prevent the escape of a person lawfully detalned, (c) ln actlon lawfully taken
for the purpose of quelllng a rlot or lnsurrectlon".
zz
The uh 8csir Prirriplcs cr thc usc cj Fcrrc crJ Firccrns by lcw Frjcrrcncrt
0jricls provlde clear lndlcatlon about the legltlmate use of force and the crlterla
to establlsh when a deprlvatlon of llfe can be arbltrary. ln addltlon, the |urlspru-
dence provldes several crlterla to assess the legltlmacy of the use of force and
the arbltrarlness of deprlvatlon of llfe. For example, the human klghts Commlttee
polnts out that the use of lethal force must be taken wlth preventlve warnlng and by
glvlng the vlctlms the opportunlty to surrender and lt must be necessary for "thelr
own defence or that of others or .] to effect the arrest or prevent the escape of the
persons concerned".
z
The Furopean Court of human klghts has upheld that the
only permlsslble grounds of use of force are those envlsaged by the Conventlon
and that "a strlcter and more compelllng test of necesslty must be employed from
that normally appllcable when determlnlng whether State actlon ls 'necessary to a
democratlc soclety'. .] ln partlcular, the force used must be strlctly proportlonate
to the achlevement of the alms"
z
set out ln the Furopean Conventlon.
1. }udgment of 1 hovember 1, Case of the "Strcct ChilJrcr" (villcrdr-Mcrclcs ct cl.| v. Cuctcnclc, paras.
1,-1,.
zo. }udgment of z hovember zoo, Case of Myrrc Mcrk Chcr v. Cuctcnclc, para. 1 and }udgment of 1 }uly
zoo6, Case of the ltucrc Mcsscrrcs v. Cclcnbic, para. 1z.
z1. See Case of the ltucrc Mcsscrrcs v. Cclcnbic, Jcr. rit.
zz. Furopean Conventlon on human klghts, Artlcle z(z).
z. vlews of 1 March 1Sz, Case of Sucrcz Jc Cucrrcrc v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon ho. ]1,, paras. 1.1
and 1.z, ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C]1]0]]1,.
z. Case of MrCcrr crJ 0thcrs v. uritcJ kirJcn, Jcr. rit., paras. 1S-1.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. z
y.y 5ummary executien and the death pena|ty
Fven though lnternatlonal human rlghts law establlshes the non-derogable nature
of the rlght to be not arbltrarlly deprlved of the llfe, lt admlts the phenomenon
of capltal punlshment under preclse and restrlctlve condltlons. The lCCPk and the
Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts both restrlct the death penalty to "the most
serlous crlmes"
z
and there ls lncreaslng agreement that thls standard constltutes
customary lnternatlonal law.
z6
The uh ScjcucrJs ucrcrtccir prctcrticr cj
thc rihts cj thcsc jcrir thc Jccth pcrclty stlpulates that: "capltal punlshment
may be lmposed only for the most serlous crlmes, lt belng understood that thelr
scope should not go beyond lntentlonal crlmes wlth lethal or other extremely
grave consequences".
z,
The human klghts Commlttee has noted that crlmes of an
economlc nature, of corruptlon, adultery, or crlmes that do not result ln loss of llfe,
apostasy, commlttlng a thlrd homosexual act, and embezzlement by offclals, among
others, cannot be characterlsed as the "most serlous crlmes".
zS
The former uh
Commlsslon on human klghts has stated that "the notlon of "most serlous crlmes"
does not go beyond lntentlonal crlmes wlth lethal or extremely grave consequences
and that the death penalty ls not lmposed for non-vlolent acts such as fnanclal
crlmes, rellglous practlce or expresslon of consclence and sexual relatlons between
consentlng adults nor as a mandatory sentence".
z
The lmposltlon and executlon of
the death penalty for crlmes, whlch are not the "most serlous crlmes", can amount
to a summary executlon and vlolate the rlght to llfe.
The human klghts Commlttee has polnted out that Artlcle 6 of the lCCPk "also refers
generally to abolltlon ln terms whlch strongly suggest .] that abolltlon ls deslrable.
.] A]ll measures of abolltlon should be consldered as progress ln the en|oyment of
the rlght to llfe".
o
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts has stated that "the
conventlonal rules concernlng the death penalty should be lnterpreted as lmposlng
restrlctlons deslgned to dellmlt strlctly lts appllcatlon and scope, ln order to reduce
the appllcatlon of the death penalty to brlng about lts gradual dlsappearance".
1
The Ccrvcrticr cr thc kihts cj thc ChilJ (Artlcle , (a)) and the Ajrircr Chcrtcr
cr thc kihts crJ wcljcrc cj thc ChilJ (Artlcle .) prohlblt capltal punlshment for
z. See Artlcle 6 of the lCCPk and Artlcle of the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts. See also Arab Charter
on human klghts, Artlcles , 6 and ,.
z6. See for example, uh00, huncr kihts Ccurril 0isrusscs thc 0ccth Pcrclty, lrstituticr 8uilJir crJ 0thcr
lssucs, Press kelease, z March zoo, (remarks by Slovenla, the unlted States and Slngapore), Frank 0affney,
kiht cj kcply cr thc 0ccth Pcrclty, Statement by the u.S. Mlsslon to the 0SCF, 0ctober zoo.
z,. Artlcle 1 of the uh Safeguards guaranteelng protectlon of the rlghts of those faclng the death penalty.
zS. See irtcr clic., CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: lslcnir kcpublir cj lrcr, uh 0oc.
CCPk]C],]Add.z, August 1, para. S and CcrrluJir cbscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc:
SuJcr, ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C],]Add.S, 1 hovember 1,, para. S.
z. kesolutlon ho. zoo], 1hc qucsticr cj thc Jccth pcrclty, of zo Aprll zoo, para. 6.f.
o. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 6, Jcr. rit, para. 6.
1. }udgment of z1 }une zooz, Case of hilcirc, Ccrstcrtirc crJ 8crjcnir ct cl. v. 1ririJcJ crJ 1cbcc, para.
. See also, Advlsory 0plnlon 0C-]S, kcstrirticrs tc thc 0ccth Pcrclty (Artirlcs (2| crJ (| Ancrircr
Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts|, of S September 1S, para. ,.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw
offences commltted by persons below 1S years of age. Flrmly establlshed ln the
treaty systems at both unlversal
z
and reglonal
0n the guarantees to be afforded to people faclng the death penalty, the uh
ScjcucrJs ucrcrtccir prctcrticr cj thc rihts cj thcsc jcrir Jccth pcrclty
are
an lmportant guldellne ln declaratory law. ln addltlon, certaln categorles of people
are excluded from the appllcatlon of the death penalty accordlng to lnternatlonal
law: persons who, at the tlme of the commlsslon of the crlmlnal offence were below
1S years of age, pregnant women, new mothers or the mentally lnsane.
6
y. 0eath threats
0eath threats not only undermlne the rlght to llfe but also the rlght to securlty of
persons provlded by Artlcle of the lCCPk and Artlcle of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr
cj huncr kihts. ln relatlon to death threats, the uh human klghts Commlttee has
observed that:
"Althcuh ir thc Ccvcrcrt thc crly rcjcrcrrc tc thc riht cj scrurity cj
pcrscr is tc bc jcurJ ir crtirlc p, thcrc is rc cviJcrrc thct it wcs irtcrJcJ
tc rcrrcw thc rcrrcpt cj thc riht tc scrurity crly tc situcticrs cj jcrncl
Jcprivcticr cj libcrty. ..] lt rcrrct bc thc rcsc thct, cs c ncttcr cj lcw,
Stctcs rcr ircrc krcwr thrccts tc thc lijc cj pcrscrs urJcr thcir juris-
Jirticr, just bcrcusc thct hc cr shc is rct crrcstcJ cr cthcrwisc JctcircJ.
z. Second 0ptlonal Protocol to the lCCPk and the Conventlon on the klght of the Chlld (Artlcle ,).
. wlthln the Councll of Furope context, see Protocols 6 and 1 to the Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts,
and |urlsprudence from the Furopean Court of human klghts (l.e: }udgment of 1z March zoo, Case of 0rclcr
v. 1urkcy, Appllcatlon ho. 6zz1]). wlthln the Fu context, see Artlcle z of the Charter of Fundamental
klghts of the Furopean unlon. As far as the lnter-Amerlcan system ls concerned, see the Amerlcan Conventlon
on human klghts (Artlcle .1) and the Protocol to the Amerlcan Conventlon Abollshlng the 0eath Penalty.
Already back ln 16 when the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts was adopted, fourteen out of the
nlneteen delegatlons present declared thelr "jirn hcpc cj sccir thc cpplircticr cj thc Jccth pcrclty crcJi-
rctcJ" (0AS document 0FA]Ser.K]Xvl]1.z, p. 6, - The deslrable state of affalrs ln the hemlsphere).
. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 6, 1hc kiht tc lijc (Artirlc 6|, para. ,.
. Safeguards guaranteelng protectlon of the rlghts of those faclng death penalty, approved by Fconomlc and
Soclal Councll kesolutlon 1S]o of z May 1S.
6. See irtcr clic: lCCPk (Artlcle 6.), Conventlon on the klghts of the Chlld (Artlcle ,.a), uh Safeguards guar-
anteelng protectlon of the rlghts of those faclng death penalty (Artlcle ), Amerlcan Conventlon on human
klghts (Artlcle ,), Afrlcan Charter on the klghts and welfare of the Chlld (Artlcle ,), and Protocol to the
Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klghts on the klghts of women ln Afrlca (Artlcle ).
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho.
Stctcs pcrtics crc urJcr cr cblicticr tc tckc rccscrcblc crJ cpprcprictc
nccsurcs tc prctcrt thcn. Ar irtcrprctcticr cj crtirlc p whirh wculJ cllcw
c Stctc pcrty tc ircrc thrccts tc thc pcrscrcl scrurity cj rcr-JctcircJ
pcrscrs withir its jurisJirticr wculJ rcrJcr tctclly ircjjcrtivc thc ucrcr-
tccs cj thc Ccvcrcrt".
,
The human klghts Commlttee and the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts
have concluded that the lnactlon of State vls--vls of death threats constltute a
vlolatlon of the rlght to llfe.
S
. 5exua| 0rientatien and Cender tdentity and the right te |iIe
lt ls axlomatlc that the State should not deprlve a person of llfe based on sexual
orlentatlon or gender ldentlty grounds. The lmposltlon of capltal punlshment for
commlttlng a thlrd homosexual act or sexual relatlons between consentlng adults
or extra|udlclal executlons or kllllngs for reasons of the sexual orlentatlon or gender
ldentlty of the vlctlm are a fagrant vlolatlon of the rlght to llfe.
The uh 0eneral
Assembly has repeatedly reaffrmed the obllgatlon of the States "to ensure the
protectlon of the rlght to llfe of all persons under thelr |urlsdlctlon" and has called
all States "concerned to lnvestlgate promptly and thoroughly all cases of kllllngs
.] commltted for any dlscrlmlnatory reason, lncludlng sexual orlentatlon .] and
to brlng those responslble to |ustlce before a competent, lndependent and lmpar-
tlal |udlclary and ensure that such kllllngs, lncludlng kllllngs commltted by securlty
forces, paramllltary groups or prlvate forces, are nelther condoned nor sanctloned
by government offclals or personnel."
o
,. uh human klghts Commlttee, vlews of }uly 1z, 1o, Case of willicn FJucrJc 0clcJc Pdcz v. Cclcnbic,
Communlcatlon ho 1]1S, para. . ln uh. 0oc. CCPk]C]]0]1]1S. See also, vlews of zo
March zooo, Case of Ccrlcs 0ics v. Arclc, Communlcatlon ho. ,11]16, para. S., ln uh 0oc. CCPk]
C]6S]0],11]16, vlews of z 0ctober zooo, Case of kcJcr Chcrwc v. Zcnbic, Communlcatlon ho.
Sz1]1S, para. ., ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C],o]0]Sz1]1S , and vlews of z March zooz, Case of luis AsJrbcl
/incrcz vcrc v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon ho. S]1, para. ,.1.
S. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of z March zooz, Case of luis AsJrbcl /incrcz vcrc v. Cclcnbic,
Communlcatlon ho. S]1, para. ,. and lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts, keport ho.
z]o, Case 1o.zzz (Peru).
. See irtcr clic, human klghts Commlttee, CcrrluJir cbscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: SuJcr,
ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C],]Add.S, 1 hovember 1,, para. S, Former uh Commlsslon on human klghts,
kesolutlon ho. zoo], 1hc qucsticr cj thc Jccth pcrclty, of zo Aprll zoo, para. 6.f and kesolutlon
zoo]6,, 1hc qucsticr cj thc Jccth pcrclty, of z Aprll zoo, para. .d, uh 0eneral Assembly, kesolutlons
on "Fxtra|udlclal, summary or arbltrary executlons" ho. 61]1, of 1 0ecember zoo6, ho. ]1, of zo
0ecember zoo and ho. ,]z1 of 1S 0ecember zooz, kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr FxtrcjuJiricl,
sunncry cr crbitrcry cxcruticrs, Mr. Philip Alstcr, AJJcrJun: Missicr tc Nicric, ln uh 0oc, F]
Ch.]zoo6]]Add. of , }anuary zoo6, kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr cxtrcjuJiricl, sunncry cr
crbitrcry cxcruticrs, Mr. Philip Alstcr, AJJcrJun: Missicr tc Cuctcnclc, A]hkC]]zo]Add.z, 1 February
zoo,, kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr FxtrcjuJiricl, Sunncry crJ Arbitrcry Fxcruticrs, F]Ch.]zooo],
z }anuary zooo, para. 116.
o. 0eneral Assembly, kesolutlon ,]z1, FxtrcjuJiricl, sunncry cr crbitrcry cxcruticrs, of 1S 0ecember zooz,
para. 6. See also resolutlon 61]1,, FxtrcjuJiricl, sunncry cr crbitrcry cxcruticrs, 16 0ecember zoo6, para.
(b).
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw
lt merlts repeatlng that under Artlcle 6 of the lCCPk and the Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr
huncr kihts, death sentences may only be lmposed for the most serlous crlmes,
a stlpulatlon whlch excludes matters of sexual orlentatlon. The human klghts
Commlttee has affrmed that homosexual acts cannot be characterlsed as the "most
serlous crlmes",
1
and the former uh Commlsslon on human klghts has stated
that the death penalty should not lmposed for sexual relatlons between consentlng
adults.
z
The uh Speclal kapporteur on extra|udlclal, summary or arbltrary execu-
tlons has expllcltly stated that lmposltlon of the death sentence for a prlvate sexual
practlce, such as sodomy, ls a vlolatlon of lnternatlonal law.
The rlght to llfe establlshes a negatlve legal duty on the State to prevent actlons
by lts agents that deprlve a person of llfe based on hls or her sexual orlentatlon or
gender ldentlty. Fqually, the legal duty ls a posltlve one and obllges States to take all
approprlate measures to deter, prevent and punlsh perpetrators as well as address
any attltudes or condltlons ln soclety whlch encourage or facllltate such crlmes
from elther agents of the State or thlrd partles. Thls would lnclude puttlng ln place
effectlve crlmlnal law provlslons to deter the commlsslon of offences agalnst the
person, backed up by law-enforcement machlnery for the preventlon, suppresslon
and punlshment of breaches of such provlslons.
Thls posltlve obllgatlon should not be neglected as a large part of the vlolatlons
of the rlght to llfe ln relatlon to sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty occurs not
|ust ln the actlon of agents of the State, but also ln thelr lnactlon or fallure to take
posltlve steps to secure llfe.
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, has further defned that:
"1his crtivc prctcrticr cj thc riht tc lijc by thc Stctc irvclvcs rct crly its
lcislctcrs, but clsc cll Stctc irstituticrs crJ thcsc whc shculJ prctcrt scru-
rity, whcthcr thcy crc its pclirc cr its crncJ jcrrcs. Ccrscqucrtly, thc Stctc
nust cJcpt thc rcrcsscry nccsurcs, rct crly ct thc lcislctivc, cJniristrc-
tivc crJ juJiricl lcvcls by thc issuc cj pcrcl rcrns crJ thc cstcblishncrt
cj c justirc systcn tc prcvcrt, clinirctc crJ purish thc Jcprivcticr cj
lijc cs c rcsult cj rrinircl crts, but clsc tc prcvcrt crJ prctcrt irJiviJucls
1. See irtcr clic, CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: lslcnir kcpublir cj lrcr, uh 0oc.
CCPk]C],]Add.z, August 1, para. S and CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc:
SuJcr, uh 0oc. CCPk]C],]Add.S, 1 hovember 1,, para. S.
z. kesolutlon ho. zoo], 1hc qucsticr cj thc Jccth pcrclty, of zo Aprll zoo, para. 6.f.
. kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr cxtrcjuJiricl, sunncry cr crbitrcry cxcruticrs, Mr. Philip Alstcr,
AJJcrJun: Missicr tc Nicric, uh 0oc, F]Ch.]zoo6]]Add. of , }anuary zoo6, para. ,.
. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of z6 }uly zoo,, Case of Arclcvc crJ llicv v. 8ulcric,
Appllcatlon ho. z]oo, para. , and }udgment of zS 0ctober 1S, Case of 0sncr v. 1hc uritcJ
kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. S,]1,]S,1]1oS, para. 11. lt ls thus accepted by those appearlng before
the Court that Artlcle z of the Conventlon may also lmply ln certaln well-deflned clrcumstances a posltlve
obllgatlon on the authorltles to take preventlve operatlonal measures to protect an lndlvldual whose llfe ls
at rlsk from the crlmlnal acts of another lndlvldual.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 6
jrcn thc rrinircl crts cj cthcr irJiviJucls, crJ irvcstictc surh situcticrs
cjjcrtivcly".
There ls also a requlrement that thls type of actlon should be pursued wlth prompt-
ness and reasonable expedltlon.
6
Addresslng lssues of the rlght to llfe ln respect
of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty obllges States to embark on leglslatlve,
|urldlcal and admlnlstratlve measures accordlngly. Thls also necessltates a polltlcal
commltment to guarantee both the exlstence of these measures and thelr effcacy.
ln order to guarantee the rlght to llfe, the uh Speclal kapporteur on extra|udlclal,
summary or arbltrary executlons has polnted out that: "Acts of murder and death
threats should be promptly and thoroughly lnvestlgated by the authorltles], regard-
less of the sexual orlentatlon of the person or persons concerned. Measures should
lnclude pollcles and programmes geared towards overcomlng hatred and pre|u-
dlce agalnst homosexuals, and sensltlzlng publlc offclals and the general publlc to
crlmes and acts of vlolence dlrected agalnst members of sexual mlnorltles."
,
Pre|udlce agalnst persons based on thelr sexual orlentatlon and]or gender ldentlty
has been ldentlfed as a basls for soclal stlgmatlzatlon.
S
L08T persons and sexual
mlnorltles are more vulnerable to vlolence and human rlghts abuses, lncludlng death
threats and vlolatlons of the rlght to llfe, whlch are often commltted ln a cllmate
of lmpunlty. The uh Speclal kapporteur on extra|udlclal, summary and arbltrary
executlons has noted that persons of homosexual orlentatlon were classlfed as
belonglng to a category of vlctlms who are partlcularly vulnerable, by vlrtue of thelr
sexual orlentatlon, of belng dlrectly targeted for extra|udlclal executlon or exposed
to extra|udlclal executlons and death threats.
z. CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: CcrcJc, CCPk]C]CAh]C0], zo Aprll zoo6, para.
1.
. lnternatlonal Covenant on Clvll and Polltlcal klghts (Artlcle ,), the Conventlon agalnst Torture and 0ther
Cruel, lnhuman or 0egradlng Treatment or Punlshment, the Conventlon on the klghts of the Chlld (Artlcle
,a), the lnternatlonal Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klghts of All Mlgrant workers and Members
of Thelr Famllles (Artlcle 1o) the Conventlon on the klghts of Persons wlth 0lsabllltles (Artlcle 1.1), the
Furopean Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle ), the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle ),
the lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon to Prevent and Punlsh Torture, the lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon on Preventlon,
Punlshment and Fradlcatlon of vlolence agalnst women (Artlcle ,c), the Arab Charter ln human klghts
(Artlcle S), the Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klghts (Artlcle ), the Afrlcan Charter on the klghts
and welfare of the Chlld (Artlcle 16), and Protocol to the Afrlcan Charter on human and People's klghts on
the klghts of women ln Afrlca (Artlcle ).
. The uh 0eclaratlon on the Protectlon of All Persons from 8elng Sub|ected to Torture and 0ther Cruel,
lnhuman or 0egradlng Treatment or Punlshment, the uh 8ody of Prlnclples for the Protectlon of All Persons
under Any Form of 0etentlon or lmprlsonment (Prlnclple 6), Prlnclples of Medlcal Fthlcs relevant to the kole
of health Personnel, partlcularly Physlclans, ln the Protectlon of Prlsoners and 0etalnees agalnst Torture
and 0ther Cruel, lnhuman or 0egradlng Treatment or Punlshment, Prlnclples on the Fffectlve lnvestlgatlon
and 0ocumentatlon of Torture and 0ther Cruel, lnhuman or 0egradlng Treatment or Punlshment, Code of
Conduct for Law Fnforcement 0fflclals (Artlcle ), The 0uldellnes on the kole of Prosecutors (0uldellne 16),
the 0eclaratlon on the human klghts of lndlvlduals who are not hatlonals of the Country ln whlch They Llve
(Artlcle 6), the uh 0uldlng Prlnclples on lnternal 0lsplacement (Prlnclple 11), the Charter of Fundamental
klghts of the Furopean unlon (Artlcle ), Prlnclples and 0uldellnes on 0uldellnes on the rlght to a falr trlal
and legal asslstance ln Afrlca (Prlnclple M.,) , the 0uldellnes of the Commlttee of Mlnlsters of the Councll of
Furope on human rlghts and the flght agalnst terrorlsm (0uldellne lv), the Prlnclples and 8est Practlces on
the Protectlon of Persons 0eprlved of Llberty ln the Amerlcas (Prlnclple 1), and the 0uldellnes and Measures
for the Prohlbltlon and Preventlon of Torture, Cruel, lnhuman or 0egradlng Treatment or Punlshment ln Afrlca
(kobben lsland 0uldellnes, zooz).
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 1oo
The prohlbltlon of torture and cruel, lnhuman or degradlng treatment or punlsh-
ment (lll-treatment) are absolute and must not be derogated from at any tlme.
The absolute nature of the prohlbltlon on torture and lll-treatment, under treaty
law and customary lnternatlonal law, ls beyond all doubt.
6
The uh Commlttee
Agalnst Torture has stated that "t]he obllgatlons contalned ln artlcles z of the
Ccrvcrticr ccirst 1crturc crJ 0thcr Crucl, lrhuncr cr 0crcJir 1rcctncrt
cr Purishncrt] (whereby 'no exceptlonal clrcumstances whatsoever .] may be
lnvoked as a |ustlfcatlon of torture'), 1 (prohlbltlng confesslons extorted by torture
belng admltted ln evldence, except agalnst the torturer), and 16 (prohlbltlng cruel,
lnhuman or degradlng treatment or punlshment) are three such provlslons and
must be observed ln all clrcumstances".
,
The Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and
Peoples' klghts has slmllarly stated that "the rlght to freedom from torture and
cruel, lnhuman and degradlng treatment cannot be derogated from for any reason,
ln whatever clrcumstances".
S
The prohlbltlon of torture ls a jus rccrs norm,
as
the lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts has underscored "t]he absolute prohlbl-
. See irtcr clic: lCCPk (Artlcle .z), Common Artlcle of the 0eneva Conventlons, Furopean Conventlon on
human klghts (Artlcle 1.z), Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle z,.z), and the Arab Charter on
human klghts (Artlcle S).
6. See irtcr clic: lCCPk (Artlcle and ,), Conventlon agalnst Torture and 0ther Cruel, lnhuman or 0egradlng
Treatment or Punlshment (Artlcle z), Conventlon on the klghts of the Chlld (Artlcle ,), lnternatlonal
Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klghts of All Mlgrant workers and Members of thelr Famllles (Artlcle
1o), Standard Mlnlmum kules for the Treatment of Prlsoners (kule 1), 8ody of Prlnclples for the Protectlon
of All Persons under Any Form of 0etentlon or lmprlsonment (Prlnclple 6), 0eclaratlon on the Fllmlnatlon of
vlolence agalnst women (Artlcle ), Code of Conduct for Law Fnforcement 0fflclals (Artlcle ), 0eclaratlon
on the human klghts of lndlvlduals who are not hatlonals of the Country ln whlch They Llve (Artlcle 6),
0uldellnes on the kole of Prosecutors (Prlnclple 16), human klghts Commlttee, CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs
cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: CcrcJc, uh 0oc. CCPk]C]CAh]C0], zo Aprll zoo6, para. 1, uh 0eneral
Assembly kesolutlon A]kFS]]1S, uh Commlsslon on human klghts kesolutlon F]Ch.]kFS]zoo],
and the uh Speclal kapporteur on Torture (uh document F]Ch.]1S6]1, para. , 1 February 1S6, F]
Ch.]zooz]1,, z6 February zooz, para. S). See also: Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klghts (Artlcle
), Afrlcan Charter on the klghts and welfare of the Chlld, (Artlcle 16), Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts
(Artlcles & z,), lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon to Prevent and Punlsh Torture (Artlcle 1 & ), lnter-Amerlcan
Conventlon on the preventlon, punlshment and eradlcatlon of vlolence agalnst women (Artlcle ), Furopean
Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle ) and 0uldellnes of the Commlttee of Mlnlsters of the Councll of
Furope on human rlghts and the flght agalnst terrorlsm (lv). See also: Common Artlcle of the 0eneva
Conventlons, lll 0eneva Conventlon (Artlcles , z, S,(), S, ,), lv 0eneva Conventlon (Artlcles o, 1,
, 6, 1oo, 11), Protocol l of the 0eneva Conventlons (Artlcle ,) and Protocol ll of the 0eneva Conventlon
(Artlcle ).
,. 0eclaratlon of the Commlttee Agalnst Torture, adopted the zz hovember zoo1, uh 0oc. CAT]C]XXvll]Mlsc.,.
See also Commlttee agalnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, lnplcncrtcticr cj Artlcle 2 by Stctcs Pcrtics,
para. 6.
S. Communlcatlon z, ] zoo, Case of Artirlc 1p v. 1hc Stctc cj Fritrcc, para. .
. Commlttee agalnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, para. 1. See lnternatlonal Crlmlnal Trlbunal for the
Former ugoslavla: }udgment of 1o 0ecember 1S, Case of 1hc Prcscrutcr v. Artc FururJzijc, ho. lT--
1,]1-T, para. 1, }udgment of 16 hovember 1S, Case of 1hc Prcscrutcr v. 0clclir crJ cthcrs, lT-6-z1-T,
para. , and }udgment of zz February zoo, Case of Prcscrutcr v. kurcrcr, kcvcr crJ vukcvir, lT-6-z-T
and lT-6-z]1-T. See also lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts (}udgment of , September zoo, 1ibi r.
FrucJcr, para. 1, }udgment of S }uly zoo, hcrncrcs Ccncz Pcquiycuri r. Pcr, para. 11z, }udgment
of z, hovember zoo, Mcritzc urrutic r Cuctcnclc, para. z, and }udgment of 1S August zooo, Ccrtcrcl
8crcviJcs r. Pcr, paras. 1oz and 1o), uh Speclal kapporteur on Torture (uh 0oc. F]Ch.]zoo6]6, para.
1,) and lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts (kcpcrt cr 1crrcrisn crJ huncr kihts, Jcr. rit.,
para. 1).
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1o1
tlon of torture, both physlcal and mental, ls currently part of the lnternatlonal jus
rccrs".
6o
z. 1erture and i||-treatment
z.: 1erture: scepe eI deIinitien and sexua||y metivated crimes
under lnternatlonal law, dlfferent defnltlons of torture have been offered. lndeed,
the uh 0crlcrcticr cr thc Prctcrticr cj All Pcrscrs jrcn 8cir SubjcrtcJ tc
1crturc crJ 0thcr Crucl, lrhuncr cr 0crcJir 1rcctncrt cr Purishncrt,
61
the
uh Ccrvcrticr ccirst 1crturc crJ 0thcr Crucl, lrhuncr cr 0crcJir 1rcctncrt
cr Purishncrt,
6z
the kcnc Stctutc cj thc lrtcrrcticrcl Crinircl Ccurt
6
and the
lrtcr-Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr tc Prcvcrt crJ Purish 1crturc
6
provlde dlfferent defnl-
tlons of torture. At the same tlme, lnternatlonal humanltarlan law prohlblts torture
but does not provlde a defnltlon of lt.
The lnternatlonal Crlmlnal Trlbunal for the Former ugoslavla (lCT), ln outllnlng
lts scope of |urlsdlctlon examlned torture, as a crlme commltted ln a systematlc
way (crlmes agalnst humanlty) and as a crlme commltted ln an armed conflct (war
crlmes), wlthln the "defnltlon of torture under customary lnternatlonal law".
6
Prlmarlly, the lCT consldered that the defnltlon contalned ln the uh Ccrvcrticr
ccirst 1crturc crJ 0thcr Crucl, lrhuncr cr 0crcJir 1rcctncrt cr Purishncrt
"refects a consensus whlch the Trlal Chamber conslders to be representatlve of
customary lnternatlonal law".
66
Later, the lCT clarlfed thelr posltlon that, under
customary law, three elements characterlze torture: a) the lnflctlon, by act or omls-
slon, of severe paln or sufferlng, whether physlcal or mental, b) the act or omlsslon
must be lntentlonal, and c) the act must be lnstrumental to another purpose, ln the
sense that the lnflctlon of paln must be almed at reachlng a certaln goal.
6,
The lCT
further concluded that "t]here ls no requlrement under customary lnternatlonal
law that the conduct must be solely perpetrated for one of the prohlblted purposes
under the uh Conventlon agalnst Torture]. .]the prohlblted purpose must slmply
6o. lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, }udgment of 11 March zoo, Case of Cccscr v. 1ririJcJ crJ 1cbcc,
para. z,1.
61. Artlcle 1 (1). See also the Commentary of Artlcle of the uN CcJc cj CcrJurt jcr lcw Frjcrrcncrt
0jjiricls.
6z. Artlcle 1 (1).
6. Artlcle , (z, e).
6. Artlcle z.
6. Trlal Chamber, }udgment of zz February zoo1, Prcscrutcr v. kurcrcr, kcvcr crJ vukcvir, Case lT-6-z-T &
lT-6-z]1-T, para. 6S. See also prevlous |udgments: Prcscrutcr v. FururJzijc, 1o 0ecember 1S, lT--
1,]1-T, and Prcscrutcr v. 0clclir crJ 0thcrs, 16 hovember 1S, ho. lT-6-z1-T.
66. }udgment of 16 hovember 1S, Case of Prcscrutcr v. 0clclir crJ 0thcrs, Case lT-6-z1-T, para. . See
also }udgment of 1o 0ecember 1S, Case of Prcscrutcr v. FururJzijc, Case lT--1,]1-T, paras. 16o-161.
6,. }udgment of zz February zoo1, Prcscrutcr v. kurcrcr, kcvcr crJ vukcvir, Case lT-6-z-T and lT-6-z]1-T,
para. S and Appeals Chamber, }udgment of 1z }une zooz, Prcscrutcr v. kurcrcr, kcvcr crJ vukcvir, Case
lT-6-z-T and lT-6-z]1-T para. 1S.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 1oz
be part of the motlvatlon behlnd the conduct and need not be the predomlnatlng
or sole purpose."
6S
ln thls legal context, the lCT stated that "s]exual vlolence necessarlly glves rlse
to severe paln or sufferlng, whether physlcal or mental, and ln thls way |ustlfes lts
characterlsatlon as an act of torture."
6
The lCT "holds that, even lf the perpetra-
tor's motlvatlon ls entlrely sexual, lt does not follow that the perpetrator does not
have the lntent to commlt an act of torture or that hls conduct does not cause severe
paln or sufferlng, whether physlcal or mental, slnce such paln or sufferlng ls a llkely
and loglcal consequence of hls conduct. ln vlew of the defnltlon, lt ls lmportant to
establlsh whether a perpetrator lntended to act ln a way whlch, ln the normal course
of events, would cause severe paln or sufferlng, whether physlcal or mental, to hls
vlctlms."
,o
ln response to the argument that the purpose of sexual gratlfcatlon ls
not llsted ln the defnltlon of torture, the lCT concluded that "acts need not have
been perpetrated solely for one of the purposes prohlblted by lnternatlonal law. lf
one of the prohlblted purposes ls fulfled by the conduct, the fact that such conduct
was also lntended to achleve a non-llsted purpose (even one of a sexual nature) ls
lmmaterlal."
,1
The Furopean Court of human klghts and Commlsslon on human klghts has also
concluded that a rape can amount to torture.
,z
The Furopean Court noted that
"rape of a detalnee by an offclal of the State must be consldered to be an especlally
grave and abhorrent form of lll-treatment glven the ease wlth whlch the offender
can explolt the vulnerablllty and weakened reslstance of hls vlctlm ln thls case the
rape of a 1,-year-old glrl]".
,
These conslderatlons of the lCT, the Furopean Court and the lnter-Amerlcan
Commlsslon are partlcularly relevant for sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty
lssues, taklng lnto account that L08T persons are frequently vlctlms of rape and
sexual vlolence, especlally when they are deprlved of thelr llberty, elther by State
offclals or by thlrd partles often due to lnactlon by the State.
The uh Conventlon agalnst Torture descrlbes "'torture' as] any act by whlch severe
paln or sufferlng, whether physlcal or mental, ls lntentlonally lnflcted .] for any
6S. }udgment of zz February zoo1, Prcscrutcr v. kurcrcr, kcvcr crJ vukcvir, Case lT-6-z-T and lT-6-z]1-T,
para. S6. See also }udgment of 16 hovember 1S, Case of Prcscrutcr v. 0clclir crJ 0thcrs, lT-6-z1-T,
para. ,o.
6. Appeals Chamber, }udgment of 1z }une zooz, Prcscrutcr v. kurcrcr, kcvcr crJ vukcvir, Case lT-6-z-T
and lT-6-z]1-T para. 1o.
,o. lbiJ., para. 1.
,1. lbiJ., para. 1.
,z. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of z September 1,, Case of AyJir v. 1urkcy, Appllcatlon ho.
,]16]6,6]S66 and Commlsslon on human klghts, keport ho. ]6 of 1 March 16, Case ho. 1o.,o,
kcqucl Mcrtir Jc Mcjic v. Pcr.
,. Case of AyJir v. 1urkcy, Jcr. rit., para. S1.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1o
reason based on dlscrlmlnatlon of any klnd .]".
,
Thls aspect of the defnltlon ls
relevant for sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty lssues, and the uh Commlttee
agalnst Torture notes thls posslblllty wlth respect to a draft of dlscrlmlnatlon
grounds, lncludlng sexual orlentatlon.
,
z.z Crue|, inhuman er degrading treatment er punishment
Although no absolute defnltlon exlsts the uh CcJc cj CcrJurt jcr lcw Frjcrrcncrt
0jricls provldes an lmportant lnterpretatlon as follows: "t]he term 'cruel, lnhuman
or degradlng treatment or punlshment' ..] should be lnterpreted so as to extend the
wldest posslble protectlon agalnst abuses, whether physlcal or mental".
,6
ln fact,
lll-treatment seems fundamentally defned by negatlon ln relatlon to torture. These
manlfests as acts whlch fall short of the defnltlon of torture ln the uh Conventlon
Agalnst Torture because of the absence of elements of lntent or whlch are not carrled
out for the speclfc purposes outllned.
,,
Acts that have been deemed as lll-treat-
ment by lnternatlonal |urlsprudence and]or lnternatlonal bodles lnclude: prolonged
lncommunlcado detentlon,
,S
repeated solltary confnement, submlsslon to cold,
perslstent relocatlon to a new cell,
,
women prlsoners hanglng naked from hand-
cuffs
So
and certaln "technlques" of lnterrogatlon.
S1
The uh Speclal kapporteur on
Torture has consldered that dlsproportlonate exerclse of pollce powers
Sz
and the
powerlessness of the vlctlm
S
are lnherent elements of lll-treatment.
,. Artlcle 1.1 of the uh Ccrvcrticr ccirst 1crturc crJ 0thcr Crucl, lrhuncr cr 0crcJir 1rcctncrt cr
Purishncrt.
,. Commlttee Agalnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, Jcr. rit. para. zz.
,6. Commentary (para. c.) to the Artlcle of the CcJc cj CcrJurt cj lcw Frjcrrcncrt 0jjiricls.
,,. uh Speclal kapporteur on Torture, uh 0oc. F]Ch.]zoo6]6, para. . ln the same llne, see hlgel kodley,
1hc trcctncrt cj priscrcrs urJcr irtcrrcticrcl lcw, Clarendon Press, 0xford, znd Fdltlon, 1, p. S and
ft.1z.
,S. See irtcr clic, human klghts Commlttee: Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2c, Jcr. rit., para. and 6, CcrrluJir
0bscrvcticrs: uritcJ Stctcs cj Ancrirc, CCPk]C]uSA]C0]]kev.1 of 1S 0ecember zoo6, para. 1z, vlews
of }uly zoo6, Case of Ali McJjrcurc v. Alcric, Communlcatlon ho. 1z,]zoo, vlews of z March 16,
Case of Cclis lcurccrc v. Pcru Communlcatlon ho. o]1, vlews of z }uly 1, Case of Mukcr v.
Ccncrccr Communlcatlon S]11, vlews of z March 1, Case of Fl-Mcrcisi v. libycr Arcb /cnchiriyc,
Communlcatlon o]1o. See also, uh former uh human klghts Commlsslon, kesolutlons ho. 1,]S
(para. 1o) and ho. zoo] (para. ), lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, |udgment of z }uly 1SS, Case
of vclcsqucz kcJriucz (para. 16) and |udgment of 1z hovember 1,, Case of Sucrcz kcscrc (paras. o
and 1).
,. human klghts Commlttee: vlews of 1, }uly 1S, Case of Ccrtcris v. uruucy, Communlcatlon ho.
1]1S.
So. See human klghts Commlttee: vlews of z, March 1S1, Case of lscricrc Jc 8cutcr v. uruucy, Communlcatlon
ho. ,]1,S and vlews of 1 hovember 1S, Case of Arzucc Cilbcc v. uruucy, Communlcatlon ho.
1,]1S.
S1. For example, see CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: uritcJ Stctcs cj Ancrirc,
CCPk]C]uSA]C0]]kev.1 of 1S 0ecember zoo6, para. 1, and lnter-Amerlcan on human klghts, kcpcrt cr
1crrcrisn crJ huncr kihts, 0AS 0oc. 0FA]Ser.L]v]ll.116, 0oc. rev. 1 corr, paras. z11 and z1.
Sz. uh 0oc F]Ch.]zoo6]6, para. S.
S. lbiJ., para. .
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 1o
The prohlbltlon of cruel, lnhuman or degradlng treatment has been used to llmlt the
appllcatlon of the death penalty ln a varlety of clrcumstances. The Furopean Court
of human klghts has ruled that exposlng a prlsoner to "death row phenomenon"
S
constltutes cruel, lnhuman or degradlng treatment, effectlvely prohlbltlng extradl-
tlons where a sentence of death upon convlctlon ls posslble.
S
The human klghts
Commlttee has ruled that repeated last-mlnute stays of executlon constltute cruel
and lnhuman treatment.
S6
y. 5tates' eb|igatiens
States have the obllgatlon to prevent, lnvestlgate and punlsh torture and lll-treat-
ment under lnternatlonal law. They have three posltlve obllgatlons regardlng both
torture and lll-treatment: a) they must take steps such as tralnlng law enforce-
ment personnel to ensure that the prohlbltlons agalnst torture and lll-treatment
are enforced, b) they must promptly and competently lnvestlgate any reasonable
allegatlons that torture or lll-treatment have taken place ln thelr terrltorles, pros-
ecute the alleged perpetrators, and, lf found gullty by an lndependent, lmpartlal and
competent trlbunal punlsh them wlth approprlate penaltles taklng lnto account thelr
grave nature, and c) they must provlde an effectlve remedy and reparatlon to the
vlctlms of such acts.
S,
The Commlttee Agalnst Torture has noted that thls obllgatlon
extends to requlrlng "posltlve measures to ensure that prlvate persons or entltles do
not lnflct torture or cruel, lnhuman or degradlng treatment or punlshment on others
wlthln thelr power."
SS
whlle all forms of prohlblted treatment requlre affrmatlve
steps to prevent, punlsh, and remedy, the prohlbltlon of torture requlres States to
fulfl two addltlonal obllgatlons: an crc cnrcs obllgatlon to extradlte or prosecute
alleged torturers and the obllgatlon of rcr-rcjculcncrt.
The absolute prohlbltlon of torture and lll-treatment lmposes the obllgatlon on
the State to not use methods of lnterrogatlon, condltlons of detentlon or punlsh-
ment, whlch can amount to these prohlblted acts. Corporal punlshment - physlcal
punlshment lnvolvlng blows to the body or mutllatlon, such as fogglng, cannlng,
S. ln essence, the degradatlon of mental well-belng that results from lndeflnlte detentlon endlng ln expected
executlon.
S. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of , }uly 1S, Case of Sccrir v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon
ho. 1oS]SS.
S6. vlews of , Aprll 1S, Case of Prctt crJ Mcrcr v. /cncirc, Communlcatlons hos. z1o]1S6 and zz]1S,,
para. 1.,.
S,. See irtcr clic, Commlttee agalnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, lnplcncrtcticr cj Artirlc 2 by Stctc
Pcrtics, paras. z & ,, human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1, 1hc Ncturc cj thc Ccrcrcl lccl
0blicticr lnpcscJ cr Stctcs Pcrtics tc thc Ccvcrcrt, para. 16, and the upJctcJ Sct cj Prirriplcs jcr thc
prctcrticr crJ prcncticr cj huncr rihts thrcuh crticr tc rcnbct inpurity (F]Ch.]zoo]1oz] Add.1, S
February zoo), recommended by the Commlsslon on human klghts resolutlon zoo]S1 of z1 Aprll . For a
more detalled explanatlon on these lssues, see lnternatlonal Commlsslon of }urlsts, 1hc kiht tc c kcncJy
crJ tc kcpcrcticr jcr Crcss huncr kihts viclcticrs: A Prcrtiticrcrs CuiJc, Practltloners 0ulde ho. z, lC}
0eneva, zoo6.
SS. Commlttee agalnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, Jcr. rit., para. 11.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1o
whlpplng, amputatlon and brandlng - lmposed by |udlclal order or as an admlnls-
tratlve sanctlon ls prohlblted by lnternatlonal standards.
S
ln several countrles,
laws punlsh consensual same-sex relatlonshlps and transgendered behavlour by
corporal punlshment.
kegardlng the duty to prosecute the alleged perpetrators of lll-treatment, the
Commlttee Agalnst Torture, "emphaslzes that lt would be a vlolatlon of the
Conventlon to prosecute conduct solely as lll-treatment where the elements of
torture are also present".
o
The Commlttee agalnst Torture has relterated that ln
cases of lll-treatment, States have a duty to conduct a crlmlnal lnvestlgatlon.
1
ln
the same veln, the human klghts Commlttee has stated that "States Partles must
ensure that those responslble are brought to |ustlce. As wlth fallure to lnvestlgate,
fallure to brlng to |ustlce perpetrators of such vlolatlons could ln and of ltself glve
rlse to a separate breach of the Covenant."
z
States must not expose lndlvlduals to the danger of torture or lll-treatments upon
return to another country by way of thelr extradltlon, expulslon or rcjculcncrt. The
prlnclple of rcr-rcjculcncrt, prohlbltlng States to return, deport, extradlte, expel,
transfer or otherwlse send anyone to a country where he or she faces a real rlsk of
gross human rlghts vlolatlons, lncludlng torture and lll-treatment, ls one of the most
fundamental prlnclples of general lnternatlonal law. lt has lts orlglns ln refugee law
and lnternatlonal regulatlons on extradltlon
The dlfference between the varlous forms of prohlblted treatment (torture and cruel,
lnhuman or degradlng treatment) ls not relevant here: glven that the prohlbltlon on
all of them ls absolute and non-derogable, the prlnclple of rcr-rcjculcncrt applles
to them all wlthout dlstlnctlon.
oo
The Commlttee Agalnst Torture has also polnted
out that the rlsk of torture may come from non-State actors who are, Jc jcrtc, exer-
clslng functlons that normally belong to the authorltles.
o1
The prlnclple of rcr-rcjculcncrt applles whenever there ls a rlsk of a serlous vlola-
tlon of human rlghts. lt ls thls rlsk whlch ls the focus of attentlon, and the nature of
the removal or the actlvltles of the person concerned are not lmportant. The prln-
clple covers any lnvoluntary removal of an lndlvldual from one country to another,
whatever form lt takes or name lt ls glven (deportatlon, expulslon, return, extradl-
tlon, transfer, etc) and regardless of whether the proceedlngs followed were legal
(l.e., Jc jcrtc or Jc jurc). The tradltlonal dlstlnctlon made ln publlc lnternatlonal
6. See the human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2c, Jcr. rit., para. . See also, irtcr clic, vlews
of the human klghts Commlttee ln the cases: Chitct N v. CcrcJc, Communlcatlon 6]11, MchcnncJ
Alzcry v. SwcJcr, Communlcatlon ho. 116]zoo, Ccx v. CcrcJc, Communlcatlon ]1, and C.1. v.
Austrclic. Communlcatlon ,o6]16.
,. Commlttee agalnst Torture, vlews of zo May zoo, Case of AhncJ husscir Mustcjc kcnil Aizc v. SwcJcr,
Communlcatlon ho. z]zoo, CAT]C]]0]z]zoo, khcr v. CcrcJc, Ccnnurircticr Nc. 1/1pp, u.N.
0cr. A/c/ ct 6 (1pp|, Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgments ln the cases Sccrir v. 1hc uritcJ
kirJcn, Cruz vcrcs crJ cthcrs v. SwcJcr, vilvcrcjch crJ cthcrs v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, Alcr v. SwitzcrlcrJ,
Acnci v. SwitzcrlcrJ, Mutcnbc v. SwitzcrlcrJ, 1clc v. SwcJcr, Fclckcjlcki v. SwcJcr, A v. NcthcrlcrJs, Aycs
v. SwcJcr, hcyJir v. SwcJcr, crJ h.0. v. SwitzcrlcrJ, and the Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples'
klghts, Communlcatlon ho.,], McJissc v. 8ctswcrc.
S. CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: CcrcJc, CCPk]C]CAh]C0], zo Aprll zoo6, para.
1.
. See, among others, the kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr tcrturc, Mr. 1hcc vcr 8cvcr, uh document. F]
Ch.]zooz]1, of z6 February zooz, para. 1, and the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts, Arrucl
kcpcrt cj thc lrtcr-Ancrircr Ccnnissicr cr huncr kihts, 1p8-1p8, 0AS document 0FA]Ser.L]v]ll.66,
0oc. 1o rev. 1, 1 0ctober 1S.
oo. See the human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2c, cp. rit. 1z, ln whlch the human klghts Commlttee
expllcltly acknowledges the appllcatlon of the prlnclple ln the case of "tcrturc cr rrucl, irhuncr cr JcrcJir
trcctncrt cr purishncrt" (para. ).
o1. 0eclslon of 1 May 1, Case of ScJiq Shck Flnir, Australla, Communlcatlon ho. 1zo]1S,
CAT]C]zz]0]1zo]1S, z May 1, para. 6..
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1o,
law between extradltlon, expulslon, return, etc, ls not relevant here.
oz
unllke the
Ccrvcrticr rclctir tc thc Stctus cj kcjuccs, any balanclng test that would allow
appllcatlon of the prlnclple to be curtalled for reasons such as natlonal securlty can
never be used here.
. 1erture and i||-treatment en greunds eI sexua| erientatien and
gender identity
.: 1erture and i||-treatment arising Irem prejudice and
discriminatien
As a mlnorlty group, L08T persons are placed ln a posltlon of vulnerablllty ln soclety
whlch ln turn lncreases thelr susceptlblllty to torture. The uh Speclal kapporteur
on torture has noted that attltudes and bellefs stemmlng from myths and fears
assoclated wlth gender, sexuallty and hlv]Al0S, contrlbutlng to the stlgma and
dlscrlmlnatlon agalnst them. hls report catalogues graphlc manlfestatlons of lll-
treatment speclfcally arlslng from hostlllty towards a partlcular sexual orlentatlon
and gender ldentlty, "male-to-female transsexual women have been beaten lnten-
tlonally on thelr breasts and cheek-bones whlch had been enhanced by slllcone
lmplants, causlng the lmplants to burst and as a result releaslng toxlc substances
lnto thelr bodles. lll-treatment agalnst sexual mlnorltles ls belleved to have also
been used, irtcr clic, to force sex workers to leave certaln areas, ln so-called 'soclal
cleanslng' campalgns, or to dlscourage sexual mlnorltles from meetlng ln certaln
places, lncludlng clubs and bars".
o
The uh Speclal kapporteur on Torture has concluded that systemlc dlscrlmlna-
tlon agalnst members of sexual mlnorltles lncreases thelr vulnerablllty to torture.
The Speclal kapporteur noted that "f ]or some years he] has recelved lnformatlon
regardlng a number of cases ln whlch the vlctlms of torture and other cruel, lnhuman
or degradlng treatment or punlshment have been members of sexual mlnorltles. he
notes that a conslderable proportlon of the lncldents of torture carrled out agalnst
members of sexual mlnorltles suggests that they are often sub|ected to vlolence
of a sexual nature, such as rape or sexual assault ln order to 'punlsh' them for
oz. See, among others, the Commlttee agalnst Torture, vlews of }une zooo, Case of /csu Arkcuz Arcrc v.
Frcrrc, Communlcatlon ho. o6]1,, and Ccrrlusicrs crJ kcrcnncrJcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc Acirst
1crturc: uritcJ kirJcn, uh document CAT]C]Ck]], z hovember zoo, para. (e). See also the kcpcrt
cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr tcrturc crJ cthcr rrucl, irhuncr cr JcrcJir trcctncrt cr purishncrt, uh
document A]]z, 1 September zoo, para. .
o. kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr thc qucsticr cj tcrturc crJ cthcr rrucl, irhuncr cr JcrcJir trcctncrt
cr purishncrt, irtcrin rcpcrt, uh 0oc. A]6]16, }uly zoo1, para. 1S.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 1oS
transgresslng gender barrlers or for challenglng predomlnant conceptlons of gender
role."
o
The uh Speclal kapporteur noted that:
"ncnbcrs cj scxucl nircritics crc Jisprcpcrticrctcly subjcrtcJ tc tcrturc
crJ cthcr jcrns cj ill-trcctncrt, bcrcusc thcy jcil tc rcrjcrn tc scriclly
rcrstrurtcJ crJcr cxpcrtcticrs. lrJccJ, Jisrrinircticr cr rcurJs cj
scxucl cricrtcticr cr crJcr iJcrtity ncy cjtcr rcrtributc tc thc prcrcss
cj thc Jchuncrizcticr cj thc virtin, whirh is cjtcr c rcrcsscry rcrJiticr jcr
tcrturc crJ ill-trcctncrt tc tckc plcrc. .] ncnbcrs cj scxucl nircritics crc
c pcrtirulcrly vulrcrcblc rcup with rcspcrt tc tcrturc ir vcricus rcrtcxts
crJ .] thcir stctus ncy clsc cjjcrt thc rcrscqucrrcs cj thcir ill-trcctncrt
ir tcrns cj thcir crrcss tc rcnplcirt prcrcJurcs cr ncJircl trcctncrt ir
stctc hcspitcls, whcrc thcy ncy jccr jurthcr virtinizcticr, cs wcll cs ir tcrns
cj lccl rcrscqucrrcs rccrJir thc lccl scrrticrs jlcwir jrcn rcrtcir
cbuscs."
o
Concernlng dlscrlmlnatlon on grounds of sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty, the
uh Speclal kapporteur on Torture has polnted out that "dlscrlmlnatory attltudes
towards members of sexual mlnorltles can mean that they are percelved as less
credlble by law enforcement agencles or not fully entltled to an equal standard
of protectlon, lncludlng protectlon agalnst vlolence carrled out by non-State
agents."
o6
.z 1erture and i||-treatment via 'cures' impesed en sexua| minerities
Medlclne or the appllcatlon of "cures" has sometlmes been the basls for acts of
torture or degradlng treatment of L08T persons. Professor kyan 0oodman has
descrlbed "the curatlve pretext" that ls used as a precursor to "soclal cleanslng"
or systematlc lll-treatment of L08T people. Professor 0oodman clted "lnvoluntary"
medlcal lnterventlon agalnst L08T persons such as electrlc shock, forms of "averslon
therapy" and use of psychotroplc drugs: "even lf the practlce of sexual orlentatlon
were not experlmentatlon, a forelgn State's use of certaln medlcal technology may
already constltute experlmentatlon ln uS courts. The experlmental nature of the
procedure ltself may brldge the alleged gap between huremberg's experlmentatlon-
speclfc laws and the sexual orlentatlon 'cures'. Thus ad|udlcators and practltloners
should conslder the speclfc technlque rather than |ust the overall medlcal attempt
to forclbly alter sexual orlentatlon. The admlnlstratlon of antlpsychotlc drugs, for
lnstance, may classlfy the practlce as experlmentatlon, because of the 'explora-
tory' nature of the use of such drugs for sexual orlentatlon 'therapy' .]. Thlrdly, the
o. lbiJ., para. 1,, see also kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur, uh 0oc. F]Ch.]zoo]6, z 0ecember zoo.
o. lbiJ., para. 1.
o6. kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr thc qucsticr cj tcrturc crJ cthcr rrucl, irhuncr cr JcrcJir trcctncrt
cr purishncrt, F]Ch.]zooz],6, z, 0ecember zoo1, Annex lll, p. 11.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1o
alleged dlstlnctlon between cure and experlmentatlon ls untenable wlth regard to
manlpulatlon of sexual orlentatlon".
o,
The context for the development of a curatlve trope has been set through the pathol-
oglzatlon of homosexual expresslons and transgender ldentltles. Thls approach
remalns throughout many countrles ln the world and has only recently been removed
as "pathology" ln medlcal clrcles.
The lnternatlonal and reglonal human rlghts systems have not yet dealt wlth an lndl-
vldual petltlon or communlcatlon speclfcally relatlng to lssues of sexual orlentatlon
and gender ldentlty ln relatlon wlth the prohlbltlon of torture and lll-treatments, and
provlslons prohlbltlng torture. however, all lnternatlonal norms and standards from
lnternatlonal human rlghts |urlsprudence on torture and lll-treatment, referred to ln
the prevlous sectlon of thls chapter, are appllcable ln relatlon to sexual orlentatlon
and gender ldentlty. lndeed, everyone ls entltled, wlthout any klnd of dlscrlmlnatlon
and regardless hls or her sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty, to the absolute rlght
to be free from torture and lll-treatment. The Commlttee Agalnst Torture has recalled
that "t]he prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon ls a baslc and general prlnclple ln the
protectlon of human rlghts and fundamental to the lnterpretatlon and appllcatlon of
the Conventlon. hon-dlscrlmlnatlon ls lncluded wlthln the defnltlon of torture ltself
ln Artlcle 1, paragraph 1, of the Conventlon, whlch expllcltly prohlblts speclfed acts
when carrled out for cry rccscr bcscJ cr Jisrrinircticr cj cry kirJ .."
oS
The
Commlttee polnted out that:
"1hc prctcrticr cj rcrtcir nircrity cr ncrirclizcJ irJiviJucls cr pcpu-
lcticrs cspcriclly ct risk cj tcrturc is c pcrt cj thc cblicticr tc prcvcrt
tcrturc cr ill trcctncrt. Stctcs pcrtics nust crsurc thct, irscjcr cs thc
cblicticrs crisir urJcr thc Ccrvcrticr crc rcrrcrrcJ, thcir lcws crc ir
prcrtirc cpplicJ tc cll pcrscrs, rccrJlcss cj .] scxucl cricrtcticr cr] trcrs-
crJcr iJcrtity .]. Stctcs pcrtics shculJ, thcrcjcrc, crsurc thc prctcrticr cj
ncnbcrs cj rcups cspcriclly ct risk cj bcir tcrturcJ, by jully prcscrutir
crJ purishir cll crts cj viclcrrc crJ cbusc ccirst thcsc irJiviJucls crJ
crsurir inplcncrtcticr cj cthcr pcsitivc nccsurcs cj prcvcrticr crJ
prctcrticr, irrluJir but rct linitcJ tc thcsc cutlircJ cbcvc".
o
0n several occaslons the Commlttee Agalnst Torture has expressed lts concerns for
allegatlons of torture and lll-treatment of certaln other vulnerable groups, lncludlng
o,. kyan 0oodman, "The lncorporatlon of lnternatlonal human klghts Standards lnto sexual orlentatlon
asylum clalms: cases of lnvoluntary 'medlcal' lnterventlon", ln clc lcw /currcl, vol. 1o, 0ctober 1, pp.
z,-z,.
oS. Commlttee Agalnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, "lnplcncrtcticr cj Artlcle 2 by Stctcs pcrtics", para.
zo.
o. lbiJ., para. z1.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 11o
sexual mlnorltles.
1o
Concernlng L08T detalnees, the Commlttee has also expressed
lts concerns about "dlscrlmlnatory treatment of certaln groups wlth regard to access
to the already llmlted essentlal servlces, notably on the basls of soclal orlgln or
sexual orlentatlon".
11
The Commlttee has recommended that States "r]emove all
amblgulty ln leglslatlon whlch mlght underpln the persecutlon of lndlvlduals because
of thelr sexual orlentatlon. Steps should also be taken to prevent all degradlng
treatment on the occaslon of body searches".
1z
The Commlttee has relterated the
duty of States to ensure that reports of brutallty and lll-treatment of members of
vulnerable groups, lncludlng persons of dlfferent sexual orlentatlon, by lts law-
enforcement personnel are lndependently, promptly and thoroughly lnvestlgated
and that perpetrators are prosecuted, brought to trlal and approprlately punlshed.
1
The Commlttee has recommended States bulld up and strengthen the system of
publlc defenders to protect vulnerable groups, lncludlng sexual mlnorltles.
1
Flnally, concernlng the lssue of rcr-rcjculcncrt, the uh Speclal kapporteur on
Torture has "drawn] attentlon to factors and clrcumstances that stem from condl-
tlons that may prevall ln a country and touch at the same tlme upon the vulnerablllty
of persons whose removal to such a country ls at stake. keference ls made here to
persons belonglng to any ldentlfable group or collectlvlty on .] gender or other
grounds, such as sexual orlentatlon, and who for that reason are targeted by the
authorltles or, wlth the connlvance of the authorltles, rlsk belng sub|ected to perse-
cutlon or systematlc dlscrlmlnatlon amountlng to torture or other cruel, lnhuman or
degradlng treatment or punlshment. These factors and clrcumstances also have to
be taken lnto account ln determlnlng the rcr-rcjculcncrt lssue".
1
5ummary
Fveryone ls entltled, wlthout any klnd of dlscrlmlnatlon and regardless of n
hls or her sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty, to the rlght to be free from
torture and lll-treatment,
1o. See irtcr clic: CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: Arcrtirc, CAT]C]Ck]]1, of 1o
0ecember zoo, para. 6, CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: Fypt, CAT]C]Ck]z],
of z 0ecember zooz, CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: 8rczil, A]6], of 16 May
zoo1, CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: FrucJcr, CAT]C]FCu]C0], of S February
zoo6, CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: uritcJ Stctcs cj Ancrirc, CAT]C]uSA]
C0]z, of z }uly zoo6.
11. CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs: cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: 8rczil, A]6], of 16 May zoo1, para. 11.
1z. CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: Fypt, CAT]C]Ck]z], of z 0ecember zooz,
para. .
1. CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: uritcJ Stctcs cj Ancrirc, CAT]C]uSA]C0]z, of
z }uly zoo6, para. ,, CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: FrucJcr, CAT]C]FCu]
C0], of S February zoo6, para. 1,.
1. CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: FrucJcr, CAT]C]FCu]C0], of S February zoo6,
para. 1,.
1. lrtcrin rcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cj thc Ccnnissicr cr huncr kihts cr tcrturc crJ cthcr rrucl,
irhuncr cr JcrcJir trcctncrt cr purishncrt, uh 0oc. A]]z, September 1, zoo, para. .
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 111
The rlght to freedom from torture and lll-treatment ls unlversally recognlzed n
and protected by lnternatlonal human rlghts law, both treaty and customary
law,
The rlght to freedom from torture and lll-treatment ls an absolute rlght, n
whlch must not be derogated from at any tlme or clrcumstance. The absolute
prohlbltlon of torture and lll-treatment ls a norm of jus rccrs. Torture and
lll-treatment are crlmes under lnternatlonal law,
Three elements whlch characterlse torture are: (a) the lnfllctlon, by act or n
omlsslon, of severe paln or sufferlng, whether physlcal or mental, (b) the
act or omlsslon must be lntentlonal, and c) the act must be lnstrumental to
another purpose prohlblted by lnternatlonal law, ln the sense that the lnfllc-
tlon of paln must be almed at reachlng a certaln goal,
Although lnternatlonal law does not provlde a deflnltlon, lll-treatment should n
be lnterpreted so as to extend the wldest posslble protectlon agalnst abuses,
whether physlcal or mental. lnternatlonal human rlghts |urlsprudence
provldes a llst of acts whlch constltute lll-treatment,
States have the obllgatlon to prevent, lnvestlgate and punlsh torture and lll- n
treatment and not to take recourse to methods of lnterrogatlon, condltlon of
detentlon or punlshment, whlch can amount to these prohlblted acts,
hobody shall be expelled, returned, deported n , surrendered, extradlted or
otherwlse sent to a State where there are substantlal grounds for bellevlng
that he or she would be ln danger of belng sub|ected to rcss human rlghts
vlolatlons, irrluJir tcrturc crJ ill-trcctncrt, jcr his cr hcr scxucl cricrtc-
ticr cr crJcr iJcrtity.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 11
"p]lurclisn is .] built cr thc cruirc rcrcriticr cj,
crJ rcspcrt jcr, Jivcrsity crJ thc Jyrcnirs cj rulturcl
trcJiticrs, cthrir crJ rulturcl iJcrtitics, rcliicus
bclicjs, crtistir, litcrcry crJ scric-crcrcnir iJccs crJ
rcrrcpts. 1hc hcrncricus irtcrcrticr cj pcrscrs crJ
rcups with vcricJ iJcrtitics is csscrticl jcr crhicvir
scricl rchcsicr."
-Furopean Court of human klghts
16
vtt. Rights te freedem eI xpressien, Assemb|y and
Asseciatien
:. 5cepe and nature eI the rights
The urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj huncr kihts and the lrtcrrcticrcl Ccvcrcrt cr Civil
crJ Pclitircl kihts (lCCPk), as well as all the ma|or reglonal human rlghts treatles,
safeguard the rlght of peaceful assembly, freedom of assoclatlon and freedom of
expresslon, whlch lncludes both recelvlng and expresslng lnformatlon and ldeas.
1,
0ther human rlghts treatles and lnternatlonal lnstruments, both at the unlversal and
reglonal levels, also ensure and protect these rlghts and freedoms.
1S
16. }udgment of 1, February zoo, Case of Ccrzclik crJ 0thcrs v. PclcrJ, Appllcatlon ho. 1S]S, para. z.
1,. unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klghts Artlcles 1, zo, lCCPk Artlcles 1, z1, zz, Afrlcan Charter on human
and Peoples' klghts. Artlcles , 1o, 11, Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts, Artlcles , 1, 16, Furopean
Conventlon on human klghts. Artlcles 1o, 11, and Arab Charter on human klghts, Artlcles z, z.
1S. See irtcr clic: lnternatlonal Covenant on Fconomlc, Soclal and Cultural klghts (Artlcle S), Conventlon on the
klghts of the Chlld (Artlcles 1 and 1), lnternatlonal Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klghts of All Mlgrant
workers and Members of Thelr Famllles (Artlcles 1 and z), lnternatlonal Conventlon for the Protectlon of All
Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearance (Artlcle z,,), Conventlon relatlng to the Status of kefugees (Artlcle
1), 0eclaratlon on the human rlghts of lndlvlduals who are not natlonals of the country ln whlch they llve
(Artlcle (z) and S (1.b)), 0eclaratlon on the klght and kesponslblllty of lndlvlduals, 0roups and 0rgans of
Soclety to Promote and Protect unlversally kecognlsed human klghts and Fundamental Freedoms (Artlcles
1, , 6, ,, and 1z), 0eclaratlon on the klghts of Persons 8elonglng to hatlonal or Fthnlc, kellglous and
Llngulstlc Mlnorltles (Artlcle z), 8aslc Prlnclples on the kole of Lawyers (Prlnclple z), 8aslc Prlnclples on
the lndependence of the }udlclary (Prlnclples S and ), 0uldellnes on the kole of Prosecutors (0uldellnes
S and ), 0eclaratlon of Prlnclples on Freedom of Fxpresslon ln Afrlca, Afrlcan Charter on the klghts and
welfare of the Chlld (Artlcles , and S), Amerlcan 0eclaratlon of the klghts and 0utles of Man (Artlcles lv,
XXl and XXll), Addltlonal Protocol to the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts ln the Area of Fconomlc,
Soclal and Cultural klghts, Protocol of San Salvador (Artlcle S), lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon on the Preventlon,
Punlshment and Fradlcatlon of vlolence agalnst women (Artlcle ), 0AS 0eclaratlon of Prlnclples on Freedom
of Fxpresslon, Furopean Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcles , 1o and 11), Furopean Soclal Charter (Part
1, para. , Artlcles and 6), the Freedom of Assoclatlon and Protectlon of the klght to 0rganlse Conventlon,
1S (lL0), lndlgenous and Trlbal Peoples Conventlon, 1S (ho. 16) (Artlcle zo,z) and lL0 Conventlon ho.
11 concernlng Protectlon of the klght to 0rganlze and Procedures for 0etermlnlng Condltlons of Fmployment
ln the Publlc Servlce. See also the }ohannesburg Prlnclples on hatlonal Securlty, Freedom of Fxpresslon
and Access to lnformatlon, whlch were endorsed by the uh Speclal kapporteur on the rlght to freedom of
oplnlon and expresslon (uh.0oc. F]Ch.]16], appendlx) and the former uh Commlsslon on human
klghts referred to these prlnclples ln several resolutlons (see resolutlon zooo]S of zo Aprll zooo) as well
the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 11
:.: freedem eI expressien
Freedom of expresslon ls a cornerstone of a democratlc soclety. Freedom of expres-
slon ls lndlspensable for the development of publlc oplnlon. lt ls also a rcrJitic sirc
quc rcr for the advancement of polltlcal partles, trade unlons, sclentlfc and cultural
socletles and, ln general, those who wlsh to communlcate cr ncss wlth the publlc.
lt represents, ln short, the means that enable the communlty, when exerclslng lts
optlons, to be suffclently lnformed. Consequently, lt can be sald that a soclety that
ls not well lnformed ls not a soclety that ls truly free.
1
The lnter-Amerlcan Court
of human klghts has underllned that the freedom of expresslon has also a soclal
dlmenslon and lmplles a collectlve rlght to recelve any lnformatlon whatsoever and
to have access to thoughts expressed by others.
zo
The protectlon of freedom of expresslon must encompass not only the fow of
"lnformatlon" or "ldeas" that are recelved favourably or wlthout offence, but also
expresslons that "offend, shock or dlsturb", such are the demands of plurallsm,
tolerance and broadmlndedness wlthout whlch there ls no "democratlc soclety".
z1
The dlssemlnatlon of polltlcal ldeas that do not conform to the vlews of a rullng
ellte and are not lncompatlble themselves wlth the prlnclples of democracy cannot
be consldered themselves as |eopardlzlng the lntegrlty or the natlonal securlty of a
country. The State ls the ultlmate guarantor of the prlnclple of plurallsm.
zz
1. See irtcr clic: lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, }udgment of z }uly zoo, Case of hcrrcrc-ullcc v. Ccstc
kirc, Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts, Communlcatlon ho. zz]zoo1, Case of lrtcrihts,
lrstitutc jcr huncr kihts crJ 0cvclcpncrt ir Ajrirc, crJ Asscricticr Mcuritcricrrc Jcs 0rcits Jc lhcnnc
v. lslcnir kcpublir cj Mcuritcric, Communlcatlon ho. z1z]S, Case of Anrcsty r/Zcnbic.
zo. }udgment of z }uly zoo, Case of hcrrcrc-ullcc v. Ccstc kirc, para. 1oS, }udgment of 6 February zoo1, Case
of lvrhcr-8rcrstcir v. Pcru, para. 16, }udgment of February zoo1, Case of "1hc lcst 1cnptcticr cj Christ"
(0lncJc 8ustcs ct cl. v. Chilc|, para. 6, and Advlsory 0plnlon 0C-]S of 1 hovember 1S, Jcr. rit., para.
o.
z1. Furopean Court of human klghts: }udgment of , 0ecember 1,6, Case of hcrJysiJc v. uritcJ kirJcn,
}udgment of S }uly 1, Case of Sbrck crJ 0zJcnir v. 1urkcy, Appllcatlons ho. zz,] and zz,,],
}udgment of z6 September 1, Case of vct v. Ccrncry, }udgment of o }anuary 1S, Appllcatlon ho.
1]16],z]1, Case of uritcJ Ccnnurist Pcrty cj 1urkcy crJ 0thcrs v. 1urkcy, }udgment of 1z }uly
zoo, Case of Cbrcri crJ 0thcrs v. 1urkcy, Appllcatlon ho. zS]S, 6o]S and z1]S, }udgment
of z1 }une zoo,, Case of Zhcrhcv v. 8ulcric, Appllcatlon ho. ,o]oo, }udgment of May zoo,, Case of
8crkcwski crJ 0thcrs v. PclcrJ, Appllcatlon ho. 1]o6, }udgment of May zoo,, Case of 0cnckrctik
kitlc Pcrtisi y Fli v. 1urkcy, Appllcatlon ho. 1zo], }udgment of 1z 0ecember zoo6, Case of lirkcv v.
Czcrh kcpublir, Appllcatlon ho.1oo]o, }udgment of z 0ctober zoo1, Case of Stcrkcv crJ thc uritcJ
McrcJcricr 0rcriscticr llirJcr v. 8ulcric, Appllcatlons ho. zzz1] and zzz], and }udgment
of 1o }uly 1S, Case of SiJircpculcs crJ 0thcrs v. Crccrc, Appllcatlon ho. ,]1,]S1]1o,. See also:
lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, }udgment of February zoo1, Case of 0lncJc 8ustcs ct. cl v. Chilc
("lcst 1cnptcticr cj Christ"| and }udgment of z }uly zoo, Case of hcrrcrc-ullcc v. Ccstc kirc, lnter-Amerlcan
Commlsslon on human klghts, Annual keport on human klghts 1pp, "kcpcrt cr thc Ccnpctibility cj
0cscrctc lcws with thc Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts", 0FA]Ser.L]v]ll.SS., 0oc. rev (1).
zz. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of z hovember 1, Case of lrjcrncticrsvcrcir lcrtic crJ
0thcrs v. Austric, Appllcatlon ho. 11]SS, 1o1]S, 1,1,]S, 1,,]S, 1,zo,]o, para. S.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 11
:.z 1he rights eI peaceIu| assemb|y and asseciatien
The rlghts of peaceful assembly and assoclatlon are closely llnked wlth the rlght
to freedom of expresslon. Freedom of assembly focuses on the process of formlng,
expresslng and lmplementlng polltlcal oplnlons ln a democratlc soclety, whlle
freedom of assoclatlon entalls the rlght to choose, |oln and form assoclatlons whlch
often form and express thoughts and oplnlons. Thls lnter-relatlon has been affrmed
by the Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts as lt has stated that
the rlght to assoclate cannot be dlvorced from the rlght to assemble freely and
peacefully.
z
Llke freedom of expresslon, the rlghts of peaceful assembly and assoclatlon are key
components of a democratlc soclety. The human klghts Commlttee has affrmed
that "the exlstence and operatlon of assoclatlons, lncludlng those whlch peacefully
promote ldeas not necessarlly favourably recelved by the government or the ma|orlty
of the populatlon, ls a cornerstone of a democratlc soclety".
z
The Furopean Court
of human klghts added, "the rlght to freedom of assembly ls a fundamental rlght, lt
should not be lnterpreted restrlctlvely".
z
The human klghts Commlttee has polnted
out that States must not only safeguard rlghts to freedom of assembly and assocla-
tlon but also refraln from applylng unreasonable lndlrect restrlctlons upon those
rlghts.
z6
z. 0eregatiens, |imitatiens and restrictiens
The rlght of expresslon and the freedoms of assembly and assoclatlon are not abso-
lute rlghts under lnternatlonal human rlghts law and can be restrlcted ln tlmes of
normallty as well as ln tlmes of emergency.
z,
lnternatlonal human rlghts lnstruments protectlng the rlght of expresslon and
freedom of assembly and assoclatlon slmultaneously encompass restrlctlons on
these rlghts, notably on actlvltles that advocate war or lnclte hatred,
zS
threaten
natlonal securlty or publlc safety, health, order, or morals,
z
or lmplnge on the rlghts
z. Communlcatlon ho. z1]zooz, lcwycrs jcr huncr kihts v. SwczilcrJ.
z. vlews of 1 0ctober zoo6, Case of viktcr kcrrccrkc crJ 0thcrs v. 8clcrus, Communlcatlon ho. 1z,]zoo,
para. ,.. See also vlews of zo }uly zoo, Case of /ccr-Fur lcc v. kcpublir cj kcrcc, Communlcatlon
ho. 111]zooz, para. ,.z and vlews of 1, 0ctober zoo6, Case of 8cris Zvczskcv crJ 0thcrs v. 8clcrs,
Communlcatlon ho. 1o]zoo1, para. ,.z.
z. }udgment of zo February zoo, Case of 0jcvit Ar v. 1urkcy, Appllcatlon ho. zo6z]z, para. 6.
z6. lbiJ., Furopean Court on human klghts, }udgment of z6 Aprll 11, Case of Fzclir v. Frcrrc, lnter-Amerlcan
Commlsslon on human klghts, kcpcrt cr 1crrcrisn crJ huncr kihts, cp. rit., para. .
z,. The lCCPk (Artlcle ), the Furopean Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle 1), the Arab Charter on human
klghts (Artlcle ) and the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle z,).
zS. The lCCPk (Artlcle zo) and the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle 1.).
z. lCCPk, Artlcles 1.(b). z1, Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klghts, Artlcle 11, Amerlcan Conventlon
on human klghts Artlcles 1.z(b), 1., 1, Furopean Conventlon on human klghts Artlcles 1o.z, 11.z, Arab
Charter on human klghts, Artlcle z, z.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 116
of others.
o
The clrcumstances ln whlch a State may llmlt the exerclse of any guar-
anteed rlght are set out elther ln a general clause authorlslng such restrlctlons or ln
speclfc provlslons relatlng to each rlght or freedom.
lnternatlonal human rlghts law speclfes the strlct condltlons under whlch such
restrlctlons on rlghts are posslble.
1
lt ls recognlsed that, any restrlctlons or llmlta-
tlons have to be: establlshed ln law, necessary ln a democratlc soclety to protect
natlonal securlty, publlc order, publlc health, morallty, or the rlghts and freedoms
of others, proportlonate to the lnterest to be protected and not lmpalr the essence
of the rlght ln questlon, and conslstent wlth other lnternatlonal obllgatlons and
the rlght to an effectlve remedy. when a State lmposes certaln restrlctlons on the
exerclse of freedoms or rlghts, these may not put ln |eopardy the freedom or rlght
ltself.
z
Flnally, ln order to be legltlmate any such restrlctlon or llmltatlon must comply wlth
both the substantlve and procedural requlrements of lnternatlonal law.
z.: Limitatiens and Restrictiens en Ireedem eI expressien
kegardlng the llmltatlons and restrlctlons of the rlght to freedom of expresslon, the
human klghts Commlttee has stated that the exerclse of thls rlght "carrles wlth lt
speclal dutles and responslbllltles and for thls reason certaln restrlctlons on the rlght
are permltted whlch may relate elther to the lnterests of other persons or to those
of the communlty as a whole. however, when a State party lmposes certaln restrlc-
tlons on the exerclse of freedom of expresslon, these may not put ln |eopardy the
rlght ltself ".
The Furopean Court has ruled that States may have an "obllgatlon to avold as far as
posslble expresslons that are gratultously offenslve to others and thus an lnfrlnge-
ment of thelr rlghts, and whlch therefore do not contrlbute of any form of publlc
debate capable of further progress ln human affalrs".
6
kellglous freedom ls not the
only rlght that can be protected by llmltlng the rlghts to expresslon and assembly.
The uh human klghts Commlttee affrmed a Canadlan school board declslon to reas-
slgn a teacher to a non-classroom |ob after he had galned notorlety for publlshlng
books crltlcal of }ews, slnce the "restrlctlons lmposed on hlm were for the purpose
of protectlng the 'rlghts or reputatlons' of persons of }ewlsh falth, lncludlng the rlght
to have an educatlon ln the publlc school system".
,
The regulatlon of expresslon, assoclatlon, or assembly wlth no speclfc purpose ls
not a legltlmate restrlctlon of those rlghts. The State has the burden show that a
restrlctlon on the freedom of expresslon, assoclatlon, or assembly ls necessary and
serves a legltlmate purpose compatlble wlth Artlcles 1, z1 and zz of the lCCPk.
S
The human klghts Commlttee found a vlolatlon of an actlvlst's rlghts to expresslon
and assembly where the government of 8elarus prohlblted hlm from dlstrlbutlng
coples of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj huncr kihts on a publlc street, and could
not "lnvoke] any speclfc ground on whlch the restrlctlons lmposed on the author's
actlvlty whlch, .] lt ls uncontested dld not pose a threat to publlc order".
The scope for restrlctlons of expresslon, assembly and assoclatlon ls very narrow ln
the area of polltlcal affalrs. kestrlctlons on polltlcal assoclatlons that do not advo-
. For example, human klghts Commlttee, vlews of 1 March 1, Case of kivcrncc v. FirlcrJ, Communlcatlon
ho. 1z]1o, para. .z.
. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of Aprll zooz, Case of Cissc v. Frcrrc, Appllcatlon ho. 16],
para. z.
. lbiJ., para. 1.
6. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of zo September 1, Case of 0ttc-Prcnircr-lrstitut v. Austric,
Appllcatlon ho. 1,o]S,, para. .
,. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of 1S 0ctober zooo, Case of kcss v. CcrcJc, Communlcatlon ho. ,6]1,,
para. 11..
S. See irtcr clic, human klghts Commlttee: vlews of 1o August zoo6, Case of Pctrirk Cclcncr v. Austrclic,
Communlcatlon ho. 11,]zoo, para. ,.: vlews of zo }uly zoo, Case of /ccr-Fur lcc v. kcpublir cj
kcrcc, Communlcatlon ho. 111]zooz, para. ,.z, vlews of z }uly zoo,, Case of AlckscrJcr 8clyctsky ct cl.
v. 8clcrus, Communlcatlon ho. 1z6]zoo, para. ,..
. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of zo 0ctober zoo, vclirhkir v. 8clcrus, Communlcatlon ho. 1ozz]zoo1,
para. ,..
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 11
cate for vlolent or non-democratlc change are usually deemed unlawful restrlctlons
on the freedom of expresslon, no matter how unpopular the assoclatlons' ldeas.
o
Curtallment on rlghts ln thls regard "must meet a strlct test of |ustlfcatlon."
1
Scope for restrlctlons of expresslon, assembly and assoclatlon vla prlvate matters
such as morals, rellglon and reputatlon appears wlder. The Furopean Court
reasoned that: "whereas there ls llttle scope .] for restrlctlons on polltlcal speech
or on debate of questlons of publlc lnterest, .] a wlder margln of appreclatlon ls
generally] avallable .] ln relatlon to matters llable to offend lntlmate personal
convlctlons".
z
Thls ls due both to the fact that such restrlctlons may serve to
protect "the rlghts of others", and because the great dlverslty of such convlctlons
among countrles makes lt more dlffcult for lnternatlonal human rlghts bodles, ln
thelr removed posltlon, to determlne whether such restrlctlons are approprlate or
excesslve.
The uhhCk has also recognlsed States' obllgatlon to conslder the speclal rlsks
faced by refugees from persecutlon on the grounds of sexual orlentatlon and gender
ldentlty vla lts reference to the ogyakarta Prlnclples:
"w]ith rccrJ tc scxucl cricrtcticr, thc 2cc; cyckcrtc Prirriplcs cr
thc Applircticr cj lrtcrrcticrcl huncr kihts lcw ir rclcticr tc Scxucl
0ricrtcticr crJ CcrJcr lJcrtity cjjirn thc birJir irtcrrcticrcl lccl
stcrJcrJs cr this issuc cs JcrivcJ jrcn kcy jurJcncrtcl huncr rihts
irstruncrts".
o. For example, lmmlgratlon and kefugee 8oard of Canada, 0eclslon of 1S 0ctober zoo, Case of Applircrt v.
Miristcr, ho. dossler SPk vA-o11.
1. See for example, uhhCk, handbook, Alexander Alelnlkoff, "Protected characterlstlcs and soclal percep-
tlons: an analysls of the meanlng of 'membershlp of a partlcular soclal group'", ln kcjucc Prctcrticr ir
lrtcrrcticrcl lcw: 1hc uNhCks Clcbcl Ccrsultcticrs cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr, Frlka Feller, edltors, volker
Turk and Frances hlcholson, Cambrldge unlverslty Press, zoo.
z. uhhCk, CuiJclircs cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr 2, cp. rit. paras. 1, 6, ,, zo.
. uhhCk, CuiJclircs cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr 1, cp. rit. para. 16.
. uhhCk, hcrJbcck jcr thc Prctcrticr cj wcncr crJ Cirls (zooS), p. ,z.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 11
For the purpose of lmplementlng the 11 Conventlon, the Furopean unlon (Fu) has
adopted a defnltlon of "soclal group" that lncludes sexual orlentatlon, requlrlng Fu
member States to recognlse that "dependlng on the clrcumstances ln the country of
orlgln, a partlcular soclal group mlght lnclude a group based on a common character-
lstlc of sexual orlentatlon".