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STUDY OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTIONS GOVERNING A FLIGHT IN AIR

(Undertaken during Summer Training as a part of 7th Semester) Submitted to Amity University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of B.Tech Aerospace + M.Tech Avionics (Dual) Degree
(Session 2009-14)

Amity Institute of Space Science and Technology Amity University (UP) Noida 201301

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are very grateful to our mentor Mr. M.S Prasad for giving us the opportunity to work on this wonderful project 6 degrees of freedom of aircraft & simulation using MATLAB. Through his continuous guidance we could complete our project successfully. We are thankful to our Director General Mr. V.P Sandlas for his support in our project. We would be indebted if we do not extend our thanks to our department AMITY INSTITUTE OF SPACE &TECHNOLOGY for arranging the four weeks IN HOUSE training for us. A hearty thanks to all our fellow mates for their continuous support. We would thank our families for their undeterred support and encouragement. Last but not the least we would like to thank the almighty for bestowing His blessings.

DATE :- 12-08-2012

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CONTENTS
SNO. TOPIC 1 Symbols and Abbreviations 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 PROCEDURE FOR SIMULATION AERODYNAMIC MODELLING EQUATIONS OF MOTION OF AIRCRAFT STABILITY DERIVATIVE FORM TABLE OF EQATIONS OF MOTION State Space Model Development MATLAB CODE WITH OUTPUT OF AERODYNAMIC MODEL PAGE NO. 5 6 9 39 62 65 73

MATLAB CODE WITH OUTPUT OF KINEMATIC 81 OF 6 DOF 6 D-O-F VISUALIZATION USING C SUMMARY REFERENCES 93 121 122

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ABSTRACT
6 DEGREES OF FREEEDOM OF AIRCRAFT is an attempt to study the rotational and translational motions and various forces acting on the aircraft. The report also explains the MATLAB programming of the 6 degrees of freedom. This project has been further categorised into four sub categories mainly:

1.Atmosphere. 2.Aerodynamic properties. 3.kinematics. 4.Hardware and visualisation.

The purpose of our study is to build a MATLAB program for effective simulation of any aircraft.

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Symbols and Abbreviations

S AR AW A b CD CDi CDp CL0 CLe CL Cl CL CL0 CL Cm Cn Cna Cnr Cla Clr CT CHT area aspect ratio wetted area speed of sound; acceleration span drag coefficient induced drag coefficient parasitic drag coefficient zero angle of attackdrag coefficient elevator deflection-lif coeffient curve slope lift coefficient sectional lift coefficient; rolling moment coefficient lift curve slope zero angle of attack lift coefficient sideslip curve slope pitching-moment coefficient yawing-moment coefficient aileron deflection-yaw moment coeffient curve slope rudder deflection-yaw moment coeffient curve slope aileron deflection-roll moment coeffient curve slope rudder deflection-roll moment coeffient curve slope thrust coefficient horizontal tail volume coefficient angle of attack sideslip angle deflection downwash angle pitch angle density pi angular velocity

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PROCEDURE FOR SIMULATION

The following are the steps to be followed for performing the simulation of six degrees of freedom for an aircraft :

Step 1: Develop Aircraft Dynamics Model

The first step of the process is to choose an appropriate method to estimate the preliminary aerodynamic model of the vehicle. Much literature is available on this subject. Wind tunnel testing can be utilized to determine the derivatives, but it is labor intensive and costly. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) could be an alternative way to determine these parameters. With help from contemporary computational technologies, CFD has been successfully applied to full size aircraft. However, it still requires great effort to develop a good CFD model with high fidelity, and its application to small size UAVs is rare. Methods for system identification using actual flight test data to identify the stability and control derivatives are widely used today. This subject of research has been of interest to the Aerospace community for a long time. Two major techniques have been widely studied and are well developed. They are: 1) time domain identification and 2) frequency domain identification technique to determine the aerodynamic derivatives for aircrafts. Frequency domain methods have also been successfully applied They are more suitable for helicopters as they require a long flight time (30 seconds to few minutes) to complete a test maneuver, which is difficult for a remote pilot to perform on fixed wing UAVs within limited visual range. To utilize either the time domain or system domain method, many flight tests are required to gather sufficient data for system identification. This has a negative impact on the development program, not only regarding cost and schedule but also because of the risk involved in flight testing. Another approach not based on flight testing is to use the geometric parametric principle to estimate the derivatives. Although this technique tends to be low fidelity and cannot replace wind tunnel experiments, it provides a rapid method at low cost that allows users to perform a preliminary analysis with some level of confidence.

Step 2: Mathematics Based Mode Dynamics Analysis

Once the stability and control derivatives are available, a mathematical approach using the state space model can be applied to perform a preliminarily analysis. Various mathematical techniques to develop the state space model are found in textbooks. Herein, the method outlined by Roskam is used. Once the state space model is developed, the eigen values of the state space model are

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calculated. These show the dynamic characteristics of each mode. Through this analysis, we can quickly examine the stability of the vehicle.

Step 3: Development of the 6DOF Nonlinear Model using MATLAB

Though the state space model developed can be used for simulation activities, there are many drawbacks to this method. First, this state space model is a simplified linear model. Second, it ignores the coupling effects between longitudinal and lateral dynamics. Third, it uses an EarthFixed Body-Fixed (EFBF) coordinate system which does not consider the rotation of the earth. In addition, this model assumes a constant engine power output when it is linearized. Finally, the state space model does not provide full state outputs and thus cannot be used for navigation mode simulation. A solution to address these concerns is to use a 6DOF nonlinear simulation model. The aerodynamic derivatives from Step 1 are used for the 6DOF models construction which is hosted on the MATLAB which is discussed along with the code in the subsequent sections.

Development of the 6DOF Nonlinear Model in MATLAB

The development of a 6DOF nonlinear model is presented. This 6DOF nonlinear model is constructed using the derivatives shown in Table. This 6DOF model is built based on the MATLAB The structure of the 6DOF model can be broken in several modules as illustrated in Figure. Discussions in this chapter are associated with each individual module.

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Step 4- Aircraft Dynamic Model Development

As previously described, a parametric modeling method is utilized to compute the aerodynamic derivatives. The derivative values are then used to compose two linear state space models for the longitudinal and the lateral-directional dynamics. The modeling procedures are Presented, and the state space model techniques are discussed in detail later.

Advanced Aircraft Analysis Based Simulation Model

This database created based on the Digital DATCOM has a built-in aerodynamic database for different types of aircraft models. which is an open source computer program based on the United States Air Force stability and control data compendium (DATCOM) that calculates stability and control derivatives for any given aircraft configuration. For a given set of aircraft geometry data, MATLAB extrapolates the aerodynamic derivatives of the aircraft from its database. This provides a rapid method to conduct a preliminary aircraft performance and stability analysis. This is explained using aerodynamic modelling as discussed below.

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AERODYNAMIC MODELING
Probably the most difficult task in flight dynamics is the identification and quantification of the aerodynamic description of the aeroplane for use in the equations of motion. Aerodynamic modelling is concerned with the development of mathematical models to describe the aerodynamic forces and moments acting on the airframe. As the flow conditions around the airframe are generally complex any attempt to describe the aerodynamic phenomena mathematically must result in compromise . Obviously, the most desirable objective is to devise the most accurate mathematical description of the airframe aerodynamics as can possibly be achieved. Unfortunately, even if accurate mathematical models can be devised they are often difficult to handle in an analytical context and do not, in general, lend themselves to application to the linearised equations of motion. Therefore, the solution to the problem is to seek simpler approximate aerodynamic models which can be used in the equations of motion and which represent the aerodynamic properties of the airframe with an acceptable degree of accuracy.A consequence of this is that the aerodynamic models are only valid for a small range of operating conditions and, therefore, the solution of the equations of motion is also only valid for the same limited range of conditions. By repeating this procedure at many points within the flight envelope of the aeroplane an acceptable picture of its dynamic properties can be built up, subject of course to the limitations of the modelling techniques used. In the present context aerodynamic stability and control derivatives are used to model the aerodynamic properties of the aeroplane. In the illustrations only those derivatives associated with the dominant aerodynamic effects have been discussed. Clearly, if the most important aerodynamic properties ascribed to every derivative are known then a more subtle and expansive interpretation of aircraft dynamics may be made in the analysis of the response transfer functions. Thus a good understanding of the origin, meaning and limitation of the aerodynamic derivatives provides the means by which the flight dynamicistmay achieve very considerable insight into the subtleties of aircraft dynamics and into its flying and handling qualities foregoing material. However, it must be remembered that alternative methods for aerodynamic modelling are commonly in use when rather greater detail is required in the equations of motion. For example, in continuous simulation models, the equations of motion may well be non-linear and the aerodynamic models are correspondingly rather more complex. Or, today, it is common practice to investigate analytically the dynamic behaviour of combat aircraft at very high angles of incidence, conditions which may be grossly non-linear and for which the aerodynamic derivative would be incapable of providing an adequate description of the aerodynamics. For such applications experimental or semi-empirical sources of aerodynamic informationwould be more appropriate. Whatever, the source of the aerodynamic

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models, simple or complex,the best that can be achieved is an estimate of the aerodynamic properties.

The aerodynamics of an airframe and its controls make a fundamental contribution to the stability and control characteristics of the aircraft. It is usual to incorporate aerodynamic descriptions in the equations of motion in the form of aerodynamic stability and control derivatives. Since it is necessary to constrain the motion to well defined limits in order to obtain the derivatives so, the scope of the resulting aircraft model is similarly constrained in its application. It is, however, quite common to find aircraft models constrained in this way being used to predict flying and handling qualities at conditions well beyond the imposed limits. An important aspect of flight dynamics is concerned with the proper definition of aerodynamic derivatives as functions of common aerodynamic parameters. It is also most important that the values of the derivatives are compatible with the scope of the problem to which the aircraft model is to be applied. The processes involved in the estimation or measurement of aerodynamic derivatives provide an essential contribution to a complete understanding of aircraft behaviour.

.STABILITY

DERIVATIVES

Stability Derivatives, and also Control Derivatives, are measures of how particular forces and moments on an aircraft change as other parameters related to stability change (parameters such as airspeed, altitude, angle of attack, etc.). For a defined "trim" flight condition, changes and oscillations occur in these parameters. Equations of motion are used to analyze these changes and oscillations. Stability and control derivatives are used to linearize (simplify) these equations of motion so the stability of the vehicle can be more readily analyzed. Stability and control derivatives change as flight conditions change. The collection of stability and control derivatives as they change over a range of flight conditions is called an Aero Model. Aero models are used in engineering flight simulators to analyze stability, and in real-time flight simulators for training and entertainment .

Stability derivative vs. Control derivative

Stability derivatives and Control derivatives are related because they both are measures of forces and moments on a vehicle as other parameters change. Often the words are used together and abbreviated in the term "S&C derivatives". They differ in that stability derivatives measure the effects of changes in flight conditions while control derivatives measure effects of changes in the control surface positions:

A stability derivative measures how much change occurs in a force or moment acting on the vehicle when there is a small change in a flight condition parameter such as angle of attack, airspeed, altitude, etc. (Such parameters are called "states".)

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A control derivative measures how much change occurs in a force or moment acting on the vehicle when there is a small change in the deflection of a control surface such as the ailerons, elevator, and rudder.

STABILITY DERIVATIVE ESTIMATION

A number of methods are used to evaluate the aerodynamic derivatives. However, whichever method is used the resulting evaluations can, at best, only be regarded as estimates of the exact values. The degree of confidence associated with the derivative estimates is dependent on the quality of the aerodynamic source material and the method of evaluation used. It is generally possible to obtain estimates of the longitudinal aerodynamic derivatives with a greater degree of confidence than can usually be ascribed to estimates of the lateraldirectional aerodynamic derivatives.

Calculation of stability derivatives

The calculation of derivatives from first principles using approximate mathematical models of the aerodynamic properties of the airframe is probably the simplest and least accurate method of estimation. In particular, it can provide estimates of questionable validity, especially for the lateraldirectional derivatives. However, since the approximate aerodynamic models used are based on an understanding of the physical phenomena involved, simple calculation confers significant advantage as a means for gaining insight into the dominant aerodynamic properties driving the airframe dynamics. Whence, an appreciation of the theoretical methods of estimating aerodynamic derivatives provides a sound foundation on which to build most analytical flight dynamics studies. In order to improve on the often poor derivative estimates obtained by calculation, semi-empirical methods of estimation have evolved in the light of experience gained from the earliest days of aviation to the present. Semi-empirical methods are based on simple theoretical calculation modified with the addition of generalised aerodynamic data obtained from experimental sources and accumulated over many years. Semi-empirical methods are generally made available in various series of reference documents and, today, many are also available as interactive computer programs. In the UK the Engineering Sciences Data Unit (ESDU) publishes a number of volumes on aerodynamics of which some are specifically concerned with aerodynamic derivative estimation. Similar source material is also published in the USA (DATCOM) and elsewhere. Use of the semi-empirical data items requires some limited information about the geometry and aerodynamics of the subject aeroplane at the outset. The investigator then works through the estimation process, which involves calculation and frequent reference to graphical data and nomograms, to arrive at an estimate of the value of the derivative at the flight condition of interest. Such is the state of development of these methods that it is now possible to obtain derivative estimates of good accuracy, at least for aeroplanes having conventional configurations.

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Because of the recurring need to estimate aircraft stability and control derivatives a number of authors have written computer programs to calculate derivatives with varying degrees of success. Indeed, a number of the ESDU data items are now available as computer software. The program by Mitchell (1973) and its subsequent modification by Ross and Benger (1975) has enjoyed some popularity, especially for preliminary estimates of the stability and control characteristics of new aircraft configurations. The text by Smetana (1984) also includes listings for a number of useful computer programs concerned with aircraft performance and stability.

THE EFFECTS OF COMPRESSIBILITY

The onset of compressible flow conditions gives rise to changes in the aerodynamic properties of the aeroplane which, in general, leads to corresponding changes in the stability and control characteristics. Clearly this means a change in the flying and handling qualities of the aeroplane as the Mach number envelope is traversed. Typically, compressibility effects begin to become apparent at a Mach number of approximately 0.3 although changes in the stability and control characteristics may not become significant until the Mach number reaches 0.6 or more. As Mach number is increased the changes due to compressibility are continuous and gradual. However, in the transonic flow regime changes can be dramatic and abrupt. When appropriate, it is therefore important that the aerodynamic changes arising from the effects of compressibility are allowed for in even the simplest and most approximate aerodynamic derivative estimation procedure.

Uses
Linearization of stability analysis
Stability and control derivatives change as flight conditions change. That is, the forces and moments on the vehicle are seldom simple (linear) functions of its states. Because of this, the dynamics of atmospheric flight vehicles can be difficult to analyze. The following are two methods used to tackle this complexity. Small oscillations about otherwise steady flight conditions One way to simplify analysis is to consider only small oscillations about otherwise steady flight conditions. The set of flight conditions (such as altitude, airspeed, angle of attack) are called "trim" conditions when they are steady and not changing. When flight conditions are steady, stability and control derivatives are constant and can be more easily

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analyzed mathematically. The analysis at a single set of flight conditions is then applied to a range of different flight conditions.

Application in simulators for stability analysis In a flight simulator, it is possible to "look up" new values for stability and control derivatives as conditions change. And so, the "linear approximations" aren't as great and stability can be assessed in maneuvers that span a greater range of flight conditions. Flight simulators used for analysis such as this are called "engineering simulators". The set of values for stability and control derivatives (as they change over various flight conditions) is called an Aero Model.

Use in flight simulators

In addition to engineering simulators, aero models are often used in real time flight simulators for home use and professional flight training.

Stability Derivative Contributions

Each stability derivative is determined by the position, size, shape and orientation of the missile components. In aircraft, the directional stability determines such features as dihedral of the main planes, size of fin and area of tailplane, but the large number of important stability derivatives involved precludes a detailed discussion within this article. The missile is characterised by only three stability derivatives, and hence provides a useful introduction to the more complex aeroplane dynamics.

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This diagram shows lift as perpendicular to the longitudinal body axis. In most technical usage, lift is perpendicular to the oncoming flow. That is, perpendicular to the longitudinal stability axis. Consider first , a body at an angle of attack generates a lift force in the opposite direction to the motion of the body. For this reason is always negative.

This diagram shows lift as perpendicular to the longitudinal body axis. In most technical usage, lift is perpendicular to the oncoming flow. That is, perpendicular to the longitudinal stability axis. At low angles of attack, the lift is generated primarily by the wings, fins and the nose region of the body. The total lift acts at a distance ahead of the centre of gravity (it has a negative value in the figure), this, in missile parlance, is the centre of pressure . If the lift acts ahead of the centre of gravity, the yawing moment will be negative, and will tend to increase the angle of attack, increasing both the lift and the moment further. It follows that the centre of pressure must lie aft of the centre of gravity for static stability. is the static margin and must be negative for longitudinal static stability. Alternatively, positive angle of attack must generate positive yawing moment on a statically stable missile, i.e. must be positive. It is common practice to design manoeuvrable missiles with near zero static margin (i.e. neutral static stability). The need for positive fins. explains why arrows and darts have flights and unguided rockets have

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The effect of angular velocity is mainly to decrease the nose lift and increase the tail lift, both of which act in a sense to oppose the rotation. is therefore always negative. There is a contribution from the wing, but since missiles tend to have small static margins (typically less than a calibre), this is usually small. Also the fin contribution is greater than that of the nose, so there is a net force , but this is usually insignificant compared with and is usually ignored.

Response
Manipulation of the equations of motion yields a second order homogeneous linear differential equation in the angle of attack :

The qualitative behavior of this equation is considered in the article on directional stability. Since and are both negative, the damping is positive. The stiffness does not only depend on the static stability term , it also contains a term which effectively determines the angle of attack due to the body rotation. The distance of the center of lift, including this term, ahead of the centre of gravity is called the maneuver margin. It must be negative for stability. This damped oscillation in angle of attack and yaw rate, following a disturbance, is called the 'weathercock' mode, after the tendency of a weathercock to point into wind.

CONTROL DERIVATIVES

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Deflection of control surfaces modifies the pressure distribution over the vehicle, and these are dealt with by including perturbations in forces and moments due to control deflection. The fin deflection is normally denoted (zeta). Including these terms, the equations of motion become:

Including the control derivatives enables the response of the vehicle to be studied, and the equations of motion used to design the autopilot.

Examples

CL , called Dihedral Effect, is a stability derivative that measures changes in rolling moment as Angle of sideslip changes. The "L" indicates rolling moment and the indicates sideslip angle.

THRUST
Thrust is the force which moves an aircraft through the air. Thrust is used to overcome the drag of an airplane, and to overcome the weight of a rocket. Thrust is generated by the engines of the aircraft through some kind of propulsion system. Thrust is a mechanical force, so the propulsion system must be in physical contact with a working fluid to produce thrust. Thrust is generated most often through the reaction of accelerating a mass of gas. Since thrust is a force, it is a vector quantity having both a magnitude and a direction. The engine does work on the gas and accelerates the gas to the rear of the engine; the thrust is generated in the opposite direction from the accelerated gas. The magnitude of the thrust depends on the amount of gas that is accelerated and on the difference in velocity of the gas through the engine.

The physics involved in the generation of thrust is introduced in middle school and studied in some detail in high school and college. To accelerate the gas, we have to expend energy. The energy is generated as heat by the combustion of some fuel. The thrust equation describes

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how the acceleration of the gas produces a force. The type of propulsion system used on an aircraft may vary from airplane to airplane and each device produces thrust in a slightly different way. We will discuss four principal propulsion systems at this web site; the propeller, the turbine,or jet, engine, the ramjet, and the rocket.

Throttle
A throttle is the mechanism by which the flow of a fluid is managed by constriction or obstruction. An engine's power can be increased or decreased by the restriction of inlet gases (i.e., by the use of a throttle), but usually decreased. The term throttle has come to refer, informally and incorrectly, to any mechanism by which the power or speed of an engine is regulated. What is often termed a throttle (in an aviation context) is more correctly called a thrust lever. For a steam engine, the steam valve that sets the engine speed/power is often known as a regulator.

Lift coefficient
The lift coefficient ( or ) is a dimensionless coefficient that relates the lift generated by a lifting body, the dynamic pressure of the fluid flow around the body, and a reference area associated with the body. A lifting body is a foil or a complete foil-bearing body such as a fixedwing aircraft. Lift coefficient is also used to refer to the dynamic lift characteristics of a two-dimensional foil section, whereby the reference area is taken as the foil chord. Lift coefficient may be described as the ratio of lift pressure to dynamic pressure where lift pressure is the ratio of lift to reference area. Lift coefficient may be used to relate the total lift generated by a foil-equipped craft to the total area of the foil. In this application the lift coefficient is called the aircraft or planform lift coefficient Watercraft and automobiles equipped with fixed foils can also be assigned a lift coefficient.

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The lift coefficient

is equal to:

CL = Cl0 + Clalpha*alphadeg + CLqr*q + CLdSr*stabilator + CLdEr*elevator;where

is the lift force, is fluid density, is true airspeed, is dynamic pressure, and is planform area.

The lift coefficient is a dimensionless number.

DRAG COEFFICIENT
In fluid dynamics, the drag coefficient (commonly denoted as: cd, cx or cw) is a dimensionless quantity that is used to quantify the drag or resistance of an object in a fluid environment such as air or water. It is used in the drag equation, where a lower drag coefficient indicates the object will have less aerodynamic or hydrodynamic drag. The drag coefficient is always associated with a particular surface area . The drag coefficient of any object comprises the effects of the two basic contributors to fluid dynamic drag: skin friction and form drag. The drag coefficient of a lifting airfoil or hydrofoil also includes the effects of lift-induced drag. The drag coefficient of a complete structure such as an aircraft also includes the effects of interference drag.

The drag coefficient

is defined as:

Cd = Cd0*Prandtl + k*CL^2 ;

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where: is the drag force, which is by definition the force component in the direction of the flow velocity,[6] is the mass density of the fluid,[7] is the speed of the object relative to the fluid and is the reference area. The reference area depends on what type of drag coefficient is being measured. For automobiles and many other objects, the reference area is the projected frontal area of the vehicle. This may not necessarily be the cross sectional area of the vehicle, depending on where the cross section is taken. For example, for a sphere (note this is not the surface area = ). For airfoils, the reference area is the planform area. Since this tends to be a rather large area compared to the projected frontal area, the resulting drag coefficients tend to be low: much lower than for a car with the same drag and frontal area, and at the same speed. Airships and some bodies of revolution use the volumetric drag coefficient, in which the reference area is the square of the cube root of the airship volume. Submerged streamlined bodies use the wetted surface area. Two objects having the same reference area moving at the same speed through a fluid will experience a drag force proportional to their respective drag coefficients. Coefficients for unstreamlined objects can be 1 or more, for streamlined objects much less.

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Prandtl number The Prandtl number is a dimensionless number; the ratio of momentum diffusivity (kinematic viscosity) to thermal diffusivity. It is named after the German physicist Ludwig Prandtl. It is defined as:

where:

: kinematic viscosity,

, (SI units : m2/s)

: thermal diffusivity, , (SI units : m2/s) : dynamic viscosity, (SI units : Pa s = (N s)/m2) : thermal conductivity, (SI units : W/(m K) ) : specific heat, (SI units : J/(kg K) ) : density, (SI units : kg/m3 ).

PITCHING MOMENT
In aerodynamics, the pitching moment on an airfoil is the moment (or torque) produced by the aerodynamic force on the airfoil if that aerodynamic force is considered to be applied, not at the center of pressure, but at the aerodynamic center of the airfoil. The pitching moment on the wing of an airplane is part of the total moment that must be balanced using the lift on the horizontal stabilizer. The lift on an airfoil is a distributed force that can be said to act at a point called the center of pressure. However, as angle of attack changes on a cambered airfoil, there is movement of the center of pressure forward and aft. This makes analysis difficult when attempting to use the concept of the center of pressure. One of the remarkable properties of a cambered airfoil is that, even though the center of pressure moves forward and aft, if the lift is imagined to act at a point called the aerodynamic center the moment of the lift force changes in proportion to the square of the airspeed. If the moment is divided by the dynamic pressure, the area and chord of the airfoil, to compute a pitching moment coefficient, this coefficient changes only a little over the operating range of angle of attack of the airfoil. The combination of the two concepts of aerodynamic center and pitching moment coefficient make it relatively simple to analyse some of the flight characteristics of an aircraft.

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Measurement
The aerodynamic center of an airfoil is usually close to 25% of the chord behind the leading edge of the airfoil. When making tests on a model airfoil, such as in a wind-tunnel, if the force sensor is not aligned with the quarter-chord of the airfoil, but offset by a distance x, the pitching moment about the quarter-chord point, is given by

where the indicated values of D and L are the drag and lift on the model, as measured by the force sensor..

Coefficient
The pitching moment coefficient is important in the study of the longitudinal static stability of aircraft and missiles. The pitching moment coefficient is defined as follows .

Cm = Cm0 + Cmalpha*alphadeg + Cmqr*q + CmdSr*stabilator + CmdEr*elevator;

where M is the pitching moment, q is the dynamic pressure, S is the planform area, and c is the length of the chord of the airfoil. is a dimensionless coefficient so consistent units must be used for M, q, S and c. Pitching moment coefficient is fundamental to the definition of aerodynamic center of an airfoil. The aerodynamic center is defined to be the point on the chord line of the airfoil at which the pitching moment coefficient does not vary with angle of attack, or at least does not vary significantly over the operating range of angle of attack of the airfoil. In the case of a symmetric airfoil, the lift force acts through one point for all angles of attack, and the center of pressure does not move as it does in a cambered airfoil. Consequently the pitching moment coefficient for a symmetric airfoil is zero.

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Pitching moment is, by convention, considered to be positive when it acts to pitch the airfoil in the nose-up direction. Conventional cambered airfoils supported at the aerodynamic center pitch nose-down so the pitching moment coefficient of these airfoils is negative.

THE PITCHING MOMENT EQUATION

Having established the importance of pitching moment in the determination of longitudinal static stability, further analysis of stability requires the development of Static Equilibrium and pitching moment equation. A fully representative general pitching moment equation is difficult to develop since it is very dependent on the geometry of the aircraft. However, it is possible to develop a simple approximation to the pitching moment equation, which is sufficiently representative for most preliminary studies and which provides considerable insight into the basic requirements for static stability and trim.

Development of the pitching moment equation

For the development of the simplest possible pitching moment equation it is usual to define a model showing only the normal forces and pitching moments acting on the aircraft. It is assumed that at steady level flight the thrust and drag are in equilibrium and act at the cg and further, for small disturbances in incidence, changes in this equilibrium are insignificant. This assumption therefore implies that small disturbances in incidence cause significant changes in lift forces and pitching moments only. The model defined in these terms is shown in Fig. 3.8. For the purposes of modelling pitching behaviour the model comprises two parts, the wing and fuselage combination and the tailplane. It is then assumed that the wing and fuselage behave aerodynamically like a wing alone. Clearly, this is not true since the fuselage may make significant aerodynamic contributions and, in any event, its presence will interfere with the aerodynamic properties of the wing to a greater or lesser extent. However, for conventional subsonic aircraft with a reasonably high aspect ratio wing this is a very satisfactory approximation. The tailplane is treated as a separate component since it provides the principal aerodynamic mechanism for controlling longitudinal static stability and trim. The following analysis establishes the fundamental importance of the tailplane parameters in the provision of longitudinal

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Longitudinal modes
It is common practice to derive a fourth order characteristic equation to describe the longitudinal motion, and then factorize it approximately into a high frequency mode and a low frequency mode. This requires a level of algebraic manipulation which most readers will doubtless find tedious, and adds little to the understanding of aircraft dynamics. The approach adopted here is to use our qualitative knowledge of aircraft behavior to simplify the equations from the outset, reaching the same result by a more accessible route. The two longitudinal motions (modes) are called the short period pitch oscillation (SPPO), and the phugoid.

Short-period pitch oscillation

A short input (in control systems terminology an impulse) in pitch (generally via the elevator in a standard configuration fixed wing aircraft) will generally lead to overshoots about the trimmed condition. The transition is characterized by a damped simple harmonic motion about the new trim. There is very little change in the trajectory over the time it takes for the oscillation to damp out. Generally this oscillation is high frequency (hence short period) and is damped over a period of a few seconds. A real-world example would involve a pilot selecting a new climb attitude, for example 5 nose up from the original attitude. A short, sharp pull back on the control column may be used, and will generally lead to oscillations about the new trim condition. If the oscillations are poorly damped the aircraft will take a long period of time to settle at the new condition, potentially leading to Pilot-induced oscillation. If the short period mode is unstable it will generally be impossible for the pilot to safely control the aircraft for any period of time. This damped harmonic motion is called the short period pitch oscillation, it arises from the tendency of a stable aircraft to point in the general direction of flight. It is very similar in nature to the weathercock mode of missile or rocket configurations. The motion involves mainly the pitch attitude (theta) and incidence (alpha). The direction of the velocity vector, relative to inertial axes is . The velocity vector is:

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where , are the inertial axes components of velocity. According to Newton's Second Law, the accelerations are proportional to the forces, so the forces in inertial axes are:

where m is the mass. By the nature of the motion, the speed variation period of the oscillation, so:

is negligible over the

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But the forces are generated by the pressure distribution on the body, and are referred to the velocity vector. But the velocity (wind) axes set is not an inertial frame so we must resolve the fixed axes forces into wind axes. Also, we are only concerned with the force along the z-axis:

Or:

In words, the wind axes force is equal to the centripetal acceleration. The moment equation is the time derivative of the angular momentum:

where M is the pitching moment, and B is the moment of inertia about the pitch axis. Let: , the pitch rate. The equations of motion, with all forces and moments referred to wind axes are, therefore:

We are only concerned with perturbations in forces and moments, due to perturbations in the states and q, and their time derivatives. These are characterized by stability derivatives determined from the flight condition. The possible stability derivatives are:

Lift due to incidence, this is negative because the z-axis is downwards whilst positive incidence causes an upwards force. Lift due to pitch rate, arises from the increase in tail incidence, hence is also negative, but small compared with . Pitching moment due to incidence - the static stability term. Static stability requires this to be negative. Pitching moment due to pitch rate - the pitch damping term, this is always negative.

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Since the tail is operating in the flowfield of the wing, changes in the wing incidence cause changes in the downwash, but there is a delay for the change in wing flowfield to affect the tail lift, this is represented as a moment proportional to the rate of change of incidence: Increasing the wing incidence without increasing the tail incidence produces a nose up moment, so is expected to be positive. The equations of motion, with small perturbation forces and moments become:

These may be manipulated to yield as second order linear differential equation in

This represents a damped simple harmonic motion.

We should expect

to be small compared with unity, so the coefficient of

(the 'stiffness'

term) will be positive, provided . This expression is dominated by , which defines the longitudinal static stability of the aircraft, it must be negative for stability. The damping term is reduced by the downwash effect, and it is difficult to design an aircraft with both rapid natural response and heavy damping. Usually, the response is underdamped but stable.

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Phugoid
If the stick is held fixed, the aircraft will not maintain straight and level flight, but will start to dive, level out and climb again. It will repeat this cycle until the pilot intervenes. This long period oscillation in speed and height is called the phugoid mode. This is analyzed by assuming that the SSPO performs its proper function and maintains the angle of attack near its nominal value. The two states which are mainly affected are the climb angle (gamma) and speed. The small perturbation equations of motion are:

which means the centripetal force is equal to the perturbation in lift force. For the speed, resolving along the trajectory:

where g is the acceleration due to gravity at the earths surface. The acceleration along the trajectory is equal to the net x-wise force minus the component of weight. We should not expect significant aerodynamic derivatives to depend on the climb angle, so only and need be considered. is the drag increment with increased speed, it is negative, likewise is the lift increment due to speed increment, it is also negative because lift acts in the opposite sense to the z-axis. The equations of motion become:

These may be expressed as a second order equation in climb angle or speed perturbation:

Now lift is very nearly equal to weight:

where is the air density, is the wing area, W the weight and is the lift coefficient (assumed constant because the incidence is constant), we have, approximately:

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The period of the phugoid, T, is obtained from the coefficient of u:

Or:

Since the lift is very much greater than the drag, the phugoid is at best lightly damped. A propeller with fixed speed would help. Heavy damping of the pitch rotation or a large rotational inertia increase the coupling between short period and phugoid modes, so that these will modify the phugoid.

Lateral modes
With a symmetrical rocket or missile, the directional stability in yaw is the same as the pitch stability; it resembles the short period pitch oscillation, with yaw plane equivalents to the pitch plane stability derivatives. For this reason pitch and yaw directional stability are collectively known as the "weathercock" stability of the missile. Aircraft lack the symmetry between pitch and yaw, so that directional stability in yaw is derived from a different set of stability derivatives. The yaw plane equivalent to the short period pitch oscillation, which describes yaw plane directional stability is called Dutch roll. Unlike pitch plane motions, the lateral modes involve both roll and yaw motion.

Dutch roll
It is customary to derive the equations of motion by formal manipulation in what, to the engineer, amounts to a piece of mathematical sleight of hand. The current approach follows the pitch plane analysis in formulating the equations in terms of concepts which are reasonably familiar. Applying an impulse via the rudder pedals should induce Dutch roll, which is the oscillation in roll and yaw, with the roll motion lagging yaw by a quarter cycle, so that the wing tips follow elliptical paths with respect to the aircraft. The yaw plane translational equation, as in the pitch plane, equates the centripetal acceleration to the side force.

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where

(beta) is the sideslip angle, Y the side force and r the yaw rate.

The moment equations are a bit trickier. The trim condition is with the aircraft at an angle of attack with respect to the airflow. The body x-axis does not align with the velocity vector, which is the reference direction for wind axes. In other words, wind axes are not principal axes (the mass is not distributed symmetrically about the yaw and roll axes). Consider the motion of an element of mass in position -z, x in the direction of the y-axis, i.e. into the plane of the paper.

If the roll rate is p, the velocity of the particle is:

Made up of two terms, the force on this particle is first the proportional to rate of v change, the second is due to the change in direction of this component of velocity as the body moves. The latter terms gives rise to cross products of small quantities (pq, pr,qr), which are later discarded. In this analysis, they are discarded from the outset for the sake of clarity. In effect, we assume that the direction of the velocity of the particle due to the simultaneous roll and yaw rates does not change significantly throughout the motion. With this simplifying assumption, the acceleration of the particle becomes:

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The yawing moment is given by:

There is an additional yawing moment due to the offset of the particle in the y direction:

The yawing moment is found by summing over all particles of the body:

where N is the yawing moment, E is a product of inertia, and C is the moment of inertia about the yaw axis. A similar reasoning yields the roll equation:

where L is the rolling moment and A the roll moment of inertia.

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Lateral and longitudinal stability derivatives

The states are (sideslip), r (yaw rate) and p (roll rate), with moments N (yaw) and L (roll), and force Y (sideways). There are nine stability derivatives relevant to this motion, the following explains how they originate. However a better intuitive understanding is to be gained by simply playing with a model airplane, and considering how the forces on each component are affected by changes in sideslip and angular velocity:

Side force due to side slip (in absence of yaw). Sideslip generates a sideforce from the fin and the fuselage. In addition, if the wing has dihedral, side slip at a positive roll angle increases incidence on the starboard wing and reduces it on the port side, resulting in a net force component directly opposite to the sideslip direction. Sweep back of the wings has the same effect on incidence, but since the wings are not inclined in the vertical plane, backsweep alone does not affect . However, anhedral may be used with high backsweep angles in high performance aircraft to offset the wing incidence effects of sideslip. Oddly enough this does not reverse the sign of the wing configuration's contribution to (compared to the dihedral case). Side force due to roll rate. Roll rate causes incidence at the fin, which generates a corresponding side force. Also, positive roll (starboard wing down) increases the lift on the starboard wing and reduces it on the port. If the wing has dihedral, this will result in a side force momentarily opposing the resultant sideslip tendency. Anhedral wing and or stabilizer configurations can cause the sign of the side force to invert if the fin effect is swamped.

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Side force due to yaw rate. Yawing generates side forces due to incidence at the rudder, fin and fuselage. Yawing moment due to sideslip forces. Sideslip in the absence of rudder input causes incidence on the fuselage and empennage, thus creating a yawing moment counteracted only by the directional stiffness which would tend to point the aircraft's nose back into the wind in horizontal flight conditions. Under sideslip conditions at a given roll angle will tend to point the nose into the sideslip direction even without rudder input, causing a downward spiraling flight. Yawing moment due to roll rate. Roll rate generates fin lift causing a yawing moment and also differentially alters the lift on the wings, thus affecting the induced drag contribution of each wing, causing a (small) yawing moment contribution. Positive roll generally causes positive values unless the empennage is anhedral or fin is below the roll axis. Lateral force components resulting from dihedral or anhedral wing lift differences has little effect on because the wing axis is normally closely aligned with the center of gravity. Yawing moment due to yaw rate. Yaw rate input at any roll angle generates rudder, fin and fuselage force vectors which dominate the resultant yawing moment. Yawing also increases the speed of the outboard wing whilst slowing down the inboard wing, with corresponding changes in drag causing a (small) opposing yaw moment. opposes the inherent directional stiffness which tends to point the aircraft's nose back into the wind and always matches the sign of the yaw rate input. Rolling moment due to sideslip. A positive sideslip angle generates empennage incidence which can cause positive or negative roll moment depending on its configuration. For any non-zero sideslip angle dihedral wings causes a rolling moment which tends to return the aircraft to the horizontal, as does back swept wings. With highly swept wings the resultant rolling moment may be excessive for all stability requirements and anhedral could be used to offset the effect of wing sweep induced rolling moment.

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Rolling moment due to yaw rate. Yaw increases the speed of the outboard wing whilst reducing speed of the inboard one, causing a rolling moment to the inboard side. The contribution of the fin normally supports this inward rolling effect unless offset by anhedral stabilizer above the roll axis (or dihedral below the roll axis). Rolling moment due to roll rate. Roll creates counter rotational forces on both starboard and port wings whilst also generating such forces at the empennage. These opposing rolling moment effects have to be overcome by the aileron input in order to sustain the roll rate. If the roll is stopped at a non-zero roll angle the upward rolling moment induced by the ensuing sideslip should return the aircraft to the horizontal unless exceeded in turn by the downward rolling moment resulting from sideslip induced yaw rate. Longitudinal stability could be ensured or improved by minimizing the latter effect.

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EQUATIONS OF MOTION
INTRODUCTION
The performance of an aircraft can adequately be described by assuming the aircraft is a point mass concentrated at the aircraft's center of gravity(cg). The flying qualities of an aircraft, on the other hand, cannot be described in such a simple manner. The flying qualities of an aircraft must, instead, be described analytically as motions of the aircraft's eg as well as motions of the airframe about the eg, both of which are caused by aerodynamic,thrust and other forces and moments. In addition, the aircraft must be considered a three dimensional body and not a point mass.The applied forces and moments on the aircraft and the resulting response of the aircraft are traditionally described by a set of equations known as the aircraft equations of motion. The theory presented in this chapter incorporates certain simplifying assumptions to make the main elements of the subject clearer. The equations that will be developed are not as rigorous (and complicated) as those used for design of modern aircraft, but the basic method is valid and will provide analysis techniques that are accurate enough to gain an insight into aircraft flying qualities. With the aid of high speed computers the aircraft designers' more rigorous theoretical calculations, modified by data obtained from the wind tunnel, can often give results which closely predict aircraft flying qualities. This is of substantial benefit in the development cycle of new aircraft.

OVERVIEW
An aircraft has six degrees of freedom (if it is assumed to be rigid), which means is has six paths it is free to follow: it can move forward, sideways, and down; and it can rotate about its axes with yaw, pitch, and roll. In order to describe the state of a system that has six degrees of freedom, values for six variables (unknowns) are necessary. To solve for these six unknowns, six simultaneous equations are necessary. For an aircraft, these are known as the aircraft equations of motion. The full aircraft equations of motion (given in sections 4.10 and 4.11) 4.1 reflect a rather complicated relationship between the forces and moments on the aircraft, and the resulting aircraft motion. The derivation of the equations, however, follows a very simple pattern starting from Newton's second law for translational and rotational motions.Newton's second law for translational motions is

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Where G is the sum of the externally applied moments and H is angular momentum. F and G are both vector quantities which can each be represented by three component equations (corresponding to three dimensional space). The translational equation, therefore, describes the aircraft with respect to its three translational degrees of freedom, while the rotational equation describes the aircraft with respect to its three rotational degrees of freedom. Newton's second law, therefore, yields six equations for the six degrees of freedom of a rigid body. In order to derive the equations of motion, each side of Newton's equations are expanded to yield the following six nonlinear differential equations:

The Left-Hand Side (LHS) of these equations represent the applied forces and moments on the aircraft while the Right-Hand Side (RHS) stands for the aircraft's response to these forces and moments. Small perturbation theory will be used to linearize these equations so they can be solved. This will also yield terms known as stability derivatives which indicate the influence of various aircraft characteristics on the resulting aircraft motions, and are useful in comparing aircraft, calculating MIL-SPEC requirements, etc. A list of abbreviations and symbols is given in the last subsection .

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SIGN CONVENTIONS
The sign convention used defines a positive control movement or deflection as one that causes a positive aircraft movement (right yaw, pitch up, right roll). Figure 4.1 shows this sign convention and gives the positive directions for many of the variables that appear in the equations of motion.

COORDINATE SYSTEMS
There are many coordinate systems that are useful in the analysis of vehicle motion. We will be concerned with three of these coordinate systems: inertial, earth axis, and vehicle axis. According to convention, all coordinate systems used will be right-hand orthogonal.

Inertial Coordinate System

An inertial coordinate system is defined as a system in which Newton's second law is valid. The equations of motion must, therefore, be determined in an inertial coordinate system. Another way of defining the inertial coordinate system is to assume it is an axis system fixed in space that has no relative motion (Figure 4.2).Experience with physical observations can be used to determine whether a particular reference system can properly be assumed to be an inertial coordinate system

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for the application of Newton's laws to a particular problem. For space dynamics in our solar system, the sun axis system is a sufficient approximation for an inertial system. For aircraft, the earth axis system is usually a sufficient approximation for an inertial coordinate system.

Earth Axis System

There are two earth axis systems, the fixed and the moving. Both will be referred to with the letters XYZ for the three coordinate axes. An example of a moving earth axis system is an inertial navigation platform. An example of a fixed earth axis system is a radar site.

MOVING EARTH AXES

XY PLANE IS HORIZONTAL

In both earth axis systems, the Z-axis points toward the center of the earth along the gravitational vector, g. The XY-plane is parallel to the local horizontal while the orientation of the X-axis is arbitrarily defined (often defined as North). The two earth axis systems are distinguished by the location of their origins. The origin of the fixed system is usually taken as an arbitrary location on the earth's surface. The origin of the moving system is usually taken as the vehicle's eg. What distinguishes the moving earth axis system from the vehicle axis system discussed in the next subsection is that the moving earth axes are not fixed in orientation with respect to the vehicle. They are instead fixed with respect to local vertical. In the rest of this chapter, the XYZ (upper case) system will be assumed to be the fixed earth axis system unless otherwise noted.

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Vehicle Axis Systems

These coordinate systems have origins fixed to the vehicle, and axes defined with respect to the vehicle. There are many different types, four of which are commonly used for describing aircraft motion: the body axis system, the stability axis system, the principal axis system, and the wind axis system. The body and the stability axis systems are the only two that will be used during this course.

Body Axis System The body axis system (Figure 4.4) is the most general kind of axis system in which the origin and axes are fixed to a rigid body. The use of axes fixed to the vehicle ensures that the moments and products of inertia in the equations of motion are constant, to the extent that mass can also be considered constant, and that aerodynamic forces and moments depend only upon the relative velocity orientation angles a and . The body fixed axis system is also the natural frame of reference for most vehicle-borne observations and measurements of the vehicle's motion and will be referred to as the xyz (lower case) system.In the body axis system the unit vectors are I, j and k with origins at the vehicle eg. The positive x-axis points forward along a vehicle horizontal reference line with the positive y-axis out the right wing. The positive z-axis points downward out the bottom of the vehicle, usually such that the xz-plane is the vehicle plane of symmetry.

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FIG: BODY AXIS SYSTEM

Stability Axis System. Stability axes are specialized body axes (Figure) in which the orientation of the vehicle axis system is determined by the quilibrium flight condition. The xs-axis is selected to be coincident with the relative wind at the start of the motion. This initial alignment does not alter the body-fixed nature of the axis system; however, the alignment of the axis system with respect to the body changes as a function of the equilibrium condition. If the reference flight condition is not symmetric

FIG:STABILITY AXIS SYSTEM

i.e.with sideslip, then the xs-axis is chosen to lie on the projection of the true velocity (VT) in the plane of symmetry, with z also in the plane of symmetry. The moment of inertia and product of inertia terms vary for each equilibrium flight condition. They are assumed constant,however, in the equations of motion.

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Wind Axes The wind axes use the vehicle translational velocity as the reference for the axis system. Wind axes are thus oriented with respect to the flight path of the vehicle, i.e., with respect to the relative wind,VT. If the reference flight condition is symmetric, i.e., V lies in the vehicle plane of symmetry, then the wind axes coincide with the stability axes. The wind axes depart from the stability axes, moving with the relative wind, when sideslip is present.The relationship between the wind axes and the vehicle body axes of a rigid body defines the angle of attack, a, and the sideslip angle, . These angles are convenient independent variables for use in the expression of aerodynamic force and moment coefficients.Wind axes are not generally used in the analysis of the motion of a rigid body, because, as in the case of the earth axes, the moment of inertia and product of inertia terms in the three rotational equations of motion vary with time, alpha, and .

DERIVATION OF THE RIGHT HAND SIDE (RHS) OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION The RHS of the equation represents the aircraft response to forces or moments. Through the application of Newton's second law, two vector relations can be used to derive the six required equations, three translational and three rotational. The actual aircraft will be flexible, which gives rise to aeroelastic effects which are not a part of our discussion. In order to derive the equations of motion we will make the following assumptions :ASSUMPTION 1; The aircraft is a rigid body As noted earlier, Newton's second law is valid only in an inertial coordinate system. For most aircraft, the fixed earth axis system can be assumed to be an inertial coordinate system. In order to do this, we make the following ASSUMPTION 2: The earth and atmosphere are fixed in inertial space. In addition, most motion of interest in stability and control takes place in a relatively short time. We can also, therefore, usually make the following ASSUMPTION 3; Mass (m) is constant (dm/dt =0).

Translational Force Relations The vector equation for the aircraft translation from Newton's second law is

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equation 4.9 where Vt is the true velocity of the aircraft. Figure shows how this vector changes in both magnitude and direction with respect to the xyz (body) and XYZ (fixed earth) axes.

FIG: TRUE VELOCITY IN BODY AND FIXED EARTH AXES COORDINATE SYSTEMS

From vector analysis, the derivative of the velocity VT in the inertial (fixed earth) coordinate system is related to the derivative of V in the body axis system through the relationship

Substituting this into Equation 4.9 (and assuming mass is constant), the applied force is

V and w are two of the four vectors used in the equations of motion to describe the vehicle motion (F and G are the other two). They are defined as follows:

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VT = Ui + Vj + Wk where U = forward velocity V = side velocity W = vertical velocity and = Pi + Qj + Rk (4.13)

eq (4.12)

where P - roll rate Q pitch rate R - yaw rate The relationship of the true velocity and its components to alpha and and the body axis coordinate system as shown in Figure below::

VELOCITY COMPONENTS AND THE AERODYNAMIC ORIENTATION ANGLES, a AND

The angles a and can be expressed in terms of the velocity components as follows:

If is small (ASSUMPTION), then cos = 1 and

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If a is also small (ASSUMPTION), then

For angle of sideslip

If is small, then sin = Using equations of V and form as

=V/Vt
the translational equation can now be written in component

Expanding and rearranging we get :-

In component form, the sum of forces in the body axis system is

This results in three component translational equations:

Once again from Newton's second law (eq. 4.2),

Equation 4.26 states the change in angular momentum, H, is equal to the applied moments, G. Angular momentum should not be as difficult to understand as some people would like to make it. It can be thought of as linear momentum with a moment arm included. Consider a ball swinging

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on the end of a string, at any instant of time, as shown in Figure 4.8

. The linear momentum of this system would be: Linear Momentum = mV Angular momentum is defined as H, where H = r X Linear Momentum and, since in the example of Figure 4.8, the angle between r and V is 90 degrees, the magnitude of the angular momentum is mrV. Just as a force F changes linear momentum, (F = d( mV)/dt), a moment G will change angular momentum (G = d(H)/dt). A moment is related to a force in the same manner that angular momentum is related to linear momentum: Moment = r X Force Angular Momentum = r X Linear Momentum In order for us to determine the angular momentum of the aircraft,consider a small element of mass m1 somewhere in the aircraft, a distance v1 from the eg (Figure 4.9).

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The angular momentum of m1 is

and

Again from vector analysis, the rate of change of the radius vector r can be related to the body axis system (xyz) by

since the aircraft is a rigid body r1 does not change with time (assuming no aeroelastic effects). Therefore, the first term can be excluded, and the inertial velocity of the element m1 is : , Substituting this into Equation 4.27

This is the angular momentum of the elemental mass m1 . In order to find the angular momentum of the whole aircraft, we integrate over the aircraft volume (4.32) (4.33)

The determinant can be expanded to give

therefore, Equation 4.32 after integrating and putting values of various inertia it becomes

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where

ASSUMPTION: The xz-plane is a plane of symmetry. This causes two products of inertia, Ixy and Iy z to be zero. These may be cancelled out of the equations of motion. This restriction of the equations of motion (xz-plane symmetry) can be easily removed by including these terms. With the assumption, the angular momentum of a symmetric aircraft simplifies to

The equation for angular momentum can now be substituted into the moment equation. Remember

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applies only with respect to inertial space. Expressed in the fixed body axis system, the equation becomes:

which is

Remember, for a symmetric aircraft,

Since the body axis system is used, the moments of inertia and the products of inertia are constant. Therefore, by differentiating and substituting, the components of moment equation becomes

This completes the development of the RHS of the six equations (equations 4.23 to 4.25, and 4.59 to 4.61).

DERIVATION OF THE LHS OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION

The equations of motion relate the vehicle motion to the applied forces and moments: LHS RHS Applied Forces and Moments = Observed Vehicle Motion The RHS of each of these six equations has been completely expanded in terms of easily measured quantities. The LHS must also be expanded in terms of convenient variables. In order to do this, we must be able to relate the orientation of the body axes (xyz) to the moving earth axes (XYZ). This is done through the use of Euler angles. The moving earth axis system is used because we will be concerned with the orientation of the aircraft with respect to the earth and not its position (location of the eg) with respect to the earth.

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Euler Angles The orientation of any coordinate system relative to another can be given by three angles (Euler angles), which are consecutive rotations about the z, y, and x axes, in that order, that carry one frame into coincidence with the other. In flight dynamics, the Euler angles used are those which rotate the vehicle carried moving earth axis system into coincidence with the relevant vehicle axis system (Figure 4.13).

Euler angles are expressed as YAW (shi), PITCH (theta), and ROLL(phi). The sequence (YAW, PITCH, ROLL) must be maintained to arrive at the proper set of

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Euler angles:- The Euler angles are defined as follows: Yaw Angle - The angle between the projection of x vehicle axes onto the horizontal plane and the initial reference position of the X earth axis. (Yaw angle is the vehicle heading only if the initial reference is North). Pitch Angle - The angle measured in a vertical plane between the x vehicle axis and the horizontal plane. Roll Angle - The angle, measured in the yz plane of the vehicle system, between the y axis and the horizontal plane. This is the same as bank angle.

The accepted limits on the Euler angles are: -180 < y < + 180 -90 < 9 < + 90 -180 < * < + 180 The importance of the sequence of the Euler angle rotations cannot be overemphasized. Finite angular displacements do not behave as vectors. Therefore, if the sequence is performed in a different order the final result will be different. Euler angles are very useful in describing the orientation of flight vehicles with respect to inertial space. Consequently, angular rates in an inertial system can be transformed to angular rates in the vehicle axes (P, Q, R) using Euler angle transformations as developed in the next subsection. 4.21 4.6.2 Angular Velocity Transformations

The components of along the x, y, and z body axes for any aircraft attitude have been derived. These can now be summed to give the transformation equations.

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With these equations it is now possible to transform the equations of motion written in body axis terms (U, V, W, P, Q, and R) in terms of the motion seen in the inertial (earth axis) system (u, V, W, ). In that case, the resulting equations are six simultaneous nonlinear differential equations that are of the first order in U, V, and W and of the second order . In order to completely describe the trajectory of the aircraft in the inertial coordinate system, a similar transformation is required to relate U, V, and W to the velocities in the inertial coordinate system (not covered in this discussion).

Equations 4.70 to 4.72 are known as the parametric equations and they,along with the six equations of motion, can be used to describe the complete motion of the aircraft.

Initial Breakdown of the LHS In general, the applied forces and moments on the LHS can be broken up according to the sources shown below. Aerodynamic Forces and Moments - These will be further expanded into stability parameters and derivatives (discussed later). Direct Thrust Forces and Moments - These terms include the effect of the thrust vector itself they usually do not include the indirect or induced effects of jet flow or running propellers Gravity Forces - These vary with orientation of the gravity vector Gyroscopic Moments - These occur as a result of large rotating masses such as engines and props . Other Sources - These include spin chutes, reaction controls, etc.

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Aerodynamic Forces And Moments

By far the most important forces and moments on the LHS of the equation are the aerodynamic terms. Unfortunately, they are also the most complex. As a result, certain simplifying assumptions are made, and several of the smaller terms are arbitrarily excluded to simplify the analysis. This will be discuused in the aerodynamics model.

The aerodynamic terms have been developed using the stability axis system so that the equations assume the form,

Coordinate Systems and Transformations. The five orthogonal coordinate systems are related by the figure below. In general, you need only to rotate through the given angles to transfer from one set of axes to another.

It is often convenient to measure forces or moments in a certain axis system while the equations of motion are better understood in another. If you are transforming in the direction indicated, use

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the normal rotation matrices. If transforming opposite to the indicated direction use the transpose of the rotation matrices. In either case put in the measured angle(s) without changing sign(s). For example weight is measured easily in the earth axis system. To transform to the body axis the process is to pre-multiply the weight vector(earth axis) by R3, then R2 and then R1 as shown.:

Expansion of Aerodynamic Terms. A stability and control analysis isconcerned with how a vehicle responds to perturbation inputs. For instance, up elevator should cause the nose to come up; or for turbulence caused sideslip, the aircraft should realign itself with the relative wind. Intuitively, the aerodynamic terms have the most effect on the resulting motion of the aircraft. Unfortunately, the above equations (that result from summing forces and moments), are non-linear, and exact solutions are impossible. In view of the complexity of the problem, linearization of the equations brings about especially desirable simplifications. The linearized model is based on the assumption of small disturbances and the small perturbation theory. This model, nonetheless, gives quite adequate results for engineering purposes over a wide range of applications; because the major aerodynamic effects are nearly linear functions of the variables of interest,and because quite large disturbances in flight may correspond to relatively small disturbances in the linear and angular velocities. Small Perturbation Theory. The small perturbation theory is based on a simple technique used for linearizing a set of differential equations. In aircraft flight dynamics, the aerodynamic forces and moments are assumed to be functions of the instantaneous values of the perturbation velocities, control deflections, and of their derivatives. They are obtained in the form of a Taylor series in these variables, and the expressions are linearized by excluding all higher-order terms. To fully understand the derivation, some assumptions and definitions must first be established. 4.6.4.3.1 The Small Disturbance Assumption - A summary of the major variables that affect the aerodynamic characteristics of a rigid body or a vehicle is given below. 1. Velocity, temperature, and altitude: These variables may be considered directly or indirectly functions of Mach, Reynolds number, and dynamic pressure. Velocity may be resolved into components U, V, and W along the vehicle body axes. 2. Angle of attack, alpha, and angle of sideslip, : These variables may be used with the magnitude of the total velocity, V , toexpress the orthogonal velocity components U, V, and W. 3. Angular velocity: This is usually resolved into components, P,Q, and R about the vehicle body axes.

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4. Control surface deflections: These are used primarily to change or balance aerodynamic forces and moments, and are accounted for by dele , dela, delr (the elevator, aileron and rudder deflection, respectively).Because air has mass, the flow field cannot adjust instantaneously to sudden changes in these variables, and transient conditions exist. In some cases,these transient effects become significant.

The small disturbance assumption is applied in three steps: Assuming an initial (equilibrium) condition , assuming vehicle motion consists of small perturbations about this condition and, using a first order Taylor series expansion to determine the effect of these small perturbations.As an additional consequence, the small perturbation assumption allows us to decouple the longitudinal and lateral-directional equations as discussed in the next subsection.

Longitudinal and Lateral-Directional Equations - It has been found from experience that, when operating under the small perturbation assumption, the vehicle motion can be thought of as two independent (decoupled) motions, each of which is a function only of the variables shown below.

The equations are grouped and named in the above manner because the state variables of the first group are known as the longitudinal variables and those of the second group are known as the lateral-directional variables. With the conventional simplifying assumptions, the longitudinal and lateral-directional variables will appear explicitly only in their respective group. This separation will also be displayed in the aerodynamic force and moment terms and the equations will completely decouple into two independent sets.

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Initial Conditions - As stated earlier, we will assume that the motion consists of small perturbations about some initial equilibrium condition. The condition we will assume is steady straight symmetrical flight. This condition is a combination of the following motions: Steady Flight. Motion with zero rates of change of the linear and angular velocity components, i.e., U = V = W = P = Q = R = 0. Straight Flight. Motion with zero angular velocity components, P, Q, and R = 0. Symmetric Flight. Motion in which the vehicle plane of symmetry remains fixed in space throughout the maneuver. The unsymmetric variables P, R, V, Some symmetric flight conditions are wings-level dives, climbs, and pull-ups with no sideslip. In steady straight symmetric flight, the aircraft is assumed to be flying wings level with all components of velocity zero except uo and w0. We have already found that the equations of motion simplify considerably when the stability axis is used as the reference axis. This idea will again be employed and the final set of boundary conditions will result. This,therefore, is another assumption :

Expansion By Taylor Series As stated earlier, the equations resulting from summing forces and moments are nonlinear and exact solutions are not obtainable. An approximate solution is found by linearizing these equations using a Taylor Series expansion and neglecting higher ordered terms. Lateral-directional motion is a function of handled in a similar manner. Thus it becomes:and can be

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This development can be applied to all of the aerodynamic forces and moments. The equations are linear and account for all variables that have a significant effect on the aerodynamic forces and moments on an aircraft. The equations resulting from this development can now be substituted into the LHS of the equations of motion.

Direct Thrust Forces and Moments Explained in aerodynamics model. Thrust effects will be considered in the longitudinal equations only since the thrust vector is normally in the vertical plane of symmetry and does not affect the lateral-directional motion. when considering engine-out characteristics in multi-engine aircraft, however, the asymmetric thrust effects must be considered

Gravity Forces Gravity acts through the eg of an aircraft and, as a result, has no effect on the aircraft moments. It does affect the force equations as shown in Figure 4.25

Gyroscopic Moments Gyroscopic effects are insignificant for most static and dynamic analyses since angular rates are not considered large. They begin to become important as angular rates increase (i.e., P, Q, and R become large). For spin and roll coupling analyses, they are large and gyroscopic effects must be considered. In this basic development of the equations of motion, however, they will be assumed to be negligible.

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Expanded LHS Equations Using the previous developments, the expanded LHS equations after Normalization and applying steady state assumptions and various other as stated above become :

STABILITY DERIVATIVE FORM OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION

The simplified equations of motion in stability derivative form are shown in Table 4.3

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NOTE: These have been explained in aerodynamics model :--

In this 6DOF model, the standard six degrees of freedom nonlinear differential equations for a conventional fixed wing aircraft. These 6DOF nonlinear differential equations are written as Eqs

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AIRCRAFT TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

If the Laplace transform of the stability parameter equations of motion subsection 4.9) are taken, assuming zero initial conditions, and the equations are written in matrix notation, the following equations result (in terms of stability parameters for the aircraft stability axis system):

The above matrix equations are all that are needed for transfer function derivation. As an example, the transfer function relating alpha to dele is

Similar derivations can be used to find any single input, single output transfer function for the longitudinal or lateral-directional axes.

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State Space Model Development

A state space modeling technique, as described by Roskam is employed here to make use of the stability derivatives. In this state space model, the assumption is made to ignore the coupling effect between the longitudinal and lateral dynamics. A linearization technique is applied that assumes the variations in the models states are linear around the trim point. This simplification makes the state space model valid only when it is close to the trim condition.

The model of the Yak-54 was developed using the geometry data directly measured from the physical aircraft model as listed in table. The trim condition is set at a straight and level flight condition with trim speed and altitude captured from previous flight test data. This trim condition is 1,200 feet.

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Dimensional Stability Derivatives The dimensional stability derivatives are calculated using the dimensionless stability derivatives listed in Table. The results are shown in Table 3-4 and Table 3-5 for the longitudinal and lateraldirectional models respectively. To construct the state space model, the moment of inertia is required. The moment of inertia for the Yak-54 is approximated using a component build-up method. The aircraft model is first disassembled into small components: left and right wings, left and right tails, wing and horizontal tail spars, propeller, spinner, engine, batteries, and the Piccolo control unit. Then, each component is weighed individually. The position of each component is measured relative to the engine firewall. These measurements are then used to calculate the moment of inertia of the Yak-54 about the X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis in the body coordinate system. The Yak-54 is a symmetric The position of each component is measured relative to the engine firewall. These measurements are then used to calculate the moment of inertia of the Yak54 about the X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis in the body coordinate system. The Yak-54 is a symmetric aircraft, and the weight distribution on the left and right wings is almost symmetric, so the moment of inertia about the XZ plane is assumed to be

zero.

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Longitudinal State Space Model and Analysis For the straight and level flight conditions,in state space format,

Rewriting Eq. in state space format, yields:

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Substituting the dimensional derivatives into and performing the necessary matrix algebra, the final longitudinal state space model is obtained:

Applying eigenvalue analysis to the state space model, the dynamic characteristic of the system can be calculated. The results are presented below.

The analysis reveals that the Yak-54 model has two complex conjugated roots for its longitudinal dynamics, the Phugoid and short period modes. Both modes exhibit a highly damped response. This is especially true for the short period mode.

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Short period mode:

Phugoid mode:

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Development of the 6DOF Nonlinear Model using MATLAB

Atmosphere Module

During the simulation process, updated atmospheric data are frequently required to give feedback to some of the modules in order to provide the necessary computational information. For this reason, an atmosphere module is required to provide the latest atmospheric data for the current altitude. The 1976 COESA [53] (Committee on Extension to the Standard Atmosphere) atmospheric model is used here to fulfill this requirement. The work of the U.S. COESA was published in 1953, and major revisions were made in 1958, 1962, 1966, and 1976. Many U.S. government organizations contributed to this work, including NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), and the U.S. Air Force. Various industries, research institutions, and universities also contributed. The COESA atmosphere model is identical to the Standard Atmosphere of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) up to 32 Km and the ISO (International Organization for Standardization) standard up to 50 Km. The COESA 1976 is an idealized, steady-state representation of the earths atmosphere from the surface to 1,000 km during moderate solar activity. The COESA Atmosphere model is available in the MATLAB/Simulink Aerospace Blockset. This MATLAB/Simulink COESA model implements the mathematical representations of the 1976 COESA values and provides absolute temperature, pressure, density, and the speed of sound for a given geodetic altitude.

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Program for calculating Aerodynamic coefficients Aerodynamics Module As previously mentioned, the aerodynamics forces are one of the major forces applied to the aircraft, and these forces create aerodynamic moments that contribute to the moment equations. The main purpose of this aerodynamics module is to estimate the values of the aerodynamic forces and moments in the aircraft body frame. A high level block diagram for this module can be simplified The aerodynamic forces are composed of three forces, which are the lift, drag, and sideforce. These forces generate moments with respect to the center of gravity about the X, Y, Zaxis and are described as the rolling moment, pitching moment, and yawing moment. The component build-up method. The total forces and moments that act on the aircraft are simply the summation of the forces and moments contributed by each component. This method has been widely used and found to be acceptable .

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BELOW ARE SOME OF THE EQUATIONS USED IN THE CODING OF THE MATLAB PROGRAM FOR AERODYNAMICS : --

The aerodynamic forces and moments are first described as dimensionless coefficients, which are associated with the stability and control derivatives given in the modeling results. Eq. through Eq. 6-20 are used to implement the aerodynamic force and moment coefficients.

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% Aeromodelling by Anjana , Divya ,Sadhana and Aabid clear all clc fid = fopen('aerodata.txt','w'); airplane = menu('choose an airplane ','AIRBUS A310 ','BOEING 787','dhc6') if airplane ==1 m = 80345; b = 43.89 ; S = 219; c = 16.5; StaticThrust = 524000; elseif airplane==2 m = 227930; b = 60; S = 150; c = 9.8; StaticThrust = 500000; else m = 3365; b = 19.81; S = 40; c = 3.29; StaticThrust = 476000; end

AR = b*b/S ; spanefficiency = menu('choose span efficiency factor ,'rectangular','elliptical','other') if spanefficiency==1 e=1; elseif spanefficiency==2 e=.7; else e=input('enter span efficiency factor(.7 to 1) end

');

Ixx = input(' enter Ixx in kg-m^2 (30000 to 40000) ' ); kg-m^2

% Roll Moment of Inertia,

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Iyy = input(' enter Iyy in kg-m^2 (30000 to 40000) ' ); kg-m^2 Izz = input(' enter Izz in kg-m^2 (60000 to 80000) kg-m^2 Ixz ' );

% Pitch Moment of Inertia,

% Yaw Moment of Inertia,

= input(' enter Ixz in kg-m^2 (30000 to 60000) ');

%geometrical parameters aerofoil = menu('choose an aerofoil ','naca4412','naca0012','clark y') %values of coefficient [AlphaTable,CLTable,CDTable,CmTable,CmdETable,CYBetaTable,ClBetaTable, ... CnBetaTable,CldATable,CndATable,CldRTable,CndRTable] = DataTable;

alphadeg = input(' enter angle of attack in degrees ' ); alpharad=alphadeg/57.3; throttle = input(' enter throttle <1 ' ); ht = input('enter altitude in m ') ; v = input('enter airplane velocity in m/s ') ; qd = input( 'enter pitch rate in deg/s ') ; q = qd/57.3 ; pd = input('enter roll rate in deg/s ' ); p = pd/57.3 ; rd = input ('enter yaw rate in deg/s ' ); r = rd / 57.3; elevatord = input('enter elevator deflection in deg ') ; elevator = elevatord/57.3 ; spoilerd = input('enter spoiler deflection in deg ' ); spoiler = spoiler /57.3; ailerond = input('enter aileron deflection in deg ' ); aileron = ailerond/57.3; rudderd = input ('enter rudder deflection in deg '); rudder = rudder/57.3; stabilatord = input('enter stabilator angle in deg ') ; stabilator = stabilatord/57.3 ; betad = input('enter side slip angle in deg '); betar =betad/57.3; % calculation of temperature , pressure , speed of sound and density [T,a,P,rho] = atmosisa(ht);

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% Thrust Thrust = throttle* StaticThrust * (rho / 1.225)^0.7 ... * (1 - exp((-ht-17000)/2000)) ;

if aerofoil==1 Cl0 = .4; Cm0 = -.13; Cd0 = .015 ; Clalpha = .07 ; Cmalpha = -.0045 ; elseif aerofoil==2 Cl0 = 0; Cm0 = 0; Cd0 = 0.01; Clalpha = .08; Cmalpha = -.005; elseif aerofoil==3 Cl0 = .4; Cm0 = -.12; Cd0 = .02; Clalpha = .08; Cmalpha = -.006; end

%coefficient of lift CLqr = 4.231 * c / (2*v); % Pitch-Rate Effect, per rad/s % Stabilator Effect, per rad % Elevator Effect, per rad

CLdSr = 1.08; CLdEr = 0.5774;

CL = Cl0 + Clalpha*alphadeg + CLqr*q + CLdSr*stabilator + CLdEr*elevator; % Total Lift Coefficient

% Pitching Moment Coefficient CmdEr = interp1(AlphaTable,CmdETable,alphadeg);

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% Elevator Effect, per rad Cmqr = -18.8 * c / (2 * v); % Pitch-Rate Effect, per rad/s % Stabilator Effect, per rad

CmdSr = -2.291;

Cm = Cm0 + Cmalpha*alphadeg + Cmqr*q + CmdSr*stabilator + CmdEr*elevator; % Total Pitching Moment Coefficient

%Side-Force Coefficient CYBr = interp1(AlphaTable,CYBetaTable,alphadeg); % Side-Force Slope, per rad % Aileron Effect, per rad % Rudder Effect, per rad % Asymmetric Spoiler Effect, per rad

CYdAr = -0.00699; CYdRr = 0.1574; CYdASr = 0.0264;

CY = (CYBr*betar + CYdRr*rudder) + (CYdAr*aileron) + CYdASr*spoiler); % Total Side-Force Coefficient

% Yawing Moment Coefficient CnBr = interp1(AlphaTable,CnBetaTable,alphadeg); % Directional Stability, per rad

Cnpr = CL * (1 + 3 * taperw)/(12 * (1 + taperw)) * (b / (2 * V)); % Roll-Rate Effect, per rad/s Cnrr = (-2 * (lvt / b) * CnBr - 0.1 * CL^2) * (b / (2 * V)); % Yaw-Rate Effect, per rad/s

CndAr = interp1(AlphaTable,CndATable,alphadeg); % Aileron Effect, per rad CndRr = interp1(AlphaTable,CndRTable,alphadeg); % Rudder Effect, per rad

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CndASr = -0.0088;

% Asymmetric Spoiler Effect, per rad

Cn = (CnBr*betar + CndRr*rudder) + Cnrr * yaw rate) + Cnpr * roll rate ... + (CndAr*aileron + CndASr*spoiler); % Total Yawing-Moment Coefficient

% Rolling Moment Coefficient ClBr = interp1(AlphaTable,ClBetaTable,alphadeg); % Dihedral Effect, per rad CLar = 5.6575; Clpr = -CLar * (1 + 3 * taperw)/(12 * (1 + taperw)) * (b / (2 * V)); % Roll-Rate Effect, per rad/s Clrr = CL * (1 + 3 * taperw)/(12 * (1 + taperw)) * (b / (2 * V)); % Yaw-Rate Effect, per rad/s CldAr = interp1(AlphaTable,CldATable,alphadeg); % Aileron Effect, per rad CldRr = interp1(AlphaTable,CldRTable,alphadeg); % Rudder Effect, per rad CldASr = -0.01496; % Asymmetric Spoiler Effect, per rad

Cl = (ClBr*betar + CldRr*rudder) + Clrr * yaw rate + Clpr * roll rate ... + (CldAr*aileron + CldASr*spolier); % Total Rolling-Moment Coefficient

%Drag Moment Coefficient M = v/a ; % Mach no. Prandtl = 1/1.015* sqrt(1-M^2); k=1/(3.14*e*AR) ; Cd = Cd0*Prandtl + k*CL^2 ; DRAG = .5*rho*v*v*S*Cd; LIFT = .5*rho*v*v*S*CL; MOMENT = .5*rho*v*v*S*c*Cm; fprintf (fid,'THRUST IS %6.9f newton\n',Thrust); fprintf (fid,' LIFT COEFFICIENT IS %6.9f \n LIFT IS %6.9f newton\n',CL,LIFT); fprintf (fid,'MOMENT COEFFICIENT IS %6.9f \n MOMENT IS %6.9f newtonmetre\n',Cm,MOMENT);

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fprintf (fid,'DRAG COEFFICIENT IS %6.9f \n DRAG IS %6.9f newton\n',Cd,DRAG); fprintf (fid,'TOTAL ROLLING MOMENT IS %6.9f \n TOTAL YAWING MOMENT IS %6.9f \n',Cl,Cn); fprintf (fid,'TOTAL SIDE FORCE COEFFICIENT IS %6.9f \n',CY); fclose(fid);

Data Table
function [AlphaTable,CLTable,CDTable,CmTable,CmdETable,CYBetaTable,ClBetaTable, ... CnBetaTable,CldATable,CndATable,CldRTable,CndRTable] = DataTable % High-Alpha, Mach-Independent Aerodynamic Data for Business Jet % Data Tables for High-Angle-of-Attack Business Jet Model AlphaTable = [-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 ... 21 22 23 24 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90]; CLTable = [-0.8681 -0.6870 -0.5348 -0.3536 -0.1797 0.1101 0.2899 0.4638 ... 0.6449 0.7971 0.9783 1.0507 1.1014 1.1739 1.2174 1.2319 ... 1.1957 1.101 0.9873 0.9114 0.8734 0.8608 0.8544 0.8608 ... 0.8734 0.8861 0.9494 1.0506 1.1495 1.2407 1.2916 1.2946 ... 1.2450 1.1414 0.9860 0.7844 0.5452 0.2795 0.0000]; = [0.0870 0.0689 0.0508 0.0363 0.0268 0.0254 0.0268 0.0363 ... 0.0508 0.0689 0.0870 0.1051 0.1233 0.1450 0.1668 0.1885 ... 0.2175 0.2520 0.2840 0.3160 0.3480 0.3800 0.4120 0.4440 ... 0.4760 0.5080 0.6680 0.8280 1.0168 1.2587 1.5246 1.8030 ... 2.0806 2.3433 2.5773 2.7697 2.9093 2.9879 3.0000]; = [0.1900 0.1520 0.1140 0.0760 0.0380 0.0000 -0.0380 -0.0760 ... -0.1140 -0.1520 -0.1900 -0.2200 -0.2500 -0.2700 -0.3000 -0.3350 ... -0.3700 -0.3800 -0.3700 -0.3000 -0.2600 -0.2400 -0.2200 -0.2100 ... -0.2000 -0.1900 -0.1700 -0.1900 -0.2455 -0.3535 -0.4396 -0.5327 ... -0.6061 -0.6515 -0.6898 -0.7196 -0.7400 -0.7502 -0.7500];

CDTable

CmTable

CmdETable = [-1.3824 -1.3824 -1.4118 -1.3824 -1.3529 -1.3824 -1.3529 -1.3824 ...

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-1.4118 -1.3824 -1.3824 -1.3941 -1.3824 -1.4000 -1.3529 -1.2941 ... -1.1765 -1.0588 -0.9412 -0.7059 -0.6471 -0.5882 -0.5588 -0.5294 ... -0.4706 -0.4412 -0.4412 -0.3235 -0.5588 -0.4412 -0.4412 -0.4412 ... -0.4412 -0.4412 -0.4412 -0.4412 -0.4412 -0.4412 -0.4412]; CYBetaTable = [-0.5636 -0.5968 -0.6061 -0.6190 -0.6282 -0.6467 -0.6282 -0.6190 ... -0.6061 -0.5968 -0.5636 -0.5174 -0.4897 -0.4435 -0.3603 -0.3696 ... -0.4065 -0.3603 -0.2402 -0.1571 -0.0462 0.0277 0.1293 0.1755 ... 0.2125 0.2587 0.4342 0.5543 0.4158 0.4158 0.4158 0.4158 ... 0.4158 0.4158 0.4158 0.4158 0.4158 0.4158 0.4158]; ClBetaTable = [-0.2079 -0.1543 -0.1340 -0.1201 -0.1062 -0.0924 -0.1062 -0.1201 ... -0.1340 -0.1543 -0.2079 -0.2448 -0.2310 -0.2079 -0.2402 -0.2217 ... -0.1986 -0.1848 -0.1940 -0.1940 -0.2125 -0.2125 -0.2079 -0.1940 ... -0.1802 -0.1848 -0.2495 -0.1571 -0.1971 -0.1971 -0.1971 -0.1971 ... -0.1971 -0.1971 -0.1971 -0.1971 -0.1971 -0.1971 -0.1971]; CnBetaTable = [0.1386 0.1478 0.1432 0.1432 0.1432 0.1432 0.1432 0.1432 ... 0.1432 0.1478 0.1386 0.1386 0.1524 0.1940 0.2448 0.2541 ... 0.2356 0.2402 0.2541 0.2356 0.1524 0.1109 0.1016 0.1016 ... 0.0970 0.0970 0.1062 0.0647 0.0893 0.0893 0.0893 0.0893 ... 0.0893 0.0893 0.0893 0.0893 0.0893 0.0893 0.0893]; CldATable = [0.1108 0.1509 0.1432 0.1394 0.1385 0.1375 0.1385 0.1394 ... 0.1432 0.1509 0.1108 0.0821 0.0592 0.0554 0.0668 0.0745 ... 0.0802 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 ... 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 ... 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000]; CndATable = [-0.0048 0.0063 0.0038 0.0010 0.0014 0.0019 0.0014 0.0010 ... 0.0038 0.0063 -0.0048 -0.0095 -0.0141 -0.0159 -0.0090 -0.0069 ... -0.0134 -0.0150 -0.0150 -0.0150 -0.0150 -0.0150 -0.0150 -0.0150 ... -0.0150 -0.0150 -0.0150 -0.0150 -0.0150 -0.0150 -0.0150 -0.0150 ... -0.0150 -0.0150 -0.0150 -0.0150 -0.0150 -0.0150 -0.0150]; CldRTable = [0.0079 0.0092 0.0122 0.0153 0.0183 0.0214 0.0183 0.0153 ... 0.0122 0.0092 0.0079 0.0065 0.0052 0.0039 0.0026 0.0013 ... 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 ... 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 ... 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000]; CndRTable = [-0.0716 -0.0733 -0.0720 -0.0707 -0.0693 -0.0680 -0.0693 -0.0707 ... -0.0720 -0.0733 -0.0716 -0.0698 -0.0681 -0.0664 -0.0646 -0.0629 ... -0.0611 -0.0600 -0.0600 -0.0600 -0.0600 -0.0600 -0.0600 -0.0600 ... -0.0600 -0.0600 -0.0600 -0.0600 -0.0600 -0.0600 -0.0600 -0.0600 ... -0.0600 -0.0600 -0.0600 -0.0600 -0.0600 -0

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For example : INPUT

airplane = 2 spanefficiency = 2 enter Ixx in kg-m^2 (30000 to 40000) 35000 enter Iyy in kg-m^2 (30000 to 40000) 35000 enter Izz in kg-m^2 (60000 to 80000) 65000 enter Ixz in kg-m^2 (30000 to 60000) 35000 aerofoil = 3 enter angle of attack in degrees 5 enter throttle <1 .15 enter altitude in m 2000 enter airplane velocity in m/s 250 enter pitch rate in deg/s 2 enter roll rate in deg/s 2 enter yaw rate in deg/s 2 enter elevator deflection in deg 5 enter spoiler deflection in deg 2 enter aileron deflection in deg 2 enter rudder deflection in deg 2 enter stabilator angle in deg 2 enter side slip angle in deg 3

OUTPUT
THRUST IS 6,53,631.103 newton LIFT COEFFICIENT IS 0.8909 LIFT IS 42,03,550.591 newton MOMENT COEFFICIENT IS -0.3647 MOMENT IS -1,68,63,875.3635 newton-metre DRAG COEFFICIENT IS 0.0280 DRAG IS 1,32,295.6687 newton TOTAL ROLLING MOMENT IS -0.0045 TOTAL YAWING MOMENT IS 0.00487 TOTAL SIDE FORCE COEFFICIENT IS -0.02589

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MATLAB PROGRAM TO CALCULATE THE KINEMATIC EQUATIONS

BELOW ARE THE VARIOUS EQUATIONS USED FOR THE KINEMATICS MATLAB PROGRAM :

The force components shown in Eq. 6-21, 6-22, and 6-23 are defined in the stability axis. To make them useable within Eq. 6-13, which is defined in the Body-fixed axis, a coordinate frame transformation is needed to transfer the stability axis forces to Body-fixed axis forces using the equations expressed.

The implementation of Eq. 6-21 through Eq. 6-27 is within the Aerodynamic Forces and Moments block from the Aerospace Blockset in MATLAB.

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Development of the 6DOF Nonlinear Model using MATLAB

Forces Equations:

Moment Equations:

From a mathematical viewpoint, Eq. 6-13 and 6-14 form a set of six nonlinear differential equations with six unknown variables (u, v, w, p, q, r). Each variable is presented in different equations and interacts with the others. Therefore, the equations cannot be solved individually. The total solution for the system can be obtained only by applying numerical integration to all equations for each given time step. For the force equations, the inputs for the system are the three major forces applied to the aircraft. These are the aerodynamic forces, thrust forces, and gravity forces. These forces are nonlinear and time variant. components of each force are broken down in detail and are discussed in Section 6.5, Section 6.6 and Section 6.7. The inputs for the moment equation are the three moment terms applied to the three aircraft Body-fixed axes. These moments are generated from the aerodynamic and thrust forces with respect to the aircrafts center of gravity (C.G.). As the gravity forces are defined at the C.G. location, no moment is introduced by the gravity forces. the assumption is made that the thrust line passes through the C.G.. Therefore, the terms that contribute to the moment equations are only associated with the aerodynamic forces. These aerodynamic moment terms are broken down

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one-by-one and are presented in Section 6.5. The variables P, Q, R from the 6DOF equations are applied to the euler kinematic equations Eq. 6-8 to update the euler terms. The updated euler terms are then used for vector coordinate transformations through Eq. 6-7. The updated orientation of the aircraft is provided from Eq. 6-11. The 6DOF nonlinear equations are implemented in the 6DOF ECEF (euler) block from the Aerospace Blockset in MATLAB as shown on page.

clc clear all % Function kinematics() h=0.01; ut=167; t=0.0; u=0.0; v=0.0; w=0.0; theta=0.0; rho=1.03; phi=0.0; beta=0.0; p=0.0; q=0.0; r=0.0; simtime= input('enter the simulation time in secconds (less than 10 seconds,greater than 3) = '); choice= input(' enter what simulation you want to do \n1) longitudnal\n2)lateral '); if (choice==1) disp(' LONGITUDNAL MOTION SIMULATION ') u=46.296; c=1.211; s=12.47; mass=750; Iy=925; g=9.81; Cl0=0.36; Clalpha=4.99; Clq=2.762; Cldele=0.271; Cm0=0.02; Cmalpha=-0.68; Cmq=-8.231; Cmdele=-1.0000; Clu=-0.05; Cd0=0.02; Cdu=0.02; Cdtheta=0.642; Cddele=0.0; Cdalpha=-0.009; Cmu=0.0; fid=fopen('LONGI.txt','w');

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while t<=simtime k(1)=0; l(1)=0; m(1)=0; n(1)=0; for i=1:4 if i<=3 k(1)=k(i)/2; l(1)=l(i)/2; m(1)=m(i)/2; n(1)=n(i)/2; else k(1)=k(i); l(1)=l(i); m(1)=m(i); n(1)=n(i); end u=u+k(1); w=w+l(1); theta=theta+m(1); q=q+n(1); if t<=3 dele=6/57.3; elseif t<=5 dele=-6/57.3; elseif t<=6 dele=6/57.3; else dele=-6/57.3; end alpha=w/ut; X=rho*ut*ut*s*0.5*(Cdtheta*theta+Cdalpha*alpha+Cddele*dele)rho*ut*s*0.5*(Cdu+2*Cd0)*u; Z=-rho*ut*ut*s*0.5*(Clalpha*alpha+Cldele*dele)-rho*s*c*ut*0.25*Clq*qrho*s*ut*0.5*(Clu-2*Cl0)*u; M=rho*s*ut*c*c*0.25*Cmq*q+rho*s*ut*c*0.5*Cmu*u+rho*ut*ut*c*0.5* (Cmalpha*alpha+Cmdele*dele+Cm0); k((i+1))=h*(X/mass-g*sin(theta)-q*w); l((i+1))=h*(Z/mass+g*cos(theta)+q*u); m((i+1))=h*q; n((i+1))=h*(M/Iy); end u=u+((k(2)+2*k(3)+2*k(4)+k(5))/6); w=w+((l(2)+2*l(3)+2*l(4)+l(5))/6); theta=theta+((m(2)+2*m(3)+2*m(4)+m(5))/6); q=q+((n(2)+2*n(3)+2*n(4)+n(5))/6); fprintf(fid,'%12.8f %12.8f %12.8f %12.8f %12.8f %12.8f\n',t,u,w,theta,q,dele) t=t+h; hold on end

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status=fclose(fid); AB=load('LONGI.txt'); subplot(3,2,1) xlabel('t') ylabel('u') plot(AB(:,1),AB(:,2)) hold on subplot(3,2,2) xlabel('t') ylabel('w') plot(AB(:,1),AB(:,3)) grid hold on subplot(3,2,3) xlabel('t') ylabel('theta') plot(AB(:,1),AB(:,4)) grid hold on subplot(3,2,4) xlabel('t') ylabel('q') plot(AB(:,1),AB(:,5)) grid hold on subplot(3,2,5) xlabel('t') ylabel('dele') plot(AB(:,1),AB(:,6)) grid hold on else disp(' LATERAL DRECTIONAL MOTION SIMULATION ') deflec=input(' enter the control to be deflected 1)Aileron 2) Rudder if deflec==1 delr=0.0; else dela=0.0; end c=3.159; b=10.75; s=64; g=9.81; Cyp=0.303; Cyr=0.727; Cybeta=-1.333; Cydela=0.029; Cydelr=0.191; CLp=-0.978; CLr=0.418; CLbeta=-0.126; CLdela=-0.247; CLdelr=0.046; Cnp=-0.115; Cnr=-0.495; Cnbeta=0.981; Cndela=0.0;

');

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Cndelr=-0.166; Cyphi=0.0; mass=19633.23; % gross weight wf=5023; % fuel weight (both in kg) Ix=104431.0+6.31626*wf+0.0021277*wf*wf; Iz=331864.0+5.53291*wf+0.0021277*wf*wf; Iy=252687.0; Ixz=11442.0; fid=fopen('LATDIR.txt','w'); while t<=simtime k(1)=0; l(1)=0; m(1)=0; n(1)=0; o(1)=0; for i=1:4 if i<=3 k(1)=k(i)/2; l(1)=l(i)/2; m(1)=m(i)/2; n(1)=n(i)/2; o(1)=o(i)/2; else k(1)=k(i); l(1)=l(i); m(1)=m(i); n(1)=n(i); o(1)=o(i); end v=v+k(1); p=p+l(1); r=r+m(1); phi=phi+n(1); beta=beta+n(i); if deflec==1 if t<=3 dela=6/57.3; elseif t<=5 dela=-6/57.3; elseif t<=6 dela=6/57.3; else dela=-6/57.3; end else if t<=3 delr=6/57.3; elseif t<=5 delr=-6/57.3; elseif t<=6 delr=6/57.3; else delr=-6/57.3; end end Y=rho*ut*ut*s*0.5*(Cybeta*beta+Cyphi*phi+Cydelr*delr+Cydela*dela)+rho*b*s*ut* 0.25*(Cyp*p+Cyr*r);

P a g e | 87

L=rho*s*b*ut*ut*0.5*(CLbeta*beta+CLdela*dela+CLdelr*delr)+rho*s*b*b*ut*0.25*(C Lp*p+CLr*r); N=rho*s*b*ut*ut*0.5*(Cnbeta*beta+Cndela*dela+Cndelr*delr)+rho*s*b*b*ut*0.25*(C np*p+Cnr*r); k((i+1))=h*(Y/mass -r*u+p*w); l((i+1))=h*((L*Iz+N*Ixz)/(Ix*Iz-Ixz*Ixz)); m((i+1))=h*((N*Ix+L*Ixz)/(Ix*Iz-Ixz*Ixz)); n((i+1))=h*(p+r*cos(phi)); o((i+1))=h*(r*cos(phi)); end v=v+((k(2)+2*k(3)+2*k(4)+k(5))/6); p=p+((l(2)+2*l(3)+2*l(4)+l(5))/6); r=r+((m(2)+2*m(3)+2*m(4)+m(5))/6); phi=phi+((n(2)+2*n(3)+2*n(4)+n(5))/6); beta=beta+((o(2)+2*o(3)+2*o(4)+o(5))/6); fprintf(fid,'%12.8f %12.8f %12.8f %12.8f %12.8f %12.8f %12.8f %12.8f\n',t,v,p,r,phi,beta,dela,delr) t=t+h; end status=fclose(fid); AB=load('LATDIR.txt'); subplot(4,2,1) plot(AB(:,1),AB(:,2)) xlabel('t') ylabel('v') hold on grid subplot(4,2,2) plot(AB(:,1),AB(:,3)) xlabel('t') ylabel('p') hold on grid subplot(4,2,3) plot(AB(:,1),AB(:,4)) xlabel('t') ylabel('r') hold on grid subplot(4,2,5) plot(AB(:,1),AB(:,6)) xlabel('t') ylabel('beta') hold on grid subplot(4,2,6) plot(AB(:,1),AB(:,7)) xlabel('t') ylabel('dela') hold on grid subplot(4,2,7) plot(AB(:,1),AB(:,8)) xlabel('t') ylabel('delr')

P a g e | 88

hold on grid end flightpath(); yaw();

LATERAL GRAPHS :-

LONGITUDNAL GRAPHS :-

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THE FLIGHTPATH FUNCTION TO SHOW POSITION OF AIRCRAFT WITH RESPECT TO EARTH IS :-function flightpath() clc clear all R= 6356.7; % Earth radius disp(' EARTH POSITION CHANGE WITH RESPECT TO TIME ') lati(1) =input('enter the latitude of start point ');
%latitude input should be less than or equal to 90 deg

longi(1) =input('enter the longitude of start point '); lati(1) = lati(1).*2*pi/360; longi(1) = longi(1).*2*pi/360; chwp=input('enter the no. of waypoints '); worldmap india whos -file coast.mat load coast geoshow('landareas.shp', 'FaceColor', [0.15 0.5 0.15]) plotm(lat, long) geoshow(lati(1),longi(1),'marker','*') for i=2:chwp lati(i)=input(['enter the latitude of point ',num2str(i),' ']); longi(i)=input(['enter the longitude of point ',num2str(i),' ']); geoshow(lati(i),longi(i),'marker','*') lati(i) = lati(i).*2*pi/360; longi(i) = longi(i).*2*pi/360; dlat = lati(i)-lati(i-1); dlong = longi(i)-longi(i-1); a = (sin(dlat/2))^2 + cos(lati(i-1))*cos(lati(i))*(sin(dlong/2))^2; c = 2*atan2(sqrt(a), sqrt(1-a)); distance= R*c*1000; disp('Distance (in metres) ') disp(distance) [lats,longs]=interpm([lati(i-1)*57.3 lati(i)*57.3]',[longi(i-1)*57.3 longi(i)*57.3]',1); plotm([lats longs],'linewidth',1) grid on hold all end head=input(' enter your heading (in degrees= '); poslat=input(' enter your current posiion latitude '); poslong=input(' enter your current posiion longitude '); wp=input('enter the last waypoint passed (in terms of number) = '); %in terms of number linem([poslat; lati(wp+1)],[poslong; longi(wp+1)],'color','r') [lats,longs]=interpm([lati(wp+1)*57.3 poslat]',[longi(wp+1)*57.3 poslong]',1); plotm([lats longs],'linewidth',1,'color','r','linewidth',1.5) legend('waypoint','planned path','track to come back',3); geoshow(poslat,poslong,'marker','*','color','r') az = azimuth(poslat,poslong,lati(wp+1)*57.3,longi(wp+1)*57.3); hold on

P a g e | 90

disp(['the heading to be followed to get back on track ',num2str(az)]) phi= az-head; disp([' the angle to be rolled to reach track = ',num2str(phi)]) ent=input('press enter'); clc disp(' HEIGHT VARIATION WITH THE FLIGHT ') j=1; z(1)=input([' enter height at point ',num2str(j),' ']); figure axis([1 chwp+1 1 60]) for j=2:chwp z(j)=input(['enter the height of point ',num2str(j),' ']); line([j-1 j],[z(j-1) z(j)],'marker','*','color','r') hold on grid on end curht=input('enter the current passed (in terms of metres) = '); htreq=input('enter the height required (in terms of metres) = '); hchg=abs(curht-htreq); disp([' the height change required is ',num2str(hchg),' metres '])

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FUNCTION TO CALCULATE YAW REQIREMENT TO COME BACK TO PLANNED PATH

% Yaw required function yaw() head=input(' enter the heading '); wind=input(' enter the wind direction '); psi=(head-wind); if psi<0 if psi>-90 disp([' The yaw angle required is ',num2str(abs(psi)),' degrees starboard side']) else psi<(-90) disp([' The yaw angle required is ',num2str(abs(180-psi)),' degrees port side']) end else psi>0 if psi<90 disp([' The yaw angle required is ',num2str(abs(psi)),' degrees port side']) else disp([' The yaw angle required is ',num2str(abs(180-psi)),' degrees starboard side']) end end poslat=input(' enter your current posiion latitude '); poslong=input(' enter your current posiion longitude '); figure clear m

P a g e | 92

axesm('MapProjection','mercator','MapLatLimit',[poslat-50 poslat+50],'Maplonlimit',[poslong-100 poslong+100]) [lat,long] = track1('rh',poslat,poslong,head); plotm(lat,long,'color','b') hold on [lat1,long1] = track1('rh',poslat,poslong,(wind+180)); plotm(lat1,long1,'color','r') legend('heading','wind',2);geoshow(poslat,poslong,'marker','*','color','b') [lat2,long2] = track1('rh',poslat,poslong,wind); plotm(lat2,long2,'color','r') plabel on; mlabel on; gridm on

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6 D-O-F VISUALIZATION USING C

The various motions, namely:- 1.) Pitch 2.) Roll 3.) Yaw were visualized using C language. Pitch, roll and yaw angle are the input parameters and aircrafts pitch, roll and yaw motion is the output. The snapshots of the various program outputs have been shown below:1.) PITCH MOTION

OUTPUT-

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2.) YAW MOTION

OUTPUT-

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3.) ROLL MOTION

OUTPUT-

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C PROGRAM CODE
1.) PITCH MOTION

#include<conio.h> #include<stdio.h> #include<math.h> #include<graphics.h>

main() { int gd= DETECT, gm; initgraph(&gd, &gm, "d:/tc/bgi"); int ox=290, oy=240; // circle(290,240,10); int colour=7; int cl = colour;

//main body

int x1=210,y1=210,x2=350,y2=210; line(x1,y1,x2,y2); int x3=210,y3=270,x4=350,y4=270; line(x3,y3,x4,y4);

// fuselage lines

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line(160,240,450,240);

// fuselage reference lines

//nose cone int xe=210,ye=240,xr=30,yr=30; ellipse(xe,ye,90,270,xr,yr);

//tailcone int a1=350,b1=320; arc(a1,b1,46,95,110); int a2=350,b2=160; arc(a2,b2,270,313,110);

// horizontal tail aerofoil cross-section

int p1=370,q1=235,p2=400,q2=240,p3=370,q3=245; line(p1,q1,p2,q2); line(p2,q2,p3,q3); int p4=370,q4=240; ellipse(p4,q4,90,270,5,5);

// vertical tail

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int hs1=370, gs1=210, hs2=385, gs2=170; int hs3=400,gs3=170,hs4=400,gs4=220;

line(hs1,gs1,hs2,gs2); line(hs2,gs2,hs3,gs3); line(hs3,gs3,hs4,gs4);

//aerofoil cross-section

int s1=270, t1=234, s2=330, t2=238; int s3=270, t3=246, s4=330, t4=242; line(s1,t1,s2,t2); line(s3,t3,s4,t4);

int x5=270, y5=240, x6=330,y6=240;

ellipse(x5,y5,90,270,6,6); ellipse(x6,y6,270,90,2,2);

//transformation part int m; printf("\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n enter pitch angle in degrees ");

P a g e | 99

scanf("%d",&m); float theta=m/57.3; int e=m;

cleardevice();

//line(280,240,300,240); //line(290,230,290,250); //circle(290,240,10);

int i1=120,j1=240,i2=465,j2=240; line(i1,j1,i2,j2); float i1n,j1n; i1n = cos(theta) * (i1-ox) - sin(theta) * (j1-oy) + ox ; j1n = sin(theta) * (i1-ox) + cos(theta) * (j1-oy) + oy ;

float i2n,j2n; i2n = cos(theta) * (i2-ox) - sin(theta) * (j2-oy) + ox ; j2n = sin(theta) * (i2-ox) + cos(theta) * (j2-oy) + oy ;

setcolor(cl); line(i1n,j1n,i2n,j2n);

//fuselage transformation

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float x1n,y1n; x1n = cos(theta) * (x1-ox) - sin(theta) * (y1-oy) + ox ; y1n = sin(theta) * (x1-ox) + cos(theta) * (y1-oy) + oy ; float x2n, y2n; x2n=cos(theta)*(x2-ox)-sin(theta)*(y2-oy)+ox; y2n= sin(theta)*(x2-ox)+cos(theta)*(y2-oy)+oy; line(x1n,y1n,x2n,y2n);

float x3n,y3n; x3n = cos(theta) * (x3-ox) - sin(theta) * (y3-oy) + ox ; y3n = sin(theta) * (x3-ox) + cos(theta) * (y3-oy) + oy ; float x4n, y4n; x4n=cos(theta)*(x4-ox)-sin(theta)*(y4-oy)+ox; y4n= sin(theta)*(x4-ox)+cos(theta)*(y4-oy)+oy; line(x3n,y3n,x4n,y4n);

// nose cone

float xen, yen; xen = cos(theta) * (xe-ox) - sin(theta) * (ye-oy) + ox ; yen = sin(theta) * (xe-ox) + cos(theta) * (ye-oy) + oy ; ellipse(xen,yen,90-e,270-e,yr,xr);

//tail cone

float a1n, b1n;

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a1n = cos(theta) * (a1-ox) - sin(theta) * (b1-oy) + ox ; b1n = sin(theta) * (a1-ox) + cos(theta) * (b1-oy) + oy ; //setcolor(2); arc(a1n,b1n,46-e,95-e,110);

float a2n, b2n; a2n = cos(theta) * (a2-ox) - sin(theta) * (b2-oy) + ox ; b2n = sin(theta) * (a2-ox) + cos(theta) * (b2-oy) + oy ; //setcolor(2); arc(a2n,b2n,270-e,313-e,110);

//aerofoil cross-section transformation

float s1n,t1n; s1n = cos(theta) * (s1-ox) - sin(theta) * (t1-oy) + ox ; t1n = sin(theta) * (s1-ox) + cos(theta) * (t1-oy) + oy ; float s2n,t2n; s2n = cos(theta) * (s2-ox) - sin(theta) * (t2-oy) + ox ; t2n = sin(theta) * (s2-ox) + cos(theta) * (t2-oy) + oy ; //setcolor(2); line(s1n,t1n,s2n,t2n);

float s3n,t3n; s3n = cos(theta) * (s3-ox) - sin(theta) * (t3-oy) + ox ; t3n = sin(theta) * (s3-ox) + cos(theta) * (t3-oy) + oy ; float s4n,t4n;

P a g e | 102

s4n = cos(theta) * (s4-ox) - sin(theta) * (t4-oy) + ox ; t4n = sin(theta) * (s4-ox) + cos(theta) * (t4-oy) + oy ; //setcolor(2); line(s3n,t3n,s4n,t4n);

float x5n, y5n; x5n=cos(theta)*(x5-ox)-sin(theta)*(y5-oy)+ox; y5n= sin(theta)*(x5-ox)+cos(theta)*(y5-oy)+oy; //setcolor(3);

float x6n, y6n; x6n=cos(theta)*(x6-ox)-sin(theta)*(y6-oy)+ox; y6n= sin(theta)*(x6-ox)+cos(theta)*(y6-oy)+oy; //setcolor(3);

ellipse(x5n,y5n,90-e,270-e,6,6); ellipse(x6n,y6n,270-e,90-e,2,2);

// horizontal tail aerofoil cross-section transformation

float p1n,q1n; p1n = cos(theta) * (p1-ox) - sin(theta) * (q1-oy) + ox ; q1n = sin(theta) * (p1-ox) + cos(theta) * (q1-oy) + oy ; float p2n,q2n; p2n = cos(theta) * (p2-ox) - sin(theta) * (q2-oy) + ox ; q2n = sin(theta) * (p2-ox) + cos(theta) * (q2-oy) + oy ;

P a g e | 103

float p3n,q3n; p3n = cos(theta) * (p3-ox) - sin(theta) * (q3-oy) + ox ; q3n = sin(theta) * (p3-ox) + cos(theta) * (q3-oy) + oy ;

float p4n,q4n; p4n = cos(theta) * (p4-ox) - sin(theta) * (q4-oy) + ox ; q4n = sin(theta) * (p4-ox) + cos(theta) * (q4-oy) + oy ;

line(p1n,q1n,p2n,q2n); line(p2n,q2n,p3n,q3n); ellipse(p4n,q4n,90-e,270-e,5,5);

//vertical tail transformation float hs1n,gs1n; hs1n = cos(theta) * (hs1-ox) - sin(theta) * (gs1-oy) + ox ; gs1n = sin(theta) * (hs1-ox) + cos(theta) * (gs1-oy) + oy ; float hs2n,gs2n; hs2n = cos(theta) * (hs2-ox) - sin(theta) * (gs2-oy) + ox ; gs2n = sin(theta) * (hs2-ox) + cos(theta) * (gs2-oy) + oy ; float hs3n,gs3n; hs3n = cos(theta) * (hs3-ox) - sin(theta) * (gs3-oy) + ox ; gs3n = sin(theta) * (hs3-ox) + cos(theta) * (gs3-oy) + oy ; float hs4n,gs4n; hs4n = cos(theta) * (hs4-ox) - sin(theta) * (gs4-oy) + ox ; gs4n = sin(theta) * (hs4-ox) + cos(theta) * (gs4-oy) + oy ;

P a g e | 104

line(hs1n,gs1n,hs2n,gs2n); line(hs2n,gs2n,hs3n,gs3n); line(hs3n,gs3n,hs4n,gs4n);

getch(); closegraph(); return 0; }

2.) YAW MOTION #include<conio.h> #include<stdio.h> #include<math.h> #include<graphics.h> #include<dos.h>

main() {

P a g e | 105

int gd= DETECT, gm; initgraph(&gd, &gm, "d:/tc/bgi"); int ox=290, oy=240; circle(290,240,10); int colour=7; int cl = colour;

int x1=210,y1=210,x2=350,y2=210; line(x1,y1,x2,y2); int x3=210,y3=270,x4=350,y4=270; line(x3,y3,x4,y4);

// fuselage lines

line(160,240,425,240);

//nose cone

int xe=210,ye=240,xr=30,yr=30; ellipse(xe,ye,90,270,xr,yr);

//tailcone int a1=350,b1=320; arc(a1,b1,46,95,110); int a2=350,b2=160; arc(a2,b2,270,313,110);

//starboard

P a g e | 106

int s1=250, t1=210, s2=290, t2=100; int s3=315, t3=100, s4=315, t4=210; line(s1,t1,s2,t2); line(s3,t3,s4,t4); line(s2,t2,s3,t3);

// port side int p1=250,q1=270,p2=290,q2=380; int p3=315,q3=380,p4=315,q4=270; line(p1,q1,p2,q2); line(p3,q3,p4,q4); line(p2,q2,p3,q3);

//horizontal tail //starboard side

int hs1=375, gs1=214, hs2=385, gs2=174; int hs3=395,gs3=174,hs4=395,gs4=217; line(hs1,gs1,hs2,gs2); line(hs2,gs2,hs3,gs3); line(hs3,gs3,hs4,gs4);

//port side int hp1=375,gp1=266,hp2=385,gp2=304; int hp3=395,gp3=304,hp4=395,gp4=262; line(hp1,gp1,hp2,gp2);

P a g e | 107

line(hp2,gp2,hp3,gp3); line(hp3,gp3,hp4,gp4);

//vertical tail int a3=350,b3=320; arc(a3,b3,54,65,99); int a4=350,b4=160; arc(a4,b4,295,307,99); int vx=390,vy=240,vxr=10,vyr=10; ellipse(vx,vy,60,292,vxr,vyr);

//transformation part int m; printf("\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n scanf("%d",&m); int e=m; int angle=0; //for( angle=0; angle <=m; ) int loop=-10000; int tp; tp=m; if(m<0) {m=m*-1;} while(loop<m) { delay(100); enter yaw angle in degrees ");

P a g e | 108

cleardevice();

if(tp>0) {angle=angle+1; loop=angle; }

if(tp<0) { angle=angle-1; loop=angle*(-1); } if(tp==0) {angle=0; loop=1; m=0; } float theta=angle/57.3;

cleardevice();

setcolor(WHITE); line(280,240,300,240); line(290,230,290,250); circle(290,240,10); setcolor(cl);

int i1=120,j1=240,i2=465,j2=240;

P a g e | 109

line(i1,j1,i2,j2); float i1n,j1n; i1n = cos(theta) * (i1-ox) - sin(theta) * (j1-oy) + ox ; j1n = sin(theta) * (i1-ox) + cos(theta) * (j1-oy) + oy ;

float i2n,j2n; i2n = cos(theta) * (i2-ox) - sin(theta) * (j2-oy) + ox ; j2n = sin(theta) * (i2-ox) + cos(theta) * (j2-oy) + oy ; line(i1n,j1n,i2n,j2n);

//fuselage transformation float x1n,y1n; x1n = cos(theta) * (x1-ox) - sin(theta) * (y1-oy) + ox ; y1n = sin(theta) * (x1-ox) + cos(theta) * (y1-oy) + oy ; float x2n, y2n; x2n=cos(theta)*(x2-ox)-sin(theta)*(y2-oy)+ox; y2n= sin(theta)*(x2-ox)+cos(theta)*(y2-oy)+oy; line(x1n,y1n,x2n,y2n); float x3n,y3n; x3n = cos(theta) * (x3-ox) - sin(theta) * (y3-oy) + ox ; y3n = sin(theta) * (x3-ox) + cos(theta) * (y3-oy) + oy ; float x4n, y4n; x4n=cos(theta)*(x4-ox)-sin(theta)*(y4-oy)+ox; y4n= sin(theta)*(x4-ox)+cos(theta)*(y4-oy)+oy; line(x3n,y3n,x4n,y4n);

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// nose cone float xen, yen; xen = cos(theta) * (xe-ox) - sin(theta) * (ye-oy) + ox ; yen = sin(theta) * (xe-ox) + cos(theta) * (ye-oy) + oy ; ellipse(xen,yen,90-e,270-e,yr,xr);

//tail cone float a1n, b1n; a1n = cos(theta) * (a1-ox) - sin(theta) * (b1-oy) + ox ; b1n = sin(theta) * (a1-ox) + cos(theta) * (b1-oy) + oy ; //setcolor(2); arc(a1n,b1n,46-e,95-e,110);

float a2n, b2n; a2n = cos(theta) * (a2-ox) - sin(theta) * (b2-oy) + ox ; b2n = sin(theta) * (a2-ox) + cos(theta) * (b2-oy) + oy ; //setcolor(2); arc(a2n,b2n,270-e,313-e,110);

//starboard transformation float s1n,t1n; s1n = cos(theta) * (s1-ox) - sin(theta) * (t1-oy) + ox ; t1n = sin(theta) * (s1-ox) + cos(theta) * (t1-oy) + oy ; float s2n,t2n;

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s2n = cos(theta) * (s2-ox) - sin(theta) * (t2-oy) + ox ; t2n = sin(theta) * (s2-ox) + cos(theta) * (t2-oy) + oy ; line(s1n,t1n,s2n,t2n); float s3n,t3n; s3n = cos(theta) * (s3-ox) - sin(theta) * (t3-oy) + ox ; t3n = sin(theta) * (s3-ox) + cos(theta) * (t3-oy) + oy ; float s4n,t4n; s4n = cos(theta) * (s4-ox) - sin(theta) * (t4-oy) + ox ; t4n = sin(theta) * (s4-ox) + cos(theta) * (t4-oy) + oy ; line(s3n,t3n,s4n,t4n); line(s2n,t2n,s3n,t3n);

//port side transformation float p1n,q1n; p1n = cos(theta) * (p1-ox) - sin(theta) * (q1-oy) + ox ; q1n = sin(theta) * (p1-ox) + cos(theta) * (q1-oy) + oy ; float p2n,q2n; p2n = cos(theta) * (p2-ox) - sin(theta) * (q2-oy) + ox ; q2n = sin(theta) * (p2-ox) + cos(theta) * (q2-oy) + oy ; line(p1n,q1n,p2n,q2n);

float p3n,q3n; p3n = cos(theta) * (p3-ox) - sin(theta) * (q3-oy) + ox ; q3n = sin(theta) * (p3-ox) + cos(theta) * (q3-oy) + oy ; float p4n,q4n; p4n = cos(theta) * (p4-ox) - sin(theta) * (q4-oy) + ox ;

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q4n = sin(theta) * (p4-ox) + cos(theta) * (q4-oy) + oy ; line(p3n,q3n,p4n,q4n); line(p2n,q2n,p3n,q3n);

//horizontal tail transformation float hs1n,gs1n; hs1n = cos(theta) * (hs1-ox) - sin(theta) * (gs1-oy) + ox ; gs1n = sin(theta) * (hs1-ox) + cos(theta) * (gs1-oy) + oy ; float hs2n,gs2n; hs2n = cos(theta) * (hs2-ox) - sin(theta) * (gs2-oy) + ox ; gs2n = sin(theta) * (hs2-ox) + cos(theta) * (gs2-oy) + oy ; float hs3n,gs3n; hs3n = cos(theta) * (hs3-ox) - sin(theta) * (gs3-oy) + ox ; gs3n = sin(theta) * (hs3-ox) + cos(theta) * (gs3-oy) + oy ; float hs4n,gs4n; hs4n = cos(theta) * (hs4-ox) - sin(theta) * (gs4-oy) + ox ; gs4n = sin(theta) * (hs4-ox) + cos(theta) * (gs4-oy) + oy ; line(hs1n,gs1n,hs2n,gs2n); line(hs2n,gs2n,hs3n,gs3n); line(hs3n,gs3n,hs4n,gs4n);

//port side horizontal tail transformation float hp1n,gp1n; hp1n = cos(theta) * (hp1-ox) - sin(theta) * (gp1-oy) + ox ; gp1n = sin(theta) * (hp1-ox) + cos(theta) * (gp1-oy) + oy ;

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float hp2n,gp2n; hp2n = cos(theta) * (hp2-ox) - sin(theta) * (gp2-oy) + ox ; gp2n = sin(theta) * (hp2-ox) + cos(theta) * (gp2-oy) + oy ; float hp3n,gp3n; hp3n = cos(theta) * (hp3-ox) - sin(theta) * (gp3-oy) + ox ; gp3n = sin(theta) * (hp3-ox) + cos(theta) * (gp3-oy) + oy ; float hp4n,gp4n; hp4n = cos(theta) * (hp4-ox) - sin(theta) * (gp4-oy) + ox ; gp4n = sin(theta) * (hp4-ox) + cos(theta) * (gp4-oy) + oy ; line(hp1n,gp1n,hp2n,gp2n); line(hp2n,gp2n,hp3n,gp3n); line(hp3n,gp3n,hp4n,gp4n);

//tail cone transformation float a3n, b3n; a3n = cos(theta) * (a3-ox) - sin(theta) * (b3-oy) + ox ; b3n = sin(theta) * (a3-ox) + cos(theta) * (b3-oy) + oy ; arc(a3n,b3n,54-e,65-e,99); float a4n, b4n; a4n = cos(theta) * (a4-ox) - sin(theta) * (b4-oy) + ox ; b4n = sin(theta) * (a4-ox) + cos(theta) * (b4-oy) + oy ; arc(a4n,b4n,295-e,307-e,99); float vxn, vyn; vxn = cos(theta) * (vx-ox) - sin(theta) * (vy-oy) + ox ; vyn = sin(theta) * (vx-ox) + cos(theta) * (vy-oy) + oy ; ellipse(vxn,vyn,60-e,292-e,vyr,vxr);

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} getch(); closegraph(); return 0; }

3.) ROLL MOTION #include<conio.h> #include<stdio.h> #include<math.h> #include<graphics.h> #include<dos.h> main()

{ int gd= DETECT, gm; initgraph(&gd, &gm, "d:/tc/bgi"); int colour=7;

circle(290,240,5); circle(290,240,30); line(290,235,290,245); int m1=100,n1=240,m2=480,n2=240;

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line(m1,n1,m2,n2);

//starboard side

int x1=262, y1=230,x2=122,y2=240,x3=122,y3=245,x4=260,y4=245; line(x1,y1,x2,y2); line(x2,y2,x3,y3); line(x3,y3,x4,y4);

//port side

int a1=318,b1=230,a2=458,b2=240,a3=458,b3=245,a4=318,b4=245; line(a1,b1,a2,b2); line(a3,b3,a2,b2); line(a3,b3,a4,b4);

//vertical tail int u1=280,v1=211,u2=290,v2=150,u3=300,v3=211; line(u1,v1,u2,v2); line(u2,v2,u3,v3);

//transformations

int ox=290,oy=240;

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int m; printf("\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n scanf("%d",&m); cleardevice(); line(m1,n1,m2,n2); circle(290,240,5); //setcolor(colour); circle(290,240,30); enter roll angle in degrees ");

int angle=0; //for( angle=0; angle <=m; ) int loop=-10000; int tp; tp=m; if(m<0) {m=m*-1;} while(loop<m) { delay(100); cleardevice();

if(tp>0) {angle=angle+1; loop=angle; }

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if(tp<0) { angle=angle-1; loop=angle*(-1); } if(tp==0) {angle=0; loop=1; m=0; } float theta=angle/57.3;

setcolor(WHITE); circle(290,240,5); line(m1,n1,m2,n2); //setcolor(colour); circle(290,240,30); float m1n,n1n; m1n = cos(theta) * (m1-ox) - sin(theta) * (n1-oy) + ox ; n1n = sin(theta) * (m1-ox) + cos(theta) * (n1-oy) + oy ; float m2n,n2n; m2n = cos(theta) * (m2-ox) - sin(theta) * (n2-oy) + ox ; n2n = sin(theta) * (m2-ox) + cos(theta) * (n2-oy) + oy ; line(m1n,n1n,m2n,n2n);

setcolor(colour); circle(290,240,30);

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//vertical tail

float u1n,v1n; u1n = cos(theta) * (u1-ox) - sin(theta) * (v1-oy) + ox ; v1n = sin(theta) * (u1-ox) + cos(theta) * (v1-oy) + oy ;

float u2n,v2n; u2n = cos(theta) * (u2-ox) - sin(theta) * (v2-oy) + ox ; v2n = sin(theta) * (u2-ox) + cos(theta) * (v2-oy) + oy ;

float u3n,v3n; u3n = cos(theta) * (u3-ox) - sin(theta) * (v3-oy) + ox ; v3n = sin(theta) * (u3-ox) + cos(theta) * (v3-oy) + oy ;

line(u1n,v1n,u2n,v2n); line(u2n,v2n,u3n,v3n); //port side

float a1n,b1n; a1n = cos(theta) * (a1-ox) - sin(theta) * (b1-oy) + ox ; b1n = sin(theta) * (a1-ox) + cos(theta) * (b1-oy) + oy ;

float a2n,b2n; a2n = cos(theta) * (a2-ox) - sin(theta) * (b2-oy) + ox ;

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b2n = sin(theta) * (a2-ox) + cos(theta) * (b2-oy) + oy ;

float a3n,b3n; a3n = cos(theta) * (a3-ox) - sin(theta) * (b3-oy) + ox ; b3n = sin(theta) * (a3-ox) + cos(theta) * (b3-oy) + oy ;

float a4n,b4n; a4n = cos(theta) * (a4-ox) - sin(theta) * (b4-oy) + ox ; b4n = sin(theta) * (a4-ox) + cos(theta) * (b4-oy) + oy ;

line(a1n,b1n,a2n,b2n); line(a3n,b3n,a2n,b2n); line(a3n,b3n,a4n,b4n);

//starboard side

float x1n,y1n; x1n = cos(theta) * (x1-ox) - sin(theta) * (y1-oy) + ox ; y1n = sin(theta) * (x1-ox) + cos(theta) * (y1-oy) + oy ; float x2n,y2n; x2n = cos(theta) * (x2-ox) - sin(theta) * (y2-oy) + ox ; y2n = sin(theta) * (x2-ox) + cos(theta) * (y2-oy) + oy ; float x3n,y3n; x3n = cos(theta) * (x3-ox) - sin(theta) * (y3-oy) + ox ; y3n = sin(theta) * (x3-ox) + cos(theta) * (y3-oy) + oy ;

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float x4n,y4n; x4n = cos(theta) * (x4-ox) - sin(theta) * (y4-oy) + ox ; y4n = sin(theta) * (x4-ox) + cos(theta) * (y4-oy) + oy ; line(x1n,y1n,x2n,y2n); line(x2n,y2n,x3n,y3n); line(x3n,y3n,x4n,y4n); } getch(); closegraph(); return 0; }

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Summary of the 6DOF Model

The

6DOF nonlinear model shows very promising performance in duplicating the roll mode, Dutch roll mode, and short period mode dynamics. The lift and sideforce components estimated by the 6DOF model are shown to be very accurate in every dynamic mode comparison. Visualisation using C++ will incorporated into MATLAB

Future Work
The

USAF digital DATCOM program should be used as another modeling method to potentially improve the models used in this research. The 6DOF model can be interfaced with other existing autopilot systems to develop a hardware-in-the-loop simulation platform. The 6DOF model can also be used in full-size, manned aircraft.

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References
1. Center of Remote Sensing of Ice Sheets Research Institute, Lawrence, KS, URL: http://www.cresis.ku.edu [cited 19 September 2008].

2. Bernstein, L., Bosch, P., et. al., Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Summary for Policy Markers, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [online publication], URL: http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr_spm.pdf [cited 20 August 2008]. 3. Donovan, W. R., The Design of an Uninhabited Air Vehicle for Remote Sensing in the Cryosphere, Masters Thesis, Department of Aerospace Engineering, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 18 December 2007. 4. Donovan, W. R., CReSIS UAV Critical Design Review: The Meridian, Technical Report 123, Center for Remote Sensing of Ice Sheets, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 25 June 2007. 5. Underwood, S., Performance and Emission Characteristics of an Aircraft Turbo diesel Engine using JET-A Fuel, Masters Thesis, Department of Aerospace Engineering, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 05 May 2008.

6.Anderson, J. D., and Wendt, J. F., Computational Fluid Dynamics: An Introduction, 2nd ed., Springer-Velag, New York, 1996. 7. Anderson, J. D., Computational Fluid Dynamics: The Basics with Applications, McGraw Hill Inc., 1995.

8. Phillips, W. F., Mechanics of Flight, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2004. 9. Pamadi, B. N., Performance, Stability, Dynamics, and Control of Airplanes, 2nd edition, AIAA Education Series, Reston, VA, 2004. 10. Roskam, J., Aircraft Flight Dynamics and Automatic Flight Controls (Part I), DAR Corporation, Lawrence, KS, 2003.

11,MATLAB/Simulink, Software Package, Version R2007a, The MathWorks Inc., Natick, MA, 2007.

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