5/3/2012

Carbohydrates
Chapter 2

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are preferred Grains, vegetables, energy source for many of legumes, fruits, and milk bodys functions offer ample carbohydrate
Human brain depends exclusively on it as energy source Carbohydrate-rich diet recommended for good health

Fats share fuel-providing responsibility with carbohydrates, but not normally used to fuel brain & central nervous system Other energy sources (proteins & alcohol) offer no advantage as fuel

The Chemists View of Carbohydrates

Dietary carbohydrates include simple sugars, starch & fiber Simple sugars (also called simple carbohydrates)
Monosaccharides (single sugars) Disaccharides (double sugars)

Starch & fiber

Polysaccharides (chains of monosaccharide units)

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Monosaccharides
Glucose
Most cells rely on glucose for fuel Brain & nervous system rely on it almost exclusively Body maintains blood levels of glucose within limits that allow for cell nourishment
Insulin moves glucose from blood into cells Glucagon brings glucose out of storage

Monosaccharides
Fructose
Sweetest of sugars Naturally occurring in fruits, honey & saps Along with glucose, the most common monosaccarides in nature

Galactose
Primarily occurs as part of lactose Known as milk sugar Freed from lactose as single sugar during digestion

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Disaccharides
Pairs of single sugars linked to form disaccharides All disaccharides have glucose as one of the single sugars, combined with a second Enzymes split disaccharides into the two monosaccharides during digestion Important dietary disaccharides include sucrose, lactose & maltose

Disaccharides
Sucrose (white or table sugar)
Composed of glucose & fructose Refined from juice of sugar beets or sugarcane Occurs naturally in many fruits & vegetables

Lactose
Composed of glucose & galactose Principle carbohydrate in milk
Lactose intolerance Inability to digest lactose Occurs in some people after infancy

Disaccharides
Maltose (malt sugar)
Consists of two glucose units Produced during breakdown of starch
Plants break down stored starch for energy & start to sprout Occurs in humans during carbohydrate digestion

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Polysaccharides
Composed almost entirely of glucose (in some cases, also other monosaccharides) Major polysaccharides in nutrition: starch, glycogen & fiber Glycogen: storage form of energy for humans & animals Starch: storage form of glucose in plants Fibers: provide structure in stems, trunks, roots, leaves & skins of plants

Polysaccharides
Starch
Giant chains of hundreds of glucose units All starchy foods are plants
Grainsrichest source of starch Legumes Root vegetables (tubers)

Grains, legumes & tubers also abundant dietary supply of fiber, protein & other nutrients

Glycogen
Composed of highly branched chains of glucose units Storage form of glucose
Stored in liver & muscles Found in limited amounts in meats; not found in plant sources

Polysaccharides
Fibers
Consists of polysaccharides, found in all plant-derived foods Provide little or no energy for body (bonds cannot be broken by human digestive enzymes) Bacterial digestion does yield some energy with metabolism (1.5-2.5 kcalories per gram)

Soluble fibers
Dissolve in water Form gels which are easily digested by bacteria in large intestine Associated with lower risks of chronic diseases

Insoluble fibers
Do not dissolve in water Retain structure & texture Aid digestive system by easing elimination

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Health Effects & Recommended Intake of Sugars

Fiber-rich carbohydrates should predominate in the diet
Concentrated sweets & foods with added sugars contribute kcalories but few nutrients World-wide trend in increasing sugar consumption Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010: concentrated sweets & added sugars should be treated as discretionary kcalories World Health Organization: no more than 10% of total kcalories from added sugars

Conclusions (from FDA):

Moderate amounts of sugars pose no major health risk Excesses contribute to nutrient deficiencies & tooth decay

Health Effects of Sugars

Sugar & nutrient deficiencies
Empty-kcalorie foods (containing added sugar) deliver glucose & energy, but few other nutrients In comparison, foods with natural sugars, starch & fibers that deliver protein, vitamins, minerals, as well as glucose & energy Sugar contributes to nutrient deficiencies by displacing other nutrients Nutritious foods should come first in diet

Sugar & dental caries

Sugars & starches both support bacterial development in mouthcontributing to dental caries Populations with intake of <10% kcalories from sugar have low incidence of caries Factors contributing to development of caries:
Length of time food spends in mouth Composition of food How sticky food is How often person eats the food Whether or not teeth are brushed following consumption

Sugars & Controversy

Obesity
Evidence shows supportive role of sugar and incidence of obesity, but no direct cause-andeffect relationship
Usually, increased sugar intake also associated with greater consumption of kcalories, processed foods, meats & fats Weight gain usually associated with decline in physical activity

In U.S., obesity has reached epidemic proportions

Increased intake of food energy & sugar-sweetened beverages Contribution of sugar to excessive energy intake has had role in development of obesity

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Sugars & Controversy

Behavior
No proof that sugar causes hyperactive or aggressive behavior Relationship of sugar to behavior problems in children may be due to replacement of nutrient-dense foods with sugary foods Lack of nutrients, not sugar itself, can contribute to undesirable behavior in children

Recommended Sugar Intakes

Moderation: enough for pleasure but not to displace more nutritious foods Dietary Guidelines for Americans Urges people to reduce consumption of foods containing added sugars
USDA Food Guide 3 tsp for 1,600 kcal (a day) 5 tsp for 1,800 kcal 8 tsp for 2,000 kcal 9 tsp for 2,200 kcal 12 tsp for 2,400 kcal
(1 tsp white sugar equivalency)

Some Sugar Equivalents

1 tsp brown sugar, candy, jam, syrup 1 Tbls ketchup 1 oz carbonated soft drink

Recognizing Sugars
Comparing sugar sources
Orange vs. Honey
Same sugars & about same energy as 1 tablespoon of sugar or honey Orange also contains vitamins, minerals & fiber not found in honey More nutrient density in orange
You receive about the same amount and kinds of sugars from an orange as from a tablespoon of honey, but the packaging makes a big nutrition difference.

Sugar-sweetened soft drink

Contains many tablespoons of sugar Few, if any, other nutrients

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Health Effects of Alternative Sweeteners

Sugar alcohols (nutritive sweeteners)
Carbohydrates that yield less energy than sucrose Occur naturally in fruits Manufactured to add sweetness & bulk to cookies, sugarless gum & candy, jams & jellies Side effects of gas, abdominal discomfort & diarrhea Do not contribute to dental caries

Artificial sweeteners (nonnutritive sweeteners)

Not carbohydrates; yield no energy Add to sweetness of foods without promoting tooth decay U.S. approved sweeteners
Saccharin Aspartame Sucralose Neotame Tagatose

Glossary of Artificial Sweeteners

Aspartame
Aspartame
Active ingredient in NutraSweet & Equal 200 times sweeter than sucrose Extensive animal & human studies to document safety: long-term consumption found safe & not associated with adverse health effects (exception: not safe for individuals with PKU) Despite safety documentation, consumption should be maintained below the ADI of 50 milligrams/kg in a day Aspartame & PKU
Aspartame contains the amino acid phenylalanine PKU (phenylketonuria): metabolic disorder in which phenylalanine cannot be disposed of efficiently

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Artificial Sweeteners & Weight Control

Artificial sweeteners & weight control
Used widely to control weight
Some evidence that consuming artificial sweeteners has been linked with increased feelings of hunger Most studies find to the contrary

Using sweeteners does not automatically lower energy intake to control energy intake, must consider informed diet & activity decisions

Health Effects of Starch & Dietary Fibers

For health, most people should increase intake of carbohydrate-rich foods Emphasis on whole grains, vegetables, legumes, fruits usually moderate in food energy, low in fat & high in dietary fiber, vitamins & minerals Help reduce risks of obesity, cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, dental caries, GI disorders & malnutrition Challenge: which carbohydrates contribute which health benefits

Disease Prevention & Recommendations

Heart disease
Diets rich in whole grains, legumes & vegetables (especially whole grains) may guard against heart disease Soluble fibers (oat bran, barley, legumes) lower blood cholesterol

Diabetes
Some fibers delay passage of nutrients from stomach into small intestineslowing glucose absorption Glycemic effect: extent to which a food raises blood glucose concentration & elicits an insulin response

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Disease Prevention & Recommendations

GI health
Fibers that enlarge & soften stools ease elimination
Alleviate or prevent constipation & hemorrhoids Maintain movement of contents of intestinal tract Maintain health & tone of GI tract muscles; helping to guard against diverticulosis

Cancer
Studies have shown that increasing dietary fiber protects against colon cancer

Disease Prevention & Recommendations

Weight management
Fiber-rich foods
Tend to be low in fats & added sugars, yielding less energy per bite Promote feeling of fullness as they absorb water Slow movement through digestive tract, prolonging satiety

Recommended sources of fiber in weight-loss plans

Fresh fruits Vegetables Legumes Whole-grain foods

Harmful Effects of Excessive Fiber Intake

May bind with minerals, resulting in losses with excretion Individuals with marginal food intake overall may not meet energy or nutrient needs with high-fiber diets
Malnourished, elderly, young children on all-plant diets especially vulnerable Dehydration also a risk

Excessive fiber intake, as well as limited fluids, can obstruct GI tract

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Carbohydrate Recommendations
Carbohydrates: about half (45-65%) of daily energy requirement Fiber: encourage whole grains, vegetables, fruits & legumes
11.5 grams/1000 kcal/day intake Approximately 20-35 grams/day

Achieving higher fiber intakes

Substitute plant sources of proteins (legumes) for some animal sources Consume recommended amounts of fruits & vegetables Seek out variety of fiber sources Drink extra fluids to ensure fiber effectiveness

Fiber in Selected Foods

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Carbohydrate Food Sources

Grains
Most foods from group provide about 15 grams carbohydrate, mostly starch Choices should be low in fat & sugar Included in group:
1 slice whole-wheat bread English muffin or bagel 6-inch tortilla cup rice, pasta or cooked cereal

Carbohydrate Food Sources

Vegetables
Some are major sources of starch; provide 15 grams carbohydrate
Small white or sweet potato cup cooked dry beans, corn, peas, plantain, winter squash

Fruits
Typical serving provides about 15 grams carbohydrate
cup juice or most canned or fresh fruits Small apple, banana, orange cup dried fruits

Non-starchy vegetables; about 5 grams carbohydrate

cup carrots, okra, onions, tomatoes, cooked greens, salad greens

No more than 1/3 of days fruit should be from juice

Carbohydrate Food Sources

Milk, cheese, & yogurt
1 cup milk or yogurt provides 12 grams carbohydrate
1 cup buttermilk a cup dried milk powder cup evaporated milk

Meat, poultry, fish, legumes, eggs, & nuts

Almost no carbohydrates provided from these foods Exceptions: nuts & dried beans
cup dried beans provides 15 grams cup other legumes provides approximately 8 grams

Cottage cheese provides 6 grams per cup Other cheeses provide little, if any, carbohydrate

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Food Labels & Health Claims

Labels list
Amount (in grams) total carbohydrate, including starch, fiber & sugars, per serving Percent of Daily Values expressed for individual consuming 2000-kcal diet

Authorized health claims

Reduced risk of cancer associated with fiber-containing grain products, fruits & vegetables Reduced risk of coronary heart disease associated with fruits, vegetables & grain products containing fiber Reduced risk of coronary heart disease associated with soluble fiber from whole oats & psyllium seed husk Reduced risk of heart disease & certain cancers associated with whole grains

Nutrition in Practice Glycemic Index

The glycemic index is a measure of how quickly carbohydrate in a food is digested and absorbed Most common protocol is to feed the test food to subjects and then measure blood glucose two or three hours after Mixed findings on whether a low-GI diet reduces the risks of developing diabetes, heart disease, & obesity

Glycemic Index

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