Cours Hyperfrequences

EE194RF_L1 2
EE 194 RF: Lecture 1

Importance of RF circuit design
wireless communications (explosive growth of
cell phones)
global positioning systems (GPS)
computer engineering (bus systems, CPU,
peripherals exceeding 600 MHz)
Why this course???
lumped circuit representation no longer applies!
EE194RF_L1 3
What do we mean by going from lumped to distributed theory?
Example: INDUCTOR
Low-frequency
(lumped)
L j R Z + =
High-frequency
Z = ?
EE194RF_L1 4
Current and voltage vary spatially over the component size
Upper MHz to GHz range
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
x
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
y
0
2
4
6
z
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
x
E (or V) and H (or I) fields
EE194RF_L1 5
Frequency spectrum
RadioFrequency (RF)
TV, wireless phones, GPS
300 MHz 3 GHz operational frequency
1 m 10 cm wavelength in air
MicroWave (MW)
RADAR, remote sensing
8 GHz 40 GHz operational frequency
3.75 cm 7.5 mm wavelength in air
EE194RF_L1 6
Design Focus
Cell phone transceiver circuit
Typical frequency
range:
950 MHz
1.9 GHz
EE194RF_L1 7
Implementation
matching networks
BJT/FET active devices
biasing circuits
printed circuit board
mircostripline realization
surface mount technology
EE194RF_L2 2
RF Behavior of Passive Components
Conventional circuit analysis
R is frequency independent
Ideal inductor:
Ideal capacitor:
Evaluation
Impedance chart
L j X
L
=
C
X
C
1
=
EE194RF_L2 3
Impedance Chart
(impedance of C & L vs frequency)
Z
C
=1/(2fC)
Z
L
=2fL
EE194RF_L2 4
How does a wire behave at high frequency?
Example: Resistor

2
a
l
R
DC
=
2
/
a
R R
DC
=
2
/
a
R L
DC
=

f
1
=
High frequency results in skin-
effect whereby current flow is
pushed to the outside
EE194RF_L2 5
How exactly is the current distribution as a function of
frequency?
Low frequency shows
uniform current
distribution
medium to high
frequency pushes
current to the outside
RF sees current
completely restricted
to surface
EE194RF_L2 6
Impedance Measurement Example
Capacitor going through resonance
Capacitor
Characteristics
EE194RF_L2 7
Equivalent Circuit Analysis
EEE194RF_L3 194 2
Transmission Line Analysis
Propagating electric field
Phase velocity
Traveling voltage wave
) cos(
0
kz t E E
X X
=
Time factor
Space factor
r
p
c
f v

= = =
1
k
kz t
E t z V
X
) sin(
) , (
0
=

EEE194RF_L3 3
High frequency implies spatial voltage distribution
Voltage has a time and
space behavior
Space is neglected for low
frequency applications
For RF there can be a large
spatial variation
EEE194RF_L3 4
Generic way to measure spatial voltage variations
For low frequency (1MHz)
Kirchhoffs laws apply
For high frequency (1GHz)
Kirchhoffs laws do not
apply anymore
EEE194RF_L3 5
Kirchhoffs laws on a microscopic level
Over a differential section
we can again use basic
circuit theory
Model takes into account
line losses and dielectric
losses
Ideal line involves only L
and C
EEE194RF_L3 6
Example of transmission line: Two-wire line
Alternating electric field
between conductors
alternating magnetic field
surrounding conductors
dielectric medium tends
to confine field inside
material
EEE194RF_L3 7
Example of transmission line: Coaxial cable
Electric field is
completely contained
within both conductors
Perfect shielding of
magnetic field
TEM modes up to a
certain cut-off frequency
E
H
EEE194RF_L3 8
Example of transmission line: Microstip line
Cross-sectional view
Low dielectric medium
High dielectric medium
EEE194RF_L3 9
Triple-layer transmission line
Conductor is completely shielded between two
ground planes
Cross-sectional view
EEE194RF_L4 2
General Transmission Line Equations
Detailed analysis of a differential section
Note: Analysis applies to all types of transmission lines such as
coax cable, two-wire, microstrip, etc.
EEE194RF_L4 3
Kirchhoffs laws on a microscopic level
Over a differential
section we can again
use basic circuit theory
Model takes into
account line losses and
dielectric losses
Ideal line involves
only L and C
EEE194RF_L4 4
Advantages versus disadvantages of
electric circuit representation
Clear intuitive
physical picture
yields a standardized
two-port network
representation
serves as building
bocks to go from
microscopic to
macroscopic forms
Basically a one-
dimensional representation
(cannot take into account
interferences)
Material nonlinearities,
hysteresis, and temperature
effects are not accounted
for
EEE194RF_L4 5
) ( ) (
) (
)
) ( ) (
( z I L j R
dz
z dV
z
z V z z V
Lim + = =
Derivation of differential transmission line form

) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( z z V z z I L j R z V + + + =
KVL:
KCL:
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( z z I z z zV C j G z I + + + + =
) ( ) (
) (
z V C j G
dz
z dI
+ =
Coupled
DE
EEE194RF_L4 6
Traveling Voltage and Current Waves
0 ) (
) (
2
2
2
= z V k
dz
z V d
where
) )( ( C j G L j R jk k k
i r
+ + = + =
kz kz
e V e V z V
+ +
+ = ) (
kz kz
e I e I z I
+ +
+ = ) (
0 ) (
) (
2
2
2
= z I k
dz
z I d
Left traveling wave
Right traveling wave
Phasor expressions
EEE194RF_L4 7
General line impedance definition
) (
) (
) (
kz kz
e V e V
L j R
k
z I
+ +
+
=
+
+
= =
+
+
=
I
V
I
V
C j G
L j R
Z
) (
) (
0
?
Characteristic line impedance
EEE194RF_L5 2
Lossless Transmission Line Model
Line representation
) (
) (
0
C j G
L j R
Z
+
+
= Characteristic impedance:
Note: R, L, G, C are given per unit length and depend on geometry
Lossless implies:
R = G = 0!
EEE194RF_L5 3
Transmission Line Parameters for different line types
2-wire
coax
a
1
)
2
(
1
a
D
ch
R
L
G
C
)
1 1
(
2
1
b a
+
parallel-plate
)) 2 /( (
1
a D ch
)) 2 /( (
1
a D ch
w
2
w
d
d
w
d
w
) ln(
2 a
b
) / ln(
2
a b
) / ln(
2
a b
EEE194RF_L5 4
Microstrip line
1 / ),
4
8 ln(
2
/
0 0
0
< + = h W
h
W
W
h
Z
eff

] ) / 1 ( 04 . 0 ) / 12 1 [(
2
1
2
1
2 2 / 1
h W W h
r r
eff
+ +
+
+
=

EEE194RF_L5 5
What is a voltage reflection coefficient?
0
0
0
Z Z
Z Z
L
L
+
=
Reflection coefficient
at the load location
) ( 1
0
=
L
Z
) 0 ( 1
0
=
L
Z
EEE194RF_L5 6
Standing Waves
) ( ) (
d j d j
e e V d V
+ +
=
) 2 / cos( ) sin( 2 ) , ( + =
+
t d V t d v
EEE194RF_L5 7
Standing wave ratio
| | 1
| | 1
| |
| |
| |
| |
0
0
min
max
min
max

+
= = =
I
I
V
V
SWR
SWR is a measure of mismatch of the
load to the line
SWR=1 (matched) or SWR

(total mismatch)
match
EEE194RF_L6 2
Special Termination Conditions
Lossless transmission line
C
L
Z =
0
) tan(
) tan(
) (
0
0
0
d jZ Z
d jZ Z
Z d Z
L
L
in
+
+
=
Characteristic impedance
EEE194RF_L6 3
Input impedance of short circuit transmission line
) tan( ) (
0
d jZ d Z
in
=
Impedance
Voltage:
) sin( 2 ) ( d jV d V
+
=
Current:
) cos(
2
) (
0
d
Z
V
d I
+
=
EEE194RF_L6 4
Input impedance of open circuit transmission line
Voltage:
Current:
Impedance
) cos( 2 ) ( d V d V
+
=
) sin(
2
) (
0
d
Z
jV
d I
+
=
) cot( ) (
0
d jZ d Z
in
=
EEE194RF_L6 5
Quarter-wave transmission line
L L
L
in
Z
Z
jZ Z
jZ Z
Z Z
2
0
0
0
0
) 4 / tan(
) 4 / tan(
) 4 / ( =
+
+
=
Quarter-wave transformer model:

given input and output impedances
Predict line
impedance
in L
Z Z Z =
0
EEE194RF_L6 6
What should you know?
Input impedance: Page 80, equation (2.71)
Example 2.6 on page 82
Matching works only for
particular frequencies
500 MHz 1.5 GHz
EEE194RF_L7 2
Sourced and Loaded Transmission Lines
Lossless transmission line with source
) ( ) 1 (
G in
in
G in in in
Z Z
Z
V V V
+
= + =
+
Voltage at the beginning of the transmission line is
composed of an incident and reflected component!
0
0
Z Z
Z Z
G
G
+
=
0
0
Z Z
Z Z
L
L
+
=
EEE194RF_L7 3
Power considerations
} Re{
2
1
*
in in in
I V P =
) 1 (
in in in
V V + =
+
) 1 (
0
in
in
in
Z
V
I =
+
) | | 1 (
| |
2
1
2
0
2
in
in
in
Z
V
P =
+
) | | 1 (
| 1 |
| 1 | | |
8
1
2
2
2
0
2
in
in S
S G
in
Z
V
P

=
EEE194RF_L7 4
Two special cases:
Load and source
matched line
0
0
= =
S
0
2
| |
8
1
Z
V
P
G
in
=
Mismatch at source,
but match at load
0
0
=
2
0
2
| 1 |
| |
8
1
S
G
in
Z
V
P =
How to measure power?
mW
W P
dBm P
1
] [
log 10 ] [ =
EEE194RF_L7 5
Return and insertion losses
Return loss: | | log 20 | | log 10 ) log( 10
2
in in
i
r
P
P
RL = = =
[dB]
Insertion loss:
) | | 1 log( 10 ) log( 10 ) log( 10
2
in
i
r i
i
t
P
P P
P
P
IL =
= = [dB]
No reflection
Full reflection
0
dB
1
0 dB
1
RL
SWR
EEE194RF_L8 2
From Reflection Coefficient to Load
Impedance (Smith Chart)
Reflection coefficient in phasor form
L
j
i r
L
L
e j
Z Z
Z Z

| |
0 0 0
0
0
0
= + =
+
=
The load reflection
coefficient is identified in
the complex domain
0
EEE194RF_L8 3
Normalized impedance
i r
i r
in in
j
j
d
d
jx r z Z d Z

+ +
=

+
= + = =
1
1
) ( 1
) ( 1
/ ) (
0
i r
d j j
j e e d
L
+ = =
2
0
| | ) (
2 2
2 2
) 1 (
1
i r
i r
r
+

=
2 2
) 1 (
2
i r
i
x
+
=
Real part of normalized
impedance
Imaginary part of
normalized impedance
EEE194RF_L8 4
Inversion of complex reflection coefficient
(constant normalized resistance)
2 2 2
)
1
1
( )
1
(
+
= +
+

r r
r
i r
EEE194RF_L8 5
Inversion of complex reflection coefficient
(constant normalized reactance)
2 2 2
)
1
( )
1
( ) 1 (
x x
i r
= +
EEE194RF_L8 6
Combined display: Smith Chart
EEE194RF_L9 2
Impedance Transformation
(Smith Chart)
Reflection coefficient in phasor form
L
j
i r
L
L
e j
Z Z
Z Z

| |
0 0 0
0
0
0
= + =
+
=
0
i r
i r
in in
j
j
d
d
jx r z Z d Z

+ +
=

+
= + = =
1
1
) ( 1
) ( 1
/ ) (
0
EEE194RF_L9 3
Generic Smith Chart computation
Normalize load impedance
find reflection coefficient
rotate reflection coefficient
record normalized input impedance
de-normalize input impedance
L L
z Z
0

L
z
) (
0
d
) (d z
in
) ( ) ( d Z d z
in in

EEE194RF_L9 4
Graphical display
EEE194RF_L9 5
How to create ideal capacitors and inductors with a
transmission line?
Start of
transformation
Capacitive
domain
Inductive
domain
EEE194RF_L9 6
Start of
transformation
EEE194RF_L10 2
Admittance Transformation
(Smith Chart)
impedance representation in Smith Chart
0
) ( 1
) ( 1
d
d
jx r z
in

+
= + =
admittance representation in Smith Chart
) ( 1
) ( 1
) ( 1
) ( 1 1
0
d e
d e
d
d
z Y
Y
y
j
j
in
in
in

+
+

= = =
180 degree
phase shift
EEE194RF_L10 3
Transformation
2
1
2
1
1 1 j y j z
in in
= + =
EEE194RF_L10 4
Alternative: re-interpretation
Instead of rotating the reflection coefficient about
180 degree, we keep the location fixed and rotate the
entire Smith Chart by 180 degree.
EEE194RF_L10 5
Re-interpretation leads to ZY-Smith Chart
The Smith Chart in
its original form is
kept for impedance
display,
but a second Smith
Chart is rotated by
180 degree for
admittance display.
EEE194RF_L11 2
Parallel Connection of R and L Elements
(Smith Chart)
parallel connection of R and L elements
0
1
) (
LY
j g y
L
L in
=
EEE194RF_L11 3
Parallel connection of R and C elements
C jZ g y
L L in

0
) ( + =
EEE194RF_L11 4
Series connection of R and L elements
0
) (
Z
L
j r z
L
L in
+ =
EEE194RF_L11 5
Series connection of R and C elements
0
1
) (
CZ
j r z
L
L in
=
EEE194RF_L11 6
Practical case: BJT connected via
a T-network
EEE194RF_L12 2
Single and Multi-Port Networks
basic current and voltage definitions definitions
EEE194RF_L12 3
Impedance and admittance networks
} ]{ [ } { I Z V } ]{ [ } { V Y I
} ]{ ][ [ } { I Y Z V
] [ ] [
1
Z Y
EEE194RF_L12 4
Example Z-representation of Pi-network
1
]
1
+
+
+ +
) (
) (
1
] [
PB PA PC PC PA
PC PA PC PB PA
PC PB PA
Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z
Z
) ( 0
|
m k i
m
n
nm
k
i
v
z

EEE194RF_L12 5
Additional networks
'
1
]
1
'
2
2
1
1
i
v
D C
B A
i
v Chain or ABCD network
(often used for cascading)
'
1
]
1
'
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
v
i
h h
h h
i
v Hybrid or h-network
(often used for active devices)
Typical example
of h-network
(small signal, low
frequency model)
EEE194RF_L13 2
Interconnecting Networks
Certain networks are more advantageous to
interconnect.
Example: series connection
] " [ ] ' [ ] [ Z Z Z +
EEE194RF_L13 3
Hybrid representation
] " [ ] ' [ ] [ h h h +
Typical example
EEE194RF_L13 4
ABCD parameter representation
Very useful when cascading networks
'
1
]
1
1
]
1
'
2
2
1
1
"
"
" "
" "
' '
' '
i
v
D C
B A
D C
B A
i
v
EEE194RF_L13 5
ABCD network is very useful for transmission line
representations
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
) cos(
) sin(
) sin( ) cos(
0
0
l
Z
l
j
l jZ l
D C
B A

Example:
EEE194RF_L14 2
Scattering parameters
There is a need to establish well-defined
termination conditions in order to find the
network descriptions for Z, Y, h, and
ABCD networks
Open and short voltage and current
conditions are difficult to enforce
RF implies forward and backward traveling
waves which can form standing waves
destroying the elements
EEE194RF_L14 3
Solution: S-parameters
Input-output behavior of network is defined
in terms of normalized power waves
Ratio of the power waves are recorded in
terms of so-called scattering parameters
S-parameters are measured based on
properly terminated transmission lines (and
not open/short circuit conditions)
EEE194RF_L14 4
Basic configuration
1
1
|
0
1
1
11
2
port at wave power incident
port at wave power reflected
a
b
S
a
= =
=
1
2
|
0
1
2
21
2
port at wave power d transmitte
a
b
S
a
= =
=
2
2
|
0
2
2
22
1
port at wave power reflected
a
b
S
a
= =
=
2
1
|
0
2
1
1
port at wave power d transmitte
a
b
S
a
= =
=
EEE194RF_L14 5
Set-up for measuring S-parameters
Properly terminated output
Properly terminated input side
Load impedance =
line impedance
input impedance =
line impedance
EEE194RF_L15 2
Scattering parameters
There is a need to establish well-defined
termination conditions in order to find the
network descriptions for Z, Y, h, and
ABCD networks
Open and short voltage and current
conditions are difficult to enforce
RF implies forward and backward traveling
waves which can form standing waves
destroying the elements
EEE194RF_L15 3
Solution: S-parameters
Input-output behavior of network is defined
in terms of normalized power waves
Ratio of the power waves are recorded in
terms of so-called scattering parameters
S-parameters are measured based on
properly terminated transmission lines (and
not open/short circuit conditions)
EEE194RF_L15 4
Measurements of Scattering
Parameters
0
1
1
11
2
|
=
=
a
a
b
S
0
1
2
21
2
|
=
=
a
a
b
S
0
2
2
22
1
|
=
=
a
a
b
S
0
2
1
12
1
|
=
=
a
a
b
S
Require proper termination
on port 2
Require proper termination
on port 1
EEE194RF_L15 5
Arrangement for measuring S-parameters
Properly terminated port 2 in order to make
S
11
and S
21
measurements
Properly terminated port 1 in order to make
S
22
and S
12
measurements
Load impedance =
line impedance
input impedance =
line impedance
EEE194RF_L15 6
Example: S-parameters of T-network
Port 1 measurements
Port 2 measurements
EEE194RF_L16 2
Working with S-parameters
For network computations it is easier to
convert from the S-matrix representation to
the chain scattering matrix notation
'
1
]
1
'
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
a
a
S S
S S
b
b
'
1
]
1
'
2
2
22 21
12 11
1
1
a
b
T T
T T
b
a
. , , 1
21 11 21 21 11
etc S S T S T
EEE194RF_L16 3
Advantage: cascading just like in the ABCD
form
'
1
]
1
1
]
1
'
B
B
B B
B B
A A
A A
A
A
a
b
T T
T T
T T
T T
b
a
2
2
22 21
12 11
22 21
12 11
1
1
EEE194RF_L16 4
Signal flow chart computations
Complicated networks can be efficiently analyzed in a
manner identical to signals and systems and control.
in general
EEE194RF_L16 5
Arrangement for flow-chart analysis
G
G
S
V
Z Z
Z
b
0
0
+
EEE194RF_L16 6
Analysis of most common circuit
S
b a
1
Determination of
the ratio
EEE194RF_L16 7
Important issue: what happens to the S
11
parameter if
port 2 is not properly terminated?
L
L
in
S
S S
S
a
b

+
22
21 12
11
1
1
1
Note: Only
L
= 0 ensures that the S
11
can be measured!
EEE 194RF_ L17 1
RF Filter Design Basic Filter Types
EEE 194RF_ L17 2
Filter Attenuation Profiles
EEE 194RF_ L17 3
RF Filter Parameters
Insertion Loss:
Ripple
Bandwidth: BW
3dB
= f
u
3dB
f
L
3dB
Shape Factor:
Rejection
( )
2
10 10 1
in
in
L
P
IL log log
P

min
max
A
A
BW
SF
BW
EEE 194RF_ L17 4

Low-Pass Filter
Cascading four ABCD-networks.
( )
1 0
1 1 1 0
1
1
0 1 0 1 1
1
1
1
1
G
L
G G L
L
L
A B R R
C D j C
R
R R j C R R
R
j C
R
1
1 1 1 1
1
1 1 1 1
1
] ] ] ]
]
1
_
+ + + +
1
,
1
1
+ 1
1
]
EEE 194RF_ L17 5
( )
1 0
1 1 1 0
1
1
0 1 0 1 1
1
1
1
1
G
L
G G L
L
L
A B R R
C D j C
R
R R j C R R
R
j C
R
1
1 1 1 1
1
1 1 1 1
1
] ] ] ]
]
1
_
+ + + +
1
,
1
1
+ 1
1
]
Cascading four ABCD-networks.
EEE 194RF_ L17 6
Low-Pass Filter Frequency Response
Frequency Response from the ABCD
Definitions:
So the Transfer Function is Simply:
2
1
2
0 i
v
A
v
( )
( )
1 1
1
G
H
A j R R C

+ +
EEE 194RF_ L17 7
Low-Pass Filter Frequency Response
Corresponding Phase is:
Group Delay:
( )
g
d
t
d

( )
( )
{ }
( )
{ }
1
Im H
tan
Re H
_

,
EEE 194RF_ L17 8
High-Pass Filter
( )
1 0 1 0
1 1
1 1
1 1
0 1 0 1
1 1
1
1 1
1
G
L
G G L
L
L
A B R R
C D
R j L
R R R R
j L R
j L R
1 1
1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1 1
] ] ]
1 1
] ]
1
_
+ + + +
1
,
1
1
+ 1
1
]
EEE 194RF_ L17 9
High-Pass Filter Frequency Response
Frequency Response from the ABCD
Definitions:
So the Transfer Function is Simply:
2
1
2
0 i
v
A
v
( )
( )
1 1
1 1
1
G
L
H
A
R R
j L R

_
+ + +

,
EEE 194RF_ L17 10
High-Pass Filter Frequency Response
For :
Inductive Influence Can Be Neglected
( )
2
1
1
L
G
G L G
L
V R
R R
V R R R
R

+
+ +
+
EEE 194RF_ L17 11
Low-Pass Filter Realizations
EEE 194RF_ L17 12
Low-Pass Butterworth Filter Coefficients
EEE 194RF_ L17 13
Low-Pass Butterworth Filter Attenuation
EEE 194RF_ L17 14
Low-Pass Linear-Phase Filter
Coefficients
EEE 194RF_ L17 15
Chebyshev-Type Filters
EEE 194RF_ L17 16
Chebyshev-Type Filters
EEE 194RF_ L17 17
Chebyshev-Type Filter Response
Response for 3 dB ripple Chebyshev LPF
EEE 194RF_ L17 18
Chebyshev-Type Filter Response
Response for 0.5 dB ripple Chebyshev LPF
EEE 194RF_ L17 19
Low-Pass Chebysev Filter Coefficients
3 dB Ripple
EEE 194RF_ L17 20
Low-Pass Chebysev Filter Coefficients
0.5 dB Ripple
EEE 194RF_ L17 21
Standard Low-Pass Filter Design
The normalized inductors and capacitors
(g
1
, g
2
, ... , g
N
) are denormalized using:
and
where C
n
, L
n
, are the g
n
normalized values
from the tables
2
n
C
C
C
f R
2
n
C
L R
L
f
EEE 194RF_ L18 1

Low-Pass Filter Design Example
Design a Low-Pass Filter with cut-off
frequency of 900 MHz and a stop band
attenuation of 18 dB @1.8 GHz.
From the Butterworth Nomograph, A
max
= 1
and A
min
= 18. A
max
= 1 since unity gain.
And the order of the filter is N = 3.
From Butterworth Tables, g
1
= g
3
=1.0 and
g
2
= 2.
EEE 194RF_ L18 2
De-Normalized Values For the Tee-
Configuration Low-Pass Filter Are:
( )
1
1 2
6
8 8
2 900 10
L
g R
L L . nH
= = =
( )
2
1
6
7
2 900 10
L
g
C pF
R
= =
EEE 194RF_ L18 3

EEE 194RF_ L18 4
Low- To High-Pass Transformation
Transform the Low-Pass Filter Normalized
Component Values to the Normalized High-
Pass Values
Inductors in Low-Pass Configuration
Become Capacitors in High-Pass.
Capacitors in Low-Pass Configuration
Become Inductors in High-Pass
1
HP_ norm
c LP_ norm
C ;
L
=
1
HP_ norm
c LP _ norm
L
C
=
EEE 194RF_ L18 5
Insertion Loss:
Ripple
Bandwidth: BW
3dB
= f
u
3dB
f
L
3dB
Shape Factor:
Rejection
( )
2
10 10 1
in
in
L
P
IL log log
P
= =
min
max
A
A
BW
SF
BW
=
EEE 194RF_ L18 6
De-Normalizing Filter Component
Values
All Normalized Component Values Are De-
Normalized Using the Following:
and
normalized
actual
g
C
C
R
=
actual normalized g
L L R =
EEE 194RF_ L18 7
Transformation From Low-Pass Filter
EEE 194RF_ L18 8
Normalized Low- to Band-Pass Filter
Transformation
Normalized Band-Pass Shunt Elements
from Shunt Low-Pass Capacitor:
2
upper lower
BP _ norm_shunt
o LP_ norm
L
C

=
LP _ norm
BP_ norm_shunt
upper lower
C
C

=
EEE 194RF_ L18 9

Normalized Low- to Band-Pass Filter
Transformation
Normalized Band-Pass Series Elements
from Series Low-Pass Inductor:
LP _ norm
BP _ norm_ series
upper lower
L
L

=
2
upper lower
BP_ norm_series
o LP _ norm
C
L

=
EEE 194RF_ L18 10
Normalized Low- to Band-Stop Filter
Transformation
Normalized Band-Stop Shunt Component
Values from Low-Pass Shunt Capacitor:
( )
1
Stop _ norm_shunt
upper lower LP_norm
L
C
=
( )
2
upper lower LP _ norm
Stop_norm_shunt
o
C
C

=
EEE 194RF_ L18 11
Normalized Low- to Band-Stop Filter
Transformation
Normalized Band-Stop Series Component
Values from Low-Pass Series Inductor:
( )
2
upper lower LP_norm
Stop _ norm_series
o
L
L

=
( )
1
Stop_norm_series
upper lower LP_norm
C
L
=
EEE 194 RF 1
Stepped Impedance Low-Pass Filter
Relatively easy (believe that?) low-pass
implementation
Uses alternating very high and very low
characteristic impedance lines
Commonly called Hi-Z, Low-Z Filters
Electrical performance inferior to other
implementations so often used for filtering
unwanted out-of-band signals
EEE 194 RF 2
Approximate Equivalent Circuits for
Short Transmission line Sections
Using Table 4-1, approximate equivalent
circuits for a short length of transmission
line with Hi-Z or Low-Z are found
EEE 194 RF 3
The equivalent circuits are:
jX / 2 jX / 2
jB
X
L
=Z
o
l
B
C
=Y
o
l
T-Equialent circuit for transmission line section
l << / 2
Equialent circuit for small l and large Z
o
Equialent circuit for small l and small Z
o
EEE 194 RF 4
Series inductors of a low-pass prototype
replaced with Hi-Z line sections (Z
o
= Z
h
)
Shunt capacitors replaced with Low-Z line
sections (Z
o
= Z
l
)
Ratio Z
h
/Z
l
should be as high as possible
( )
( )
inductor
capacitor
g
h
l
g
LR
l
Z
CZ
l
R
EEE 194 RF 5
Stepped Impedance Low-Pass Filter
Select the highest and lowest practical line
impedance; e.g. the highest and lowest line
impedances could be 150 and 10 ,
respectively
For example, given the low-pass filter
prototype, solve for the lengths of the
microstriplines:
g
low
Ln n Cn n
g high
R
Z
l g ; l g
R Z

EEE 194 RF 6
6
th
Order Low-Pass Filter Prototype
Stepped Impedance Implementation
Microstripline Layout of Filter
L1 L2
C2
C1
C3
L3
Z
o
Z
low
Z
high
Z
o
Z
low
Z
low
Z
high
Z
high
l
1
l
2
l
3
l
4
l
5
l
6
Stepped Impedance Low-Pass Filter -
Implementation
EEE 194 RF 7
Bandstop Filter
Require either maximum or minimal
impedance at center frequency f
o
Let line lengths l =
o
/4
Let = 1 cut-off frequency of the low-
pass prototype transformed into upper and
lower cut-off frequencies of bandstop
filter via bandwidth factor :
( )
1
2 2 2
U L
L
o o
sbw
bf cot cot ; sbw

_
1
_

1
,
] ,
EEE 194 RF 8
Bandstop Filter: Implementation
1. Find the low-pass filter prototype
2. The Ls and Cs replaced by open and short
circuit stubs, respectively as in Low-Pass filter
design with
Z
Ln
= (bf ) g
n
and Y
Cn
= (bf ) g
n
3. Unit lengths of
o
/4 are inserted and Kurodas
Identities are used to convert all series stubs into
shunt stubs
4. Denormalize the unit elements
EEE 194 RF 9
Coupled Filters: Bandpass
Even and Odd mode excitations resulting in
1 1
Oe Oo
pe e po od
Z ; Z
v C v C

EEE 194 RF 10
Coupled Filters: Even & Odd
Impedances
EEE 194 RF 11
Bandpass Filter Section
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2
1
2
in Oe Oo Oe Oo
Z Z Z Z Z cos l
sin l

+
EEE 194 RF 12
According to Figure 5-47, the characteristic
bandpass filter performance attained when
l = /4 or l = /2 .
EEE 194 RF 13
The upper and lower frequencies are
( )
1
1 2
1 2
Oe Oo
,
,
Oe Oo
Z Z
l cos
Z Z

t
1
+
]
5
th
Order coupled line
Bandpass Filter
EEE 194 RF 14
Bandpass Filter: Implementation
1. Find the low-pass filter prototype
2. Identify normalized bandwidth, uper, and lower
frequencies
Allowing:
U L
O
BW

0 1 1 1
1 1
1
1 1 1
2 2
2
, i,i N, N
O O O O N N
i i
BW BW BW
J ; J ; J
Z g g Z Z g g
g g

+ +
+
+

EEE 194 RF 15
This allows determination of the odd and
even characteristic line impedances:
Indices i, i+1 refer to the overlapping
elements and Z
O
is impedance at ends of the
filter structure
( )
( )
2
1 1
1
2
1 1
1
1
and
1
Oo O O i,i O i,i
i,i
Oe O O i,i O i,i
i,i
Z Z Z J Z J
Z Z Z J Z J
+ +
+
+ +
+
1
+
1
]
1
+ +
1
]
EEE 194 RF 16
Determine line dimensions and S and Wof
the coupled lines from the graph on Figure
5-45 p256.
Length of each coupled line segment at the
center frequency is /4.
Normalized frequency is
c c
U L c

_

,
EEE 194RF_L19 1
Band-Pass Filter Design Example
Attenuation response
of a third-order 3-dB
ripple bandpass
Chebyshev filter
centered at 2.4 GHz.
The lower cut-off
frequency is f
L
= 2.16
GHz and the upper cut-
off frequency is f
U
=
2.64 GHz.
EEE 194RF_L19 2
RF/W Stripline Filters
Filter components become impractical at
frequencies higher than 500 MHz
Can apply the normalized low pass filter
tables for lumped parameter filters to
stripline filter design
Richards Transformation and Kurodas
Identities are used to convert lumped
parameter filter designs to distributed filters
EEE 194RF_L19 3
Richards Transformation:
Lumped to Distributed Circuit Design
Open- and short-circuit transmission line
segments emulate inductive and capacitive
behavior of discrete components
Based on:
Set Electrical Length l = /8 so
( ) ( )
in o o
Z jZ tan l jZ tan
4 4
o
f
l
f

EEE 194RF_L19 4
Richards Transform is:
and
For l = /8, S = j1 for f = f
o
= f
c
4
L o o
jX j L jZ tan SZ
_

,
4
C o o
jB j C jY tan SY
_

,
EEE 194RF_L19 5
jX
L
jB
C
L
C
/ 8 at
c
/ 8 at
c
Z
o
= 1/(j C)
Z
o
= j L
EEE 194RF_L19 6
Unit Elements : UE
Separation of transmission line elements
achieved by using Unit Elements (UEs)
UE electrical length: = /4
UE Characteristic Impedance Z
UE
2
1
1
1
1
UE UE
UE
UE UE
cos jZ sin j Z
A B
j j
sin cos
C D
Z Z

1 1
1
1 1

1
1 1
] +
1 1
] ]
EEE 194RF_L19 7
The Four Kurodas Identities
EEE 194RF_L19 8
Kurodas Equivalent Circuit
=
l
l l
l
Z
2
Z
1
Z
1
/N
Z
2
/N
Short Circuit
Series Stub
Open Circuit
Shunt Stub
Unit Element
Unit Element
}
}
EEE 194RF_L19 9
Realizations of Distributed Filters
Kurodas Identities use redundant
transmission line sections to achieve
practical microwave filter implementations
Physically separates line stubs
Transforms series stubs to shunt stubs or
vice versa
Change practical characteristic impedances
into realizable ones
EEE 194RF_L19 10
Filter Realization Procedure
Select normalized filter parameters to meet
specifications
Replace Ls and Cs by
o
/8 transmission
lines
Convert series stubs to shunt stubs using
Kurodas Identities
Denormalize and select equivalent
microstriplines
EEE 194RF_L19 11
Filter Realization Example
5
th
order 0.5 dB ripple Chebyshev LPF
g
1
= g
5
= 1.7058, g
2
= g
4
= 1.2296, g
3
=
2.5408, g
6
=1.0
EEE 194RF_L19 12
Y
1
= Y
5
= 1.7058, Z
2
= Z
4
= 1.2296,
Y
3
= 2.5408; and Z
1
= Z
5
= 1/1.7058, Z
3
=
1/2.5408
EEE 194RF_L19 13
Utilizing Unit Elements to convert series
stubs to shunt stubs
EEE 194RF_L19 14
Apply Kurodas Identities to eliminate first
shunt stub to series stub
EEE 194RF_L19 15
Deploy second set of UEs in preparation
for converting all series stubs to shunt stubs
EEE 194RF_L19 16
Apply Kurodas Identities to eliminate all
series stubs to shunt stubs
Z
1
= 1/Y
1
=NZ
2
= (1+Z
2
/Z
1
)Z
2
=1+(1/0.6304); Z
2
= 1 and Z
1
= 0.6304
EEE 194RF_L19 17
Final Implementation
EEE 194RF_L19 18
Frequency Response of the Low Pass Filter
EEE 194RF_L20 1
Matching Networks
MNs are critical for at least two critical
reasons
maximize power transfer:
minimize
Primary goal of a MN is to achieve
0 =
in
) | | 1 (
2
in i r i t
P P P P = =
| | 1
| | 1
in
in
SWR

+
=
EEE 194RF_L20 2
Matching Strategy
Pick an appropriate two-element MN for
which matching is possible (based on a
given load impedance or S-parameter)
Find the L, C values from the ZY Smith
Chart
Convert discrete values into equivalent
microstriplines
EEE 194RF_L20 3
Region of matching for shunt L, series C matching network
EEE 194RF_L20 4
Region of matching for series C shunt L matching network
EEE 194RF_L20 5
Region of matching for series L shunt C matching network
EEE 194RF_L20 6
Region of matching for shunt C and series L matching network
EEE 194RF_L20 7
There are two strategies
A) Source impedance -> conjugate complex load impedance
B) Load impedance -> conjugate complex source impedance
EEE 194RF_L20 8
General 2 Element Approach
EEE 194RF_L20 9
Load Impedance To Complex Conjugate
Source Z
s
= Z
s
* = 50
EEE 194RF_L20 10
Art of Designing Matching Networks
EEE 194RF_L20 11
More Complicated Networks
Three-element Pi and T networks permit the
matching of almost any load conditions
Added element has the advantage of more
flexibility in the design process (fine
tuning)
Provides quality factor design (see Ex. 8.4)
EEE 194RF_L20 12
Quality Factor
Resonance effect has implications on design of
matching network.
Loaded Quality Factor: Q
L
= f
O
/BW
If we know the Quality Factor Q, then we can find
BW
Estimate Q of matching network using Nodal
Quality Factor Q
n
At each circuit node can find Q
n
= |X
s
|/R
s
or Q
n
=
|B
P
|/G
P
and
Q
L
= Q
n
/2 true for any L-type Matching Network
EEE 194RF_L20 13
Nodal Quality Factors
Q
n
= |x|/r =2|
i
| / [(1-
r
)
2
+
i
2
EEE 194RF_L20 14
Matching Network Design Using Quality
Factor
EEE 194RF_L20 15
T-Type Matching Networks
EEE 194RF_L20 16
Pi-Type Matching Network
EEE 194RF_L20 17
Microstripline Matching Network
Distributed microstip lines and lumped
capacitors
less susceptible to parasitics
easy to tune
efficient PCB implementation
small size for high frequency
EEE 194RF_L20 18
Microstripline Matching Design
EEE 194RF_L20 19
Two Topologies for Single-Stub Tuners
EEE 194RF_L20 20
Balanced Stubs
Unbalanced stubs often replaced by
balanced stubs
1
2
2
2
S
SB
l
l tan tan

=

1
2 1
2 2
S
SB
l
l tan tan

=

Open-Circuit Stub Short-Circuit Stub
l
S
is the unbalance stub length and l
SB
is the balanced stub
length.
Balanced lengths can also be found graphically using the
Smith Chart
EEE 194RF_L20 21
Balanced Stub Example
Single Stub Smith Chart
Balanced Stub Circuit
EEE 194RF_L20 22
Double Stub Tuners
Forbidden region
where y
D
is inside
g = 2 circle
EEE 194RF_L21 1
General 2 Element Approach
EEE 194RF_L21 2
Load Impedance To Complex Conjugate
Source Z
s
= Z
s
* = 50
EEE 194RF_L21 3
Art of Designing Matching Networks
EEE 194RF_L21 4
More Complicated Networks
Three-element Pi and T networks permit the
matching of almost any load conditions
Added element has the advantage of more
flexibility in the design process (fine
tuning)
Provides quality factor design (see Ex. 8.4)
EEE 194RF_L21 5
Quality Factor
Resonance effect has implications on design of
matching network.
Loaded Quality Factor: Q
L
= f
O
/BW
If we know the Quality Factor Q, then we can find
BW
Estimate Q of matching network using Nodal
Quality Factor Q
n
At each circuit node can find Q
n
= |X
s
|/R
s
or Q
n
=
|B
P
|/G
P
and
Q
L
= Q
n
/2 true for any L-type Matching Network
EEE 194RF_L21 6
Nodal Quality Factors
Q
n
= |x|/r =2|
i
| / [(1-
r
)
2
+
i
2
EEE 194RF_L21 7
Matching Network Design Using Quality
Factor
EEE 194RF_L21 8
T-Type Matching Networks
EEE 194RF_L21 9
Pi-Type Matching Network
EEE 194RF_L21 10
Microstripline Matching Network
Distributed microstip lines and lumped
capacitors
less susceptible to parasitics
easy to tune
efficient PCB implementation
small size for high frequency
EEE 194RF_L21 11
Microstripline Matching Design
EEE 194RF_L21 12
Two Topologies for Single-Stub Tuners
EEE 194RF_L21 13
Balanced Stubs
Unbalanced stubs often replaced by
balanced stubs
1
2
2
2
S
SB
l
l tan tan

=

1
2 1
2 2
S
SB
l
l tan tan

=

Open-Circuit Stub Short-Circuit Stub
l
S
is the unbalance stub length and l
SB
is the balanced stub
length.
Balanced lengths can also be found graphically using the
Smith Chart
EEE 194RF_L21 14
Balanced Stub Example
Single Stub Smith Chart
Balanced Stub Circuit
EEE 194RF_L21 15
Double Stub Tuners
Forbidden region
where y
D
is inside
g = 2 circle
EEE 194RF 1
Biasing networks
Biasing networks are needed to set appropriate
operating conditions for active devices
There are two types:
Passive biasing (or self-biasing)
resistive networks
drawback: poor temperature stability
Active biasing
additional active components (thermally coupled)
drawback: complexity, added power consumption
EEE 194RF 2
Passive biasing
V
CC
R
1
RFC
R
2
I
B
I
1
RF
OUT
RF
IN
I
C
RFC
C
B
C
B
Simple two element
biasing
blocking capacitors C
B
and RFCs to isolate RF
path
Very sensitive to collector
current variations
EEE 194RF 3
Passive biasing
V
CC
R
1
RFC
R
2
I
B
RF
OUT
RF
IN
I
C
RFC R
3
R
4
I
X
V
X
C
B
C
B
Voltage divider to
stabilize V
BE
Freedom to choose
suitable voltage and
current settings (V
x
, I
x
)
Higher component
count, more noise
susceptibility
I
B
~10 I
X
EEE 194RF 4
Active biasing
V
CC
RFC
R
C1
RF
OUT
RF
IN
RFC
V
C1
Q
2
Q
1
I
1
I
B1
I
B1
I
C2
R
B1
R
B2
R
E1
R
C2
I
C1
C
B
C
B
Base current of RF
BJT (Q
2
) is provided
by low-frequency BJT
Q
1
Excellent temperature
stability (shared heat
sink)
high component count,
more complex layout
EEE 194RF 5
Active biasing in common base
V
CC
RFC
R
C1
RF
OUT
RF
IN
RFC
V
C1
Q
2
Q
1
I
1
I
B1
I
B1
I
C2
R
B1 R
B2
R
E1
R
C2
I
C1
C
B
C
B
RFC
V
CC
RFC
R
C1
RFC
Q
2
Q
1
R
B1 R
B2
R
E1
R
C2
C
B
C
B
RFC
V
CC
RFC
R
C1
RF
OUT
RF
IN RFC
Q
2
Q
1
R
B1 R
B2
R
E1
R
C2
C
B
C
B
RFC
DC path
RF path
EEE 194RF 6
FET biasing
V
D
V
G
C
B
RFC
C
B
RFC
RF
OUT
RF
IN
V
D
V
S
C
B
C
B
RFC
RF
OUT
RF
IN
RFC
RFC
V
D
R
S C
B
C
B
RFC
RF
OUT
RF
IN
RFC
Bi-polar power
supply
Uni-polar power
supply
V
G
<0 and V
D
>0
EEE 194RF_L22 7
Matching to Self-Biased BJT Amp
Design self-bias
circuit as usual
Design input and
output matches to
S11 and S22
respectively
RC
RE
RB1
RB2
RS
RL
C
in_match
0.1 uF
0.1 uF
C
out_match
CE
0.1uF
VS
+V
CC
L
out_match
L
in_match
EEE 194RF_L22 8
Equivalent RF Model of BJT Amp
The equivalent RF model of the self-biased BJT
amp is shown. Note that bias resistors do not
affect RF performance
RS
RL
C
in_match
C
out_match
VS
L
out_match
L
in_match
EEE 194RF_L22 9
Matching to Self-Biased JFET Amp
Design self-bias
circuit as usual
Design input and
output matches to
S11 and S22
respectively
RD
RS
RG
1 M?
RS
RL
C
in_match
0.1 uF
0.1 uF
C
out_match
CS
0.1uF
VS
+V
CC
L
out_match
L
in_match
EEE 194RF_L22 10
Equivalent RF Model of JFET Amp
The equivalent RF model of the self-biased JFET
amp is shown. Note that bias resistors do not
affect RF performance
RS
RL
C
in_match
C
out_match
VS
L
out_match
L
in_match
EEE 194RF_L22 11
Matching Networks for Amplifiers
Conjugate matching must be used for
maximum power transfer
Standard impedance matching using either
two element L-C, Pi- or Tee-type network,
or microstripline matching.
Use Smith Charts with associated Node
Quality Factor Q
n
to determine network
EEE 194RF_L22 12
Stub Tuner Matching for RF BJT Amp
Can implement impedance matching
network with microstriplines
Shown is single stub tuner with shorted stub
RC
RE
RB1
RB2
RS
RL
CS
0.1uF
0.1 uF
CE
0.1uF
VS
+V
CC
C
stub1
0.1uF
C
stub2
0.1uF
RFC
RFC
Shorted Stub
Shorted Stub
Xmission Line
Xmission Line
Stub Tuner Matched RF Amplifiers
Stub tuners can be used to match sources and load
to S
11
* and S
22
* of the RF BJT or FET
Either open or short circuit stubs may be used
When using short circuit stubs, place a capacitor
between the stub and ground to produce RF path
to ground Do not short directly to ground as this
will affect transistor DC biasing
High resistance /4 transformers or RFCs may be
used to provide DC path to transistor for biasing
without affecting the RF signal path
Stub Tuner Matched RF Amplifier
0
1
resonant resonant
L C
=
Series Resonant Ckt at Operating Frequency:
Short Ckt at Resonance, Open Circuit at DC
/4 Transformer:
Transforms Short Circuit
at Resonance to Open
circuit at BJT Collector
Thus Isolating RC from
RF Signal Path
Stub tuners of two types:
Base-Side: Open Circuit Stub w/
Isolation from DC Bias Circuit
Using RFC.
Collector-Side: RF Short Circuit
Stub via By-Pass Capacitor
The BJT Self-Bias Configuration Is Shown Which Produces Excellent Quiescent Point Stability
Power Supplies Are
Cap By-Passed and
RF Input and Output
are Cap Coupled
Stub Tuner Matched RF Amplifier
Simpler method of bias isolation at BJT collector: C
BP
is RF
short-circuit which when transformed by the Quarter-Wave
Transformer is open circuit at the Single Stub Tuner and
provides DC path for the Bias Network
Design Strategy: RF Amplifiers
Objective: Design a complete class A, single-stage
RF amplifier operated at 1 GHz which includes
biasing, matching networks, and RF/DC isolation.
Design Strategy: RF Amplifier
Design DC biasing conditions
Select S-parameters for operating frequency
Build input and output matching networks
for desired frequency response
Include RF/DC isolation
simulate amplifier performance on the
computer
Design Strategy: Approach
For power considerations, matching networks are assumed lossless
Power Relationships
Transducer Power Gain
Stability of Active Device
Stability of Amplifiers
In a two-port network, oscillations are possible if
the magnitude of either the input or output
reflection coefficient is greater than unity, which
is equivalent to presenting a negative resistance at
the port. This instability is characterized by
|in| > 1 or |out| > 1
which for a unilateral device implies |S11| > 1 or
|S22| > 1.
Stability Requirements
Thus the requirements for stability are
and
These are defined by circles, called stability
circles, that delimit |
in
| = 1 and |
L
| = 1
on the Smith chart.
12 21
11
22
S +
in
1
= < 1
L
L
S S
S
out 22
| | = S +l < 1
Stability Regions: Stability Circles
Regions of amplifier stability can be
depicted using stability circles using the
following:
Output stability circle:
( )
*
*
22 11
12 21
2 2
2
2
22
22
,
out out
S S
S S
r C
S
S

= =

Input stability circle:
( )
*
*
11 22
12 21
2 2
2
2
11
11
,
in in
S S
S S
r C
S
S

= =

Stability Regions: Stability Circles
Where:
11 22 12 21
S S S S =
Stability Regions: Output
Stability Circles
Stability Regions: Input
Stability Circles
Different Input Stability Regions
Dependent on ratio between r
s
and |C
in
|
Unconditional Stability
Stability circles reside completely outside |
S
| =1 and |
L
| =1.
Rollet Factor:
2 2 2
11 22
12 21
1
1
2
S S
k
S S
+
= >
Constant Gain Amplifier
Constant Gain Circles in the Smith Chart
To obtain desired amplifier gain performance
Circle Equation and Graphical Display
Gain Circles
Max gain
imax
=1/(1-|S
ii
|
2
) when
i
= S
ii
* ;
gain circle center is at d
gi
= S
ii
* and radius
r
gi
=0
Constant gain circles have centers on a line
connecting origin to S
ii
*
For special case
i
= 0, g
i
= 1-|S
ii
|
2
and
d
gi
= r
gi
= |S
ii
|/(1+|S
ii
|
2
) implying
i
= 1 (0
dB) circle always passes through origin of
i
plane
Trade-off Between Gain and Noise
What Does Stability Mean?
Stability circles determine what load or source
impedances should be avoided for stable or non-
oscillatory amplifier behavior
Because reactive loads are being added to amp the
conditions for oscillation must be determined
So the Output Stability Circle determine the
L
or
load impedance (looking into matching network
from output of amp) that may cause oscillation
Input Stability Circle determine the
S
or
impedance (looking into matching network from
input of amp) that may cause oscillation
Criteria for Unconditional Stability
Unconditional Stability when amplifier
remains stable throughout the entire domain
of the Smith Chart at the operating bias and
frequency. Applies to input and output
ports.
For |S
11
| < 1 and |S
22
| < 1, the stability
circles reside completely outside the |
S
| = 1
and |
L
| = 1 circles.
Unconditional Stability: Rollett Factor
|C
in
| r
in
| >1 and |C
out
| r
out
| >1
Stability or Rollett factor k:
2 2 2
11 22
12 21
1
1
2
S S
k
S S
+
= >
with |S
11
| < 1 or |S
22
| < 1
and
11 22 12 21
1 S S S S = <
Stabilization Methods
Stabilization methods can be used to for
operation of BJT or FET found to be
unstable at operating bias and frequency
One method is to add series or shunt
conductance to the input or output of the
active device in the RF signal path to
move the source or load impedances out
of the unstable regions as defined by the
Stability Circles
Stabilization Using Series Resistance or
Shunt Conductance
Stabilization Method: Smith Chart
Constant Gain: Unilateral Design (S
12
= 0)
Need to obtain desired gain performance
Basically we can detune the amp
matching networks for desired gain
Unilateral power gain G
TU
implies S
12
= 0
Unilateral Power Gain Equations
Unilateral Power gain
2 2
2
21 0
2 2
11 22
1 1
1 1
S L
TU S L
S L
G S G G G
S S

= =

Individual blocks are:
2 2
2
0 21
2 2
11 22
1 1
1 1
S L
S L
S L
G ; G S ; G
S S

= = =

G
TU
(dB) = G
S
(dB) + G
0
(dB) +G
L
(dB)
Unilateral Gain Circles
max max
2 2
11 22
1 1
1 1
S L
G ; G
S S
= =

If |S
11
| < 1 and |S
22
|< 1 maximum unilateral
power gain G
TUmax
when
S
= S
11
* and
L
= S
22
*
Normalized G
S
w.r.t. maximum:
( )
2
2
11
2
max
11
1
1
1
S
S
S
S
S
G
g S
G
S

= =

Unilateral Gain Circles
Results in circles with center and radii:
( )
2
2
22
2
max
22
1
1
1
L
L
L
L
L
G
g S
G
S

= =

Normalized G
L
w.r.t. maximums:
( )
( )
( )
2
2 2
1 1
1 1 1 1
i i
i ii
i ii
g g
ii i ii i
g S
g S
d ; r
S g S g

= =

ii = 11 or 22 depending on i = S or L
Gain Circle Observations
G
i max
when
i
= S
ii
* and d
gi
= S
ii
* of radius
r
gi
= 0
Constant gain circles all have centers on
line connecting the origin to S
ii
*
For the special case
i
= 0 the normalized
gain is:
g
i
= 1 - | S
ii
|
2
and d
gi
= r
gi
= | S
ii
|/(1 + | S
ii
|
2
)
This implies that G
i
= 1 (0dB) circle always
passes through origin of
i
- plane
Input Matching Network Gain Circles
S
is detuned
implying the
matching
network is
detuned
Bilateral Amplifier Design (S
12
included)
Complete equations required taking into
account S
12
: Thus
S
* S
11
and
L
* S
22
12 21 11
11
22 22
1 1
*
L L
S
L L
S S S
S
S S

= + =

12 21 22
22
11 11
1 1
*
S S
L
S S
S S S
S
S S

= + =

Bilateral Conjugate Match
Matched source reflection coefficient
2
1 1 1
1 1 1
1
4
2 2
*
MS
B B C
C C C

=

2 2 2
1 11 22 1 22 11
1
*
C S S ; B S S = = +
Matched load reflection coefficient
2
2 2 2
2 2 2
1
4
2 2
*
ML
B B C
C C C

=

2 2 2
2 22 11 2 11 22
1
*
C S S ; B S S = = +
Optimum Bilateral Matching
12 21
11
22
1
MS
*
ML
ML
S S
S
S
= +

12 21
22
11
1
ML
*
MS
MS
S S
S
S
= +

Design Procedure for RF BJT Amps
Bias the circuit as specified by data sheet
with available S-Parameters
Determine S-Parameters at bias conditions
and operating frequency
Calculate stability |k| > 1 and || < 1?
If unconditionally stable, design for gain
If |k| 1 and || 1 then draw Stability
Circles on Smith Chart by finding r
out
, C
out
,
r
in
, and C
in
radii and distances for the circles
Determine if
L
( S
22
* for conjugate match)
lies in unstable region do same for
S
If stable, no worries.
If unstable, add small shunt or series
resistance to move effective S
22
* into stable
region use max outer edge real part of
circle as resistance or conductance (do same
for input side)
Can adjust gain by detuning
L
or
S
To design for specified gain, must be less than
G
TU max
(max unilateral gain small S
12
)
Recall that (know G
0
= |S
21
|
2
)
G
TU
[dB] = G
S
[dB] + G
0
[dB] + G
L
[dB]
Detune either
S
or
L
Draw gain circles for G
S
(or G
L
) for detuned
S
(or
L
) matching network
Overall gain is reduced when designed for (a)
Stability and (b) detuned matching netw0rk
Further circles on the Smith Chart include
noise circles and constant VSWR circles
Broadband amps often are feedback amps
RF Shunt-Shunt Feedback Amp Design
( )
1 0 21
1 R Z S =
0
2
2
1
1
m
Z
R
R g
=
C
m
T
I
g
V
=
S
21
calculated from desired gain G
Distortion: 1 dB Compression
Distortion: 3
rd
Order Intermodulation
Distortion
Distortion: 3
rd
Order IMD
[ ] ( )[ ] [ ]
2 2 1
3 dB dBm (2 ) dBm
out out
IMD P f P f f =
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] ( )
0 ,
2
dB dBm dB dBm
3
f in mds
d IP G P =
Spurious Free Dynamic Range
Class C Amplifier
Class C amplifier operates for less than half of the
input cycle. Its efficiency is about 75% because
the active device is biased beyond cutoff.
It is commonly used in RF circuits where a
resonant circuit must be placed at the output in
order to keep the sine wave going during the non-
conducting portion of the input cycle.
Types of Signal Distortion
Types of distortion in communications:
harmonic distortion
intermodulation distortion
nonlinear frequency response
nonlinear phase response
noise
interference
Non-sinusoidal Waveform
Any well-behaved periodic waveform can be
represented as a series of sine and/or cosine waves
plus (sometimes) a dc offset:
e(t)=C
o
+A
n
cos n t + B
n
sin n t (Fourier series)
External Noise
Equipment / Man-made Noise is generated
by any equipment that operates with
electricity
Atmospheric Noise is often caused by
lightning
Space Noise is strongest from the sun and,
at a much lesser degree, from other stars
Internal Noise
Thermal Noise is produced by the random
motion of electrons in a conductor due to
heat. Noise power, P
N
= kTB
where T = absolute temperature in
o
K
k = Boltzmanns constant, 1.38x10
-23
J/K
B = noise power bandwidth in Hz
Noise voltage, kTBR 4 V
N
=
Internal Noise (contd)
Shot Noise is due to random variations in
current flow in active devices.
Partition Noise occurs only in devices
where a single current separates into two or
more paths, e.g. bipolar transistor.
Excess Noise is believed to be caused by
variations in carrier density in components.
Transit-Time Noise occurs only at high f.
Noise Spectrum of Electronic Devices
Device
Noise
Shot and Thermal Noises
Excess or
Flicker Noise
Transit-Time or
High-Frequency
Effect Noise
1 kHz f
hc
f
Noise Figure
Noise Figure is a figure of merit that
indicates how much a component, or a stage
degrades the SNR of a system:
NF = (S/N)
i
/ (S/N)
o
where (S/N)
i
= input SNR (not in dB)
and (S/N)
o
= output SNR (not in dB)
NF(dB)=10 log NF = (S/N)
i
(dB) - (S/N)
o
(dB)
Equivalent Noise Temperature
and Cascaded Stages
The equivalent noise temperature is very
useful in microwave and satellite receivers.
T
eq
= (NF - 1)T
o
where T
o
is a ref. temperature (often 290
o
K)
When two or more stages are cascaded:
...
A A
1 NF
A
1 NF
NF NF
2 1
3
1
2
1 T
+
+ =
Class C Amplifier
Class C amplifier operates for less than half of the
input cycle. Its efficiency is about 75% because
the active device is biased beyond cutoff.
It is commonly used in RF circuits where a
resonant circuit must be placed at the output in
order to keep the sine wave going during the non-
conducting portion of the input cycle.
Simple Oscillator Using Stability
L
Emitter
Biasing,
coupling,
matching,
etc.
Collecter
Biasing,
coupling,
matching,
etc.
Load
Network
Terminating
Network
in

out
L

T
Choose transistor (BJT or FET) wisely so that
common-base S
11
> 1 and S
22
>1 at oscillation
frequency: This will cause instability.
NE021 npn High Frequency BJT
S
22
>1: Potential Instability
Simple Oscillator Design: KISS!
Select transistor that is potentially unstable
at oscillation frequency
Chose GT for terminating network that will
make |GIN|>1
Calculate GL for the load network that will
resonate ZIN at oscillation frequency
If Z
IN
= R
IN
+ jX
IN
, then Z
L
= R
L
+ jX
L
,
where R
L
= |R
IN
| /3 and X
L
= X
IN
Hartley Oscillators
2 1
1
;
2
1
L L L
C L
f
T
T
o
+ = =
1
2 1
L
L L
B
+
=
1
2
L
L
B =
Colpitts Oscillator
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
1
C C
C C
C ;
LC
f ;
C
C
B
T
T
o
+
= = =
Clapp Oscillator
The Clapp oscillator is a variation of the Colpitts circuit. C
4
is
added in series with L in the tank circuit. C
2
and C
3
are chosen
large enough to swamp out the transistors junction capacitances
for greater stability. C
4
is often chosen to be << either C
2
or C
3
,
thus making C
4
the frequency determining element, since C
T
= C
4
.
4 3 2
3 2
2
1 1 1
1
2
1
;
C C C
C
LC
f
C C
C
B
T
T
o
+ +
=
=
+
=
Mixers
A mixer is a nonlinear circuit that combines
two signals in such a way as to produce the
sum and difference of the two input
frequencies at the output.
A square-law mixer is the simplest type of
mixer and is easily approximated by using a
diode, or a transistor (bipolar, JFET, or
MOSFET).
Dual-Gate MOSFET Mixer
Good dynamic range and fewer unwanted o/p frequencies.
Balanced Mixers
A balanced mixer is one in which the input
frequencies do not appear at the output.
Ideally, the only frequencies that are
produced are the sum and difference of the
input frequencies.
Circuit symbol:
f
1
f
2
f
1
+ f
2
Equations for Balanced Mixer
Let the inputs be v
1
= sin
1
t and v
2
= sin
2
t.
A balanced mixer acts like a multiplier. Thus
its output, v
o
= Av
1
v
2
= A sin
1
t sin
2
t.
Since sin X sin Y = 1/2[cos(X-Y) - cos(X+Y)]
Therefore, v
o
= A/2[cos(
1
-
2
)t-cos(
1
+
2
)t].
The last equation shows that the output of
the balanced mixer consists of the sum and
difference of the input frequencies.
Balanced Ring Diode Mixer
Balanced mixers are also called balanced modulators.
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator
VCOs are widely used in electronic circuits
for AFC, PLL, frequency tuning, etc.
The basic principle is to vary the
capacitance of a varactor diode in a resonant
circuit by applying a reverse-biased voltage
across the diode whose capacitance is
approximately:
b
o
V
V
C
C
2 1+
=
Basic Oscillator Model
Oscillator has positive feedback loop at
selected frequency
Barkhausen criteria implies that the
multiplication of the transfer functions of
open loop amplifier and feedback stage is
H
F
()H
A
() = 1
Barkhausen criteria aka loop gain equation
LC Oscillators Lower RF Frequencies
Can also design with BJTs.
High RF & Microwave Oscillators
Take advantage of our knowledge of
stability
Rollett Stability Factor k < 1
Microwave Oscillator Signal Flow
b
1
/b
s
=
in
/ (1-
s
in
)
Conditions of
oscillation
Unstable if:
in
= 1 or
s
L
= 1
Creating Oscillator Condition
Frequently begin with common-base or
common-gate configuration
Convert common-emitter s-parameters to
common-base (similarly for FETs)
Add inductor in series with base (or gate)
as positive feedback loop network to attain
unstable Rollett factor k <1
Unstable Condition Oscillation
1. Convert transistor
common-base [s]
to [Z]
tr
2. [Z]
L
=
3. [Z]
Osc
= [Z]
L
+[Z]
tr
4. Convert [Z]
Osc
to
[s]
Osc
5. Plot stability
circles
1 1
1 1
j L

Inductor Value for Oscillation
Must repeat
previous
calculation of
Rollet Factor
for each value
of L
In this
example
L = 5 nH
s
11
= -0.935613, s
12
= -0.002108,
s
21
= 1.678103 , s
22
= 0.966101
Unstable Transistor Oscillator Design
1. Select potentially unstable transistor at freq
2. Select appropriate transistor configuration
3. Draw output stability circle in
L
plane
4. Select appropriate value of
L
to produce largest
possible negative resistance at input of transistor
yielding |
L
| >1 and Z
in
< 0
5. Select source tuning impedance Zs as if the
circuit was a one-port oscillator by R
S
+ R
IN
< 0
typically R
S
= |R
IN
|/3, R
IN
< 0 and X
S
= -X
IN
6. Design source tuning and terminating networks
with lumped or distributed elements
Dielectric Resonator Oscillator (DRO)
DRO Networks
DR-based input matching network of the FET oscillator.
Varactor Diodes (Voltage Variable Caps)
Gunn Elements For Oscillators
Gunn Oscillator with DRO
Mixer Basics
Heterodyne receiver system incorporating a mixer.
Basic mixer concept: two input frequencies are used to create new
frequencies at the output of the system.
Mixing Process Spectrum
Simple Diode and FET Mixers
Compression Point and 3
rd
Order Intercept
Single-Ended BJT Mixer
Single-Ended BJT Mixer Design
Biasing Network
LO and RF Connection
RF Input Matching Network
Modified Input Matching for RF
Completed Design

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EE194RF_L1 2

EE 194 RF: Lecture 1

Derivation of differential transmission line form

Quarter-wave transformer model:

EEE 194RF_ L17 4

EEE 194RF_ L18 1

EEE 194RF_ L18 3

EEE 194RF_ L18 9

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