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MICROFICHE REFERENCE LIBRARY

The Art of the Informal Agricultural Survery

By: Robert E. Rhoades

Published by: Training and Communications Department International Potato Center Lima PERU

Available from: Training and Communications Department International Potato Center Lima PERU

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Social Science Department Training Document 1982-2

THE ART OF THE INFORMAL AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

Robert E. Rhoades March 1982

INTERNATJONAL Aptdo. 5969

PQTATO

CENTER Lima -Peru

THE ART OF THE INFORMAL AGRICULTURAL SURVEY

Robert

E. Rhoades

The ideas that we have in research are only in part a logical product growing out of a careful weighing of evidence. We do not generally think problems through in a straight line, Often we have the experience of being immersed in a mass of confusing data. We study the data carefully, bringing all our powers of logical analysis to bear upon them, We come up with an idea or two. But still the data do not fall in any coherent pattern. Then we go on living with the data - and with the people- until perhaps some chance occurrence casts a totally different light upon the data, and we begin to see a pattern that we have not seen before, This pattern is not purely an artistic creation. Once we think we see it, we mustreexamine our notes and perhaps set out to gather new data in order to determine whether the pattern adequately represents the life we are observing or is simply a product or our imagination.
William Foote Whyte (t 955j

Table

of Contents

I. II.

INTRODUCTION ...................................................... WHY CONDUCT INFORMAL SURVEYS? ..................................... The feasibility survey ............................................ surveys to prepare formal surveys Reconnaissance Informal surveys for the direct planning on-farm .................................................. Agronomic trials .................

5 6 6 6 6 7

III. IV.

THE FRAME OF MIND ................................................. GETTING READY: PRE-FIELDWORK PREPAR!TION .........................

7 7 8
8 9 14 74 15

Literature review ................................................. ............................................... Defining the regiJn Using aerial photos and maps ...................................... .................................... Basic questions and techniques V. IN THE FIELD ......................................................

Interviewing farmers .............................................. ........................................... Executing the interview VI. INFORMALLY ORG.ANIZING DATA: TYPES OF FARMERS AND CROPPING SYSTEMS .................................................. Types of farmers Agroecological zones ......................... Satisfying Moving toward quantification: impulse ...........................................................
..................................................

20 20 21 24 26

..i .................. r311

VII.

USE OF MATERIALS:

WRITING IT UP ..................................

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 RECOMMENDATIONSFOR ON-FARM AGROECONOMIC SUPPLEMENT I: TRIALS: CmETE, PERU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*..................... I. AGROECOLOGICAL PRODUCTION ZONES ................................... Valley margin Valley center Coastal saline II. III. IV. V. zone ................................................ zone ................................................ zone ...............................................
29 29 29 30 30 30 31

TYPES OF FARMERS AND FARMERS PERCEPTIONS OF PROBLEMS .............. FARMERS' PERCEPTIONS OF PRODtJCCL3ON PROBLEMS ....................... INTERVIEWS WITH EXTENSION WORKERSAND MINISTRY OFFICIALS ......................................................... CONCLUSIONS .......................................................
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32 33

GUIDE FOR INFORMAL SURVEY OF A POTATO SUPPLEMENT II: PRODUCING REGION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 I. II. III.
l-7 -

HISTORY OF POTATOES IN THE: REGION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 AGROECOLOGICAL SETTING OF POTATO PRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 SOCIOECONOMIC PROFILE OF LOCAL POPULATION AND POTATO PRODUCERS . . . ...* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*........... AGRICULTURAL CALENDAR (FOR EACH VARIETY AND AGROECOLOGICAL ZONE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..~..............
36

38

V.

FARMING PRACTICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

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THE ART OF THE INFORMAL AGRICULTURAL SURVEY* Robert I. E. Rhoades**

Introduction

The informal survey has often been called "quick ar,d dirty," the approach of rural development "tourists." This put-down dtzives from the belief that short-term surveys yield impressionistic and "soft" data. Formal surveys based on the written questionnaire, however, are thought "hard" data amendable to quanticapable of producing to be "objective," Nevertheless, budgetary, time and perfication and computer analysis. sonnel limitations in Third World countries and international agencies surveys for agricultural development frequently require use of informal planning (Chambers 1980). The informal survey is in fact a form of appropriate technology: If properly executed such cheap, practical, and fast (Bradfield 1981). surveys can produce at minimum cost a rich description of life in a farman understanding of how farmers, merchants, extension i-lg community, On top av\d others perceive their conditions and make decisions. workers, an accurate coma properly conducted informal survey can give of this, prehension of local farming ecology and practices. And anyone can do it --agronomists, extension workers, biologists, All you need is a little time (a few days to two and social scientists. approach to weeks), pencil, paper, common sense, and a down-to-earth farm people and their circumstances. Surveys are only tools -means to an end-- to provide information for intelligent decision-making in solving rural development problems. As the informal survey places project implementhe springboard of planning, tors in contact with their clients for the first time and on the client's In this early phase the researcher is like an explorer, making home turf. a rapid survey of the horizon before plunging into the thickets from which If we observe keenly at the start, the wider view 1s no longer possible. However, the remainder of our journey stands a better chance of success. if we gather faulty information we may wander aimlessly throughout the The purpose of this project or lose precious time and funds backtracking. is to suggest a few basic ideas on how to guarantee the paper, therefore, efficient and successful execution cf the informal survey.
-

:1

Funds for the development of this survey method came from feller Foundation, IDRC-Canada, and CIP core budget. Agricultural anthropologist, CIP.

the Rocke-

**

II.

Why Conduct

Informal

Surveys?

The FeasibiZity

Smey
l

Informal surveys can function to provide basic information on the This is especially the feasibility of beginning a project in a region. case when dealing with areas or farming systems about which little is In this situation, the informal survey may be of more immediate known. and it will probably be use to policy makers than to field agronomists, less concerned with specific production problems than with a balanced unless the introduction of a specific technology overview of the region, is under consideration.

-Lieco~maissance Surveys to Prepare FoWruZ Surveys

The objective is to quickly obtain basic information specifically for the design and execution of formal surveys or more in-depth investilead to on-farm experimentation. Thus, the gations which may, in turn, immediate purpose is to help focus a subsequent forma; survey that will utilize random sampling and quantify critical aspects of the production The need is not simply to get a "feel" of the area, but to dissystem. organizing concepts upon which to base albeit tentative, cover important, future research. For example, we may want to map agroecological zones, develop a working typology of prod,lcers, and find out how farmers desinformal survey can also help inThe exploratory, cribe their problems. sure that the questionnaire is written in a manner understandable and relevant to farmers' circumstances and sensitive to local issues.

Infcrllxl.2

Surveys for

the Direct

PZanning On-Farm A,ponomic

TriaZs

In this case, the formal survey stage is skipped and on-farm exper iments are designed on the basis of an informal survey which aims to i&lost developing country projects will, out pinpoint farm-level problems. of financial necessity, opt for this approach. we need to rationalize the informal survey and make For this reason, it a powerful tool capable of yielding accurate data .upon which to base our research decisions. In this case, we may wish to ask more specific to rank constraints in order to make sure production questions or attempt In cases where the informal the trials answer important local problems. survey is the only planning investigation the team should be interdisciplinary, made up of at least OII~ technical person and one social scientist. If this is not possible, team members should try to incorporate the missing perspective, be it social or biological, into the research.

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III.

The Frame of Mind -

Long used by anthropologists in their study of everyday people, the informal survey is more in the vein of art than a set of fixed procedures. it involves creativity and technique which, if properly apAnd like art, And there is no plied, make the difference between success and failure. substitute for experience as the teacher. The informal survey is methodologically simple but usually physicalIt normally can't be accomplished by driving along And dirty. ly tough. a main road looking at fields, although a "windshield survey" may be a The successful survey may require sloshing through muddy way to begin. scrambling along rocky paths and dangerous slopes, or whiling fields, away hours in fly-ridden tea shops casually talking with farmers. The surveyors must be country-oriented, grubbing out information in fields, daily routines carry them. market places, bars, or wherever farmers' Those unwilling to face a few village hardships have no business doing informal surveys. The successful informal survey also requires mental and methodologiIt does not proceed like the fcrmal questionnaire surcal flexibility important quesInstead, cermined hypotheses are tested. vey where pre-d tions and the direction of study emerge as information is collected. This is not to say the informal survey lacks iogic, but that one must be able to accomodate new information and adjust research plans accordingly. As the survey advances, you will pass from initial vagueness to a mid-way focussing and finally arrive at a stage where you can begin pulling the threads together and test specific ideas. IV. Getting Ready: Pre-Fieldwork Preparation

Literature

Review

assemble and review any relevant secondBefore going to the field, ary socioeconomic and production information about; the general area to be studied. A surprising amount of data can be found if an effort is made to dig it cut of libraries, research stations, and government offices. , especially government statistics, should be taken as Secondary materials Attempt suggestive of possible lines of inquiry and not as gospel truth. to acquire secondary data on rainfall, soils, population, markets and conducted by other disciplines; prices. Do not forget to consult studies g&t to read only anthropology, an econfor an anthropclr, it is a miStake or an agronomist to consult only agronomic omist only economic studies, reports.

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Defining

the Region

The most difficult early decision in LLle informal survey centers on This depends, of delineating the geographical region to be studi.ed. One must be aim. manpower, and the project's on time, available course, or narrowly. careful, however, not to define the study region too bioadly than 300 square kii;mzZrs, lt If the target area is vast, covering more will be better to plan mini-surveys in representative areas. a target region will most likely share In agricultural research, In Peru, for common physical and economic characteristics or linkages. area selected for on-farm research was the Mantaro example, the highland a high intermcntane river valley marked clearly by right and left Valley, On the arid coast, research was conciucted in Can&e, a marginal slopes. lowland valley,the territory of which is defined precisely by its irrigaIn t5e Peruvian jungle, however, the informal survey was tion system. carried out in seiected farming communities located at various points along the major river which served to link communities with the nearest In this case there was no concept of a valley or commerciai center. plain but a broad study area linked by transportation arteries.

Using Aerial

Photos and Maps

The best way to get a rapid overview of a region is to acquire aeriIn fact, do not even al photos, land-use, relief, or ecological maps. think of going to an area without at least one map, preferably a topographic map. A few hours studying such visual materials can reveal more than years on the ground trying to figure out agroecul_cgical zonation or excellent maps and aerial Contrary to popular belief, land use patterns. photos now exist in the geological or military survey offices of most underdeveloped countries. Satellite imagery already provides excellent coverage for some of the most remote areas of the world. The ability to read maps and aer'.al photos is of greatest importance informal surveys. for conducting The images on an aerial photo may at first seem strange because one is not accustomed to a view from the air. With a little practice, however, the kaleidoscopic patterning of an aerial photo can tell us a great deal about both the historical and present By tracing field distribution and structure of man-land relationships. size, shadows and tones which reflect variations in crops or soil texture, irrigation channels, location of towns and roads, one can rapidly understand in a very general way the regional organization of agriculture. Later, on the ground, the reality of the photo (called "ground For example, truth" in satellite imagery interpretation) can be checked. an International Potato Center in planning on-farm research in Caiiete, Three outstanding imsurvey team examined aerial photos of the valley. (1) marginal belt circling most of the valley's edge aages were observed: made up of tiny fields, (2) center region made up of medium to large f.ields, (3) area of seemingly mixed field sizes and perhaps wasteland

-a-

The team hypothesized that these images may reflecting a light tone. The aerial photographs and the represent distinct agroecological belts. agroecological map developed from them are shown in photos I, II and Map I. With additional data on communities in each zone and soil maps from the team conducted a windshield survey of the national resources office, aerial photos, By using the valley for two days and talked to farmers. It was discovered that the zonation reflectfield clusters were located. ed in the photos did correspond to ground level reality, although some modThe marginal zone, characterized by poor, rocky ification was required. soil, was inhabited by small-scale producers. The center zone, historicalturned out to be a zone of large fields ly the location of large estates, The third zone was mixed in terms of and the best soil in the valley. landholding size but was characterized by a common problem of extreme soil salinity and poor drainage and thus better suited for livestock and saline Field observaadapted crops r,uch as sweet potato, peppers, and cotton. tions and interviews with farmers revealed that each zone was characterized, by distinct combinations of crops, farming practices, and production proThe differences between zones and similarities within zones were blems. taken into consideration in implementing on-farm trials (see supplement I for the summary recommendations of this survey).

Basic Questions

and Techniques

Before we ever set foot in any farmer's field, we need to go to the what kinds of information are we after and for drawing board and decide: should be clear , even though -de may not what end? Our gene?-?1 objectives Draw up a list @f tentative topics for inyet know relevant questions. vestigation:
. What

are

the

agro-climatic

zones? crops? (or post-harvest) system?

. What are . What is . What are . What are

the principle the cropping of

the types the farmers'

farmers? practices? these their practices? main problems?

. Why do farmers . What do they

follow feel are

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'hoto

I.

Aerial photo of Peru's Caiiete a governmelit office for public have aerial photos available. (Photo: Courtesy of the

Valley. use.

Such photos are available Most developing countries Geogrsfico Militar).

from now

Instituto

- 10 -

Photo

II.

By examining field features, organization understood, albeit checked by visiting In this cass, three Following further Map I next page) (Photo: Courtesy

size

and distribution, shadows, tones, and other of agriculture in a region can rapidly be "ground truth"can be in a general way. Later, selected areas and surveyino farmers and fields. hypothetical zones were determined. an agroecological Militar). map (see

study on the ground, was drawn. of the Instituto

11 -

Geogrdfico

Map I: --

Agroecoloqical

Zones.

CaiTere \i;:ib5y,

Peru.

UIIII

Central Xarginal Marginal

Zone Saline Higher Zone Zone hills

Non-agricultural Note: Some areas one zone.

showed mixed characteristics of more than These are shmm on the map by overlayed markinqs.

During the informal survey, seek out "key informants," those talkative individuals with great depth of experience and Don't fall into the bias of interknowledge about farming. all family members are involved in viewing only men. Normally agricultural decision-making and especially in regions of high male labor outmigration, women, old people, and children are the backbone of farming.

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V.

In the

Field

Armed with the questions you decide are relevant and available secyou are ready to begin. At first, everything will seem ondary material, This initial disorientation is inevia booming confusion in the field. SO don't let it concern you. Just remember three simple breadtable, and-butter techniques and before long your region will become comprehensible.

~l?L5imVl?. Keep your

and farmer ,'PYW?SE. Talk with

eyes open for behavior. people

patterns

in crop

production,

land

use,

and listen

to their

concerns

and views.

.?FcORT, Discreetly, .

write everything down. Try to keep as complete This is essential in the early stage fieldnotes as possible. to help organize your thinking.

Ir: terwiewing

Farmrs

especially in relation to The key to a successful informal survey, understanding how farmers see their problems, is the successful interto decide early whom you want to interview, A view. It is important frequent bias in agricultural development is to think in terms of "the Farmers, however, usually do not live in isolation. They befarmer." long to groups --families, communities, nations-and decisions about farming are often made by these groups. Although you may talk to indiplace their comments in the context of social pressures and viduals, Interviews with groups of farmers are frequently more lively beliefs. Be sure that local leaders know what you than with only one person. Informal does not mean incognito. are doing. In fact, in many parts of Asia and Africa you must go through the local headman or village leader to gain cooperation. Don't try to shortcut the local chain of command. Although be aware that local leaders will selectively introduce you to the people that support their biases. One way to understand the total farming system (not just on-farm production) is to construct a chain of "key informants." The key informant is an individual who is accessible, willing to talk, and has great depth of knowledge about an area, certain crops, credit, marketing and other agricultural problems. Do not believe everything key informants In any commusay but do not pass up the old-timer who enjoys talking. banker nity it won't take long to construct a chain of key informants: or money-lender, landlord, ministry official, extension agent, farmer, merchant, and middlemen. Each person in the chain may see the problem differently.

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Executing

the

Interview of the informal stages (Rhoades in'ierview 1980). itself can be arbitrarily

The mechanics divided into five

1.

APPROACH WARM-UP 31.4 LOCUE DEPARTURE RECORDING

2. 3. 4. 5.

objectives in mind, information from The Approach - With our general 1. secondary materials, and possibly names of local "key informants," we are ready to enter the field. It is best to keep as low a profile in the rural setting as possible. Oversized vehicles bearing official looking numbers driven by chauffeurs should, if possible, be avoided. Walk as much as possible. Do not go in large numbers. Two in a team is often If you have a sizeable team it is advisable to divide the study best. area into a number of zones in order to avoid duplicating efforts or inor a woman terviewing the same farmers. Once you spot a man in a field in her garden who appear as persons to interview, don't drive around indecisively creating suspicion. Approach him or her directly. However, avoid the "opinion where you startle the farmer by drivpoll syndrome, ing up to him in his field and jumping out with notebook in hand ready Try to blend into the local context as much as possible to interview. without "going native." Be sensitive to the fact that people may be suspicious of you. Timing is extremely important. One has to be aware of the daily work schedule, seasonal activity, work habits, climate,-and how these affect farmers' willingness to talk. In Peru's highlands, we have found that interviewing is acceptable early in the morning before the day's activities get underway. In Indonesia, however, the best time for interviewing is between 4 pm, after prayer, and the evening meal when people are in their homes. effort to walk to If one is willing to take the time and physical the field, interviewing is often more successful since discussions can If appropriate lend a center around ongoing agricultural activities. The slack season is also an helping hand without getting in the way. excellent opportunity for informal interviewing. The Warm-Up - Informal 2. interviewing is a dynamic process in which The first important information develops out of casual conversation. of an area ininterviews may be very simple but soon, as our knowledge creases, questions will become more penetrating and valuable.

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One purpose of the informal survey is to communicate with fanners. If large numbers of researchers descend upon a farmer, the result is likely to be like this. The farmer is the man on the left, isolated and alienated. When he works with only one or two researchers he is known to be an exccllent and talkative informant.

16 -

to the subject at hand. Don't go directly The farmer should first be greeted according to local custom. Farmers should be treated with respect (if the local language requires it, use the "polite" form of adHere, avoid what I call the "sahib syndrome" which is condesdress). Treat farmers with courtesy. cending and aggressive. Don't talk to the farmer from a vehicle; try to avoid positioning yourself above him. Open the conversation with locally accepted polite talk about the weather, how his crops are doing or the price of potatoes. Tell him exactly who you are, why you wish to talk, and the nature of your work. Observe the situation to make sure the context is conducive to an and receives water interview. For example" if the farmer is irrigating only once a week for an hour, he may not be interested in small talk. Sometimes farmers can suggest the best time and Ask for an appointment. place to continue.

3. The Dialogue - The key to the successful informal interview is to be natural and relaxed while guiding thtj conversation to a fruitful end. Let the discussion flow and mix up your questions. At first avoid sensitive Don't fall into the "Joe Friday questions. syndrome" (The famous TV pollceman whose interrogation always began with a blunt "just give me the Allow people to stray onto another topic or tell stories. facts, ma'm"). You are seeking general information and what is said may be revealing of local customs or pshychology. You can return to the main line of thought By all means, don't ask too many questions back to back. later. Intersperse the conversation with personal comments of your own.
One method that gains farmer cooperation anywhere in the world is the straight forward, honest admission or. your part that the farmer is the "expert" about farming in his area and you are the learner. Just say "I am not from around here and I don't know much about how you farm. Would you kindly explain . ..?"' Then, go to your specific questions. If you have personal farm experience from your region or country, farmers always like to compare notes. you ask a question that causes silence or it is obvious he can't answer it, don't try the Socratic method of suggesting answers to lead the conversation where your bias thinks it should go. Rephrase the question. Always use plain understandable language with farmers. After all, they have a rich vocabulary tied to their profession and area, but they do not understand scientific jargon. There are advantages to working in pairs with at least one person from the same culture although not necessarily from the target area. Don't ask questions that are too abstract or sensitive. Don't extend the interview beyond 30 to 45 minutes unless the farmer is in a talkative mood. Observe facial expressions as they may reveal a great deal about farmers' concerns or reservations. Make sure your questions are culturally sensitive. Frequently, you may get information on sensitive matters through indirect questioning. But always remember that what people say and do may be two different things. If

- 17 -

This field notebook is indispensable to the informal survey. Although you have to discreetly use pen and paper in front of farmers, write down in detail your observations Withand thoughts Puring or immediately after interviews. out a complete data-packed notebook the informal survey will likely fail.

- 78 -

The Departure - After you have cL>vered all relevant topics or ex4. hausted the time the farmer can afford to give you, bring the conversaNot too abruptly, however. If the weather is unfavortion to an end. raining) or the farmer seems pressed for time you maywish able (too hot, Remember to do it gracefulto prematurely stwp the informal interview. Avoid the "gringo syndrome," the abrupt, business-like ly and naturally. Thank him for his time and depart with the proper "gotta go" departure. local farewell. locally accepted the camera can be an important research tool. Photos can be used later to help design formal surveys or experiments. Sometimes you can do the farmer a favor (and win his confidence for future on-farm work) by sending or returning with photos of the farm or Do not let the family down by failing to send promised photos. family. receiving small packages of Also, in most world areas farmers appreciate vegetable seed for their gardens or technical brochuras written in plain language. - Immediately after (or if permissible dur5. Recording of Information lng) the interview jot down memory-jarring notes. Agricultural scienin particular, tend not to write down what farmers say or their tists, own personal observations. However, it is amazing how facts, ideas, and important observations that one "will never forget" quickly slip away. i't is estimated that 50 per cent of the details of an interview are iost within 24 hours and by the end of the second day, over 75 per cent. After that, only skeletal notes can be salvaged. Thus, remember during the interview to take mental notes reminding yourself: "don't forget to write that down." Jotted notes will serve to aid your memory later when you write out full field notes on interviews and a day's observations. Whether one should take notes in front of farmers depends on the situation. Be sensitive to your actions. The best rule is to abstain from using pencil until you feel the situation is truly relaxed. Informal interviews lasting more than 30 minutes will usually be casual enough to allow the writing of some notes. Don't pull out an official-looking questionnaire in any case. This will surely destroy confidence. Test the ground first by "interacting" with the farmer on paper by drawing a field layout or cropping pattern. If he does not react suspiciously to the pen and paper, you can probably continue to take some notes. However, if issues turn sensitive, stop writing. Try to get the farmer's name and address unless he prefers not to give it so that you can contact him or if you visit the area again ycu can make specific personal reference to your previous visit. How long one waits before notes depends by and large on sonal style. In cases of team scribe, a person whose job is viewing farmers in the morning, out field notes while they are jotting down notes or writing full field the setting, people interviewed, and perresearch, it may be best to appoint a After interto write everything down. for example, stop around midday and write still fresh in mind. It is also valuable
19 -

If

for the research team to meet daily in the evening plan for the next day (Hildebrand 1979).

to go over

notes

and

Think by writing in your field notebooks. One method of recall is t.hat is writing while reto think in terms of a "sequence of events," If you discover your membering the activities surrounding an interview. questions are not yielding new information it may be time to ask them in themselves. Through this rethinking a new way or change the questions with your team workers, you will have analytprocess and "brainstorminn" ical flashes where sudden realizations will consolidate into a pattern. fields and crops, now you can For example, when at once you saw isolated see how they associate to form an agroecological zone. VI. Informally Organizing Data: Types Systems of Farmers and

Cropping

One purpose of the informal survey is to define relatively homogeneous types of farmers and agroecological or production zones. Technoloqy is frequently locational and group specific. What works for one group of farmers in one ecological zone may not work elsewhere. This through a widespread tendency by technical agriculfact is complicated (more successful) farmers for ture scientists to select larger, "better" experimental research since this group is more accesible and has resources have been known to prefer Also, agronomists to carry out experiments. level fields with quality soil near roads rather than perhaps more representative sloping, rocky, fields located far from the main road. Thus, one should be aware of the representatives of the experimental plot for extrapolation of research results.

?dpes of Farmrs
Early in the informal survey one can begin to develop a typology of producers. Typically, such groupings are based on a predetermined and quantifiable landholding size (e.g. l-5 hectares is small farmer, S-10 hectares is medium, over 10 hectares are large farmers). However, care must be taken not to assume size is necessarily correlated with specific cropping patterns or even economic status. Often both large and small farmers in the sameareapursue similar cropping strategies. And it may be that the I'small" farmer with his limited farm size is more efficient or a better farmer because he must be able to subsist on a much smaller landholding. Thus, multiple factors have to be considered in developing purpose of production, and a typology of producers; e.g. size of holding, cropping system. In terms of potatoes, for example, one might develop a technology involving large to small commercial seed growers, small-scale subsistence farmers, and large, medium and small-scale commercial growers of ware potatoes. However, remember that typologies are merely ways of organizing thinking and that farmers cannot be so easily stereotypes. Do not automatically assume that all farmers in a type will behave the same. - 20 -

AqroeeoZogical

Zones_

An agroecological zone represents an association between a set soils) and agricultural natural conditions (climatic, topographic, herding) utilized to exploit that environment. tivity (farming, resides in the possibility for extrapolation usefulness of zones since conditions within zones are more similar than between zones. sumably, farmers living in the same zone would have similar problems and technological needs. Studying techniques: agroecological agroecological by two zones can be facilitated transects and field plotting.

of acThe Pre-

simple

The transect is simply a cut or cross-section of a territorial exand practices obpanse wherein fields are mapped, cropping patterns of agroecological zones deserved through space, and the boundaries Transects are relatively easy to do, depending on the ruggedfined. ness of terrain and visibility as affected by topography and vegetation. The transect is especially appropriate where you have relatively rapid changes in topography and natural conditions, such as in mountainous regions. a transect was made in Peru's Chanchamayo Valley to For example, determine agroecological zonation and crop distribution (Diagram I). The Chanchamayo stretches between Peru's high jungle on the eastern AnThe region ranges in altidean slopes down to the lower Amazon Basin. tude from 500 to 800 meters on the valley floor up to surrounding 2,000meter ridges. Using an altimeter, aerial photos, and topographical maps, the surfrom the valley floor along an access road tovey team started walking ward higher elevations. Detailed notes were periodically taken of natural vegetation and sketches of field shapes and crop associations made. Technological observations were likewise taken and, whenever possible, It is important to observe settlement patterns, farmers interviewed. distance of dwellings from fields and distance between fields. These aslabor or time repects might be important, for example, in determining quirements in getting to fields or transporting a harvest to market. Transects similar to this were made in several parts of the valley and later the information assembled to give us a general idea about land use in the region. Field plotting is a second simple technique for rapidly understandIt can be conducted in ing cropping patterns and practices in a region. relation to the transect exercise or while systematically driving through a region. especially if it is sensed that the ecology has Periodically, altered, the team should stop and plot a field in terms of its crop assoWe do not even have ciations and observed farming practices (Diagram 2). In a single day, data to talk to a farmer to learn a tremendous amount. on several hundred fields can be recorded in an area of open terrain with at the International Potato Center For example, agronomists good roads. were considering trials related to intercropping in the Peruvian F .ghlands.

- 21 -

Diagram

I:

Agro-Ecological

Transect.

Chanchamayo,

Peru. OBSERVATIONS

Meters

Production

Zones

~--I_-I

andholding 10 hectares

ICultivation -- Type

--

--

Associated Crops (po-

I Oriain

of Farmers

1800

SUBSISTENCE MARGINAL ZONE Families tied MIXED FARMING: TROPICAL TREE CROPS, Cooperatives COFFEE, SUBSISTENCE c COFFEE PLANTATIONS (West Slope) PINEAPPLE FARMS (East Slope) Cooperatives Large units -----------------Household; Large coops private to

Semi-shifting cultivation Vegetable garden No pesticides No fertilizers Mixed cropping Semi-shifting (until permanent crops put in) Hired labor pest - fertilizer ---------------Hand cultivation Permanent, mechanized, pesticides, fertiliers

Vegetables tatoes) Livestock Maize Bananas Papaya Palta Banana Banana Palta Papaya ---------------. Yuca Banana Palta Papaya

1 Recent settlers from highlands

Recent migrants from highlands Long-term dents

-------------------

N N

1480 ----------.-

resi-

Second generation settlers Old-timers

units; (haciendas)

\ 800 -/

TROPICAL FRUIT PLANTATION ESTATES

Diagram

II:

Field

Plotting

PB
PB PR PB PB PB PB PB PB PB PB PB PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM
PM

PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM

PB PB PR PB PB PB PB PB PB PB PB PB PB PB PB PB

PM = PB =

Potatoes-maize Potatoes-beans

(same row) (same row)

Description:

at 3,175 meters we encountered a field with intercroppina of maize, potato, and broad beans. Appears potatoes planted first and with first hilling up, then maize and broad beans planted. This was confirmed by farmer met later on the trail. Apparent reason is to save labor by Also, plantinq maize and beans while hillinq up potatoes. farmers spreading risks: in case one crop fails, will have others to fall back on. Chanchamayo field notes,
1979.

Source:

- 23 -

A subsequent informal survey conducted in one day yielded data on Field plotting was done for representative types. The re275 fields. sults shoed that 86% of the surveyed fields were monocropped and that potatoes are rarely intercropped even in the remaining 14 per cent. Agronomists dropped the idea of conducting on-farm intercropping trials for this region (Werge, N.D.) = The sampling may not be random but after two to three hundred fields This, are covered, the cropping pattern should be generally understood. whether experiments should be done with interfor example, can indicate or what field trials might be considered. monocropping, cropping, The problem is that such fiel<i observations are time frozen. To view of a field or zone, interviews with farmers are gain a long term This can be done, however, by having the farmer tell the necessary. It is imhistory of a few parcels as far back as memory and time allow. portant to gain an understanding of rotations and the overall cropping system so as to determine how a farmer views the role of different fields in his farming strategy.

Moving Toward Quantification:

Sathfying

an ImpuZse

If the informal survey lasts more than one week, you may feel the a first step toward a formal need for some degree of quantification, It is at this point, that the development of a simple one-page survey. The purpose of this is to gather some interview schedule is suggested. very basic numbers, perhaps on size of operation, rotations, crops, and By this simple quantifarmer opinions on primary production problems. it can be seen if pattern s emerge in different zones and among fication, You can also use it as ammunition with coldifferent types of farmers. leagues who won't believe you unless they see numbers. One valuable technique is the farmers' ranking scale developed from proresponses to the open-ended questions: "What is '-he most important The seconti m,st important, the blem you have in producing potatoes? third, and so on (see Supplement 1). Although these are abstract questions, we have found that farmers always have three or four major techAfter the interview, write down farmers' r'cal problems on their mind. ranking them numerically. Dater a ranking perceived production problems, table can be constructed and the data used to select technology for onfarm experimentation which relates to farmers' felt needs. It should be remembered, however, that concerns are very seasonal. In Caiiete, Peru, potato farmers in March always see cost or quality of seed as their main problem (because they are getting ready to plant); in August (just before harvest) it is an insect pest. A table drawn from one of CIP's informal surveys (see Table I). Farmers were asked to rank their first order of importance. Such tables are easy to construct sort of intermediate step toward quantification. - 24 is given below four problems in and useful as a

Table

I:

Perceptions Farmers' Mantaro Importance:

of Production Valley

Problems

Ranked

in Order

of

Problems

No of Farmers' Responses Most Next Most Third Important Important

10 (3) (3) (4) 9 8 5 1 2 0 0 11 (4) (6) (1) 6 2 7 3 12 (5) (3) (4) 5 6 3 3 3 1 0

Fourth

Total Responses

1.

Cl imate (frost) (hail) (drought)

2 (0) (0) (2) 0 3 2 1 0 0 0

35 (12) (12) (11) 20 19 17 8 6 3 2 1

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. a. 9. 10.

Insects Lack of Capital Plant

Cost Disease

of

Inputs

Lack of Land or Poor Land cost of or Lack of Labor Lack of Irrigation Lack of Technical Knowledge None

1.
2 2

1
1

25 -

VII.

Use of Materials:

Writing

It

Up
.

the team should sit down and quickly Immediately after fieldwork, write a summary report even if it lacks professional polish. Dont worIt is Re-writinq can come later. ry too much about grammar and style. important to get the information down while still fresh on everyone's The exact format or outline will depend on the purpose of the minds. in a language understandable to everyone. If survey but be sure to write the report is to be used to implement on farm experiments, summarize onCopies of Keep recommendations brief. ly directly relevant material. summary and final reports should be sent to all offices, institutes, or especially those who assisted in the research. interested individuals, The people of the region have givThis final reciprocity is only fair. The least you can do is give them a copy of the stuen you their time. dy which they have so kindly help you prepare. It is important not to let the report be shelved away only to qathit should be your guide throughout future Take it seriously: er dust. The informal survey activities but constantly upgraded as you progress. It should not as an historical document. is for immediate utilization, serve to keep us honest (or at least caution against slipping into our If, for example, our survey shows %hat prior biases without reason). the majority of potatoes in a target region are produced by resourcezone 1 hour walk from in a high, marginal poor, small growers located off theunderstandable desire to carry out the main road, we should fight trials with a few large-scale producers located on fertile valley floor lands (unless the technology being tested is relevant to all growers, large or small in either zone). Unless we take seriously our findings and what farmers have told us, we are likely to discover that farmers will not take us seriously either. We have to be sensitive to their needs, opinions, customs, and capabiliOtherwise, ties. we may fall victim to what I call the "which way to Little Rock syndrome?" In a rural area of the United States, in the state of Arkansas, a farmer was hoeing cotton in his field near a forked road. "slicker" A city (country term for pretentious people from big cities) a cloud of dust in a big, shiny car, was headed toward this fork trailing behind. When he got to the fork and was obviously confused he yelled to the farmer: "Hey, buster (an insulting form of address not used in ArNo does it matter which road I take to get to Little Rock?" kansas), Satisfied the man turned left and sped away. yelled the farmer back. leaned on his hoe and yelled again: The farmer with a sly grin paused, drive away No, don't matter to me no how" as he watched the city slicker on the wrong road.

- 26 -

References

1.

Bradfield,
1981

Stillman Appropriate Methodology for In American Society nology. Transferring Technology for Chapter 2, pp. 23-33 Robert The Small
1312):

Appropriate Techfor Agronomy, Small-Scale Farming.

2.

Chambers,
1980

Farmer

is

a Professional.

Ceres.

19-23

3.

Hildebrand,
1979

Peter Summary of the Sondeo Methodology Guatemala (Mimeo). ICTA: Robert Some Notes on the Art of Informal Interviewing. Discussion paper prepared for workshop on "Methodological Issues Facing Social Scientists in Research" Applied Crop and Farming Systems I-3). CIMMYT: Mexico (April Interplanting dean Sierra. Center. Foote Practices Mimeograph. in the Northern AnInternational Potato e Used by ICTA.

4.

Rhoades,
1980

5.

Werge,

Robert

N.D.

6.

NW-e, William
1955

The Social Structure of Street Corner Society: University of ChicaChicago: an Italian Slum. go Press.

27 -

SUPPLEMENT I RECOMMENDATIONSFOR ON-FARM AGROECONOMIC TRIALS : CANETE, PERU

An informal survey was conducted over IO days in late February and 1980, to help CIP's agroeconomic team focus better on farmearly March, In this case, the agronomic team level problems in conducting trials. had already been through one season of trials and had considerable knowHowever, they had conducted trials mainly with larger ledge of the area. farmers located in the center of the valley and on problems generally The attempt then was to defined from the outside rather than by farmers. (2) identify representative types of (1) define agroecological zones; farmers and their perceptions of production problems; (3) interview local extension and ministry workers to better pinpoint relevant problems for This report, highly simwhich improved technology might be available. pl if ied, presents the findings of this informal survey. I. eoecological Production Zones

We would strongly urge that the upcoming trials take into account Mainly based on the internal agroecological diversity of the valley. and socioeconomic conditions, we have determined the irrigation, soil, existence of three main zones: (1) Upper Valley Margin, (2) Valley Center and (3) Lower Valley Saline Margin (see Map I earlier in this report). In each of these zones farmers distinct sets of production problems or Although we cannot present the massof data we have availpossibilities. able, we can briefly summarize the differences in the valley.

PaLleg Marqin Zone

This is a zone of small agriculturists with most holdings varying from l-3 hetares. It contains the poorest soil in the valley being quite Since the agriculturists here receive water shallow, sandy, and rocky. only every 8-10 days (by mita) and face water management problems, water supply is considered a major problem. They tend to opt for plants which The require less water, mainly cotton (which also has price stability). water problem has been severe for two years because of a lack of rains in the highlands and predictions are that this year will see an even greater scarcity of water. Here one finds the greatest variation in crops and intercropping. Potatoes are grown mainly in the sectors of Quilmana Alto and Nuevo Imperial (47% of all Cafiete potato growers for 1980 are programmed in these areas according to ministry data).

- 29 -

VaZleg Center
of the large farms The valley center was historically the location This region contains the "alluvial plains" which are today cooperatives. considered to be deep and the best in the valley for agriculture. soils, Scattered throughout the valley are sections of small and medium-size The cooperat'ves and medium-scale producers concentrate agriculturists. on 3 or 4 main commercial crops (cotton, potatoes, maize, sweet potato). They farm with tractors and have a strong market orientation. The small agriculturists in the zone also plant commercial crops but also pursue cultivation for home use (pan llevar). The cooperatives receive water at all times so there are no major water problem. A typical rotation is cotton-potatoes-maize.

Toastal

Saline

Zone

The main characteristics of soil are: salinity, clay texture, and Farmers complain especially of salinity which they note poor drainage. prevents the growing of potatoes. maize and pasture for cattle Cotton, are the main crops here. The zone has a mixture of CAPS (cooperatives) and small to medium producers. Under a land rehabilitation project, more than 3,000 hectares will be improved for cultivation purposes. Since most irrigated, arid zone have problems with salinity,Caiiete would be an area for fruitful investigation with application to other world areas. Many farmers in this area wish to plant potato but are not willing to take the risk because of salinity. II. Types of Farmers and Farmers'Perceptions of Problems

In addition to identification of major zones, we also studied 6 areas within the valley. It was learned that significant variation occurs in agricultural practices even within our larger zones. Each area has its own special characteristics (demographic patterns, crops, irrigation and anyone doing experiments would benefit enormously from system, etc.) the detailed studies on 17 areas of the valley carried out by the agronomists of Valle Grande. This information includes complete and detailed questionnaire, often covering every farmer of the selected area. Contrary to popular belief, Cafiete is not a valley of only large It is also a farming communi,ty made up of small farming operations. Ia- >cld.j.j.?s. According to 1976 data, 84.2% of all farm units contain Less than 3 hecta;ii2s, 11.2% with 3-9.9 hectares and the other units are medium or CAPS. lt is also not an established fact that mainly medium size farmers and CAPS grow potatoes. In fact, according to theministry's registration (all farmers must submit a cultivation plan) the average size planting is around 4 hectares. The vast majority plant only 2-3 hectares. Furthermore, since 1976 the CAPS have drastically cut the number of

- 30 -

hectares they plant quite complete for by CAPS this year.

According in Potatoes. 1980) only 25% of total

to 1980 ministry data (not hectareage will be planted

1 gives a general breakdown of the 1980 programmed planting. Table Quilamana Bajo and Nuevo Imperial Alto conThe sectors Quilmana Alto, and nearly all of those farm tain most of the potato farmers (69.75%), These three areas account for 48.25% of potatoes. less than 3 hectares Only in Quilmana Bajo do we find CAPS and of the programmed land area. In Nuevo Imperial the average a significant number of medium farmers. It should be further noted that size of planting will be 1.73 (N = 99). 86.74% of all planting will take place in April and May. Thus, if one farmer (representative of the majority of the can speak of an "average" region) it would be a farmer with 2 to 3 hectares who lives in one of In any case, the marginal communities and plants in April and May. these available data suggest that if representativeness is a concern then at least 70% of the experiments should deal with these small farmers.

III.

Farmers'

Perceptions

of Production

Problems

To acquire a better understanding of farmers' perception of prosurvey with farmers from various zones. blems we conducted a non-random we asked them to rank their production problems. Among other things, The ranking of all farmers was the following: No of Farmers 1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
7.

% of Total
65 63 39 37 26 22 22 12 16

Cost of seed cost of inputs (besides Irrigation problems Insects Soils (poor or saline) Disease Marketing
Climate

seed)

8. 9.

Others

32 31 19 18 13 11 11 6 8

The farmers of Caiiete are presently weighing the decision whether but there is little doubt This may have biased our survey, to plant. is a major concern in that the prevailing cost of seed (105 soles/kilo) Nearly all farmers mentioned risk in conjuction with cost the valley. of seed and other inputs. Potatoes are extremely expensive and a crop failure would be a strong financial setback for small farmers. Each agroecological zone has its own type of production problems. the farmers of the marginal In addition to their concern with costs, zone rank irrigation as a major problem (N = 14, 50% of total farmers
31 -

In the central zone (where they mainly receive water conin the zone). tinuously) problems with insects (mosca minadora) was a major concern Along the coastal-saline zone, (N = 7, 50% of central zone farIIErS). problems as the next problem after cost of seed. farmers perceive soil and what they call a lack This is due to high salinity, poor drainage, (sweet water) since they are at the end of the irrigaof "aqua dulce" tion channel and receive the water after it has gone through the entire The implications of this data on perception of problems are that system. seed storage experiments may benefit farmers in all zones (including irrigation experiments may be most CAPS in the center of the valley), Of course, experbeneficial on the margins where water problems exist. lments with salinity along the coast may be worthwhile if the transferability to other world zones is an objective of the experiments (as stated in the justification of the Caiiete project). TV. Interviews With Extension Workers and Ministry Officials

In addition to our work with farmers we also interviewed extension Eng. Trelles, workers and ministry officials. who is in charge of the recommended three broad categories of potato section at the ministry, experiments:
1.

Nerrkxtodc Toni90 I (cultural

varieties).

practices,

chemical solve

control water

or resistant problems of

2. 3.

Auter/Irriqatior
small farmers).

(any experiment

to help

Salinity
play with

with the opening of 3,000 a role if we had the varieties salinity.

new hectares, or agronomic

potatoes could techniques to deal

(1) storage experiOther extension workers added the following: seed from September/October to March; ments; need to store "criolla" (2) insect control, especially "mosca minadora;" (3) fertilizer trials, incorporating more organic material in soil or trials with "guano de1 cocontrol of insects. rral ; (4) biological V. Based on all following:
1.

Conclusions we have available we would recommend the

the

evidence

Most of the experiments (70%) should be carried ers living in the marginal zone, the remaining and CAPS.

out with small farm30% among medium size

- 32 -

2.

The experiments should aim to increase efficiency in crease cost of seed and inputs while increasing output complex packages will only increase the risk factor). The key problems identified minadora," watar problems,

seed use, de(high cost

3. 4. 5.

by farmers should be addressed: "mosca cost of seed, and salinity (in one zone).

Most farmers did not identify nematodes or storage as problems but these were stressed by knowledgeable extension workers in the area. The experiments the experiment zone. should be relevant to the agroecological zone where is conducted and to the majority of farmers in the

6.

Traditional fertilizer trials should be pursued only after an extensive review of the data on current farmer fertilizer practices available in Valle Grande, a local private research institute.

- 33 -

Table Sector

I:

Programmed

Potato

Planting

by Sector:

Cafiete

(1980).

Agriculturists % of Total No March Alto 99

18 3 18.9 3.44 -57 21.98 28.87 8.03 4.39 5.73 8.03 18.42 1.00 10.70 26.46 8.46 1.71 13.05 76.48

Has. Month of Planting April May

70.62 134.76 4.0 287.57 284.51 79.67 142.87 57.86 156.39 61.76 93.20 22.23 56.87 206.52 51.06 143.32 33.62 118.34

Total Has. June

30-79 14.70 12.40 19.65 5.98 28.00 14.00 24.30 171.63 244.37 39.28 433.32

Average Size of Planting

1.73 13.57 13.09 3.76

Sector % of Total Programmed

7.42 10.57 1.69 18.74

Nuevo Imperial San Luis Herbay Quilmana Quilmana Imperial

I K I

Bajo Alto Alto Bajo

115 151 42 23 30 42

510.68
155.13 315.19 116.18 325.49

3.38
3.69 13.70 3.87 7.74

22.09
6.71 13.63 5.02 14.08

San Vicente San Vicente Imperial TOTAL

523

100.00

156.28

1218.25

786.92

149.82

2311.27

4.42

100.00

% of planting by month 6.76

52.70

34.04

7.78

100.00

CAPS

area

20.1% of Total to be planted

SUPPLEMENT II GUIDE FOR INFORMAL SURVEY OF A POTATO PRODUCING REGION The following set of questions and topics might be covered in an inIt emphasizes socio-economic and farming systems aspects. formal survey. They are by no means exhaustive and it may be convenient to discard many It is sugwhich may not bear on the specific needs of the researcher. gested that the field surveyors study the topics and use them as a memory guide for exploring possible problem area, but not that the team necessarily collect data on each topic. I. A. History of Potatoes in the Region

Gain an understanding phasizing

1.

of

the

agricultural

history

of the

area,

em-

2. 3. 4.

When were potatoes first introduced? Why were potatoes introduced? Who first introduced potatoes? Any additional historically - relevant II. Agroecological relief Setting maps, aerial of Potato photos,

facts? Production and land-use maps of the

A. B.

Obtain target

and study area.

Obtain or develop more detailed agroecological zones. Describe potato-relevant guage and readable charts
1.

maps of

study

area

showing using

major lan-

C.

agroclimatic and tables.

conditions

simple

2. 3. 4. 5. D.

Rainfall data (monthly rainfall averages). Discuss predictability of rainfall, water frost, wind patterns. Hail, Incidence of sunshine/temperature patterns. Altitude, slope. the relevant topographical and soil

availability.

Describe
1.

conditions.

2. 3.

Identify different soil types in study area, extent in region, Do farmers use by local farmers. local names, and selective prefer a specific type of soil for growing potatoes? Collect soil sample for analysis if possible. Discuss strategies farmers use to exploit different ecological conditions. zones and soil - 35 -

III.

Socioeconomic

Profile

of Local

Population

and Potato

Producers

A.

Obtain data on population, population how are the people tribution (i.e., ecological zones). Regional 1. 2. settlement patterns.

density, distributed

and population disaccording to agro-

B.

What proportion of population is Are farms dispersed or nucleated? economic profile and their (what are

rural

and urban? of livehood?).

C. D.

Brief

the main sources to the

Ethnic groups production.

relationship

economy and agricultural creditors, a typology). of production, for

.

E. F. G.

Others involved in potato production izer seller, laborers, etc.). what kind of people produce of potato potatoes? producers

(middlermen, (Develop by size

fertil-

Develop a typology example:

1.

2. 3. 4.
H.

Small-medium-large (based on landholding size). Commercial-subsistence (purpose of production). Seed-ware (type of crops). Combinations of above. of production and decision-making: describe.

Units 1. 2. 3. 4.

Households. Coperatives. Farms or plantation estates (large-scale) Communities or kinship groups. describe the major types.

I.

Land tenure:
1.

2. 3. 4. J.

Private Communal Cooperative Share cropping,

renting of land use and production: A general over-

Strategies view.
1.

and purposes

2. 3.

Distribution Objectives sumption, Intensity temporary

of fields (nucleated or dispersed and why?). of production in different fields (sale, home conseed, exchange). of land use and types of fields (gerdens, permanent, pastures) - 36 -

4. 5. 6.

Rotation patterns (crops, fields, fallow periods, and possible reasons) Importance of potatoes in the area in regard to area, labor, relative to other crops. absorption, income, Is poPurposes of potato production and relative importance: tato expansion possible? consumption a. on-farm c. sale of consumer potatoes e. processing b. exchange d. sale of seed potatoes f. combination of (a-e)

K.

Labor
1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. L.

What is the busiest month of the year i-or local What demands are placed on farm households over do these demands relate to the potato production Do they hire temporary or permanent laborers or sufficient? Do they hire machinery? What is the sexual and age division of labor in and farmina activities. Seasonal out-miqration of familv members forcinq family labor use strategies. Product-ion strategies to better use family labor. and uses

farmers? these year? How period? is family labor decision-makina chanaes in

Cash sources
1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

What are the main crops sold by farmers? What is the estimated proportion of total farm income from each main crop? (based on different types of farmers? What are other non-farm sources of income? For agricultural InWhat are the main expenditures by farmers? puts? Are potatoes increasing in importance as a cash crop, remaining or declining? stable, Main sources of credit and related problems. a. Government
C.

b.

Kin groups of marketing

Private (money lenders middlemen) c. Cooperatives, voluntary sociation

or

as-

M.

Organization
1. 2.

Link between marketing, production Methods of marketing potatoes a.

C.

and storage. b. Exchange munities d. Other or sell within com-

Middlemen Direct sale farmers to markets by

37 -

3. 4. 5. 8.

Relationships between size of holding, farm type, etc. type of marketing employed. Other marketing problems. Data on price mechanisms and trends and any information seasonal or locational variability. infrastructure

and

on

Socioeconomic 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Are inputs available (fertilizers, pesticides, Sources of inputs (government, terials, etc.)? nies, etc.). Extension services. Transportation facilities. Condition of transport arteries and difficultires Are markets available for their produce. aspects and farmer opinions

fungicides, maprivate compa-

of transport.

c.)ther social . 2. ,J. 4.

Problems with agricultural robbery. Social demands for food exchange. Reliqions beliefs concerning production. Farmer's opinions on:
a.

b. c. d. e. f. TV. A.
B.

Ranking of potato production problems Yield variability (what does he expect think prevents that goal?) Risks related to weather Risks related to marketing and prices Risks related to pests and diseases Taste or color preferences of varieties Calendar (For Each Variety for each including points crop

(in order of importance to get and what does

he

Agricultural General planting

and Agroecological (over several

Zone) years). dates

times

or variety

Range in planting of each variety Growing General

time

times, (including

earliest of highest

and latest frequency).

possible

. L..

for

each variety. dates plant (over the several varieties years they if possible). do and when.

D. E.

harvest

Asses why farmers

- 38 -

V.

Farming

Practices

A.

HOW does a farmer decide where he will plant his next potato crop? Why does he plant in one field versus another available field? What factors does he consider in the decision?

B.

Land Preparation
1.

2. 3.

When and how is the land prepared? What is the sequence of work? With what tools? Does How does the farmer prepare the field? he prepare a whole field, before planting, or prepare and plant a bit the same day, or what?

c.

Planting 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Where are seeds obtained and how are they prepared? Are potatoes planted in association with other crops or alone in a field? In cases where associated with other crops, what is sequence and why? How do farmers decide when to plant? Describe present planting methods (density, methods of putting coordination with water, etc.) in ground, used, if at all? How and when is irrigation What is the organization of irrigation? thinning, fertilizing and cultivation

D.

Weeding,
1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. E. Pest
1.

Implements used in weeding and thinning (if any) When and how many times is weeding/thinning done? What determines weeding/thinning pattern? Are there any cultivation activities during growing season? - What, how much, when? Fertilizer practices Use of leaves, stalks, etc. for animals? Action taken if crop fails completely during growing season and disease control diseases and pests? and frequency of

2. 3. F.

What do farmers consider as their main potato Methods When and how is control carried out? application. Asses damage to crop by pests.

Harvest
1.

2. 3.

Method of harvesting. Timing and frequency. Tools used.

- 39 -

G.

Storage
1.

2. 3.

Description of storage techniques (with drawings) Types of stores (government, in-field, in-house, separate buildings). Why and for how long is storage required and how does this vary according to price fluctuations, climate, etc.?

References
1.

Collinson,
1979

Michael Paper presented at Understanding Small Fanners. Conference held at the Institute of Development of Sussex, Brighton, U.K. Studies, University Mimeo. Dec. 4-7, 1979.

40 -