Interactive E-Training Module For Training Plant Engineers On Operations (Final)

[R22 Plant] Interactive e-module for training plant engineers on operations
DETAILS FEED SECTION REACTOR SECTION HCL ABSORPTION SECTION PRIMARY CAUSTIC TOWER SECONDARY CAUSTIC TOWER LP SYSTEM PRIMARY SULFURIC TOWER SECONDARY SULFURIC TOWER
Process Water Pr. Low PSL 315 FALSE FCV 125
Cat Stripper Pressure High PCV 89 FALSE
Reactor Pressure High
TE
XCV 104 TCV 101 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM XCV 57
FALSE FALSE
FALSE
XCV-61 Vent AHF pump high pressure
FALSE XCV 106 A/B PT 51 FALSE
P-101 A/B
FALSE
XCV-52
FALSE
CHEMISTRY
CHEMISTRY Chemical Compound Formula Molecular Weight Boiling Point at 1atm pressure (C) Density (kg/cm3) Chemistry
Anhydrous Hydrofluoric Acid HF 20 19.5 0.98
Chloroform CHCL3 119.5 76 1.37
Antimony trichloride SbCl3 + 228.25 220.3 3.14 SbCl5 SbCl4F SbCl4F SbCl4F + + + +
Chlorine Cl2 71 -34.04 2.486 HF CHCl3 CHCl2F CHClF2
Antimony pentachloride SbCl5 299.25 140 2.336 SbCl4F CHCl2F (R21) CHClF2 (R22) CHF3 (R23) + + + + HCl SbCl5 SbCl5 SbCl5
HCl 36.5
H2O 18
HCl (31.5%) Aqueous 85 1.16 100%
Hydrochloric acid HCl + 36.5
Caustic NaOH(7%) 40 102-110 1.0758
Sodium Chloride NaCl + 58.5
Water H2O 18
Hydrochloric acid HCl + 36.5
Caustic NaOH 40
Sodium Chloride NaCl + 58.5
Water H2O 18
Sulfuric acid (98%) H2SO4 H2O + 330 1.84 98%
Sulfuric acid (93%) H2SO4 166
Sulfuric acid (98%) H2SO4 H2O + 330 1.84 98% Heat of dilution
Sulfuric acid (93%) H2SO4 166
31.50% Heat of dilution
68.50%
>93%
>93%
Aqueous HCl is cooled with cooling water through graphite exchanger to remove the heat of dilution Process water is used for absorption
Heat is generated in the neutralisation process Brine is used for cooling
Heat is generated in the neutralisation process Brine is used for cooling
Heat of dilution Cooling water is used for cooling
Cooling water is used for cooling
PURPOSE
Store raw material ,so that it can be fed continuously AHF is measured and feed to a vapourizer CFM is filtered , measured and pre-heated before feeding into reactor. AHF is fed into reactor in vapour state. CFM is fed in liquid state. CFM and HF is fed at a particular ratio. Reacts AHF and Chloroform in presence of Antinomy pentachloride Chlorination is done to activate the catalyst Chloroform is kept as buffer 30% Catalyst stripper recycles the R-21 gas and holds catalyst and CFM inside the system Catalyst stripper allows HCL,R23 and R-22 gas to pass through it. Endothermic reaction HCl is absorbed with the help of process water to form 30% concentration. Refrigerant gas is free from HCl but have traces of it. Heat of absorption is to be removed for better absorption HCl of 11 % concentration is produced from the tails tower which is sent back to Alberger to absorb more HCl gas to form minimum 31 % concentration. The HCL gets stored in the tank, which is recycled into the Alberger by a pump, thus protecting the Alberger from feed upsets or turn down operations.
PURPOSE
Traces of HCL /HF is removed from refrigerant gas by neutralising with caustic Traces of HCL/HF is removed from refrigerant gas by neutralising with caustic. solution of concentration 10 %. All traces of acidity is completely removed from here. This is done by countercurrent flow of gases to the caustic solution.
Refrigerant gas is dried with the help of sulfuric acid (98% concentration) Refrigerant gas is dried with the help of The heat of dilution produced by the absorption of moisture into the acid, is removed bysulfuric acid (98%concentration) a water cooled heat exchanger. A Knock Out Pot is attached to arrest any liquid which has got entrained into the product gases, and is recycled back into the secondary sulphuric tower.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
HF Vaporiser HF Tank & HF lines Chloroform Tank Chlorine Tonner Inconel 600 Carbon Steel & PTFE lined carbon steel Carbon Steel Carbon Steel Moisture SO2 H2SO4 Remarks Catalyst Trivalency -<5% - Otherwise chlorination is needed. HCl - min. concentration 31% - Process Water flow is adjusted to get the concentration. Alkalinity - min. 1 % - Caustic Solution molarity is fine. Alkalinity - min. 1 % - Caustic Solution molarity is fine. Sulfuric conc. of >92% is required in sulfuric pump tank Sulfuric with conc. of 98% is fed Reactor - Inconel 600 Catalyst Stripper Upper Part - Carbon Steel with SS packings Lower Part - Inconel with SS packings.
MOC
Alberger - Graphite Tails Tower - TFE Packed and has a 12'' Demister Pad
Carbon Steel with polypropylene packings.
QUALITY PLAN
Raw material CFM HF
Purity
min 99.95% Max. 50 ppm min 99.95% Max. 100 ppmMax. 10 ppm
High moisture will deactivate the catalyst Max. 50 ppm High SO2 will cause smell in HFC 134a.
INTERLOCKS Initiator Set Range PLC Shutdown P-101 A/B (AHF Feed Pump ) XCV-61 Vent (Steam to AHF Vaporiser) XCV-52 (Organic Feed to reactor) XCV 57 (Chlorine Feed) XCV 104 (Steam to reactor) TCV 101 (Steam Flow Controller ) XCV 106 A/B (Bottom inlet of reactor) PCV 89 (Cat Stripper Pressure) XCV 178 (Make up H2SO4 to H2SO4 pump tank) XCV 127 (Bypass line HCl tank to ATF) P 282 C/D (Feed to AHF feed tank) FCV 260 (Steam to R23 reboiler) FIC 239 (Steam to R22 reboiler) LCV 232 (E3113 reboiler level control valve) LCV 234 (Reflux drum level control valve) P 110 unload (Compressor) P - 119 A (ITF to MTF transfer line) QCPC S.No.
FALSE
Is AHF pump pressure high? 14 kg/cm2 FALSE Yes Yes

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Is AHF feed tank level high? 8 MT FALSE
Is Reactor Pressure High? 11.2 kg/cm2 FALSE Yes Yes

Is Cat Stripper Pressure High? 11.2 kg/cm2 FALSE Yes Yes

Is HCl Absorber Pressure High? 0.88 kg/cm2 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
Is Process Water Flow Low? 1.5 kg/cm2 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
Is HCl tank level high? 60% FALSE
Is sulfuric pump tank level high? 80% FALSE
FALSE FALSE
FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
FALSE FALSE
FALSE FALSE
INTERLOCKS
Yes
FALSE
Yes
FALSE
Yes
FALSE
a.
b.
a.
b. HF vaporizer o/l temp. (TI_55_9)
a. CatalystOrganic mixture
b. Reactor temp. (TIC101)
c. Cat. Stripper pressure (PIC-89)
d. Diff. Pressure in cat stripper (DPT-91)
e.
4 Low pressure system
a. HCl absorption system
Sub Process
Raw material
CHCl3 Receiving
AHF Receiving
Feed Section
CHCl3 Feed line
Reactor section
Dew Point (TR_55_3)
b. c. Tails LP tower System liquid pressure return line (PICtemp. 124) (TIC-129) HF Utilisation Temperat Pressure ure
d. Primary caustic scrubber
e. Secondary caustic scrubber
f.
g. H2SO4 absorption system
Dilute caustic
Characteristics
Purity
Moisture
Moisture
Purity
Moisture
Temp.
Sb in Catalyst
+++
Temperature
Pressure
Pressure
Temperature
HCl concentrati on A > 31 %
Caustic Concentrati on B >1 % Volumetric Analysis
Caustic Caustic Concentrati Concentrati on on A >1 % Volumetric Analysis B > 3 &<7 % Volumetric Analysis Once after preparing the batch QA Chemist RG-CL-03
H2SO4 concentration
Criticality Specification Unit Method (Control & Measurement)
A > 99.95 % Gas Chromatogra phy. At run start up QA Chemist RG-F-04
A < 50 ppm Karl Fisher Titrator
A <300 ppm Karl Fisher Titrator
A > 99.95 % Gas Chromatogra phy. Once in a day
A < 50 ppm Karl Fisher Titrator
A 110 5
0
B 3-5 % Volumetric Analysis
B 59 2 0C CITECT System
B 10.3 .0.4 Kg/cm2 CITECT System
B 40 10 IN WC CITECT System
B -2.5 1.0 0C CITECT System
CITECT System
B > 92 % Volumetric Volumetric Analysis and Analysis Fluoride ion analyser Once in a day QA Chemist RG-CL-03 Once in a day QA Chemist RG-CL-03
A 45 6 0C CITECT System
B 0.4 0.2 Kg/cm 2 CITECT System
B >92 % Volumetric Analysis
Frequency
At run start up
Once in week QA Chemist HF-F-01
Once in a day
Continuous
Twice in a run QA Chemist RG-F-04
Every Hour
Every Hour
Every Hour
Continuous
Every Hour Process JE
Once in a shift QA Chemist RG-CL-03
Once in a shift QA Chemist RG-CL-03
Once in a week QA Chemist RG-CL-03
Responsibility Record Effect of abnormality
QA Chemist RG-F-04
QA Chemist QA Chemist RG-F-04 RG-F-04
Process JE Citect
Process JE RG-F-02
Process JE RG-F-02
Process JE RG-F-02
Process JE Citect
RG-F-02 RG-F-02
Affect product purity
Lead to corrosion in Reactor R-101
Lead to corrosion in Reactor R101 as well as corrosion in the AHF storage tank.
Affect product purity
Lead to corrosion in Reactor R101
Result is incomplete vaporisation of liquid HF and could disturb reactor parameters
HF utilisation gets reduced
QCPC
If reactor If cat temp high stripper then increase pressure ULB reduce then formation & result to catstripper increase column high R-21 profile and UHB become hot formation
If dew point Catalyst start high then carry over to result to high catlyst catstripper stripper and temp. profile packing will which leads to be chocked. high R-21 and UHB formation
Off spec.
Affect HF I/O norms
Low PCVtemp. 124 results to open low HCl and concentra product tion (Off loss or spec. HCl plant productio may n) stop
Will lead to acidity in product.
Will lead to acidity in product.
PC & SC become acidic.
Increase of moisture to down stream
QCPC
Sb+++ formation will choke the system
If reactor temp. low then Result to low reaction rate and could load reactor
If catstripper pressure high then result to high R-23 and ULB formation and plant may tripped due to PLC
If dew point low then cat stripper temp. profile running colder and result to high R-23 formation
High TIC129 temp. results to high HCl concentra tion which leads to HCl carry over in Caustic
Reaction Plan
Run plant at low capacity and start chlorination and blend it in low moisture CFM so that overall moisture become <50 ppm Run plant at low capacity and start Stop plant chlorination and tank and blend it material in low transfer to moisture CMS plant CFM so that for overall redistillation moisture become <50 ppm Reduce plant Slowly capacity to 8 Reduce increase Kg/min HF steam flow cat stripper feed and rate and pressure normalise maintain and the system temp. as per maintain as per SOP SOP trouble condition shooting chart Reduce plant capacity by 25 % Increase and TIC-129 take temperatu correctiv re. e action as per trouble shooting chart
Stop plant and tank material transfer to CMS plant for redistillation
Do not feed to reactor. Redistilled the AHF
Reduce HF feed to 5 kg/min till the time temp is achieved
Reduce plant capacity by 15% and start chlorination
Reduce plant capacity and decrease R30 brine temp.
Reduce Increase plant TIC-129 capacity & temperatur Take e.& take corrective action as action as per trouble per trouble shooting shooting chart chart WI09-12
Check dilute caustic concentratio n and increase fresh caustic feed.
Check dilute caustic Take fresh concentrati caustic and on and increase increase concentratio fresh n. caustic feed.
Increase fresh acid feed rate. .
(if condition persists, stop the plant and replace catalyst)
Reduce Maintain plant catstripper capacity by pressure 15 % and as per take SOP or corrective reduce action as per plant trouble capacity by shooting 25%. chart RG-WI-05
Increase R-30 brine temp.
Reduce TIC-129 temp. and maintain according to Specificati on RG-WI-05 RG-WI-05 RG-WI04 RG-WI-05 RG-WI-05 RG-Wi-22 RG-WI-05
Document Reference STANDARD OPERATING CONDITIONS Controllers number
RG-WI-05
RG-WI-05
RG-WI-05
RG-WI-05
RG-WI-05
RG-WI-05
RG-WI-05
PR 51 HF Vaporizer pressure 13.0 2 Kg/Cm . 9 - 14 2 Kg/Cm . Feed Section 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 Fall in Reactor Temperature 2
PIC 89 Catalyst stripper pressure
WR 103
TIC 101
DP 91 Catalyst stripper column DP 40" WC 0 - 150" WC
PIC 124
TIC 129
LG 158 Primary caustic tank level 60% 50-85% LP Section
LG 161 Secondary Caustic Tank level 70% 50-85%
LG 175
Description
Reactor Weight
Reactor temperature
Normal operating condition Range TROUBLESHOOTING S.No.
10.0 7.0 MT. 2 Kg/Cm 9 - 11.5 6 - 7.6 MT 2 Kg/Cm . Reactor Section 3 Reactor Level High 4
60oC. 56 - 64 C
o
HCl HCl tail absorber tower loop over temperatur pressure e relief valve 0.44 45oC 2 kg/cm 0-0.85 O 25-56 C 2 kg/cm
Sulfuric Acid tank level
0.75 50-85%
6 Dry Running of T-101
1 LPPressure High
2 HCl carryover into caustic tower
4 High HCl conc.
5 Acidity in LP System
8 Sulfuric Tower Flooding
Problem
PLC not resetting.
No HF flow.
No Organic Flow
E-103 PLC Tripping Outlet temp. again and again low
PT-51 High
DP-91 high
Fluctuation in T-101
Flooding in T-101
Low HF utilization
Low HCl Conc.
PC- Tower Flooding
S.C Tower Flooding
Indication 1
Indication on UA 3001 XCV's related to PLC not open TR-55/9th point. PI - 51 (In Control Room) LT-100 Reactor Weight TR - 55 Profiles. Temperature indication Lab of U-106, UAnalysis 107 and TI129 Lab Analysis Lab Analysis U-107 level low. U-108 temperature high. U-108 level low.
FT - 60
FT - 52
UA-3001
TIC-101
DPT-91
TR-55
TR-55
Lab Analysis
PT-124
PT - 124.
281-C weight not decreasing
TR-55/10th Point Sudden drop in T101 temp. profiles.
DP-91 High.
Low DP
U - 106 level low.
PT-124 high.
3 4 Effect
Delay in Plant startup. Delay in Plant Start up. Reduction in Rtr. wt. Plant Shut Down Liquid HF entry into reactor
PLC tripping.
Low reaction rate.
Fluctuation in T-101 temperature profiles.
DP-91 high.
Unstable run.
Sharp Presence fluctuation in of high Low HCl T-101 boiler in LP concentration temperature System profiles. Sharp fluctuation in PCV-89 opening LP pressure shoots up. Lower HF utilisation. Fluoride formation in caustic scrubbers
PCV-124 Open
PT - 124 high. Caustic as well as products become acidic
Not as Off Spec Acidity in per byproduct final specifica , HCl products. tion
PT-124 high.
PT-124 high.
PT - 124 high.
Colder temp Sudden profiles of T- increase in 101 the temp.
High DP 91.
Rupture Dish ruptured.
Increase Reactor wt.
Liquid entrainment.
Flooding of T-101.
Fluctuation in DP-91
H2SO4 temp. high.
Spoiled Alumina dryers
H2SO4 temp high.
High Rtr High F-13 weight level. formation
Fluctuation in T-101 temp. profiles. High steam conc. in Reactor.
Sharp fluctuation in PT-124 Products become highly acidic
LP pressure fluctuation Bad quality product.
Lower HCl conc.
Poor yields.
Acidity in product.
Acidity in Product.
Acidity in product.
4 5 6 Cause
Lower HCl conc.
Dry running of T-101 Smell in Product. Off Spec product.
R-30 Brine flow HF Feed less than Pump 20m3/hr tripped.
Organic Pump trip.
XCV-106 Close
Low steam pressure.
XCV - 106 close.
Low steam header pressure
Excess organic Feed.
Excess Organic Feeding
High reactor weight.
Filling up of Reactor.
Less organic feed
High SbCl3 in Reactor.
T-101 flooding.
Sudden increase in PCV-89 opening
Low Process/ Excess R.O P.W. rejected Feeding. water feeding Excess Temp. of TIC129
Caustic Pump Trip.
High pressure drop across the LP System
High pressure drop across the LP System.
High pressure drop across the LP System.
TROUBLESHOOTING
Process water pressure low/failure.
Any valve in pump's suction is close
Low Dis. pressure.
Blockage in feed line.
XCV-61 closed.
Any O/L valve of E-103 close.
XCV104/TCV101 close.
Liquid HF entry into Reactor.
Liquid HF entry in reactor.
Choking of T101 L/R
High boiler accumulation in reactor.
HCl carry over.
Vapor Insufficien locking of P- t cooling 105. of E-104.
HCl carry over.
Packing collapse.
Packing collapse.
Packing collapse.
Any problem in instruments.
Circulation valve open.
Improper line-up.
False indication.
Nonfunctioning of steam trap.
False indication.
Drop in E103 outlet temp.
Reactor level high.
Flooding in T-101.
Choking of U-103 overflow overlfow line.
Aging of catalyst.
S.C. pump tank level high.
Choking in T-102 or its L/R line.
Unstable Reactor System.
Flooding of LP Towers.
Choking in packing due to fluoride formation
Packing choking.
Packing choking.
Any mechanical problem in pump
Strainer choking.
Short circuit.
Blockage in reactor feed line.
Nonfunctioning of steam trap.
T-101 L/R line choking.
Choking in T101 packing.
Choking in the tower.
Over Feeding of Process water.
Improper circulation by P105.
LP Dryers Alumina exhauste d. Unstable Reactor System.
Any other Empty Tank. parameter not satisfying PLC
U-103 overflow line choking.
C.G. compresso r tripping.
6 7 Action
Start standby and Start stand handover to by Electrical.
Excess CTC in P-104 seal. Choking in T101
Reworking rate high.
Increase R-30 brine flow.
Inform Inform boiler Check XCV Instrumentation house. 106 and open. .
Inform boiler Adjust organic house. Feed Rate.
Reduce organic feed drastically
Increase Process Water pressure.
Open the valve.
Increase Dis. pressure by throttling circulation valve
Shut the plant and inspect Piping.
Check cause and correct.
Check the valves
Open bypass and inform Inst Deptt.
Increase Reactor temperature.
Stop organic Reduce HF feed & Start feed and reduce HF Chlorination. increase feed organic drastically to feed consume drastically excess till the time organics for standard 2,3 & 4. Check EReduce temperature Stop plant & 103 outlet Plant profiles temperature. inspect the capacity. achieved. equipment. Reduce Organic Feed.
Check reactor system.
Check related system
Adjust P.W. Feed.
Increase water flow
Check caustic pumps.
Adjust plant capacity/C. G. compressor loading.
Adjust plant capacity/C. G. compressor loading.
Adjust plant capacity/C.G. compressor loading.
Check reason of HCl carry over.
Check P105.
Check Reduce cooling Check TIC-129 water HCl temperat temperatu System. ure. re/ flow.
Stop the plant and go for inspection/r ectifcation.
Stop the plant and go for inspection/r ectifcation.
Stop the plant and go for inspection/rec tifcation.
Close Inform circulation instrumentation. valve.
Check lineup.
Adjust parameters upto satisfying limits.
Open Trap by pass Inform valve and instrumentation. inform utility.
Adjust Organic Feed.
Check E-103 outlet temperature.
Stop the plant.
Stop Plant and go for regeneration.
Reduce SC pump tank level.
Stop Plant & go for Tower/line inspection. Adjust process water as well as plant capacity.
Check Reactor System.
Check LP Towers.
Start standby Pump
Clean strainer.
Plant shutdown to inspect the lines.
Check Steam Header Pressure.
Reduce Organic Flow.
Get permission for changing the catalyst.
Shut the plant for dechoke.
Adjust P105 circulation .
Change Alumina of mini LP Dryer.
Isolate and handover to Mechanical
Check Tank Level.
Open trap by pass and Adjust CTC in inform P-104. Uitility.
Check CG compresso r.
Stop the plant and go for inspection/dec hoking
Adjust Reworking Rate.
operations
DISTILLATION SECTION ALUMINA DRYER SURGE TANK R23 DISTILLATION R22 DISTILLATION INTER MEDIATE TANK FARM (ITF)
T113 O/H pr. High PT 256 FALSE
T112 O/H pr. High PT 227 FALSE
Reflux Flow low FIC 229 FALSE
Any ITF tank wt. low P119 A FALSE
Alumina Al2O3
H2SO4
Al2SO4
H2O
Remove sulfuric mist and moisture
Prevents a decrease in mass flow rate to the compressor.
Distillation of R23 (highly volatile) from a mixture of R23 and R22, R21 (relatively low volatile). E-123 uses R-22 in 'shell side' to cool R23 and liquify it for use as reflux in T-123.
Distillation of R22 (highly volatile) from a mixture of R22 and R21+heavies (relatively low volatile).
Alumina balls and molecular sieve completely dry and kill any residual acidity before sending the final product to MTF.
Sulfuric mist is removed from gas
Low pressure system pressure is maintained with the help of this system. De-Super Heater cools the hot discharge from the compressor with cooling water Surge Tank provides surge capacity to handle process upsets. Crude Gas Condensor cools the gas further by using CaCl2 brine solution. Off-spec products are recirculated into the system through this tank, which has a normal gases then enter the T-113 Column where R-23 is distilled from the mixture of R-22 ,R23 and R-21 and sent to R-23 storage area The operating pressure of 54 inches of Water Colun. The top stream containing R-23 mostly is sent to the Scavenger Condensor, from where a refflux stream containing R-22 is sent back. Surge Tank temperature is steam jacketed. The gases from the Scavenger Condensor is sent to the T-123 Column. The bottom product containing mostly R-22 is sent through the reboiler into thr T-112 Column
R-22 is distilled from the mixture of R22,R21 and heavies. R-22 is sent from the top into the ITF Day Tanks through a condensor, which sends in a reflux through a Reflux Drum and then a Reflux Drier. The bottom product containing the high boilers are sent back into the column, or occasionally into the Run Down Tank from where they are recycled back into the Reactor.
R-22 product is stored in ITF. The product gases are tested before sending them to the MTF. From the MTF, R-22 gas is directly filled in for marketing.
Has 806.48 kg of Alumina Dessicants / Balls
Carbon Steel
Carbon Steel with S.S Intalox Saddles
Carbon Steel with S.S Intalox Saddles
Carbon Steel
Acidity Nil after gas passes through alumina balls.
Compressor I/L gas must have nil acidity, <2% R23 & <200ppm UHB.
T-113 Reboiler - R22 min.- 99.95 % - Deisred degree of seperation and Indication of Column Profile. Vent System - R23 min. - 99.8 % - Degree of seperation is indicated.
T-112 Reflux - Indication of well-being of upstream processes and column profile.
R22 - min 99.95 % H2O - <10ppm - Requires suckback or drying through ITF Alumina Drier.
Is Compressor Discharge Pressure High? 10.8 kg/cm2 FALSE
Is T-113 Column Over Head Pressure high? 10 kg/cm2 FALSE
Is T-112 Column Over Head Pressure high? 17.4 kg/cm2 FALSE
Is reflux flow low? 4.8 LPM FALSE
Is any ITF Tank Weight Low? 3 MT FALSE
Yes
FALSE
Yes
FALSE
Yes
FALSE
Yes
FALSE
Yes
FALSE
Yes
FALSE Yes FALSE
h. Compress or inlet LP Gas
a. T-113 Column feed temp. (TI_270_7)
b. T-113 Column pressure ( PIC256)
c. T-113 column temp. (TIC266)
d.
e.
f. Sub zero brine I\L temp. (TI_270_12)
g.
h.
i.
j.
a.
Separation of R22/23 through distillation Acidity UHB
T-123 column T-113 diff. press reboiler ( DPT123)
T-123 vent
T-112 reflux
T-112 column T-112 pressure reboiler (PIC227)
Interme diate Product Tank tank Farm
R-23
Temperature
Pressure
Temperature
R-23 concentr Pressure Temperature ation A <100 ppm Gas Chromat ography. Once in a day QA Chemist A 0.3 0.2 Kg/cm2 CITECT System B -11 2 0C CITECT System
Purity
Purity
Moisture
Acidity
Moisture Pressure
Purity
Acidity
Moisture
B >2 %
A Nil
B >200 ppm
A 23 2 0C CITECT System
A 9.0 0.25 Kg/cm2 CITECT System
B 23 2 0C CITECT System
A > 99.95 % Gas Chromat ography. Once in a shift QA Chemist RG-F-04
A > 99.95 % Gas Chromato graphy. Once in a shift QA Chemist RG-F-04
A <15 ppm Karl Fisher Titrator Once in a day QA Chemist
B Nil
B <50 ppm Lab analysis
B 12.5 2.5 Kg/cm2 CITECT System
A > 99.95 %
B Nil
B <7 ppm Karl Fisher Titrator
Gas Gas Chromato Titration Chromat graphy. ography. Once in a day QA Chemist RG-F-04 Once in a day Once in a day
Titration
Gas Chromat Titration ography.
Continuous
Every Hour Process JE RG-F-02
Every Hour
Continuous
Once in a shift
QA QA Chemist Chemist RG-F-04 RG-F-04
Process JE Citect
Process JE RG-F-02
Process JE
Once in every Monday A-shift QA QA Chemist Chemist
On On On requirem requirem requirem ent. ent. ent. QA QA QA Chemist Chemist Chemist RG-F-04 RG-F-04 RG-F-04
RG-F-04 RG-F-02
RG-F-04 RG-F-04 RG-F-04 RG-F-02
Affect HF Product Product & CFM off spec. off spec. I/O norms
If column feed temp. high then T123 column profile may disturb due to excessive load or liquid R-22 venting may start
If column pressure high then compresso r may unload due to trip logic and plant may stop
If TIC-266 temp. high then T-123 column profile disturb due to excessive load
High High Diff. Subzero Pressure brine temp. R-23 in T-123 results to Product column low R-22 off spec. results to condensatio Product and RR-22 n and T-123 off spec. 22 liquid profile product venting or become hot lose product & liquid loss venting may start
R-22 Product off spec.
R-22 Product off spec.
If T-112 column pressure R-22 R-22 high then Product Product column off spec. off spec. may stop due to trip logic
R-22 R-22 R-22 Product Product Product off spec. off spec. off spec.
If column feed temp. low then column profile may cold and excessive heat required to vaporize R23 and R-23 composition may increase Check caustic concentr ation & Sulphuri c K.O.P.& Take correctiv e action as per trouble shooting chart
If column pressure low then brine load increase
If TIC-266 temp. low then R-23 not vaporize and product may off spec.
Increase reactor weight and check Cat. Stripper temp. profile & pressure
Check reactor weight, Check Cat. Stripper profile & pressure
Reduce plant capacity by 15 % and take corrective action as per trouble shooting chart
Maintain TIC-266 temp.
Increase steam in T-113 column and maintain TIC266 temp.
Reduce plant capacity by 25% and maintain sub zero brine temp.
Stabilise T-123 column profile and Refer trouble shooting chart
Divert product to rundown tank & maintain column profile. Refer trouble shooting chart.
Reduce Circulate plant T 112 Circulate capacity Circulate reboiler the by 25 % T 112 through tank and take reboiler LP through corrective through system./ alumina action as LP Increase ball per system. Sulfuric dryer trouble flow shooting chart
Circulate Circulate Carry the the out tank tank rework through through as per T- alumina molecula 09-01 ball r sieve dryer dryer
Increase temp. by throttle brine in C.G.Condens or
Maintain column pressure as per specificatio n
Maintain TIC-266 temp. as per trouble shooting chart
RG-WI-05
RG-WI05 PIC 199 Crude gas surge tank pressure control 50"WC 2560"WC
RG-WI05
RG-WI-05
RG-WI-05
RG-WI-05
RG-WI06
RG-WI05
RG-WI05 PIC 227 R22 column pressure control 13.5 2 kg/cm 9-17.5 2 kg/cm
RG-WI05 LIC 232 R22 Reboiler level control 0.75 35-95%
RG-WI05
RG-WI05
RG-WI05 FIC 229 T-112 Reflux control 19 LPM 17-30.5 LPM
RG-WI05
RG-WI05
RG-WI05
PIC 256 T113 Overhead pressure control 9 kg/cm2 8.8-9.6 2 kg/cm
DPT123
T 123 DP
TI LIC 234 237_1 R22 R22 condens Reflux or drum temperat level ure control 38.3OC 0.6
0.3 0.12-0.5 Distillation Section
O 24-49 C 40-80%
Compressor 1 2 1 Output not matching with feed rates 2 3
4 High Boilers in R-22
5 Low Boilers in R-22
7 Condens ation problem in E-110
8 Reflux flow quitting again & again
Compress Compre or not ssor not giving getting sufficient unloade capacity. d
Acidity in R-22 in R-23 product
Boil Up problem
9 10 T-112 O/H High Pressure moisture in Running product High
11 High Moisture in T-112 reboiler
12
13
R-23 in R22
CFM in R22
No room in PIC-199
Visual
Less production rate
Lab Analysis.
Lab Analysis.
Lab Analysis
Lab Analysis
T-112 Reboiler level high
Less Product
FT-229
PT-227
Lab Lab Lab Lab Analysis. Analysis. Analysis. Analysis.
Lower Plant capacity.
Major Safety violation. Major Break down in compres sor. U-109 in vacuum e. Bulging in T-102 lining.
Poor norms
Off spec product
Off spec product
Off spec product
Off spec product
Low product rate
T-112 O/H Pressure High
Off spec product
Less Off spec condens product ation.
High moisture Off spec in R22 product reflux.
Off spec product
Dryer Acidity exhausti in Off Spec ng Bottom product. frequentl product. y Off Spec product. High steam consum ption. Dryer exhauste d. Filling effected.
PCV-199 Air valve full open. shut.
Gas leakage in LPS or compressor.
Non functionin High DP g of across TCaustic 123 column. tower. LP System Alumina Low T-123 Dryers pressure. exhausted .
Insufficie nt Reflux flow.
Low reactor weight.
Less Circulatio Insufficien coolent n valve t Steam in on U-110 supply. Condens claose. ors.
Low C.W flow.
Non functioni ng of H2SO4 tower.
Less H2SO4 feed in column.
Insufficie Low TI nt Reflux 266 flow/High Tempera steam ture. flow
Problem High in Reworking Instrume rate. nts.
Condensors leakages.
U-113 Level high.
Blanketin Raw Sludge High Leakage g due to Very less material accumulat C.W in any of low boiler level in Ucontaminat ion on temperat Heat generatio 110. ion. tubes. ure. Exch. n. R-30 brine leakage into reactor. Low Boiler generati on from reactor system. Air entry into System. Vapor suck back from product tank R23 slippage
Low T-112 Tower stream reboiler flooding. to T-113 level low. column.
Compress or valve passing.
T-112/T113 O/H pr. high.
Low LIC 123 Level.
High TIC 239 temperat ure.
Fouling of tubes
Excess H2O High entry H2SO4 during temperatu swing re. over air flushing. High R21 accumula tion in reboiler.
Some upset in column internals
Choked strainer.
Valves not operating.
Decompo sition Some upset taking in Column place in internals. reboiler. Cl2 escape due to high chlorine feed
High U110 Level. Sudden fall of O/H pressure . Channeli ng in the Tower.
Upset at front end.
Check PCV - 199
Check air supply.
Check leakages wtih soap.
Check caustic Tower.
Alternative routes for L/R.
Adjust Adjustin Check Reactor g reflux steam weight/Fee flow. pressure. d rates. Reducin g UAnalyse 113/Uorganic 110 feed and level or discuss TIC-239 with plant temperat incharge. ure. Shut the Check plant and O/H Isolate Rpressure 30 brine . system.
Check Check Check brine Adjust H2SO4 brine flow and circulation tower temperat temperat valves. performa ure. ure. nce.
Check fresh H2SO4 feed.
Increase Steam to T-113 column.
Adjust steam/ reflux flow.
Inform Adjust Instrume reworking. ntation.
Check all the condensors one by one
Check T112 Reboiler quality.
Suck back to surge tank.
Check control valves.
Check Check low boiler Check Check all the generatio Check Ulow H2SO4 heat n and 110 boiler tower exchang vent levels. generati performan ers one through on. ce. by one. FCV-230. Check any leakage in compres sor suction. Start liquid reworkin g in place of vapors. Check Keep cooling stand by water in dryer exchange ready. r. Start Start T112 reboiler reboiler suckback suckbac through k via LP LPS. system.
Check Reboiler level.
Start Stand by and handover to Mech.
Check/Re duce Increase Tcolumn 113 column O/H pressure. pressure. If Acidity is Low circulate through alumina dryer. If Acidity is high rework through LP system.
Check Steam trap.
Check U110 level.
Increase LIC - 123 level.
Inspect Packing.
Stop plant and go for Tubes tube cleaning. bundle inspection .
Stop the Plant and inform Plant incharge for tube leakages. Rectify front end
R-22
E-101 CATALYST STRIPPER CONDENSER -12 o C R-30 BRINE PIC 124
TO VENT SCRUBBER TANK
0.88 KG/CM2
FRC 98
PIC 89
10 KG/CM2
T-101 CATALYST STRIPPER
TIC 129
E-104 HCL ALBERGER CW
TRC 101
VENT
10.2 KG/CM
R-101 REACTOR
LIC 127 U-104 HCL PUMP TANK
HCL TO ATF
FRC 60 XCV-127 CHCL3 XCV-58 XCV-106A XCV-107A U-102 CATALYST HOLD TANK XCV-57 AHF FEED P-101 A&B AHF FEED E-103 AHF VAPOURISE R XCV-7 P-105 A&B AHF FEED
MAKE UP CAU
CHLORIN E
MAKE UP SUL
AHF FEED
31 oC
UBBER TANK
DEMISTER SECTION
T-102 TAILS TOWER
KOP DEMISTER PAD
45 oC
T-103 PRIMARY CAUSTIC SCRUBBER
T-104 SECONDARY CAUSTIC SCRUBBER
SULFURIC SCRUBBER
E-105 COOLER U-106 PRIMARY CAUSTIC PUMP TANK CaCl2 BRINE U-107 SECONDARY CAUSTIC PUMP TANK
E-106 COOLER
CaCl2 BRINE
VENT
P-106 A PC CIRCULATION PUMP
P-106B SC CIRCULATION PUMP
MAKE UP CAUSTIC WASTE CAUSTIC TO ETP MAKE UP SULFURIC ACID(98%)
E-123 T-123 CONDENSER LIC 123 260
9- 17 Kg/Cm2
PT 227 CW
E-110 F-22 COLUMN CONDERSER KOP DEMISTER PAD MINI ALUMINA DRYER
T-106 ALUMINA DRYER
LIC 234 260
U-110 F-22 PRODUCT REFLUX DRUM
T-105 SULFURIC SCRUBBER
CW E-107 SULFURIC COOLER
8 M3/HR
U-108 SULFURIC PUMP TANK E-113 R-22 COLUMN REBOILER
F-22 PRODUCT TO ITF PIC 199 260
P-108A7B F-22 REFLUX PUMP
P-107 A&B SULFURIC CIRCULATIO N PUMP
50 " WC
U-109 SURGE TANK P-110 A&B COMPRESSOR
SPENT ACID 93% TO ATF
9.2 Kg/Cm2
PT 230
R-23 VENT
PIC2 56 CW T-123 R-23 COLUMN FI C
9.0 Kg/Cm2
E-111 R-22 CONDENSER FIC 261
22 PRODUCT EFLUX DRUM
E-112 SCVANGER CONDENSER
T-112 F-22 COLUMN
E-109 CRUDE CONDENSE
BRINE
DE-SUPER HEATER FIC 239 113 22 COLUMN REBOILER
CW
T-113 R-23 COLUMN E-114 R-23 COLUMN REBOILER LIC 263 260
FIC 260
STEAM
STEAM
BRINE E-117 BOTTOM COOLER
P-109 A,B&C F-22 BOTTOM PUMP
1 2
What are pumps and pumping systems? Pumping systems account for nearly 20% of the worlds electrical energy demand and range from 25-50% of the energy usage in certain industrial plant operations. Pumps have two main purposes: Transfer of liquid from one place to another place (e.g. water from an underground aquifer into a water storage tank) Circulate liquid around a system (e.g. cooling water or lubricants through machines and equipment) The main components of a pumping system are: Pumps (different types of pumps are explained later) Prime movers: electric motors, diesel engines or air system Piping, used to carry the fluid Valves, used to control the flow in the system Other fittings, controls and instrumentation End-use equipment, which have different requirements (e.g. pressure, flow) and therefore determine the pumping system components and configuration. Examples include heat exchangers, tanks and hydraulic machines.
a)
Pumping system characteristics Resistance of the system: head Pressure is needed to pump the liquid through the system at a certain rate. This pressure has to be high The total head is the sum of static head and friction head: Static head Static head is the difference in height between the source and destination of the pumped liquid (see Figu certain pressure depends on the weight of the liquid and can be calculated with this equation: Head (in feet) = Pressure (psi) X 2.31 Specific gravity Static head consists of: Static suction head (hS): resulting from lifting the liquid relative to the pump center line.The hS is positive level is below pump centerline (also called suction lift) Static discharge head (hd): the vertical distance between the pump centerline and the surface of the liqu
Destination Static head
Static Head
Source
Figure 2a. Static Head

b)
Friction head (hf) This is the loss needed to overcome that is caused by the resistance to flow in the pipe and fittings. It is flow rate, and nature of the liquid. The friction head is proportional to the square of the flow rate as show
Friction Head
Flow
Figure 3. Frictional Head versus Flow
Pump performance curve The head and flow rate determine the performance of a pump, which is graphically shown in Figure 4 as curve of a centrifugal pump where the head gradually decreases with increasing flow. As the resistance flow rate to decrease and will eventually reach zero. A zero flow rate is only acceptable for a short period
Head
Flow
Figure 4. Performance Curve of a Pump Pump operating point The rate of flow at a certain head is called the duty point. The pump performance curve is made up of m the system curve and the pump curve as shown in Figure 5.
Pump performance curve Head system
curve
Static Head
flow
Figure 5. Pump Operating Point Pump suction performance (NPSH) Cavitation or vaporization is the formation of bubbles inside the pump. This may occur when at the fluid actual temperature). A possible cause is when the fluid accelerates in a control valve or around a pump Vaporization itself does not cause any damage. However, when the velocity is decreased and pressure Erosion of vane surfaces, especially when pumping water-based liquids Increase of noise and vibration, resulting in shorter seal and bearing life Partially choking of the impeller passages, which reduces the pump performance and can lead to loss o The Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) indicates how much the pump suction exceeds the liq Required (NPSHR) is the pump suction needed to avoid cavitation, and is a characteristic of the pump d
Types of Pumps Pumps come in a variety of sizes for a wide range of applications. They can be classified according to th
Pumps
Dynamic
Others (eg. Impulse buoyancy)
Positive Displacement
centrifugal
special effect
rotary
internal gear
external gear
lobe
Figure 6. Different types of pumps
Positive displacement pumps Positive displacement pumps are distinguished by the way they operate: liquid is taken from one end an pumps are widely used for pumping fluids other than water, mostly viscous fluids.Positive Displacement
A Positive Displacement Pump must not be operated against a closed valve on the discharge side of the pump be
A Positive Displacement Pump operating against a closed discharge valve, will continue to produce flow Positive displacement pumps are further classified based upon the mode of displacement: Typical reciprocating pumps are Plunger Pumps Diaphragm Pumps Plunger pumps comprise of a cylinder with a reciprocating plunger in it. In the head of the cylinder the su plunger retracts and the suction valves opens causing suction of fluid into the cylinder. In the forward str With only one cylinder the fluid flow varies between maximum flow when the plunger moves through the fluid is accelerated in the piping system. Vibration and "water hammers" may be a serious problem. In g In diaphragm pumps the plunger pressurizes hydraulic oil which is used to flex a diaphragm in the pump Rotary pumps if the displacement is by rotary action of a gear, cam or vanes in a chamber of diaphragm in a fixed casing. Rotary pumps are further classified such as internal gear, external gear, external gear, lobe and slide vane etc. These pumps are used for special services with particular conditi In gear pumps the liquid is trapped by the opening between the gear teeth of two identical gears and the the fluid is squeezed out when the teeth of the two gears are rotated against each other. The motor pro
The lobe pumps operates similar to the gear pump, but with two lobes driven by external timing gears. The lobes d Progressive cavity pumps consist of a metal rotor rotating within an elastomer-lined or elastic stator. When the roto
to discharge end are formed between the rotor and stator, moving the fluid.
Dynamic pumps Dynamic pumps are also characterized by their mode of operation: a rotating impeller converts kinetic en There are two types of dynamic pumps: Centrifugal pumps are the most common pumps used for pumping water in industrial applications. Typic centrifugal pumps. For this reason, this pump is further described below. Special effect pumps are particularly used for specialized conditions at an industrial site.
How a centrifugal pump works A centrifugal pump is one of the simplest pieces of equipment in any process plant. Figure 7 shows how Power from an outside source is applied to shaft , rotating the impeller within the stationary casing .The pressure at the entrance or eye of the impeller. This causes liquid to flow into the impeller from the sucti This liquid is forced outward along the blades at increasing tangential velocity. The velocity head it has a pressure head as the liquid passes into the volute chamber and thence out the discharge.
Figure 7. Liquid Flow Path of a Centrifugal Pump Components of a centrifugal pump The main components of a centrifugal pump are shown in Figure 8 above and described below:
a)
b) c)
1)
2)
Rotating components: an impeller coupled to a shaft Stationary components: casing, casing cover, and bearings. Impeller An impeller is a circular metallic disc with a built-in passage for the flow of fluid. Impellers are generally m are also used. As the performance of the pump depends on the type of impeller, it is important to select The number of impellers determines the number of stages of the pump. A single stage pump has one im two impellers in series for medium head service. A multi-stage pump has three or more impellers in seri Impellers can be classified on the basis of: Major direction of flow from the rotation axis: radial flow, axial flow, mixed flow Suction type: single suction and double suction Shape or mechanical construction: Closed impellers have vanes enclosed by shrouds (= covers) on both sides (Figure 9). They are gener This prevents the water from moving from the delivery side to the suction side, which would reduce the p the suction chamber, a running joint is necessary between the impeller and pump casing. This joint is pr extended portion of impeller shroud or inside the cylindrical surface of pump casing. A disadvantage of c Open and semi-open impellers (Figure 9) are less likely to clog. But to avoid clogging through internal manually adjusted to get the proper impeller setting. Vortex pump impellers are suitable for solid and "stringy" materials but they are up to 50% less efficien Shaft The shaft transfers the torque from the motor to the impeller during the startup and operation of the pum Casing The main function of casing is to enclose the impeller at suction and delivery ends and thereby form a pr atmospheric pressure and at delivery end may be twenty times the atmospheric pressure in a single-sta is designed to withstand at least twice this pressure to ensure a large enough safety margin. A second fu impeller. Therefore the pump casing should be designed to Provide easy access to all parts of pump for inspection, maintenance and repair Make the casing leak-proof by providing stuffing boxes Connect the suction and delivery pipes directly to the flanges Be coupled easily to its prime mover (i.e. electric motor) without any power loss. There are two types of casings Volute casing (Figure 10) has impellers that are fitted inside the casings. One of the main purposes is to help balance the hydraulic pressure on the shaft of the pump. However, operating pumps with volute casings at a lower capacity than the manufacturers recommended capacity, can result in lateral stress on the shaft of the pump. This can cause increased wearing of the seals, bearings, and the shaft itself. Double-volute casings are used when the radial force becomes significant at reduced capacities. Circular casing has stationary diffusion vanes surrounding the impeller periphery that convert speed into pressure energy. These casings are mostly used for multi-stage pumps. The casings can be designed as: Solid casing (Figure 11): the entire casing and the discharge nozzle are contained in one casting or fabricated piece. Split casing: two or more parts are joined together. When the casing parts are divided by horizontal plane, the casing is called horizontally split or axially split casing.
How to calculate pump performance The work performed by a pump is a function of the total head and of the weight of the liquid pumped in a the pump shaft, and can be calculated as follows: Pump shaft power Ps
Pump shaft power Ps = Hydraulic power hp / Pump efficiency pum

or
Pump efficiency pump = Hydraulic power / Pump shaft power
Pump output, water horsepower or hydraulic horsepower (hp) is the liquid horsepower delivered by the p Hydraulic power hp
Hydraulic power hp = Q (m3/s) x (hd - hs in m) x (kg/m3) x g (m/s Where: Q = flow rate hd = discharge head hs = suction head = density of the fluid g = acceleration due to gravity
Parameter Centrifugal Pumps Optimum Flow and Pressure ApplicationsMedium/High Capacity,

Low/Medium Pressure
Maximum Flow Rate Low Flow Rate Capability Maximum Pressure Requires Relief Valve Smooth or Pulsating Flow Variable or Constant Flow Self-priming Space Considerations Costs
100,000+ GPM No 6,000+ PSI No Smooth Variable No Requires More Space Lower Initial Lower Maintenance Higher Power Suitable for a wide range including clean, clear, non-abrasive fluids to fluids with abrasive, high-solid content.
Fluid Handling
Not suitable for high viscosity fluids Lower tolerance for entrained gases Table shows a comparison between various types of pumps
Go to pumps main
Absorbers These have a two-phase flow system. The absorbing medium is put in film flow during its fall downward
outside the tubes. The film absorbs the gas which is introduced into the tubes. This operation can be co
Efficient gas absorption depends on the following: 1 2 Intimate contact
Efficient Heat Transfer This is achieved in a Falling Film Absorber/Alberger which is essentially a shell & tube heat exchange
downward with extraction of heat by circulation of coolant in the shell. The absorbing liquid is circulated t greater linear velocity for a given rate flow than could be obtained if the tube flowed full. liquid and gas and also formation of a thin liquid film on the inner surface of the tube. Salient Features : 1 2 3 4 5 6 Low residence time and operating temperature ideally suited to heat sensitive materials. Capable of operating from zero to maximum gas flow rate. Ease of installation due to light weight. Trouble free and consistent performance with minimal attention. Lower cost.
at such a rate that the tubes do not flow full of the liquid but instead, descends by gravity along the inner
The equipment works as a number of water cooled-wall columns in parallel and each tube is provided w
The heat of absorption is continuously removed. This ensures better absorption and product concentrati
Because the gas stream does not "push" against the liquid sprays,the gas velocities through the vessels
Consequently, cocurrent-flow spray towers are smaller than countercurrent-flow spray towers treating th
Magnetic filters Magnetic filters use a permanent magnet or an electromagnet to capture ferromagnetic particles. Ferrom permanent magnets, or are attracted to magnets. An advantage of magnetic filtration is that maintaining Automatic transmissions in vehicles frequently have a magnet in the fluid pan to sequester magnetic par
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Heat Exchangers The word exchanger really applies to all types of equipment in which heat is exchanged but is often us two process streams. Exchangers in which a process fluid is heated or cooled by a plant service stream exchanger is called a vaporiser if the stream is essentially completely vaporised; a reboiler if associated The term fired exchanger is used for exchangers heated by combustion gases, such as boilers; other ex The principal types of heat exchanger used in the chemical process and allied industries, are listed belo Double-pipe exchanger: the simplest type, used for cooling and heating. Shell and tube exchangers: used for all applications. Plate and frame exchangers (plate heat exchangers): used for heating and cooling. Plate-fin exchangers. Spiral heat exchangers. Air cooled: coolers and condensers. Direct contact: cooling and quenching. Agitated vessels. Fired heaters.
Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger A shell and tube heat exchanger is a class of heat exchanger designs. It is suited for higher-pressure ap consists of a shell (a large pressure vessel) with a bundle of tubes inside it. One fluid runs through the tu transfer heat between the two fluids. The set of tubes is called a tube bundle, and may be composed by Two fluids, of different starting temperatures, flow through the heat exchanger. One flows through the tu but inside the shell (the shell side). Heat is transferred from one fluid to the other through the tube walls, can be either liquids or gases on either the shell or the tube side. In order to transfer heat efficiently, a la many tubes. In this way, waste heat can be put to use. This is an efficient way to conserve energy. Heat exchangers with only one phase (liquid or gas) on each side can be called one-phase or single-pha heat a liquid to boil it into a gas (vapor), sometimes called boilers, or cool a vapor to condense it into a li on the shell side. There are often baffles directing flow through the shell side so the fluid does not take a short cut through the shell side leaving ineffective low flow volumes.Baffles are flow-directing or obstructing vanes or panels used in some industrial process vessels (tanks), such as shell and tube heat exchangers, chemical reactors, and static mixers. The main roles of a baffle in a shell and tube heat exchanger are to: Hold tubes in position (preventing sagging), both in production and operation Prevent the effects of vibration, which is increased with both fluid velocity and the length of the exchanger Direct shell-side fluid flow along tube field. This increases fluid velocity and the effective heat transfer co-efficient of the exchanger Counter current heat exchangers are most efficient because they allow the highest log mean temperature difference between the hot and cold streams The log mean temperature difference (also known by its acronym LMTD) is used to
determine the temperature driving force for heat transfer in flow systems, most notably in heat exchangers. The LMTD is a logarithmic average of the temperature difference between the hot and cold streams at each end of the exchanger. The larger the LMTD, the more heat is transferred. LMTD is defined by the logarithmic mean as follows:
where T A is the temperature difference between the two streams at end A, and T B is the temperatur This equation is valid both for parallel flow, where the streams enter from the same end, and for counter Once calculated, the LMTD is usually applied to calculate the heat transfer in an exchanger according to
Where Q is the exchanged heat duty (in watts), U is the heat transfer coefficient (in watts per kelvin per
Reboilers are heat exchangers typically used to provide heat to the bottom of industrial distillation colum to generate vapors which are returned to the column to drive the distillation separation. Proper reboiler operation is vital to effective distillation. In a typical classical distillation column, all the va receives a liquid stream from the column bottom and may partially or completely vaporize that stream. S
Commonly used heat exchanger type reboilers are: Kettle reboilers Kettle reboilers are very simple and reliable. They may require pumping of the column bottoms liquid into or there may be sufficient liquid head to deliver the liquid into the reboiler. In this reboiler type, steam flow and exits as condensate. The liquid from the bottom of the tower, commonly called the bottoms, flows th There is a retaining wall or overflow weir separating the tube bundle from the reboiler section where the reboiled liquid (called the bottoms product) is withdrawn, so that the tube bundle is kept covered with liqu
Thermosyphon reboilers These do not require pumping of the column bottoms liquid into the reboiler. Natural circulation is obtain
the density difference between the reboiler inlet column bottoms liquid and the reboiler outlet liquid-vapo provide sufficient liquid head to deliver the tower bottoms into the reboiler. Thermosyphon reboilers (also known as calandrias) are more complex than kettle reboilers and require more attention from the plant operators. There are many types of thermosyphon reboilers. They may be vertical or horizontal and they may also be once-through or recirculating. Some fluids being reboiled may be temperature-sensitive and, for example, subject to polymerization by contact with high temperature heat transfer tube walls. In such cases, it is best to have a high liquid recirculation rate to avoid having high tube wall temperatures which would cause polymerization and, hence, fouling of the tubes. The thermosyphon reboiler depicted in Image 2 is a typical steam-heated recirculating thermosyphon reboiler.
Fired reboiler Fired heaters (furnaces) may be used as a distillation column reboiler. A pump is required to circulate the column bottoms through the heat transfer tubes in the furnace's convection and radiant sections. Image 3 depicts a fired heater being used in a configuration that provides recirculation of the column bottoms liquid. The heat source for the fired heater reboiler may be either fuel gas or fuel oil. Coal would rarely, if ever, be used as the fuel for a fired heater reboiler.
Image 3: A forced recirculating fired heater reboiler
Forced circulation reboilers This type of reboiler uses a pump to circulate the column bottoms liquid through the reboilers. . Image 4 depicts a typical steam-heated forced circulation reboiler
Condensers In systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a device or unit used to condense a substance from it In so doing, the latent heat is given up by the substance, and will transfer to the condenser coolant. Con and come in many sizes ranging from rather small (hand-held) to very large industrial-scale units used in uses a condenser to get rid of heat extracted from the interior of the unit to the outside air. Condensers a
such as distillation, steam power plants and other heat-exchange systems. Use of cooling water or surro A surface condenser is an example of such a heat-exchange system. It is a shell and tube heat exchang steam turbine in thermal power stations. Commonly, the cooling water flows through the tube side and th occurs on the outside of the heat transfer tubes. The condensate drips down and collects at the bottom, The shell side often operates at a vacuum or partial vacuum, often produced by attached air ejectors.
Diagram of a typical water-cooled surface condenser
Compressors A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume.C and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduce Theory of Compression: In any continuous compression process the relation of absolute pressure p to v pVn = C = constant
The plot of pressure versus volume for each value of exponent n is known as the polytropic curve. Since from p1 to p2 along any polytropic curve (Figure 14) is 2 W= 1 p dV
it follows that the amount of work required is dependent upon the polytropic curve involved and increase
The path requiring the least amount of input work is n = 1, which is equivalent to isothermal compression (i.e., no heat is being added or taken away during the process), n = k =ratio of specific heat at constant p Since most compressors operate along a polytropic path approaching the adiabatic, compressor calcula
Some formulas based upon the adiabatic equa compressor work are as follows: Pressure, volume, and temperature relations f p2 /p1 = (V1/V2)k
T2 /T1 = (V1 /V2)k
p2 /p1 = (T2 /T1) k / (k 1) Adiabatic Calculations Adiabatic head is expre In SI units, Had = kRT1/(k 1)[(P2/P1)(k 1) / k -1] where, Had = adiabatic head, Nm/kg; R = gas constan
T1 = inlet gas temperature, K; p1 = absolute inl The main types of gas compressors are illustrated below:
Reciprocating Compressors Reciprocating compressors are used mainly when high-pressure head is required at a low flow. Recipro types. The number of stages is determined by the required compressor ratio p2 /p1. The compression ra The compression ratio per stage is generally limited to 4, although low-capacity units are furnished with ratio is determined by the maximum allowable discharge-gas temperature. The compressors most comm to which the connecting rod and piston rod are connected.This provides a straight-line motion for the pis Either single-acting or double-acting pistons (Fig. 11-5,11-8) may be used, depending on the size of the In some machines double-acting pistons are used in the first stages and single-acting in the later stages are provided between stages.These heat exchangers remove the heat of compression from the gas and at the compressor intake. Such cooling reduces the volume of gas going to the high-pressure cylinders, the temperature within safe operating limits. Valve Losses: Above piston speeds of 2.5 m/s (500 ft/min), suction and discharge valve losses begin to exert significant effects on the actual internal compression ratio of most compressors, depending on the valve port area available. The obvious results are high temperature rise and higher power requirements than might be expected. These effects become more pronounced with higher-molecular-weight gases. Valve problems can be a very major contributor to down time experienced by these machines. Control Devices In many installations the use of gas is intermittent, and some means of controlling the output of the compressor is therefore necessary. In other cases constant output is required despite
variations in discharge pressure, and the control device must operate to maintain a constant compressor speed. Compressor capacity, speed, or pressure may be varied in accordance with requirements. The nature of the control device will depend on the function to be regulated. Regulation of pressure, volume, temperature, or some other factor determines the type of regulation required and the type of the compressor driver. The most common control requirement is regulation of capacity. Many capacity controls, or unloading devices, as they are usually termed, are actuated by the pressure on the discharge side of the compressor. A falling pressure indicates that gas is being used faster than it is being compressed and that more gas is required. A rising pressure indicates that more gas is being compressed than is being used and that less gas is required. An obvious method of controlling the capacity of a compressor is to vary the speed. This method is applicable to units driven by variablespeed drivers such as steam pistons, steam turbines, gas engines, diesel engines, etc. In these cases the regulator actuates the steamadmission or fuel-admission valve on the compressor driver and thus controls the speed. Motor-driven compressors usually operate at constant speed, and other methods of controlling the capacity are necessary. On reciprocating compressors discharging into receivers, up to about 75 kW (100 hp), two types of control are usually available. These are automaticstart-and-stop control and constant-speed control. Automatic-start-and-stop control, as its name implies, stops or starts the compressor by means of a pressure-actuated switch as the gas demand varies. It should be used only when the demand for gas will be intermittent. Constant-speed control should be used when gas demand is fairly constant. With this type of control, the compressor runs continuously but compresses only when gas is needed. Three methods of unloading the compressor with this type of control are in common use: (1) closed suction unloaders, (2) open inlet-valve unloaders, and (3) clearance unloaders. The closed suction unloader consists of a pressure-actuated valve which shuts operate to hold the compressor inlet valves open and thereby prevent compression. Clearance unloader are opened when unloading is desired. The gas is compressed into them on the compression stroke and thus preventing the compression of additional gas.It is sometimes desirable to have a compressor equip automatic-start-and-stop control. When this is done, a switch allows immediate selection of either type. Motor-driven reciprocating compressors above about 75 kW (100 hp) in size are usually equipped with a control in which unloading is accomplished in a series of steps, varying from full load down to no load. T usually accomplished with inlet-valve unloaders. Five-step control (full load, three-fourths load, one-half by means of clearance pockets On some machines, inlet-valve and clearance-control unloading are use usually automatically operated,manual operation is satisfactory for some services. When manual operat valves to open and close clearance pockets. In some cases, a movable cylinder head is provided for var When no capacity control or unloading device is provided, it is necessary to provide bypasses between t compressor can be started against no load. Compressor Surge
Surge has been traditionally defined as the lower limit of stable operation in a compressor, and it involves the reve of aerodynamic instability within the system. Usually, a part of the compressor is the cause of the aerodynamic ins
of augmenting this instability. Compressors are usually operated at a working line, separated by some s
an increase in the rotational speed of the impeller or both can cause the compressor to surge. Whether surge is ca
the blades or the stators can stall. One should note that operating at higher efficiency implies operation c occur only in the rotational part of the compressor, the blades.
Usually surge is linked with excessive vibration and an audible sound, yet, there have been cases where surge no
operation in surge and, often, near surge is accompanied by several indications, including general and p discharge temperature excursions, compressor differential pressure fluctuations and lateral vibration am operation in the incipient surge range is accompanied by the emergence of a low frequency, asynchrono as well as excitation of various harmonics of blade passing frequencies. Extended operation in surge ca are also experienced due to axial movement of the shaft causing contact of blades and stators. Due to t at one of blade natural response frequencies is caused leading to blade failure. Go to compressors main
Distillation Distillation is a method of separating components of a solution which depends upon the distribution of su all the components are present in both phases. The following examples will make the distinction betwee In the separation of solution of common salt & water, the water can be completely vaporized from the so volatile as compared to water.This is the operation of evaporation. Distillation, on the other hand is conc appreciably volatile. In this category, consider the separation of a solution of ammonia and water. By app and thereby create a gas phase consisting of nothing but ammonia and water. And since the gas will be will have been already resulted.By appropriate manipulations of the phases or by repeated vaporizations complete a separation as may be desired, recovering bith components of the mixture in as pure a state
Continuous Distillation The separation of liquid mixtures by distillation depends on differences in volatility between the compone The basic equipment required for continuous distillation is shown in Figure 16. Vapour flows up the colum are brought into contact on plates, or packing. Part of the condensate from the condenser is returned to and part of the liquid from the base of the column is vaporised in the reboiler and returned to provide the
Condenser
Reflux
Top Product
Feed
Figure 16
Reboiler
Bottom Product
Total reflux Total reflux is the condition when all the condensate is returned to the column as reflux, no product is tak required for a given separation is the minimum at which it is theoretically possible to achieve the separat to the likely number of stages that will be needed. Columns are often started up with no product take-off The testing of columns is also conveniently carried out at total reflux.
Column feed The column can be fed in different ways. If the it is simply piped into the column. Otherwise, th a superheated vapor, a saturated vapor, a par (i.e., liquid at its boiling point at the column's p than the column pressure and flows through a expand and undergo a partial flash vaporizatio
Feed-point location The precise location of the feed point will affec subsequent operation of the column. As a gen the best match between the feed composition column.
Selection of column pressure Except when distilling heat-sensitive materials will be to ensure that the dew point of the distil The maximum, summer,temperature of coolin will be needed, the provision of refrigerated bri to reduce the column temperatures for the dist would otherwise be needed to distil relatively n requirements it is usual to take the operating p Figure 17 Chemical engineering schematic of typical bubble-cap trays in a distillation tower
Use of Packing Another way of improving the separation in a distillation column is to use a packing material instead of tr the column (when compared to plates or trays), beneficial when operating under vacuum. If a distillation equilibrium stages is first determined and then the packing height equivalent to a theoretical equilibrium also determined. The total packing height required is the number theoretical stages multiplied by the HE packing such as Raschig rings or structured sheet metal. Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing takes place. Unlike conventional tray distillation in which every tray represents a separate point of vaporis continuous. However, when modeling packed columns it is useful to compute a number of theoretical to more traditional trays. Differently shaped packings have different surface areas and void space betwe Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that affects the performance of random The number of theoretical stages required to make a given separation is calculated using a specific vapo the superficial tower area as it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not be correct in the pa The packing will appear to not be working properly. The height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP) w
but the mal-distribution of the fluids entering the packed bed. Liquid mal-distribution is more frequently th the feed and reflux to a packed bed is critical to making the packing perform at maximum efficiency.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Choice of plates or packing The choice between a plate or packed column for a particular application can only be made with comple be worthwhile, or necessary, and the choice can usually be made, on the basis of experience by conside listed below: Plate columns can be designed to handle a wider range of liquid and gas flow-rates than packed column Packed columns are not suitable for very low liquid rates. Plate columns can be designed with more assurance than packed columns. There is always some doub a packed column under all operating conditions, particularly in large columns. It is easier to make provision for cooling in a plate column; coils can be installed on the plates. It is easier to make provision for the withdrawal of side-streams from plate columns. If the liquid causes fouling, or contains solids, it is easier to make provision for cleaning in a plate colum columns it may be cheaper to use packing and replace the packing when it becomes fouled. For corrosive liquids a packed column will usually be cheaper than the equivalent plate column The liquid hold-up is appreciably lower in a packed column than a plate column.This can be important w be kept as small as possible for safety reasons. Packed columns are more suitable for handling foaming systems. The pressure drop per equilibrium stage (HETP) can be lower for packing than plates; and packing shou Packing should always be considered for small diameter columns, say less than 0.6 m, where plates wo
1 2
Types of packing The principal requirements of a packing are that it should: Provide a large surface area: a high interfacial area between the gas and liquid. Have an open structure: low resistance to gas flow. Promote uniform liquid distribution on the packing surface. Promote uniform vapour gas flow across the column cross-section. Many diverse types and shapes of packing have been developed to satisfy these requirements.They can Packings with a regular geometry: such as stacked rings, grids and proprietary structured packings. Random packings: rings, saddles and proprietary shapes, which are dumped into the column and take u Grids have an open structure and are used for high gas rates, where low pressure drop is essential; for elements are more commonly used in the process industries.
Random packing The principal types of random packings are shown in Figure 11.37. Design data for these packings are g Raschig rings, Figure 11.37a, are one of the oldest specially manufactured types of random packing, an Raschig rings in which openings have been made by folding strips of the surface into the ring. This incre saddles, Figure 11.37c, were developed to give improved liquid distribution compared to Raschig rings, type of Berl saddle; their shape makes them easier to manufacture than Berl saddles. The Hypac and S types of Pall ring and Intalox saddle, respectively. Ring and saddle packings are available in a variety of materials: ceramics, metals, plastics and carbon. ceramic rings, as it is possible to make the walls thinner. Raschig rings are cheaper per unit volume than efficient, and the total cost of the column will usually be higher if Raschig rings are specified. For new co Intalox saddles. The choice of material will depend on the nature of the fluids and the operating tempera Ceramic packing will be the first choice for corrosive liquids; but ceramics are unsuitable for use with str solvents, and can only be used up to moderate temperatures; so are unsuitable for distillation columns. be specified, as ceramic packing is easily broken.
Packing size In general, the largest size of packing that is suitable for the size of column should be used, up to 50 mm Above 50 mm the lower cost per cubic metre does not normally compensate for the lower mass transfer liquid distribution. Recommended size ranges are: Column diameter Use packing size <0.3 m (1 ft) <25 mm (1 in.) 0.3 to 0.9 m (1 to 3 ft) 25 to 38 mm (1 to 1.5 in.) >0.9 m 50 to 75 mm (2 to 3 in.)
1 2 3
Structured packing The term structured packing refers to packing elements made up from wire mesh or perforated metal sh to give a high surface area with a high void fraction. The advantage of structured packings over random packing is their low HETP (typically less than 0.5 m) They are being increasingly used in the following applications: For difficult separations, requiring many stages: such as the separation of isotopes. High vacuum distillation. For column revamps: to increase capacity and reduce reflux ratio requirements. The applications have mainly been in distillation, but structured packings can also be used in absorption The cost of structured packings per cubic metre will be significantly higher than that of random packings
1 2 3 4
Batch distillation In batch distillation the mixture to be distilled is charged as a batch to the still and the distillation carried o usually consists of a vessel surmounted by a packed or plate column. The heater may be incorporated in considered under the following circumstances: Where the quantity to be distilled is small. Where a range of products has to be produced. Where the feed is produced at irregular intervals. Where the feed composition varies over a wide range. Where the choice between batch and continuous is uncertain an economic evaluation of both systems s Batch distillation is an unsteady state process, the composition in the still (bottoms) varying as the batch Two modes of operation are used. Fixed reflux, where the reflux rate is kept constant. The compositions will vary as the more volatile component is distilled off, and the distillation stopped when the average composition of the distillate collected, or the bottoms left, meet the specification required. Variable reflux, where the reflux rate is varied throughout the distillation to produce a fixed overhead composition. The reflux ratio will need to be progressively increased as the fraction of the more volatile component in the base of the still decreases.
Steam distillation In steam distillation, steam is introduced into the column to lower the partial pressure of the volatile com for compounds with a high boiling point. It is an alternative to vacuum distillation. The products must be condense to provide the heat required for the distillation. Live steam can be injected directly into the colu
1 2 3
Reactive distillation Reactive distillation is the name given to the process where the chemical reaction and product separatio separation and purification of the product by distillation, gives the following advantages: Chemical equilibrium restrictions are overcome, as the product is removed as it is formed. Energy savings can be obtained, as the heat of reaction can be utilised for the distillation. Capital costs are reduced, as only one vessel is required.
nergy demand and range
an underground
ough machines and
re, flow) and therefore
Figure 1. A Pumping System in an Industry
ain rate. This pressure has to be high enough to overcome the resistance of the system, which is also called head.
nation of the pumped liquid (see Figure 2a). Static head is independent of flow (see Figure 2b). The static head at a culated with this equation:
e pump center line.The hS is positive if the liquid level is above pump centerline, and negative if the liquid
centerline and the surface of the liquid in the destination tank.
Flow
Figure 2b. Static Head Versus Flow
Go back to the training module
e to flow in the pipe and fittings. It is dependent on size, condition and type of pipe, number and type of pipe fittings, o the square of the flow rate as shown in figure 3. A closed loop circulating system only exhibits friction head
h is graphically shown in Figure 4 as the performance curve or pump characteristic curve. The figure shows a typical th increasing flow. As the resistance of a system increases, the head will also increase. This in turn causes the e is only acceptable for a short period without causing to the pump to burn out.
performance curve is made up of many duty points. The pump operating point is determined by the intersection of
pump operating
point
mp. This may occur when at the fluids local static pressure becomes lower than the liquids vapor pressure (at the in a control valve or around a pump impeller. velocity is decreased and pressure increased, the vapor will evaporate and collapse. This has three undesirable effects:
performance and can lead to loss of total head in extreme cases. uch the pump suction exceeds the liquid vapor pressure, and is a characteristic of the system design. The NPSH and is a characteristic of the pump design.
They can be classified according to their basic operating principle as dynamic or positive displacement pumps (Figure 6).
Displacement
In principle, any liquid can be handled by any of the pump designs. Where different pump designs could be used, the centrifugal pump is generally the most economical followed by rotary and reciprocating pumps. Although, positive displacement pumps are generally more efficient than centrifugal pumps, the benefit of higher efficiency tends to be offset by increased maintenance costs.
reciprocating
slide vane
rate: liquid is taken from one end and positively discharged at the other end for every revolution. Positive displacement viscous fluids.Positive Displacement Pumps are "constant flow machines"
ve on the discharge side of the pump because it has no shut-off head like Centrifugal Pumps.
e valve, will continue to produce flow until the pressure in the discharge line are increased until the line bursts or the pump is severely damag mode of displacement:
n it. In the head of the cylinder the suction and discharge valves are mounted. In the suction stroke the id into the cylinder. In the forward stroke the plunger push the liquid out the discharge valve. when the plunger moves through the middle positions, and zero flow when the plunger is in the end positions. A lot of energy is wasted when mers" may be a serious problem. In general the problems are compensated by using two or more cylinders not working in phase with each oth used to flex a diaphragm in the pumping cylinder. Diaphragm valves are used to pump hazardous and toxic fluids. or vanes in a chamber such as internal gear, external gear, lobe and slide vane etc. These pumps are used for special services with pecial services with particular conditions existing in industrial sites. r teeth of two identical gears and the chasing of the pump on the suction side. On the pressure side d against each other. The motor provides the drive for one gear.
en by external timing gears. The lobes do not make contact. mer-lined or elastic stator. When the rotor turns progressive chambers from suction end
a rotating impeller converts kinetic energy into pressure or velocity that is needed to pump the fluid.
water in industrial applications. Typically, more than 75% of the pumps installed in an industry are
s at an industrial site.
y process plant. Figure 7 shows how this type of pump operates: ler within the stationary casing .The blades of the impeller in revolving produce a reduction in o flow into the impeller from the suction pipe. al velocity. The velocity head it has acquired when it leaves the blade tips is changed to nce out the discharge.
Figure 8.
Main components of a centrifugal pump
above and described below:
flow of fluid. Impellers are generally made of bronze, polycarbonate, cast iron or stainless steel, but other materials e of impeller, it is important to select a suitable design and to maintain the impeller in good condition. ump. A single stage pump has one impeller and is best suited for low head (= pressure) service. A two-stage pump has p has three or more impellers in series for high head service.
both sides (Figure 9). They are generally used for water pumps as the vanes totally enclose the water. uction side, which would reduce the pump efficiency. In order to separate the discharge chamber from ller and pump casing. This joint is provided by wearing rings, which are mounted either over of pump casing. A disadvantage of closed impellers is the higher risk of blockage. ut to avoid clogging through internal re-circulation, the volute or back-plate of the pump must be
s but they are up to 50% less efficient than conventional designs. the startup and operation of the pump.
d delivery ends and thereby form a pressure vessel. The pressure at suction end may be as little as one-tenth of atmospheric pressure in a single-stage pump. For multi-stage pumps the pressure difference is much higher. The casing ge enough safety margin. A second function of casing is to provide a supporting and bearing medium for the shaft and
ings. One of the main he pump. However, anufacturers he pump. This can Double-volute casings
ller periphery that d for multi-stage pumps.
le are contained in Figure 10. Cutaway of a pump showing volute casing
ng parts are divided
f the weight of the liquid pumped in a given time period. Pump shaft power (Ps) is the actual horsepower delivered to
power hp / Pump efficiency pump
c power / Pump shaft power

liquid horsepower delivered by the pump, and can be calculated as follows:
(hd - hs in m) x (kg/m3) x g (m/s2) / 1000
Reciprocating Pumps Rotary Pumps Low Capacity, High Pressure 10,000+ GPM Yes 100,000+ PSI Yes Pulsating Constant Yes Low/Medium Capacity, Low/Medium Pressure 10,000+ GPM Yes 4,000+ PSI Yes Smooth Constant Yes
High Capacity,
um Pressure
Requires Less Space Requires Less Space Higher Initial Lower Initial Higher Maintenance Lower Maintenance Lower Power Suitable for clean, clear, non-abrasive fluids. Speciallyfitted pumps suitable for abrasiveslurry service. Suitable for high viscosity fluids Higher tolerance for entrained gases. Optimum performance with high viscosity fluids Higher tolerance for entrained gases Lower Power Requires clean, clear, non-abrasive fluid due to close tolerances
or a wide range
sive fluids to fluids with
high-solid content.
t in film flow during its fall downward on the tubes as it is cooled by a cooling medium the tubes. This operation can be cocurrent or countercurrent.
Figure shows a falling film absorber
entially a shell & tube heat exchanger in which both gas to be absorbed and absorbing liquid flow co-currently descends by gravity along the inner walls of the tubes as a thin film. Obviously, this produces a much the tube flowed full. parallel and each tube is provided with distribution system on top to effect uniform distribution of both
ll. The absorbing liquid is circulated through a tank till desired concentration is achieved. The liquid flows
rface of the tube.
r absorption and product concentration as compared with conventional packed tower.
t sensitive materials.
he gas velocities through the vessels are higher than in countercurrentflow spray towers.
rcurrent-flow spray towers treating the same amount of exhaust flow.
pture ferromagnetic particles. Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as iron) form magnetic filtration is that maintaining the filter simply requires cleaning the particles from the surface of the magnet. e fluid pan to sequester magnetic particles and prolong the life of the media-type fluid filter.
ch heat is exchanged but is often used specifically to denote equipment in which heat is exchanged between d or cooled by a plant service stream are referred to as heaters and coolers. If the process stream is vaporised the ly vaporised; a reboiler if associated with a distillation column; and an evaporator if used to concentrate a solution. stion gases, such as boilers; other exchangers are referred to as unfired exchangers. and allied industries, are listed below:
ing and cooling.
ns. It is suited for higher-pressure applications. As its name implies, this type of heat exchanger nside it. One fluid runs through the tubes, and another fluid flows over the tubes (through the shell) to be bundle, and may be composed by several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc. exchanger. One flows through the tubes (the tube side) and the other flows outside the tubes d to the other through the tube walls, either from tube side to shell side or vice versa. The fluids order to transfer heat efficiently, a large heat transfer area should be used, leading to the use of ficient way to conserve energy. an be called one-phase or single-phase heat exchangers. Two-phase heat exchangers can be used to r cool a vapor to condense it into a liquid (called condensers), with the phase change usually occurring
uid does not take a .Baffles are flow-directing sels (tanks), such as shell
elocity and the
city and the effective
low the highest LMTD) is used to
tems, most notably perature difference he larger the LMTD,
at end A, and T B is the temperature difference between the two streams at end B. r from the same end, and for counter-current flow, where they enter from different ends. ransfer in an exchanger according to the simple equation:
er coefficient (in watts per kelvin per square meter) and A is the exchange area. A double pipe heat exchanger consists of one pipe placed concentrically inside another one of larger diameter, with appropriate endfittings on each pipe to guide the fluids from one section to the next. The inner pipe mayhave external longitudinal fins welded to it either internally or externally to increase theheat transfer area for the fluid with the lower heat transfer coefficient.
bottom of industrial distillation columns. They boil the liquid from the bottom of a distillation column stillation separation. classical distillation column, all the vapor driving the separation comes from the reboiler. The reboiler or completely vaporize that stream. Steam usually provides the heat required for the vaporization.
ping of the column bottoms liquid into the kettle, boiler. In this reboiler type, steam flows through the tube bundle ommonly called the bottoms, flows through the shell side. e from the reboiler section where the residual tube bundle is kept covered with liquid.
reboiler. Natural circulation is obtained by using
uid and the reboiler outlet liquid-vapor mixture to
Image 1: Typical steam-heated kettle reboiler for distillation towers
plex than kettle reboilers
gh or recirculating. xample, subject to polymerization ases, it is best to have a high liquid would cause polymerization and, Image 2 is a typical steam-heated
t transfer tubes
Image 2: Typical horizontal thermosyphon reboiler
Image 4: Typical steam-heated forced circulation reboiler for distillation towers
quid through the reboilers. .
sed to condense a substance from its gaseous to its liquid state, typically by cooling it. ansfer to the condenser coolant. Condensers are typically heat exchangers which have various designs ery large industrial-scale units used in plant processes. For example, a refrigerator e unit to the outside air. Condensers are used in air conditioning, industrial chemical processes
ystems. Use of cooling water or surrounding air as the coolant is common in many condensers. m. It is a shell and tube heat exchanger installed at the outlet of every ter flows through the tube side and the steam enters the shell side where the condensation ips down and collects at the bottom, often in a built-in pan called a hotwell. produced by attached air ejectors.
Go to heat exchangers main
ure of a gas by reducing its volume.Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid ressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. e relation of absolute pressure p to volume V is expressed by the formula
known as the polytropic curve. Since the work W performed in proceeding
olytropic curve involved and increases with increasing values of n.
equivalent to isothermal compression. For adiabatic compression k =ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to that at constant volume. ng the adiabatic, compressor calculations are generally based on the adiabatic curve.
mulas based upon the adiabatic equation and useful in or work are as follows: volume, and temperature relations for perfect gases:
Calculations Adiabatic head is expressed as follows: 1)[(P2/P1)(k 1) / k -1]
1/(k
batic head, Nm/kg; R = gas constant, J/(kgK) = 8314/molecular weight;
gas temperature, K; p1 = absolute inletpressure, kPa; and p2 = absolute discharge pressure, kPa.
ead is required at a low flow. Reciprocating compressors are furnished in either single-stage or multistage ssor ratio p2 /p1. The compression ratio per stage is generally compressor ratio p2 /p1. ow-capacity units are furnished with compression ratios of 8 and even higher. Generally, the maximum compression erature. The compressors most commonly used for compressing gases have a crosshead ides a straight-line motion for the piston rod and permits simple packing to be used. e used, depending on the size of the machine and the number of stages. s and single-acting in the later stages.On multistage machines, intercoolers eat of compression from the gas and reduce its temperature to approximately the temperature existing going to the high-pressure cylinders, reduces the power required for compression, and keeps
pressure-actuated valve which shuts off the compressor intake. Open inlet-valve unloaders nt compression. Clearance unloaders consist of pockets or small reservoirs which them on the compression stroke and reexpands into the cylinder on the return stroke, esirable to have a compressor equipped with both constant-speed and s immediate selection of either type. p) in size are usually equipped with a step control. This is in reality a variation of constant-speed ying from full load down to no load. Three-step control (full load, one-half load, and no load) is ull load, three-fourths load, one-half load, one-fourth load, and no load) is accomplished clearance-control unloading are used in combination.Although such control devices are some services. When manual operation is provided, it often consists of a valve or able cylinder head is provided for variable clearance in the cylinder. ssary to provide bypasses between the inlet and discharge in order that the
n a compressor, and it involves the reversal of flow. This reversal of flow occurs because of some kind ssor is the cause of the aerodynamic instability, although it is possible for the system arrangement to be capable
a working line, separated by some safety margin from the surge line. A decrease in the mass flow rate,
ompressor to surge. Whether surge is caused by a decrease in flow velocity or an increase in rotational speeds,
t higher efficiency implies operation closer to surge. It should be noted here that total pressure increases
there have been cases where surge not accompanied by audible sound has caused failures. Usually,
al indications, including general and pulsating noise level increases, axial shaft position changes, e fluctuations and lateral vibration amplitude increases. Frequently, with high pressure compressors, ence of a low frequency, asynchronous vibration signal which can reach predominant amplitudes, cies. Extended operation in surge causes thrust and journal bearing failures. Failures of blades and stators ontact of blades and stators. Due to the large flow instabilities experienced severe aerodynamic stimulation
h depends upon the distribution of substances between a gas & a liquid phase, applied to cases where ples will make the distinction between distillation & other separation processes clear. be completely vaporized from the solution without removal of salt since the latter is practically non Distillation, on the other hand is concerned with the separation of solutions where all the components are olution of ammonia and water. By application of heat we can partially vaporize the solution, and water. And since the gas will be richer in ammonia than in residual liquid some out of separation phases or by repeated vaporizations and condensations it is then ordinarily possible to make as nts of the mixture in as pure a state as we wish.
ces in volatility between the components. The greater the relative volatilities, the easier the separation. Figure 16. Vapour flows up the column and liquid counter-currently down the column. The vapour and liquid te from the condenser is returned to the top of the column to provide liquid flow above the feed point (reflux), e reboiler and returned to provide the vapour flow.
In the section below the feed, the more volatile components are stripped from the liquid and this is known as the stripping section. Above the feed, the concentration of the more volatile components is increased and this is called the enrichment, or more commonly, the rectifying section. Figure 16 shows a column producing two product streams, referred to as tops and bottoms, from a single feed. Columns are occasionally used with more than one feed, and with side streams withdrawn at points up the column. Virtually pure top and bottom products can be obtained in a single column from a binary feed, but where the feed contains more than two components, only a single pure product can be produced, either from the top or bottom of the column. Several columns will be needed to separate a multicomponent feed into its constituent parts. Reflux considerations The reflux ratio, R, is normally defined as: R = Flow returned as reflux/ Flow of top product taken off The number of stages required for a given separation will be dependent on the reflux ratio used. In an operating column the effective reflux ratio will be increased by vapour condensed within the column due to heat leakage through the walls. With a well-lagged column the
heat loss will be small and no allowance is normally made for this increased flow in design calculations. If a column is poorly insulated, changes in the internal reflux due to sudden changes in the external conditions, such as a sudden rain storm, can have a noticeable effect on the column operation and control.
he column as reflux, no product is taken off and there is no feed. At total reflux the number of stages ically possible to achieve the separation. Though not a practical operating condition, it is a useful guide n started up with no product take-off and operated at total reflux till steady conditions are attained.
mn can be fed in different ways. If the feed is from a source at a pressure higher than the distillation column pressure, y piped into the column. Otherwise, the feed is pumped or compressed into the column. The feed may be ated vapor, a saturated vapor, a partially vaporized liquid-vapor mixture, a saturated liquid d at its boiling point at the column's pressure), or a sub-cooled liquid. If the feed is a liquid at a much higher pressure olumn pressure and flows through a pressure let-down valve just ahead of the column, it will immediately nd undergo a partial flash vaporization resulting in a liquid-vapor mixture as it enters the distillation column.
se location of the feed point will affect the number of stages required for a specified separation and the nt operation of the column. As a general rule, the feed should enter the column at the point that gives match between the feed composition (vapour and liquid if two phases) and the vapour and liquid streams in the
of column pressure hen distilling heat-sensitive materials, the main consideration when selecting the column operating-pressure ensure that the dew point of the distillate is above that which can be easily obtained with the plant cooling water. mum, summer,temperature of cooling water is usually taken as 30C. If this means that high pressures eded, the provision of refrigerated brine cooling should be considered. Vacuum operation is used the column temperatures for the distillation of heat-sensitive materials and where very high temperatures erwise be needed to distil relatively non-volatile materials.When calculating the stage and reflux ents it is usual to take the operating pressure as constant throughout the column.
o use a packing material instead of trays. These offer the advantage of a lower pressure drop across erating under vacuum. If a distillation tower uses packing instead of trays, the number of necessary theoretical quivalent to a theoretical equilibrium stage, known as the height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP), is eoretical stages multiplied by the HETP.This packing material can either be random dumped nd to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where mass transfer represents a separate point of vapor-liquid equilibrium, the vapor-liquid equilibrium curve in a packed column to compute a number of theoretical plates to denote the separation efficiency of the packed column with respect surface areas and void space between packings. Both of these factors affect packing performance. at affects the performance of random or structured packing is liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed. on is calculated using a specific vapor to liquid ratio. If the liquid and vapor are not evenly distributed across vapor ratio will not be correct in the packed bed and the required separation will not be achieved. valent to a theoretical plate (HETP) will be greater than expected. The problem is not the packing itself
mal-distribution is more frequently the problem than vapor. The design of the liquid distributors used to introduce perform at maximum efficiency.
cation can only be made with complete assurance by costing each design. However, this will not always on the basis of experience by considering main advantages and disadvantages of each type; which are
d gas flow-rates than packed columns.
columns. There is always some doubt that good liquid distribution can be maintained throughout
be installed on the plates. m plate columns. ovision for cleaning in a plate column; manways can be installed on the plates. With small diameter when it becomes fouled. he equivalent plate column late column.This can be important when the inventory of toxic or flammable liquids needs to
acking than plates; and packing should be considered for vacuum columns. say less than 0.6 m, where plates would be difficult to install, and expensive.
satisfy these requirements.They can be divided into two broad classes: proprietary structured packings. e dumped into the column and take up a random arrangement. e low pressure drop is essential; for example, in cooling towers. Random packings and structured packing
Design data for these packings are given in Table 11.2. actured types of random packing, and are still in general use. Pall rings, Figure 11.37b, are essentially of the surface into the ring. This increases the free area and improves the liquid distribution characteristics. Berl ribution compared to Raschig rings, Intalox saddles, Figure 11.37d, can be considered to be an improved than Berl saddles. The Hypac and Super Intalox packings shown in Figure 11.37e,f can be considered improved
amics, metals, plastics and carbon. Metal and plastics (polypropylene) rings are more efficient than ngs are cheaper per unit volume than Pall rings or saddles but are less schig rings are specified. For new columns, the choice will normally be between Pall rings and Berl or the fluids and the operating temperature. amics are unsuitable for use with strong alkalies. Plastics packings are attacked by some organic e unsuitable for distillation columns. Where the column operation is likely to be unstable metal rings should
column should be used, up to 50 mm. Small sizes are appreciably more expensive than the larger sizes. mpensate for the lower mass transfer efficiency. Use of too large a size in a small column can cause poor
mm (1 to 1.5 in.) mm (2 to 3 in.)
om wire mesh or perforated metal sheets. The material is folded and arranged with a regular geometry, low HETP (typically less than 0.5 m) and low pressure drop.
tion of isotopes.
kings can also be used in absorption; in applications where high efficiency and low pressure drop are needed. higher than that of random packings, but this is offset by their higher efficiency.
o the still and the distillation carried out till a satisfactory top or bottom product is achieved. The still n. The heater may be incorporated in the vessel or a separate reboiler used. Batch distillation should be
onomic evaluation of both systems should be made e still (bottoms) varying as the batch is distilled.
tion to produce a sively increased
e partial pressure of the volatile components. It is used for the distillation of heat sensitive products and m distillation. The products must be immiscible with water. Some steam will normally be allowed to m can be injected directly into the column base, or the steam generated by a heater in the still or in an external boiler.
mical reaction and product separation are carried out simultaneously in one unit. Carrying out the reaction, with llowing advantages: emoved as it is formed. sed for the distillation.
ows a typical
desirable effects:
umps (Figure 6).
Where different pump conomical followed by mps are generally more ds to be offset by
e displacement
bursts or the pump is severely damaged - or both.
tions. A lot of energy is wasted when the rs not working in phase with each other.
tage pump has
Figure 9. Closed and open type impellers
gher. The casing the shaft and
Figure 11. Solid casing
r delivered to
as iron) form
ettle reboiler
a binary feed,
reflux ratio used.
mn pressure,
her pressure

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[R22 Plant] Interactive e-module for training plant engineers on operations

Process Water Pr. Low PSL 315 FALSE FCV 125

Cat Stripper Pressure High PCV 89 FALSE

Reactor Pressure High

XCV 104 TCV 101 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM XCV 57

XCV-61 Vent AHF pump high pressure

FALSE XCV 106 A/B PT 51 FALSE

Anhydrous Hydrofluoric Acid HF 20 19.5 0.98

Chloroform CHCL3 119.5 76 1.37

Chlorine Cl2 71 -34.04 2.486 HF CHCl3 CHCl2F CHClF2

HCl (31.5%) Aqueous 85 1.16 100%

Hydrochloric acid HCl + 36.5

Caustic NaOH(7%) 40 102-110 1.0758

Sodium Chloride NaCl + 58.5

Hydrochloric acid HCl + 36.5

Sodium Chloride NaCl + 58.5

Sulfuric acid (98%) H2SO4 H2O + 330 1.84 98%

Sulfuric acid (93%) H2SO4 166

Sulfuric acid (93%) H2SO4 166

31.50% Heat of dilution

Heat is generated in the neutralisation process Brine is used for cooling

Heat is generated in the neutralisation process Brine is used for cooling

Heat of dilution Cooling water is used for cooling

Cooling water is used for cooling

Carbon Steel with polypropylene packings.

Carbon Steel with polypropylene packings.

Carbon Steel with polypropylene packings.

Carbon Steel with polypropylene packings.

Raw material CFM HF

Is AHF pump pressure high? 14 kg/cm2 FALSE Yes Yes

Is AHF feed tank level high? 8 MT FALSE

Is Reactor Pressure High? 11.2 kg/cm2 FALSE Yes Yes

Is Cat Stripper Pressure High? 11.2 kg/cm2 FALSE Yes Yes

Is HCl tank level high? 60% FALSE

Is sulfuric pump tank level high? 80% FALSE

b. HF vaporizer o/l temp. (TI_55_9)

b. Reactor temp. (TIC101)

c. Cat. Stripper pressure (PIC-89)

d. Diff. Pressure in cat stripper (DPT-91)

4 Low pressure system

a. HCl absorption system

CHCl3 Feed line

Dew Point (TR_55_3)

d. Primary caustic scrubber

e. Secondary caustic scrubber

g. H2SO4 absorption system

HCl concentrati on A > 31 %

Caustic Concentrati on B >1 % Volumetric Analysis

Criticality Specification Unit Method (Control & Measurement)

A > 99.95 % Gas Chromatogra phy. At run start up QA Chemist RG-F-04

A < 50 ppm Karl Fisher Titrator

A <300 ppm Karl Fisher Titrator

A > 99.95 % Gas Chromatogra phy. Once in a day

A < 50 ppm Karl Fisher Titrator

B 3-5 % Volumetric Analysis

B 10.3 .0.4 Kg/cm2 CITECT System

B -2.5 1.0 0C CITECT System

B 0.4 0.2 Kg/cm 2 CITECT System

B >92 % Volumetric Analysis

Once in week QA Chemist HF-F-01

Twice in a run QA Chemist RG-F-04

Every Hour Process JE

Every Hour Process JE