Story of Globalization (2001), stated that globalization: is the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving

closer. It pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit, with somebody on the other side of the world.

Anthony McGrews elaboration of this concept illustrates this point: globalization [is] a process which generates flows and connections, not simply across nation-states and national territorial boundaries, but between global regions, continents and civilizations. This invites a definition of globalization as: an historical process which engenders a significant shift in the spatial reach of networks and systems of social relations to transcontinental or interregional patterns of human organization, activity and the exercise of power.

, globalization is often synonymous withinternationalization, referring to the growing interconnectedness and interdependence of people and institutions throughout the world

Table 1: Definitions of Globalization1 (in chronological order) SOURCE

Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1974), as cited in R. J. Holton, Globalization and the Nation-State (London: Macmillan Press, 1998), p. 11. David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), as cited in R. J. Holton, Globalization and the Nation-State (London: Macmillan Press, 1998), p. 8. Martin Albrow, Introduction, in M. Albrow and E. King (eds.), Globalization, Knowledge and Society (London: Sage, 1990), p. 8, as cited in R. J. Holton, Globalization and the Nation-State (London: Macmillan Press, 1998), p. 15. Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990), p. 64. Arjun Appadurai, Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy, in M. Featherstone (ed.), Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity (London: Sage, 1990), p. 308, as cited in Chi-yu Chang, How American Culture Correlates the Process of Globalization, Asian EFL Journal, Vol. 6, Issue 3, September 2004.

DEFINITION
globalization represents the triumph of a capitalist world economy tied together by a global division of labour.

...the compression of time and space. ...all those processes by which the peoples of the world are incorporated into a single world society.

Globalization can thus be defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings The critical point isevents occurring are shaped by that both sides of the coin ofaway and vice versa. many miles global cultural process today are products of the infinitely varied mutual contest of sameness and difference on a stage characterized by radical disjunctures between different sorts of global flows and the uncertain landscapes created in and through these disjunctures.

Peter Dicken, Global Shift: The Internationalization of Economic Activity (London: Guilford Press, 1992), p. 1, p. 87, as cited in I. Clark, Globalization and International Relations Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 38. Kenichi Ohmae, The Borderless World: Power and Strategy in the Global Marketplace (London: HarperCollins, 1992), as cited in RAWOO Netherlands Development Assistance Research Council, Coping with Globalization: The Need for Research Concerning the Local Response to Globalization in Developing Countries, Publication No. 20, 2000, p. 14. Roland Robertson, Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture (London: Sage, 1992), p. 8. OECD, Intra-Firm Trade (Paris: OECD, 1993), p. 7, as cited in R. Brinkman and J. Brinkman, Corporate Power and the Globalization Process, International Journal of Social Economics, Vol. 29, No. 9, 2002, pp. 730-752, pp. 730-731. Robert Cox, Multilateralism and the Democratization of World Order, paper for the International Symposium on Sources of Innovation in Multilateralism, Lausanne, May 2628, 1994, as cited in J. A. Scholte, The Globalization of World Politics, in J. Baylis and S. Smith (eds.), The Globalization of World Politics, An Introduction to International Relations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 15. Mike Featherstone, Undoing Culture, Globalization, Postmodernism and Identity (London: Sage, 1995), pp. 6-7, as cited in Culture Communities: Some Other Viewpoints, Issues in Global Education, Newsletter of the American Forum for Global Education, Issue No. 158, 2000. Hans-Henrik Holm and Georg Sorensen (eds.), Whose World Order? Uneven Globalization and the End of the Cold War (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995), p. 1, as cited in R. J. Holton, Globalization and the Nation-State (London: Macmillan Press, 1998), p. 11. Rosabeth Moss Kanter, World Class: Thriving Locally in the Global Economy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), as cited in J. A. Scholte, The Globalization of World Politics, in J. Baylis and S. Smith (eds.), The Globalization of World Politics, An Introduction to International Relations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 15. Martin Khor, 1995, as cited in J. A. Scholte, The Globalization of World Politics, in J. Baylis and S. Smith (eds.), The Globalization of World Politics, An Introduction to International Relations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 15.

...globalization is qualitativelydifferent frominternationalization... represents a more advanced and complex form of internationalization which implies means the functional ...globalizationa degree ofonset of the borderless world... internationally integration between dispersed economic activities. (p. integration between national economies. (p. 87) ...refers both to the compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a ...understood as the phenomenon by whole. which markets and production in different countries are becoming increasingly interdependent due to the dynamics of trade in goods and services and the flows of capital and The characteristics of the globalization technology. trend include the internationalizing of production, the new international division of labor, new migratory movements from South to North, the The competitive environment that process of globalization new suggests simultaneously two images accelerates these processes, and of culture. The first image entails the the internationalizing of extension outwards ofinto particular a agencies state...making states cultureglobalizing world. the globe. of the to its limit, Heterogeneous cultures become incorporated and integrated into a ...the intensification which eventually dominant culture of economic, political, covers the whole world. The second image points to across borders. the compression of cultures. Things formerly held apart are now brought into contact and juxtaposition.is becoming a global The world shopping mall in which ideas and products are available everywhere at the same time.

it

1) ...

social and c

Globalization is what we in the Third World have for several centuries called colonization.

Robert Spich, Globalization Folklore: Problems of Myth and Ideology in the Discourse on Globalization, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1995, pp. 6-29, pp. 10-11. Robert Spich, Globalization Folklore: Problems of Myth and Ideology in the Discourse on Globalization, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1995, pp. 6-29, p. 7. David Steingard and Dale Fitzgibbons, Challenging the Juggernaut of Globalization: A Manifesto for Academic Praxis, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1995, pp. 30-54, as cited in P. Kelly, The Geographies and Politics of Globalization, Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1999, pp. 379-400, p. 383. C. Walck and D. Bilimoria, Editorial: Challenging Globalization Discourses, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1995, pp. 3-5, p. 3, as cited in P. Kelly, The Geographies and Politics of Globalization, Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1999, pp. 379400, p. 383. Richard L. Harris, The Global Context of Contemporary Latin American Affairs, in S. Halebsky and R. L. Harris (eds.), Capital, Power, and Inequality in Latin America (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995), p. 279 and 80, as cited in Truman State University (Marc Becker), web resource accessed March 21, 2006, see http://www2.truman.edu/~marc/resources/terms.html. Malcolm Waters, Globalization (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 3, as cited in I. Clark, Globalization and International Relations Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 48. Paul Hirst and Grahame Thompson, Globalization in Question, The International Economy and The Possibilities of Governance (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1996), p. 6. M. Albrow, The Global Age, 1996, p. 88, see http://www.globalizacija.com/docen/e0013glo.htm.

[I]t is a mind set, an idea set, an ideal visualization, a popular metaphor and, finally, a stylized way of thinking about Globalization international complex is a conceptualization of the international political economy developments. which suggests and believes essentially that all economic activity, whether local, regional or national, ...globalization as an ideological must be conducted within a construct to perspective devised attitude satisfy and that capitalisms need for new markets constantly is global and worldwide in and labour sources and propelled by its scope. the uncritical sycophancy of the international academic business community. ...globalization is not an output of the real forces markets and

of

Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: The Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), p. 4, as cited in K. Chowdhury, Interrogating Newness, Globalization and Postcolonial Theory in the Age of Endless War, Cultural Critique, No. 62, Winter 2006, pp. 126-161, p. 137.

technologies, but is rather an input in the form of rhetorical and discursive constructs, practices and ideologies Globalization refers in general to the which some groups are imposing on worldwide integration of humanity others and thefor political and economic compression of both the gain. temporal and spatial dimensions of planetwide human interaction. It has aggravated many of the region's most chronic problems--such as the pronounced degree of economic A social and socialin which that exploitation process inequality the constraints of geography on social have characterized Latin America and cultural arrangements recede since it came under European and in dominationpeople sixteenth which colonial in the become increasingly aware that they are century. Globalization is a myth suitable for receding. a world without illusions, but it is also one that robs us of hope. Global markets are dominant, and they face no threat from any viable contrary The historical political project, for ittransformation is held that constituted social sum of particular by the democracy and Western forms andof the Soviet bloc are both socialism instances of... [m]aking or being made global (i) by the active finished. dissemination of practices, values, technology and other human products throughout the globe (ii) ...globalization is a world of things when global practices and so on that have increasing influence over exercise an different speeds, axes, points of lives and termination, and peoples origin (iii) when the globe varied relationships to premise in serves as a focus for, or ainstitutional structures in different shaping, human activities. regions, nations, or societies.

Paul Bairoch and Richard Kozul-Wright, Globalization Myths: Some Historical Reflections on Integration, Industrialization and Growth in the World Economy, Discussion Paper 113 (Geneva: UNCTAD, March 1996), p. 3, see http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/dp113.en.pdf. David Harvey, Globalization in Question, unpublished MS, Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering, The John Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 1996, as cited in P. Kelly, The Geographies and Politics of Globalization, Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1999, pp. 379400, p. 385. James H. Mittelman, How Does Globalization Really Work, in J. H. Mittelman (ed.), Globalization: Critical Reflections (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1996), p. 2, as cited in I. Clark, Globalization and International Relations Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 35. Charles Oman, The Policy Challenges of Globalisation and Regionalisation, OECD Development Centre, Policy Brief No. 11, 1996, p. 5.

...process in which the production and financial structures of countries are becoming interlinked by an increasing number of cross-border transactions to create an international division of labour in which national wealth creation ...a spatial fix for capitalism and on comes, increasingly, to depend an ideological tool with which to attack economic agents in other countries, socialists. and the ultimate stage of economic integration where such dependence has reached its spatial limit. A rubric for a varied phenomena.

Globalisation is the growth, or more precisely the accelerated growth, of economic activity across national and regional political boundaries. It finds expression in the increased movement of tangible and intangible goods and services, including ownership rights, via trade and investment, and often of people, via migration. It can be and often is facilitated by a lowering of I will define globalization as the government process of impediments to that their corporations moving money, factories andin transportation progress, notably products around the planet at ever more rapid rates of and communications. The actions of speed in search of cheaper labor and individual economic actors, firms, raw materials drive it, usually in the banks, people, and governments ...an ensemble of developments willing of profit, often spurred by the pursuit to ignore or abandon that make labor and single place, consumer, the world a environmental pressures the of meaning competition. changing protection laws. As an ideology, and it is Globalisation distance and national importance of is thus a centrifugal largely unfettered by ethicaleconomic process, world affairs. of or moral a process identity in considerations. a microeconomic outreach, and Globalisation is not a single set of phenomenon. processes and does not lead in a single direction. It produces solidarities in some places and destroys them in others. It has quite different consequences on one side of the world from the other. In other words, it is a wholly contradictory process. It is not just about ...an emergent I concept, more as a fragmentation: see it which was created spontaneouslyin which new shake-out of institutions to reflect peoples unity go along with new of the forms of experiences properties of an accelerating phase forms of fragmentation. of the level of social integration compromising the bonds between nation states. movement,

Mark Ritchie, Globalization vs. Globalism, International Forum on Globalization, 1996, see http://www.itcilo.it/english/actrav/telearn/global/ilo/globe/kirs h.htm. Jan Aart Scholte, Globalisation and Collective Identities, in J. Krause and N. Renwick (eds.), Identities in International Relations (New York: St. Martins Press, 1996), p. 44, see http://www.globalizacija.com/docen/e0013glo.htm. Anthony Giddens, Anthony Giddens on Globalization: Excerpts from a Keynote Address at the UNRISD Conference on Globalization and Citizenship, UNRISD (United Nations Research Institute for Social Development) News, Vol. 15, Bulletin No. 15, 1996/7, pp. 4-5, p. 5, as cited in M. Findlay, The Globalisation of Crime, Understanding Transitional Relationships in Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 169. Richard Kilminster, Globalization as an Emergent Concept, in Alan Scott (ed.), The Limits of Globalization: Cases and Arguments (London: Routledge, 1997), p. 272.

Cesare Poppi, Wider Horizons with Larger Details: Subjectivity, Ethnicity and Globalization, in Alan Scott (ed.), The Limits of Globalization: Cases and Arguments (London: Routledge, 1997), p. 285, as cited in V. S. A. Kumar, A Critical st Methodology of Globalization: Politics of the 21 Century?, Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, Vol. 10, Issue 2, Summer 2003, pp. 87-111, p. 95. C. Thomas, Globalization and the South, in C. Thomas and P. Wilkin (eds.), Globalization and the South (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997), p. 6, as cited in I. Clark, Globalization and International Relations Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 10. International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook, A Survey by the Staff of the International Monetary Fund, Meeting the Challenges of Globalization in the Advanced Economies, in the World Economic and Financial Surveys, 1997, p. 45, see http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/WEOMAY/Weocon.htm (Chapter 3). Fredric Jameson, Notes on Globalization as a Philosophical Issue, in F. Jameson and M. Miyoshi (eds.), The Cultures of Globalization (Durham: Duke University Press, 1998), as cited in Vilashini Cooppan, World Literature and Global Theory: Comparative Literature for the New Millennium, Symploke, Vol. 9, Issue 1-2, 2001, pp. 15-43, p. 16. Gijsbert Van Liemt, Labour in the Global Economy: Challenges, Adjustment and Policy Responses in the EU, in O. Memedovic et al. (eds.), Globalization of Labour Markets: Challenges, Adjustment and Policy Responses in the European Union and Less Developed Countries (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998), as cited in V. S. A. Kumar, A Critical Methodology of Globalization: st Politics of the 21 Century?, Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, Vol. 10, Issue 2, Summer 2003, pp. 87-111, p. 97. George Modelski, Globalization Texts, Concepts and Terms, University of Hawaii, compiled by Fred W. Riggs, May 13, 1998, see http://www2.hawaii.edu/~fredr/glotexts.htm#MODELSKI. Majid Tehranian, Globalization Texts, Concepts and Terms, University of Hawaii, compiled by Fred W. Riggs, May 13, 1998, see, http://www2.hawaii.edu/~fredr/glotexts.htm#TEHRANIAN.

[G]lobalization must be understood as the condition whereby localizing strategies become systematically connected to global concerns...Thus, globalization appears as a dialectical (and therefore contradictory) process: what is being globalized is the tendency to stress locality and ...refers broadly tolocalityprocess the difference, yet and whereby power is located the global in very difference presuppose social formations and expressed development of worldwide dynamics through global networks rather than of institutional communication and through territorially-based states. legitimation. Globalization refers to the growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide through the increasing volume and variety of cross-border transactions in goods and services and of international capital flows, and also through the more rapid and widespread diffusion As cultural of technology.process, globalization names the explosion of a plurality of mutually intersecting, individually syncretic, local differences; the emergence of new, hitherto suppressed identities; and the expansion of a world-wide media and technology culture with the promise ...the growing interdependence of As of popular democratization. national economies. economic process...the assimilation or integration of markets, of labor, of nations.

...globalization is a process along four dimensions: economic globalization, formation of world opinion, democratization, and political globalization. This was rounded off with the assertion that Globalization is changes along a process that has one of these been going (such as economic dimensions on for the past 5000 years, but has globalization) it elicited significantly changes accelerated since the demise among the other dimensions. of the Soviet Union in 1991. Elements of globalization include transborder capital, labor, management, news, images, globalization are the transnational corporations in which societies, ...a world (TNCs), transnational media cultures, politics and economics have, in some sense, come closer organizations (TMCs), together. intergovernmental nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and and data

Ray Kiely and Phil Marfleet, Globalisation and the Third World (London: Routledge, 1998), p. 3.

organizations(

Anthony Giddens, The Third Way, The Renewal of Democracy (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1998), pp. 30-31. Anthony G. McGrew, Global Legal Interaction and PresentDay Patterns of Globalization, in V. Gessner and A. C. Budak (eds.), Emerging Legal Certainty: Empirical Studies on the Globalization of Law (Ashgate: Dartmouth Publishing Company, 1998), p. 327, as cited in V. S. A. Kumar, A Critical st Methodology of Globalization: Politics of the 21 Century?, Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, Vol. 10, Issue 2, Summer 2003, pp. 87-111, p. 98. Herman E. Daly, Globalization Versus Internationalization: Some Implications, Global Policy Forum, 1999, see http://www.globalpolicy.org/globaliz/econ/herman2.htm. Thomas Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999), pp. 7-8.

Globalization, as I shall conceive of it in what follows, at any rate, is not only, or even primarily, about economic interdependence, but [G]lobalization [is] a process which about the transformation of time and generates lives. space in ourflows and connections, not simply across nation-states and national territorial boundaries, but between

global regions, continents and civilizations. This invites a definition globalization as: an historical Globalization refers to global process which engenders a economic integration of significant shift in formerly many the spatial reachof into one and national economiesnetworks global transcontinental by free trade and or interregional economy, mainly patterns of human also by easy free capital mobility, but organization, activity inexorable integration or uncontrolled migration. It is the [T]he and the exercise of power.of effective erasure of markets, nation-states national and boundaries technologies for economic purposes. to a degree never witnessed before - in a way that is International trade enabling individuals, corporations (governed by comparative and nation-states to reach around the advantage) becomes world farther, faster, deeper and interregional trade cheaper than ever before, and in a ...the widening, deepening and (governed by producing a powerful way that is alsoabsolute advantage). speeding up What was many becomes one. of backlash from those brutalized or left worldwide behind by this new system... Globalization meansinthe aspects of interconnectedness all spread free-market capitalism to from the ...free movement of goods, services, contemporary social life, virtually every country incriminal, the financial labour and the the world. creating a cultural to capital thereby single spiritual. inputs and outputs; to the market in and full national treatment for foreign investors (and nationals working Globalization refers to processes abroad) so that, economically whereby there arerelations acquire speaking, social no foreigners. relatively distanceless and borderless qualities, so that human lives are increasingly played out in the world Die single place. Globalisierung...global as a networking that has welded together previously disparate and isolated communities on this planet into mutual dependence and unity of one world. (translated from German) Tendency of integration of national capital markets. ...integration of national economies leading to the notion of a borderless global or planetary economy... an interwoven net of factories, fields and forests, banks, governments, Globalization however the word is labouring and - farming populations, understood - implies the weakening cities and transport spread over the of state sovereignty and state surface of earth. structures. systems

David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt and Jonathan Perraton, Global Transformations, Politics, Economics and Culture (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), p. 2. David Henderson, The MAI Affair: A Story and Its Lessons (London: The Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1999), as cited in M. Wolf, Why Globalization Works (London: Yale University Press, 2004), p. 14. Jan Aart Scholte, The Globalization of World Politics, in J. Baylis and S. Smith (eds.), The Globalization of World Politics, An Introduction to International Relations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 14. Emanuel Richter, (n.d.), J. A. Scholte, The Globalization of World Politics, as cited in J. Baylis and S. Smith (eds.), The Globalization of World Politics, An Introduction to International Relations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 15. Quanto Financial Technology, Glossary G, 20002005, see http://www.equanto.com/glossary/g.html. Jha Avinash, Background to Globalisation (Bombay: Center for Education and Documentation, 2000), p. 3, see http://www.globalizacija.com/doc en/e0013glo.htm. Ulrich Beck, The Cosmopolitan Perspective: Sociology of the Second Age of Modernity, British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 51, Issue No. 1, January/March 2000, pp. 79-105, p. 86.
12

Griffith University, Software Internationalisation Glossary of Unicode Terms, Australia, March 2000, see http://www.cit.gu.edu.au/~davidt/cit3611/glossary.htm.

The process of developing, manufacturing, products that are intended for worldwide distribution. This term combines two aspects of the work: A process in which activities are the internationalization (enabling organised on a used without language product to be global not national scale, in or culture barriers) and localization (translating and enabling the product ways which involve for a specific locale). instantaneous around the world. ...a phenomenon by which economic agents in any given part of the world are much more affected by events elsewhere in the world. ...it is a hegemonizing process in the proper Gramscian sense.

and marketings

Media Studies Learning Web, Glossary, Brendan Richards, September 26, 2000, see http://freespace.virgin.net/brendan.richards/glossary/glossa ry.htm. Anne Krueger, Trading Phobias: Governments, NGOs and the Multilateral System, The Seventeenth Annual John Bonython Lecture, Melbourne, October 10, 2000, see http://www.cis.org.au/Events/JBL/JBL00.htm. Stuart Hall, The Multicultural Question, Pavis Lecture, Walton Hall Campus of the Open University in Milton 13 Keynes, October 19, 2000. P. McMichael, Development and Social Change, A Global nd Perspective, 2 ed. (London: Pine Forge Press, 2000), p. 348. James H. Mittelman, The Globalisation Syndrome, Transformation and Resistance (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), pp. 6-7.

some

inte

Pavel V. Nikitin and John E. Elliott, Freedom and the Market (An Analysis of the Anti-globalisation Movement from the Perspective of the Theoretical Foundation of the Evaluation of the Dynamics of Capitalism by Palanyi, Hayek and Keynes), The Forum for Social Economics, Fall 2000, pp. 1-16, p. 14, as cited in G. Gaburro and E. OBoyle, Norms for Evaluating Economic Globalization, International Journal of Social Economics, Vol. 30, No. 1/2, 2003, pp. 95-118, p. 115. Jan Aart Scholte, Globalization A Critical Introduction (London: Macmillan Press, 2000), p. 46. Eduardo Aninat, China Globalization, and the IMF, speech by the Deputy Managing Director of the IMF, The Foundation for Globalization Cooperations Second Globalization Forum, January 14, 2001, see http://www.imf.org/external/np/speeches/2001/011401.htm. Vilashini Cooppan, World Literature and Global Theory: Comparative Literature for the New Millennium, Symploke, Vol. 9, Issue 1-2, 2001, pp. 15-43, p. 15.
nd

Globalization project: an emerging vision of the world and its resources as a globally organized and managed free trade / free enterprise economy As experienced from below, the pursued by a largely unaccountable dominant form of globalization political and economic elite. means a historical transformation: in the economy, of livelihoods and modes of existence; in politics, a loss in the degree of control exercised locally... and in culture, a devaluation of a ...globalization is... the establishment of the collectivitys achievements... Globalization is emerging as a sociopolitical control. political response to the expansion of market power... [It] is a domain of knowledge.

De-territorialization or... the growth of supraterritorial relations between people. Globalization can be defined as the increasing interaction among and integration of diverse human societies in all important dimensions of their activities--economic, social, political, cultural, and religious. ...a process of cross-cultural interaction, exchange, and transformation. [T]he key idea by which we understand the transition of human society into the third millennium.

Malcolm Waters, Globalization, 2 Routledge, 2001), p. 1.

ed. (London:

Malcolm Waters, Globalization, 2 Routledge, 2001), p. 6.

nd

ed. (London:

Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canadian Business in the New Stakeholder Economy Glossary, Robert Sexty, Faculty of Business Administration, 2001, see http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~rsexty/business1000/glossary/G.ht m. Robert Gilpin, Global Political Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), p. 364, see http://www.globalizacija.com/doc en/e0013glo.htm. Thomas Larsson, The Race to the Top: The Real Story of Globalization (US: Cato Institute, 2001), p. 9.

Globalization is the direct consequence of the expansion of European culture across the planet via settlement, colonization and cultural replication. It is also bound up intrinsically with the pattern of capitalist development as it has ramified through political and cultural arenas. However, it does not imply ...the integration of the planet on a that every corner of markets must worldwide scale and could eventually become Westernized and capitalist mean worldwide standards or but rather that every set of social practices for product quality, pricing, arrangements must establish its service, and relation to the capitalist position in design. West - to use Robertsons term, it must integration of the world The relativize itself. economy.

Jain Neeraj, Globalisation or Recolonisation (Pune: Elgar, 2001), pp. 6-7, see http://www.globalizacija.com/doc en/e0013glo.htm. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), MOST Annual Report 2001, see http://www.unesco.org/most/most ar part1c.pdf. Richard Langhorne, The Coming of Globalization: Its Evolution and Contemporary Consequences (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), p. 2. Jan Aart Scholte, The Globalization of World Politics, in J. Baylis and S. Smith (eds.), The Globalization of World Politics, An Introduction to International Relations (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 14-15. Wayne State University, Anthropology Department, April 4, 2001, see http://www.anthro.wayne.edu/ant2100/GlossaryCultAnt.htm . The World Bank Group, 2001, see http://www1.worldbank.org/economicpolicy/globalization/. Alan Deardorff, Glossary of International Economics, University of Michigan, 2001, see http://wwwpersonal.umich.edu/~alandear/glossary/g.html.

[I]t is the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving closer. It pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world ...it interact, but recolonisation in a can is nothingto mutual benefit, with new garb. somebody on the other side of the world. Globalization can be defined as a set of economic, social, technological, political and cultural structures and processes arising from the changing character of the Globalization is the latest stage in a production, consumption and trade of long and assets of technological goodsaccumulation that comprise the advance the has given human base of whichinternational political beings the ability to conduct their economy. affairs across the world without ...globalization refers to government reference to nationality, processes whereby many social relations authority, time of day or physical become environment. relatively delinked from territorial ...the intensification of worldwide so that humanliv geography, social relations which, the world increasingly played out in through economic, technological and political as a single place. forces, link distant localities in such a way that distant events and powers Globalization the growing penetrate local events. integration of economies and societies around the world. 1The increasing world-wide integration of markets for goods, services and capital that attracted special attention in the late 1990s. Also used to encompass a variety of other changes that were perceived to occur at about the same time, such as an increased role for large corporations (MNCs) in the world economy and increased intervention into domestic policies and affairs by international institutions such as the IMF, WTO, and World
3 2

Among

countries

outside

the

Peter Berger, Introduction: The Cultural Dynamics of Globalization, in P. Berger and S. Huntington (eds.), Many Globalizations: Cultural Diversity in the Contemporary World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 16.

David Harvey, Spaces of Hope (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2002), p. 54, as cited in K. Chowdhury, Interrogating Newness, Globalization and Postcolonial Theory in the Age of Endless War, Critical Critique, No. 62, Winter 2006, p. 144. Robert O. Keohane, Power and Governance in a Partially Globalized World (London: Routledge, 2002), p. 15. Zaki Ladi, Democracy in Real Time, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 13, No. 3, July 2002, pp. 68-79, p. 69. Brink Lindsey, Against the Dead Hand: The Uncertain Struggle for Global Capitalism (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002), p. 275, n. 1., as cited in M. Wolf, Why Globalization Works (London: Yale University Press, 2004), p. 14-15.

...globalization is, au fond, a continuation, albeit in an intensified and accelerated form, of the perduring challenge of modernization. On the cultural level, this has been the great challenge of pluralism: the breakdown of takenfor-granted traditions and the ...if the wordof multiple options for opening up globalization signifies anythingvalues and lifestyles. It is not beliefs, about our recent historical geography, it is most likely amounts a distortion to say that this to be a new phase of exactly the same to underlying process of the capitalist production of space. of the great challenge enhanced freedom for ...globalization describes a trend of both collectivities. (italics in original) increasing transnational flows and increasingly thick networks of ...a process of intensifying social interdependence. (italics in original) relations on a worldwide scale that results in an increasing disjunction ...three distinct but between space and time. interrelated senses: First, to describe the economic phenomenon of increasing integration of markets across political boundaries (whether due to political or technological causes); second, to describe the

individu

Bena Internet Publishing Services, Glossary, March 2002, see http://www.bena.com/ewinters/Glossary.html. George Soros, On Globalization, 2002, p.13, see http://www.globalizacija.com/doc en/e0013glo.htm. The International Monetary Fund, Globalization: Threat or Opportunity, 2002, see http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/ib/2000/041200.htm#II.

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strictly politicalphenomenon of falling government-impo international flows of goods, services, and capital; and, finally, to describe the much broader political ...a process of creating a product or phenomenon of the global spread of service that willpolicies in both the market-oriented be successful in many countries international spheres. modification. domestic and without global ...development of Since I contend that globalization in financial markets, the first sense is due primarily to growth of Economic a historica globalization transnational in the globalization is second sense, and that globalization in the second corporations and their growing innovation and technological sense due to dominanceis overprimarily economies. national progress. It refers to thesense, I do globalization in the third increasing integrationit of economies around use not think unduly confusing to the world, particularly through tradethree and the same word to mean financial things.The term sometimes flows. different also refers to the movement of Globalization can and defined as a people (labor) be knowledge process by means of which most of (technology) across international the world's developed countries and borders. There are also broader some of the developingenvironmental cultural, political and countries aim to improve interglobalization that are dimensions of alia the free flow of information, here. money, ideas, not economic By covered globalizationexchange, we mean cooperation, detection, the practice of economic agents and prosecution of criminals, (business technology,enterprises, banks, and and trade between finance (italics in original) nations. companies) working in different countries and serving the world market without a prevailing national base. These agents change their location between national territories on the basis of opportunities for growth and profit, and they grow not because they are supported or protected by the nationstate but through their own efforts. They carry out their economic affairs as if the boundaries which define the

Melba Cuddy-Keane, Modernism, Geopolitics, Globalization, Modernism/Modernity, Vol. 10, No. 3, 2003, pp. 539-558, p. 553. Imre Szeman, Culture and Globalization, or, The Humanities in Ruins, CR: The New Centennial Review, Vol. 3, No. 2, 2003, pp. 91-115, p. 94. H. J. J. G. Beerkens, Global Opportunities and Institutional Embeddedness, Higher Education Consortia in Europe and Southeast Asia, University of Twente, 2004, see http://www.utwente.nl/cheps/documenten/thesisbeerkens.p df. William Easterly, Channels From Globalization to Inequality: Productivity World Versus Factor World, as cited in S. M. Collins and C. Graham, Editors Summary, in S. M. Collins and C. Graham (eds.), Brookings Trade Forum, Globalization, Poverty and Inequality (Brookings Institution, 2004), p. xiv, see http://www.brookings.edu/press/books/chapter 1/brookings tradeforum2004.pdf. University of California, Riverside Library, Approval Plan Glossary, January 17, 2004, see http://lib.ucr.edu/depts/acquisitions/YBP%20NSP%20GLO SSARY%20EXTERNAL%20revised6-02.php. BBC News, Financial Terms E-J, April 15, 2004, see http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/working lunch/guid es/glossary/1496844.stm.

Cultural globalization is distinguished by a consciousness of dwelling in the world, and a conception of that world as a fluid, Globalization interconnected, conflicted, and dynamic whole. cosmopolitanism.

is the mome

Theworld-wideinterconnectednessbetween

nation-

supplemented by globalisation as a process in whichbasic arrangements (like power, culture, markets, politics, rights, values, norms, ideology, identity, citizenship, solidarity) become disembedded from movement across international ...thetheir borders of goods and factors of spatial the nation-state) production. context(mainly massification, flexibilisation, diffusion and expansion of transnational flows of people, products, finance, images and information. (italics in original) Used for transnational influences on culture, economics, especially illustrating global patterns or trends. The world is shrinking thanks to advancing technology. Depending on what you read, this increasingly interconnected global marketplace is either the best or the worst thing to happen. Meetings of bodies such as The G8, the generalized Monetary Fund International expansion of international economic activity which and the World Bank often generate includes increased large demonstrations. international trade, growth of international investment (foreign The process of and making something investment) worldwide in scope or application. international migration, technology globalization countries. among The term describes Globalization is mobility of worldthe increased the increasing goods, wide integration technology for services, labour, of markets and goods, services, labor, and capital. capital throughout the world. Although globalization is not a new The term globalisation increased development, its pace has has been widely used to describe the with the advent of new technologies, increasing internationalisation of especially in the area of financial markets and telecommunications. of markets for goods and services. Globalisation refers above all to a dynamic and multidimensional process of economic integration whereby national resources become more and more internationally mobile increasingly interdependent. and

politics

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incre

while

na

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Generally defined as the network of connections of organisations and

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Pascal Lamy, Humanising Globalization, speech made on January 30, 2006, for full text see http://www.wto.org/English/news e/sppl e/sppl16 e.htm. Websters Online Dictionary, web resource accessed March21,2006,see
hp/w ww b t r - n e t : w . e seso ln i

dictionary.org/definition/english/gl/globalisation.html.
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Colours of Resistance, web resource accessed March 21, 2006, see http://colours.mahost.org/faq/definitions.html.

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Take Back Wisconsin, page is published by Julie Kay Smithson, web resource accessed March 21, 2006, see http://www.takebackwisconsin.com/Documents/Glossary.ht

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peoples are across national, geographic and c boundaries. These global networks are creating a shrinking world where local differences and national boundaries are being subsumed into global identities. Within the field of [T]he broad economic, tourism, globalisation is also viewed technological, the revolutions in in terms of and scientific trends that directly affect higher education telecommunications, finance and and are that inevitable in the transport largely are key factors contemporary world. currently influencing the nature and pace of growth of tourism in In the translation/localization These phenomena include developing nations. business marketplace, it refers to the information technology whole problem of making any product in its various or service global, with of a common manifestations, the use simultaneous release in all markets. Web site language for scientific globalization means more than just communication, and the imperatives making one masssite respond higher of societys web demand for to the different language and regional education... requirements of the browser. Globalization includes the process by which site development, update Globalization and be defined as a can workflow processes, are historical stage of provide accelerated engineered to a expansion of market capitalism,costcomprehensive framework for like the one multilingual site in the 19th effective experienced development century with the industrial revolution. and maintenance - incorporating It is a fundamental transformation in overseas a global worldwide offices, Growth to because or of consultants, societies etc. Sometimes achieved the recent translators, scale." technological revolution which has by neutralizing the cultural elements, led to a recombining of thethose that superior global sites are economic Globalization is aon a new territorial term and socialthe forcesculturalused to refer enrich elements to the expansion of economies dimension. in each locale. appropriately beyond national borders, in particular, the expansion of production by a firm to many countries around the world, i.e., globalization of production, or the global assembly line. This has given transnational corporations power beyond nation-states, and has It refers to any nation's ability to weakened international exchange or sharing of labour force, production, control corporate practices and flows ideas, knowledge, products and of capital, set regulations, control services of trade and balancesacross borders. exchange The increasing integration of world rates, or manage domestic economic markets for goods, services, and policy. It has also been defined as a capital. It has also weakened the ability of workerswhich to fight nationality for better process by wages andincreasingly irrelevant in working conditions from becomes fear that employers may relocate to global production and consumption. other areas. A relatively new word that is commonly used to describe the

m.

Harker Heights High School, Killenn, Texas, USA, web resource accessed March 21, 2006, see http://hhhknights.com/geo/4/agterms.htm. Scottish Enterprise, web resource accessed March 21, 2006, see http://www.scottishenterprise.com/sedotcom home/help/help-glossary.htm. Pearson Education, Prentice Hall, web resource accessed March 21, 2006, see http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/213/218150/glo ssary.html. E Marketing, web resource accessed March 21, 2006, see http://www.emarketing.ie/resources/glossary.html.
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ongoing, multidimensional process of worldwide change. It describes the idea that the world is becoming a single global market. It describes the idea that time and space have been shrunk as a result of modern telecommunications technologies which allow almost instantaneous communication between people almost anywhere on the planet. It describes the idea that cultures are blending and mixing and where cultural icons and The increasing economic, cultural, values from dominant Northern demographic, political, cultures are being adopted in the South, while interdependence unique environmental at the same time of ethnic differences different places around economy and the world.being Referring to the world theare strengthened and local identities are world markets. being exerted. It describes that idea that the planet as a whole, rather than Globalisation is a or landscapes, is individual continents more advanced form of internationalisation that implies considered as 'our home' and that a degree of functional integration between internationallyactivities can dispersed some human economic activities. environments far from their source or People around the globe are more have an negative effect on the planet connected to each other than ever as a whole (UNESCO). before. Information and money flow more quickly than ever. Goods and services produced in one part of the world are increasingly available in all

and

ha

Stanlake Search, Glossary, web resource accessed March 21, 2006, see http://www.stanlake.co.uk/recruitmentcandidates/recruitment-glossary.php. Investor Wiz, Glossary, web resource accessed March 21, 2006, see http://www.investorwiz.com/glossary.htm. HSE Web Depot, 2006, see
24 23

22

Tendency world.International travel a worldwide parts of the toward is more f investment and business environment, and the integration of national capital communication is commonplace. Thisphenomenon markets. globalisation." Development of extensive worldwide patterns of economic relationships between nations. A set of processes leading to the integration of economic, cultural, political, and social systems across geographical boundaries. ...the movement toward borders. ...an industry or corporation acting on a global scale with manufacturing bases in several countries. E.g. Nike and McDonalds. Globalization refers to [t]he widening, deepening and speeding up of

web resource accessed March 21,

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25

web

markets or policies that transc

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worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary life. aspects, including its nature, causes and effects are hotly disputed, with strange bedfellows on all sides).

GLOBALIZATION OF EDUCATION
In popular discourse, globalization is often synonymous withinternationalization, referring to the growing interconnectedness and interdependence of people and institutions throughout the world. Although these terms have elements in common, they have taken on technical meanings that distinguish them from each other and from common usage. Internationalization is the less theorized term. Globalization, by contrast, has come to denote the complexities of interconnectedness, and scholars have produced a large body of literature to explain what appear to be ineluctable worldwide influences on local settings and responses to those influences. Influences of a global scale touch aspects of everyday life. For example, structural adjustment policies and international trading charters, such as the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA) and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), reduce barriers to commerce, ostensibly promote jobs, and reduce the price of goods to consumers across nations. Yet they also shift support from "old" industries to

newer ones, creating dislocations and forcing some workers out of jobs, and have provoked large and even violent demonstrations in several countries. The spread of democracy, too, is part of globalization, giving more people access to the political processes that affect their lives, but also, in many places, concealing deeply rooted socioeconomic inequities as well as areas of policy over which very few individuals have a voice. Even organized international terrorism bred by Islamic fanaticism may be viewed as an oppositional reactionan effort at deglobalization to the pervasiveness of Western capitalism and secularism associated with globalization. Influences of globalization are multi-dimensional, having large social, economic, and political implications. A massive spread of education and of Westernoriented norms of learning at all levels in the twentieth century and the consequences of widely available schooling are a large part of the globalization process. With regard to the role of schools, globalization has become a major topic of study, especially in the field of comparative education, which applies historiographic and social scientific theories and methods to international issues of education.

Globalization Theory
Globalization is both a process and a theory. Roland Robertson, with whom globalization theory is most closely associated, views globalization as an accelerated compression of the contemporary world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a singular entity. Compression makes the world a single place by virtue of the power of a set of globally diffused ideas that render the uniqueness of societal and ethnic identities and traditions irrelevant except within local contexts and in scholarly discourse. The notion of the world community being transformed into a global village, as introduced in 1960 by Marshall McLuhan in an influential book about the newly shared experience of mass media, was likely the first expression of the contemporary concept of globalization. Despite its entry into the common lexicon in the 1960s, globalization was not recognized as a significant concept until the 1980s, when the complexity and multidimensionality of the process began to be examined. Prior to the 1980s, accounts of globalization focused on a professed tendency of societies to converge in becoming modern, described initially by Clark Kerr and colleagues as the emergence of industrial man. Although the theory of globalization is relatively new, the process is not. History is witness to many globalizing tendencies involving grand alliances of nations and dynasties and the unification of previously sequestered territories under such empires as Rome, Austria-Hungary, and Britain, but also such events as the widespread acceptance of germ theory and heliocentricism, the rise of transnational agencies concerned with regulation and communication, and an increasingly unified conceptualization of human rights. What makes globalization distinct in contemporary life is the broad reach and multidimensionality of interdependence, reflected initially in the monitored set of relations among nation-states that arose in the wake of World War I. It is a process that before the 1980s was akin to modernization, until modernization as a concept of linear progression from traditional to developing to developedor from gemeinschaft to gesellschaft as expressed by Ferdinand Toenniesforms of society became viewed as too simplistic and unidimensional to explain contemporary changes. Modernization theory emphasized the functional significance of the Protestant ethic in the evolution of modern societies, as affected by such objectively measured attributes as education, occupation, and wealth in stimulating a disciplined orientation to work and political participation. The main difficulty with modernization theory was its focus on changes within societies or nations and comparisons between themwith Western societies as their main reference pointsto the neglect of the interconnectedness among them, and, indeed, their interdependence, and the role played by nonWestern countries in the development of the West. Immanuel Wallerstein was among the earliest and most influential scholars to show the weaknesses of modernization theory. He developed world system

theory to explain how the world had expanded through an ordered pattern of relationships among societies driven by a capitalistic system of economic exchange. Contrary to the emphasis on linear development in modernization theory, Wallerstein demonstrated how wealthy and poor societies were locked together within a world system, advancing their relative economic advantages and disadvantages that carried over into politics and culture. Although globalization theory is broader, more variegated in its emphasis on the transnational spread of knowledge, and generally less deterministic in regard to the role of economics, world system theory was critical in shaping its development.

The Role of Education

As the major formal agency for conveying knowledge, the school features prominently in the process and theory of globalization. Early examples of educational globalization include the spread of global religions, especially Islam and Christianity, and colonialism, which often disrupted and displaced indigenous forms of schooling throughout much of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Postcolonial globalizing influences of education have taken on more subtle shapes.

In globalization, it is not simply the ties of economic exchange and political agreement that bind nations and societies, but also the shared consciousness of being part of a global system. That consciousness is conveyed through ever larger transnational movements of people and an array of different media, but most systematically through formal education. The inexorable transformation of consciousness brought on by globalization alters the content and contours of education, as schools take on an increasingly important role in the process. Structural adjustment policies. Much of the focus on the role of education in globalization has been in terms of the structural adjustment policies of the World Bank and other international lending organizations in low-income countries. These organizations push cuts in government expenditures, liberalization of trade practices, currency devaluations, reductions of price controls, shifts toward production for export, and user charges for and privatization of public services such as education. Consequently, change is increasingly driven largely by financial forces, government reliance on foreign capital to finance economic growth, and market ideology. In regard to education, structural adjustment policies ostensibly reduce public bureaucracies that impede the delivery of more and better education. By reducing wasteful expenditures and increasing responsiveness to demand, these policies promote schooling more efficiently. However, as Joel Samoff noted in 1994, observers have reported that structural adjustment policies often encourage an emphasis on inappropriate skills and reproduce existing social and economic inequalities, leading actually to lowered enrollment rates, an erosion in the quality of education, and a misalignment between educational need and provision. As part of the impetus toward efficiency in the expenditure of resources, structural adjustment policies also encourage objective measures of school performance and have advanced the use of cross-national school effectiveness studies. Some have argued that these studies represent a new form of racism by apportioning blame for school failure on local cultures and contexts. Democratization. As part of the globalization process, the spread of education is widely viewed as contributing to democratization throughout the world. Schools prepare people for participation in the economy and polity, giving them the knowledge to make responsible judgments, the motivation to make appropriate contributions to the well being of society, and a consciousness about the consequences of their behavior. National and international assistance organizations, such as the U. S. Agency for International Development and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), embrace these objectives. Along with mass provision of schools, technological advances have permitted distance education to

convey Western concepts to the extreme margins of society, exposing new regions and populations to knowledge generated by culturally dominant groups and helping to absorb them into the consumer society. A policy of using schools as part of the democratization process often accompanies structural adjustment measures. However, encouraging user fees to help finance schooling has meant a reduced ability of people in some impoverished areas of the world to buy books and school materials and even attend school, thus enlarging the gap between rich and poor and impeding democracy. Even in areas displaying a rise in educational participation, observers have reported a reduction in civic participation. Increased emphasis on formalism in schooling could plausibly contribute to this result. An expansion of school civics programs could, for example, draw energy and resources away from active engagement in political affairs by youths, whether within or outside of schools. Increased privatization of education in the name of capitalist democratization could invite greater participation of corporate entities, with the prospect of commercializing schools and reducing their service in behalf of the public interest. Penetration of the periphery. Perhaps the most important question in understanding how education contributes to globalization is, what is the power of schools to penetrate the cultural periphery? Why do non-Western people surrender to the acculturative pressure of Western forms of education? By mid-twentieth century, missionaries and colonialism had brought core Western ideas and practices to many parts of the world. With contemporary globalization, penetration of the world periphery by means of education has been accomplished mainly in other ways, especially as contingent on structural adjustment and democratization projects. Some scholars, including Howard R. Woodhouse, have claimed that people on the periphery are "mystified" by dominant ideologies, and willingly, even enthusiastically and without conscious awareness of implications, accept core Western learning and thereby subordinate themselves to the world system. By contrast, there is considerable research, including that of Thomas Clayton in 1998 and Douglas E. Foley in 1991, to suggest that people at the periphery develop a variety of strategies, from foot dragging to outright student rebellion, to resist the dominant ideology as conveyed in schools. Evidence on the accommodation of people at the periphery to the dominant ideology embodied in Westernized schooling is thus not consistent. Erwin H. Epstein, based on data he collected in three societies, proposes a filter-effect theory that could explain the contradictory results

reported by others. He found that children in impoverished areas attending schools more distant from the cultural mainstream had more favorable views of, and expressed stronger attachment to, national core symbols than children in schools closer to the mainstream. In all three societies he studied, globalization influences were abrupt and pervasive, but they were resisted most palpably not at the remote margins, but in the towns and places closer to the center, where the institutions representative of the mainstreamincluding law enforcement, employment and welfare agencies, medical facilities, and businesseswere newly prevalent and most powerfully challenged traditional community values. Epstein explained these findings by reasoning that it is easier for children living in more remote areas to accept myths taught by schools regarding the cultural mainstream. By contrast, children living closer to the mainstream cultural centerthe more acculturated pupilsare more exposed to the realities of the mainstream way of life and, being more worldly, are more inclined to resist such myths. Schools in different areas do not teach different content; in all three societies, schools, whether located at the mainstream center or periphery, taught an equivalent set of myths, allegiances to national symbols, and dominant core values. Rather, schools at the margin are more effective in inculcating intended political cultural values and attitudes because they operate in an environment with fewer competing contrary stimuli. Children living in more traditional, culturally homogeneous and isolated areas tend to be more naive about the outside world and lack the tools and experience to assess objectively the political content that schools convey. Children nearer the center, by contrast, having more actual exposure to the dominant culture, are better able to observe the disabilities of the dominant cultureits level of crime and corruption, its reduced family cohesion, and its heightened rates of drug and alcohol abuse, for example. That greater exposure counteracts the favorable images all schools convey about the cultural mainstream, and instead imbues realismand cynicismabout the myths taught by schools. In other words, schools perform as a filter to sanitize reality, but their effectiveness is differential; their capacity to filter is larger the farther they move out into the periphery. As extra-school knowledge progressively competes with school-produced myths, the ability and inclination to oppose the dominant ideology promoted by schools as part of the globalization process should become stronger. This filter-effect theory could clarify the impact of schools as an instrument of globalization and invites corroboration.