9.

Instrumentation for viscosity measurements

9.1. Viscosity and its units

Viscosity is a very important physical parameter of substances used both in industrial and
scientific applications. It is viscosity that determines the forces to be overcome when fluids are
used in pipelines, bearings, etc., and it controls the flow of liquids in such processes as spraying,
injection moulding, surface coating. Viscosity is important in mixing and heat transfer processes,
it determines whether the flow will be streamline or turbulent. (From Dinsdale A. & Moore F.
Viscosity and its Measurement, Chapman and Hall Limited, London, 1962, 67 pp.). Viscosity
is used as an indication of the desired quality or the concentration of the product. When a fluid
exhibits resistance to flow or to change of its form due to the internal friction between the
molecules of the fluid we say about viscosity.

Lets consider a thin layer of the fluid between two parallel planes a distance dy apart (see Fig.
9.1).

dy
du
F
Stationary plate
Moving plate
Layer velosity
y
x


Figure. 9.1. Velocity distribution of the fluid.

One plate (the lower one) is fixed, whereas another is moving under the action of a shearing
force F. Molecules of the fluid move back and forth between adjacent layers of fluid. If adjacent
layers are moving at different velocities, the constant interchange of molecules and momentum
creates resistance to the relative motion of the layers. When conditions are steady the force F
will be balanced by an internal force in the fluid due to its viscosity. For Newtonian fluid in
laminar flow the shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient, i.e.

dy
du
A
F
* q = , (9.1)
where,

F - the shearing force applied to the moving plane, N ;
A - an area over which the shearing force is applied,
2
m ;
A
F
- the shear stress,
2
m
N
;
q - the dynamic or absolute viscosity, s Pa* (SI unit);
dy
du
- the velocity gradient of the fluid or rate of shear,
s
1
.

For linear velocity profile the velocity gradient has the form of
Y
U
(where U is the velocity of
the fluid layer Y meters apart from the non-movable plate), whereas for non-linear velocity
profile, it has the form
dy
du
. A coefficient of proportionality q is called dynamic or absolute
viscosity (sometimes it is also called Newtonian viscosity), and is the tangential force per unit
area exerted on layers of fluid a unit distance apart and having a unit velocity difference between
them. Dynamic viscosity is measured by applying a shear force to the fluid and measuring the
resulting fluid velocity.

Kinematic viscosity is a measure of the internal resistance to flow of a fluid under gravity, and
can be defined as follows:

q
v = (9.2)
where,
v - kinematic viscosity of the fluid,
s
m
2
(SI unit);
- density of the fluid,
3
m
kg
.

Kinematic viscosity is measured by timing the flow of a given volume of liquid. The term
kinematic means pertaining to flow.

Non-SI (non-International System) units are also used for dynamic and kinematic viscosity:

- for dynamic viscosity: 1 Poise =
2
*
1
cm
s dyne
= 10
-1
Pa*s;
- for kinematic viscosity: 1 Stokes =
s
cm
2
1 = 10
-4

s
m
2
.
Fluidity is defined as reciprocal of absolute viscosity with the unit
s N
m
*
2
.

It is known that when an absolute static pressure and temperature are fixed the value of viscosity
will be constant for gases and Newtonian fluids (such as: water, most mineral oils, gasoline,
kerosene, hydrocarbons, most salt solutions in water, etc.). In this case we say about the
relationship between the viscosity of a substance and its quality (concentration, composition,
etc.). However, there is a class of fluids for which even at certain values of pressure and
temperature viscosity may not be constant. This refers to non-Newtonian fluids (printer inc,
paper pulp, chewing gum, tar, silica gel, most paints, glue, molasses, fruit juice concentrates,
mayonnaise, etc.). When one deals with Newtonian fluids the term absolute viscosity is used,
whereas in the case of non-Newtonian fluids the term apparent viscosity is used instead.

The viscosity of gases increases with increasing of temperature. For liquids, however, cohesive
forces predominate, and these decrease with increasing temperature. The fluidity, therefore,
increases with temperature, so the viscosity decreases with the temperature increased. Because
temperature coefficients of viscosity for fluids have appreciable values it is, therefore, necessary
to control very carefully the temperature of the bath containing viscometer. Both liquid and gas
viscosities increase with pressure but not to that extent as their viscosity decreases with
temperature. Effect of pressure on the viscosity of liquids is greater at lower temperatures than at
high temperatures.

As an example of the relationship between viscosity and temperature/pressure I present several
graphs for viscosity of n-Octane in Fig. 9.2 and Fig. 9.3 (from Badalyan A. G. Density and
viscosity of n-Octane from the triple point to the temperatures of thermal decomposition. - PhD
Thesis, The Azerbaijan Petroleum and Chemistry Institute. - Baku, USSR, 1987, 209 pp.).

Among many methods for viscosity measurements well discuss several of them, namely:

- the capillary method;
- the falling ball method;
- the coaxial cylinder method.
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Pressure, MPa
D
y
n
a
m
i
c

v
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y

*
1
0
7
,

P
a
*
s
e
c
223.15 K
228.15 K
243.15 K
258.15 K
273.15 K
298.15 K
323.15 K


Figure 9.2. Isotherms of liquid n-Octane.




Figure 9.3. Isotherms of n-Octane in vapour state.

9.2. Capillary viscometer

In capillary viscometers the flowrate through a small tube of a known diameter under the
differential pressure is measured. The Poiseuille law (Dr. Poiseuille, a French physician who
developed in 1840 the capillary metering technique) states:

the pressure drop across the capillary with the Newtonian fluid passing through is
directly proportional to its viscosity if the flow is maintained constant and laminar.

This law can be written on the following form, named a Hagen-Poiseuille equation (Hagen was a
German scientist):
( )
QL
R P P
8
4
2 1

=
t
q , (9.3)
where,

q - the dynamic or absolute viscosity, s Pa* (SI unit);
1
P - an absolute pressure in the inlet of the capillary tube, Pa;
2
P - an absolute pressure in the outlet of the capillary tube, Pa;
1
R - the internal radius of the capillary tube, m;
Q - the volumetric flowrate of the fluid through the capillary tube,
s
m
3
;
1
L - the length of the capillary tube, m.

As it follows from the equation (9.3) one need to measure and maintain the pressure difference
across the capillary tube, accurately measure the internal radius and the length of the capillary
tube, and measure the volumetric flowrate of the fluid. Much concern should be paid to accurate
measurements of the internal radius of the capillary tube, since its value is in the power of 4 in
the equation (9.3).

Fig. 9.4 schematically shows a capillary tube type on-line viscometer. This type of viscometer is
designed to measure the viscosity of Newtonian fluids. Because pressure transducers are used to
transmit the measured viscosity, so this type of viscometer is adaptable to the automatic control
of processes. It is difficult to introduce the temperature corrections. For this purpose the
temperature of the sample is controlled at a reference temperature before metering through the
capillary tube. A capillary tube 1, heat exchanger 2 and metering pump 3 are placed in a thermal
bath 4 with a constant temperature (25 C). The sample under measurement enters the metering
pump through a tube 5, and leaves the viscometer through an outlet tube 6. The metering pump is
driven by a synchronous motor 7. Values of capillary radius and length are known. So, according
to the equation (2.51) we need to measure the volumetric flowrate of the sample through the
capillary, and the differential pressure across the capillary. The metering pump forces fluid
through the capillary at a constant volumetric flowrate. A differential pressure transducer
(pneumatic or electronic) 8 together with a recorder device 9 can measure the differential
pressure which is proportional to the value of dynamic viscosity. A platinum resistance
temperature detector 10 is used as a primary sensor for a temperature controller 11.

1
2 3 4
7
8
5
6
9
10
11


Figure 9.4. Capillary tube type on-line viscometer.


High accuracy of this method is the advantage of all capillary viscometers. However, the
capillary tube must be kept absolutely clean for reliable and accurate measurements. Capillary
tubes (for industrial viscometers) usually have diameters from 1.25 to 5 mm depending on the
values of measured viscosity. Another sources of errors are:


- a fluctuating flowrate of the fluid through the capillary tube;
- leakages in the viscometer;
- fluctuating fluid pressure;
- fluid temperature fluctuations due to thermal bath malfunctions or due to
temperature variations in the sample supply temperature.
These viscometers can measure viscosity of fluids up to 1500 Pa*s at temperatures up to 480 C
with an accuracy varied from 0.5 to 2.0% of full scale.
9.3. Falling ball viscometer

Stokes in 1851 published the results of his research in the investigation of the falling ball
principle. He established the Stokes Law, which relates the viscosity of gases or liquids to the
steady state velocity of a known weight of sphere falling through a fluid of a known density at
very low Reynolds numbers. Stokes has found that when a sphere with radius
s
r and density
s
is falling under the gravity through a viscous fluid with density
l
in a large diameter
c
R
cylinder (good results can be obtained when
32 . 0 <
c
s
R
r
) and has reached the constant velocity
V, then the force resisting the motion of the ball
r
F is equal to:

V r F
s r
q t 6 = (9.4)

Since the velocity of the ball is constant, then its acceleration is equal to zero. At this condition
the force due to the effective weight of the sphere is equal to the
r
F

as follows:


( )
3
4
6
3
g r
V r
l s s
s
t
q t

=
, (9.5)
where,

q - the dynamic or absolute viscosity, s Pa* ;
g - local gravitational acceleration,
2
s
m
.

For dynamic viscosity we obtain the following equation:


( )
V
g r
l s s
9
2
2

q

=
. (9.6)

Fig. 9.5 schematically shows an on-line falling ball viscometer. A specially fabricated stainless
steel ball 1 of optical precision is placed inside a precision-bore calibrated stainless steel tube 2,
which has a length of 200 mm and an internal diameter of 16 mm. This tube is placed inside a
water jacket where temperature is kept constant with an accuracy of 0.01 C. The tube should
be installed vertical. This tube is connected with the pipe 2a, where the fluid to be measured
flows. The measurement is made by measuring the time of the fall of the ball through the
accurately calibrated distance between two marks on the tube (horizontal dashed lines). The
sample through a valve 10 enters the viscometer tube. The falling ball passing inside the
proximity coils 3 and 4 develops an electrical signal which is proportional to its falling time
between dashed lines. This signal is measured in an electronic unit 5, which yields the standard
output signal proportional to the measured viscosity of the fluid. Another two coils 6 and 7 are
used to open and close valve 10 to allow fluid entering the tube. An electric magnet 8 is used for
bringing the ball to its initial position before it starts to fall. An operation of the coils 6 and 7,
and the electric magnet 8 is controlled by an electrical unit 9. An accuracy of falling time
measurements is 0.01 s.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10
Viscosity
signal


Figure 9.5. On-line falling ball viscometer.

This type of viscometer is very simple and safe to operate. However, it has several sources of
errors which reduce the accuracy and reliability of measured viscosity data:
- vibration of the tube during the time of ball fall;
- foreign matters or gas bubbles in the fluid under measurement;
- not accurate control of temperature of the tube.
On-line falling ball viscometers can measure dynamic viscosity of liquids and gases (in the case
of gases the clearance between the ball and the tube is very minute) from 10
-5
to 200 Pa*s at
temperatures up to 150 C and at pressures from atmospheric up to 100 MPa with an accuracy
from 0.1 to 1% of reading.


9.4. Coaxial cylinders (rotational) viscometer

These are the most widely used viscometers in laboratory and industrial applications. Their
operational principle is based on the measurement of the force or torque required to rotate a
spindle or bob (cylinder) at a specified speed in the sample (fluid) placed in another stationary
cylinder, this torque being proportional to the viscosity of the fluid.

Fig. 9.6 schematically shows the design of a rotational viscometer. An inner cylinder (made of
stainless steel or nickel plated brass) 1 connected to a shaft 2 is placed inside an outer cylinder 4
filled with the fluid 3 which viscosity is to be measured. The inner cylinder is rotated at a
constant speed by a synchronous motor 5 through gear 6. The outer cylinder is stationary. Fluid
around the rotating cylinder starts to rotate. Since the fluid resists to the rotational movement due
to its viscosity, the degree of spring 7 wounding is the measure of fluid viscosity.

1
3
2
4
5
6
7


Figure 9.6. Rotational viscometer.
The Margules equation determines the relationship between the viscosity, the dimensions of
viscometer and the torque, as follows:


( )
2 2
2 2
4
i o
i o
R R h
R R M
e t
q

=
, (9.7)
where,

q - the dynamic or absolute viscosity, s Pa* ;
M - the torque developed by the motor, m N * ;
i
R - radius of the inner cylinder, m;
o
R - radius of the outer cylinder, m;
h - height of the inner cylinder, m;
e - angular velocity of the rotating cylinder (the inner cylinder),
s
1
.
Several conditions should be maintained during an operation of the rotational viscometer:

- steady laminar flow of the fluid in the annular gap between the cylinders;
- flow should be isothermal;
- no slippage of the fluid on the wall;
- constant temperature.

These viscometers may be employed for viscosity measurements of both Newtonian and non-
Newtonian fluids in the range of viscosities varied from 10
-5
to 10
7
s Pa* at temperatures from
-20 to 1370 C. Ability to measure viscosity at atmospheric pressure only is the disadvantage of
this type of viscometers. The accuracy achieved varies from 0.5 to 1.0 % of measurement.